Organizational Behavior. What are the elements of an organization? 1.People / staff 2.Infrastructure...

Organizational Behavior

What are the elements of an organization?

1. People / staff2. Infrastructure / buildings / vehicles..3. Technology / machines, medicines..4. Resources/money and5. Common objective/Goal

Organization

Goals

Objectives

Tasks

Infrastructure People/Staff

& Technology

Resources

People who plan & control

E

E

E

E

E = Environment Social

Economic

Religious

Political/Administrative

People who plan & control an organization are called MANAGERS

Owners of the organization may or may not be managers

An Alternative Definition

• An organization– involves the interactions and efforts of People– in order to achieve Objectives– channelled and coordinated through Structure– directed and controlled via Management

[Mullins 1996]

The Hawthorne Studies

A group of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western

Electric Company during the late 1920’s and early 1930’s

The Hawthorne Studies

• Elton Mayo hired to explain the results of a study of illumination on productivity and Western Electric

• Conducted two additional studies– Relay Room– Bank Wiring Room

Bank Wiring Room

• Introduced incentive pay system.• Expected individual worker output to

increase.• Found no change in worker output.• Workers established informal norms because

they feared the company would increase their quota.

Impact of the Hawthorne Studies

• Elton Mayo is considered the father of the Human Relations movement

• Human Relations recognizes that there are other factors beyond rational economics that drive individual behavior.

• Productivity and satisfaction are inextricably linked—You cannot forget the human side of the equation

Enter Organizational Behavior

Toward an OB Discipline

Social psychology

Psychology

Behavioural science

Contribution Unit ofanalysis

Output

Anthropology

Sociology

Political science

Study ofOrganizational

Behaviour

Organizationsystem

LearningMotivationPerceptionTrainingLeadership effectivenessJob satisfactionIndividual decision makingPerformance appraisalAttitude measurementEmployee selectionWork designWork stress

Group dynamicsWork teamsCommunicationPowerConflictIntergroup behaviour

Formal organization theoryOrganizational technologyOrganizational changeOrganizational culture

ConflictIntraorganizational politicsPower

Organizational cultureOrganizational environment

Behavioural changeAttitude changeCommunicationGroup processesGroup decision making

Group

Comparative valuesComparative attitudesCross-cultural analysis

Individual

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field

E X H I B I T 1-3a

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field

E X H I B I T 1-3b

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field

E X H I B I T 1-3c

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field

E X H I B I T 1-3d

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field

E X H I B I T 1-3f

FUNDAMENTALS OF

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

PSYCHOLOGIST KURT LEVIN

B = F (P, E)

SO THAT BEHAVIOUR (B) IS A FUNCTION (F) OF A

PERSON (P) AND ENVIRONMENT (E) AROUND HIM.

INHERITED CHARACTERISTICSINHERITED CHARACTERISTICS

• PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• INTELLIGENCE

• SEX

• AGE

• RELIGION

LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS

• PERCEPTION

• ATTITUDE

• PERSONALITY

• VALUES

PERCEPTION LEARNING

PERSONALITY

PERSONALITY CIRCLEPERSONALITY CIRCLE

Personality

• Personality consists of the stable psychological traits and behavioral attributes that gives a person his or her identity.

• The Big Five Personality Dimensions– Extroversion– Agreeableness– Conscientiousness– Emotional stability– Openness to experience

Personality Defined

• Personality represents the unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions characterizing an individual– Identity (internal and subjective)– Reputation (external and objective)

Personality

• A person’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting that is consistent across time and situations

• Relatively enduring underlying dispositions that influence behavior across situations

The Origins of Personality

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITYDETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

HEREDITY• BIOLOGICAL FEATURES• BRAIN STIMULATION• BIO FEEDBACK

ENVIRONMENT• CULTURE• RELIGION• FAMILY• PARENTAL INFLUENCES• SIBLINGS INFLUENCE• SCHOOL• PLACE OF WORK

SITUATION

The Big Five Model of Personality

• Extroversion• Neuroticism• Agreeableness• Conscientiousness• Openness to Experience

The Hierarchical Organization of Personality

Source: Adapted from R. R. McCrae and P. T. Costa, "Discriminant Validity of NEO-PIR Facet Scales,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, pp. 229–237. Copyright 1992. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.

Extroversion

• The tendency to experience positive emotional states and feel good about oneself and the world around one; also called positive affectivity.

• Specific traits include positive emotions, gregariousness, and warmth

Neuroticism

• The tendency to experience negative emotional states and view oneself and the world around one negatively; also called negative affectivity.

• Specific traits include anxiety, self-consciousness, and vulnerability.

Agreeableness

• The tendency to get along well with others.

• Specific traits include trust, straightforwardness and tender-mindedness.

Conscientiousness

• The extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and persevering.

• Specific traits include competence, order and self-discipline.

Openness to Experience

• The extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks.

• Specific traits include fantasy, actions, and ideas.

Traits versus Types

• Traits represent single dimensions of personality

• Types represent constellations of traits

MainMain OppositeOpposite

1. Reserved Outgoing

2. Less intelligent More intelligent

3. Affected by Feelings Emotionally Stable

4. Submissive Dominant

5. Serious Happy-go-lucky

6. Expedient Conscientious

7. Timid Venturesome

SIXTEENSIXTEENPRIMARYPRIMARYTRAITSTRAITS

8. Tough-minded Sensitive

9. Trusting Suspicious

10 Practical Imaginative

11 Forthright Shrewd

12 Self-assured Apprehensive

13 Conservative Experimenting

14 Group-dependent Controlled

15 Uncontrolled Controlled

16 Relaxed Tense

Other Personality Models

• Myers Briggs Type Indicator– Extroversion-Introversion– Thinking-Feeling– Sensing-Intution– Judging-Perceiving

• Scores on each one of these “traits” is less important than your overall type.

Type A/B Personality

• Type A: a behavior pattern involving high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and irritability

• Type B: a behavior pattern characterized by a casual, laid back style.

• What is the effect of Type on health, personal relations, and task performance?

Positive-Negative Affectivity

• Positive Affectivity: the tendency to experience positive moods regardless of the situation.

• Negative Affectivity: the tendency to experience negative moods regardless of the situation.

• What is the impact of affectivity on performance?

Other Personality Traits at Work

• Self-Efficacy– A person’s beliefs about his or her

capabilities to perform a task.

• Authoritarianism– The extent to which a person believes that

power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations.

JUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPEJUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPE

Sensing Sensing Personality (S)Personality (S)

Intuitive Intuitive Personality (N)Personality (N)

Thinking (T)

Rational, logical, empirical, objective, Money-oriented efforts, Risk avoider, short-sighted.

Broad viewer, imaginative, wider options, risk takers, long-sighted.

Feeling (F) Empirical, personal values, subjectivity, considering other views, risk takers, status-conscious.

Broad view of personal situation, people-oriented, subjective, venturesome.

• Locus of Control– The extent to which people believe that

their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them.• People who believe that individuals are

in control of their lives are said to have an internal locus of control.

• People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an external locus of control.

AuthoritarianismPersons having authoritarian personality believe in status and power differences.

Risk PropensityPeople like or dislike risk-taking; that is, people have different risk propensities for assuming or avoiding risks.

DogmatismDogmatism is a traditional view. People are traditional and take routine decisions.

Other Personality Traits at Work

• Machiavellianism– People who possess this personality trait

behave to gain power and control over the behavior of others.

– High mach’s are very similar to psychopaths• Charming with no remorse, guilt, or empathy

• Performance implications?

VALUESVALUES

BASIC CONVICTIONS THAT A SPECIFIC MODE

OF CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE

IS PERSONALLY OR SOCIALLY PREFERABLE TO

AN OPPOSITE OR CONVERSE MODE OF

CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE.

VALUE SYSTEMVALUE SYSTEM

A HIERARCHY BASED ON A RANKING OF AN

INDIVIDUAL’S VALUES IN TERMS OF THEIR

INTENSITY.

ALL OF US HAVE A HIERARCHY OF VALUES

THAT FORMS OUR VALUE SYSTEMVALUE SYSTEM. THIS

SYSTEM IS IDENTIFIED BY THE RELATIVE

IMPORTANCE WE ASSIGN TO SUCH VALUES

AS FREEDOM, PLEASURE, SELF-RESPECT,

HONESTY, OBEDIENCE AND EQUALITY.

SOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEMSOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEM

A SIGNIFICANT PORTION IS GENETICALLY

DETERMINED. THE REST IS ATTRIBUTABLE

TO FACTORS LIKE NATIONAL CULTURE,

PARENTAL DICTATES, TEACHERS, FRIENDS,

AND SIMILAR ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES.

TYPES OF VALUESTYPES OF VALUES

ALLPORT AND ASSOCIATES

THEORETICAL

1. ECONOMIC

2. AESTHETIC

3. SOCIAL

4. POLITICAL

5. RELIGIOUS

ROKEACH VALUE SURVEYROKEACH VALUE SURVEY

TERMINAL VALUES: DESIRABLE END-STATES OF

EXISTENCE; THE GOALS THAT A PERSON WOULD LIKE TO

ACHIEVE DURING HIS OR HER LIFETIME.

INSTRUMENTAL VALUES: PREFERABLE MODES OF

BEHAVIOUR OR MEANS OF ACHIEVING ONE’S TERMINAL

VALUES.

TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES IN IN ROKEACH VALUE SURVEYROKEACH VALUE SURVEY

Terminal Values • Comfortable life• Exciting life• Sense of accomplishment• World at peace• World of beauty• Equality• Family Security• Freedom• Happiness• Inner harmony• Mature love• National security• Pleasure• Salvation• Self-respect• Social recognition• True friendship• Wisdom

Instrumental Values• Ambitious• Broad-minded• Capable• Cheerful• Clean• Courageous• Forgiving• Helpful• Honest• Imaginative• Independent• Intellectual• Logical• Loving• Obedient• Polite • Responsible• Self-controlled

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 51

LEADERSHIP

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 52

LEADERSHIP IS DEFINED AS INFLUENCE, THAT IS,

THE ART OR PROCES OF INFLUENCING PEOPLE SO

THAT THEY WILL STRIVE WILLINGLY AND

ENTHUSIASTICALLY TOWARDS THE ACHIEVEMENT

OF GROUP GOALS.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 53

LEADERSHIP

THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND INFLUENCING THE TASK-RELATED ACTIVITIES OF GROUP MEMBERS.

FIRST, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES OTHER PEOPLE – EMPLOYEES OR FOLLOWERS. BY THEIR WILLINGNESS TO ACCEPT DIRECTIONS FROM THE LEADER, GROUP MEMBERS HELP DEFINE THE LEADER’S STATUS AND MAKE THE LEADERSHIP PROCESS POSSIBLE; WITHOUT PEOPLE TO LEAD, ALL THE LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF A MANAGER WOULD BE IRRELEVANT.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 54

SECOND, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES AND UNEQUAL

DISTRIBUTION OF POWER BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP

MEMBERS. GROUP MEMBERS ARE NOT POWERLESS; THEY

CAN AND DOSHAPE GROUP ACTIVITIES IN A NUMBER OF

WAYS.

A THIRD ASPECT OF LEADERSHIP IS THE ABILITY TO USE THE

DIFFERENT FORMS OF POWER TO INFLUENCE

FOLLOWERS’ BEHAVIORS IN A NUMBER OF WAYS. INDEED,

LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED SOLDIERS TO KILL AND

LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED EMPLOYEES TO MAKE

PERSONAL SACRIFICES FOR THE GOOD OF THE COMPANY.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 55

FOURTH ASPECT COMBINES THE FIRST

THREE AND ACKNOWLEDGES THAT

LEADERSHIP IS ABOUT VALUES. MORAL

LEADERSHIP CONCERNS VALUES AND

REQUIRES THAT FOLLOWERS BE GIVEN

ENOUGH KNOWLEDGE OF ALTERNATIVES

TO MAKE INTELLIGENT CHOICES WHEN IT

COMES TIME TO RESPOND TO A LEADER’S

PROPOSAL TO LEAD.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 56

INGREDIENTS OF LEADERSHIP

1. THE ABILITY TO USE POWER EFFECTIVELY AND IN

A RESPONSIBLE MANNER,

2. THE ABILITY TO COMPREHEND THAT HUMAN

BEINGS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIVATION

FORCES AT DIFFERENT TIMES AND IN DIFFERENT

SITUATIONS

3. THE ABILITY TO INSPIRE, AND

4. THE ABILITY TO ACT IN A MANNER THAT WILL

DEVELOP A CLIMATE CONDUCIVE TO

RESPONDING

TO AND AROUSING MOTIVATIONS.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 57

LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS

THE GROUP-MAINTENANCE AND TASK-RELATED

ACTIVITIES THAT MUST BE PERFORMED BY THE

LEADER, OR SOMEONE ELSE, FOR A GROUP TO

PERFORM EFFECTIVELY.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

THE VARIOUS PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR FAVORED

BY

LEADERS DURING THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND

INFLUENCING WORKERS.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 58

THE TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP

IN SEARCHING FOR MEASURABLE LEADERSHIP

TRAITS,RESEARCHERS HAVE TAKEN TWO

APPROACHES COMPARING THE TRAITS OF THOSE

WHO HAVE EMERGED AS LEADERS WITH THE

TRAITS OF THOSE WHOHAVE NOT; AND (2)

COMPARING THE TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE

LEADERS WITH THOSE OF INEFFECTIVE LEADERS.

• LEADERS AND NONLEADERS

• EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE LEADERS

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 59

LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND STYLES

1. LEADERSHIP BASED ON THE USE OF AUTHORITY,

2. LIKERT’S FOUR SYSTEMS OF MANAGING,

3. THE MANAGERIAL GRID, AND

4. LEADERSHIP INVOLVING A VARIETY OF STYLES,

RANGING FROM A MAXIMUM TO A MINIMUM USE

OF POWER AND INFLUENCE.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 60

AUTOCRATIC LEADER

FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER

DEMOCRATICOR

PARTICIPATIVE LEADER

FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER

FREE-REINLEADER

FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER

THE FLOW OF INFLUENCE WITH THREE LEADERSHIP STYLES

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 61

MANAGERIAL GRID

DEVELOPED SOME YEARS AGO BY ROBERT BLAKE AND JANE

MOUTON.

GRID DIMENSIONS

THE GRID HAS TWO DIMENSIONS: CONCERN FOR PEPOLE AND

CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 62

FOUR EXTREME STYLES

1.1 STYLE (REFERRED TO AS “IMPOVERISHED

MANAGEMENT”)

9.9 MANAGERS – TEAM MANAGERS

1.9 MANAGEMENT (CALLED “COUNTRY CLUB

MANAGEMENT” BY SOME)

9.1 MANAGERS (SOMETIMES REFERRED TO

“AUTOCRATIC TASK MANAGERS”)

5.5 MANAGERS AUTOCRATIC ATTITUDE TOWARD

PEOPLE

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 63

The Management Grid

9-

8-

7-

6-

5-

4-

3-

2-

1-

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1,1Impoverished managementExertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership.

9,1Authority-obedienceEfficiency in operations resultsFrom arranging conditions ofWork in such a way that humanElements interfere to a minimum degree.

5.5Organization man managementAdequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.

1,9Country club managementThoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relation-ships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmos-phere and work tempo.

9,9Team managementWork accomplishment is from committed people, interdepen-dence through a “common stake” in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 64

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP

FRED E. FIEDLER AND HIS ASSOCIATES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF

ILLINOIS HAVE SUGGESTED A CONTINGENCY THEORY OF

LEADERSHIP. THE THEORY HOLDS THAT PEOPLE BECOME LEADERS

NOT ONLY BECAUSE OF THE ATTRIBUTES OF THEIR PERSONALITIES

BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF VARIOUS SITUATIONAL FACTORS AND THE

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP MEMBERS.

CRITICAL DIMENSIONS OF THE LEADERSHIP SITUATION

1. POSITION POWER

2. TASK STRUCTURE

3. LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS

LEADERSHIP STYLES

FAVORABLENESS OF SITUATION

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 65

PATH-GOAL MODEL

A LEADERSHIP THEORY EMPHASIZING THE LEADER’S

ROLE IN CLARIFYING FOR SUBORDINATES HOW THEY

CAN ACHIEVE HIGH PERFORMANCE AND ITS ASSOCIATED

REWARDS.

A PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 66

PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS

THE PATH-GOAL THEORY SUGGESTS THAT THE MAIN FUNCTION OF

THE LEADER IS TO CLARIFY AND SET GOALS WITH SUBORDINATES,

HELP THEM FIND THE BEST PATH FOR ACHIEVING THE GOALS,AND

REMOVE OBSTACLES.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP SHOULD

INCLUDE:

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBORDINATES, SUCH AS THEIR NEEDS,

SELF-CONFIDENCE, AND ABILITIES; AND

2. THE WORK ENVIORNMENT, INCLUDING SUCH COMPONENTS AS

THE TASK, THE REWARD SYSTEM, AND THE RELATIONSHIP WITH

COWORKERS.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 67

CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

CONTINGENCY APPROACHTHE VIEW THAT THE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE THAT BEST CONTRIBUTES TO THE ATTAINMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS MIGHT VARY IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SITUATIONS OR CIRCUMSTANCES.

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODELAN APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP DEVELOPED BY HERSEYAND BLANCHARD THAT DESCRIBES HOW LEADERSSHOULD ADJUST THEIR LEADERSHIP STYLE IN RESPONSETO THEIR SUBORDINATES’ EVOLVING DESIRE FORACHIEVEMENT, EXPERIENCE, ABILITY, AND WILLINGNESSTO ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 68

LEADERSHIP STYLE AND THE WORK SITUATION: THE FIEDLER MODEL

LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER (LPC)

FIEDLER’S MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR LOCATING A

MANAGER ON THE LEADERSHIP-STYLE CONTINUUM.

LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS

THE QUALITY OF THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A LEADER

AND HIS OR HER EMPLOYEES; ACCORDING TO FIEDLER,

THE MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCE ON THE MANAGER’S

POWER.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 69

TASK STRUCTURE

A WORK SITUATION VARIABLE THAT, ACCORDING TO

FIEDLER, HELPS DETERMINE A MANAGER’S POWER. IN

STRUCTURED TASKS, MANAGERS AUTOMATICALLY

HAVE HIGH POWER; IN UNSTRUCTURED TASKS, THEIR

POWERIS DIMINISHED.

POSITION POWER

THE POWER, ACCORDING TO FIEDLER, THAT IS

INHERENT IN THE FORMAL POSITION THE LEADER

HOLDS. THIS POWER MAY BE GREAT OR SMALL,

DEPENDING ON THESPECIFIC POSITION.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 70

THE FUTURE OF LEADERSHIP THEORY

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS

LEADERS WHO DETERMINE WHAT SUBORDINATES NEED

TO DO TO ACHIEVE OBJECTIVES, CLASSIFY THOSE

REQUIREMENTS, AND HELP SUBORDINATES BECOME

CONFIDENT THEY CAN REACH THEIR OBJECTIVES.

TRANSFORMED LEADERS

LEADERS WHO, THROUGH THEIR PERSONAL VISION AND

ENERGY, INSPIRE FOLLOWERS AND HAVE A MAJOR

IMPACT ON THEIR ORGANIZATINOS; ALSO CALLED

CHARISMATIC LEADERS.

AIMA-PGCM-GM11 71

A CHARISMATIC LEADER

OCCASIONALLY A LEADER EMERGES WHOSE HIGH

VISIBILITY AND PERSONAL CHARISMA CATCHES THE

PUBLIC CONSCIOUSNESS. NOW-RETIRED AUTO-

INDUSTRY EXECUTIVE LEE LACOCCA, WHO LED

CHRYSLER CORPORATION BACK FROM THE EDGE OF

BANKRUPTCY, ENGENDERED CONSIDERABLE PUBLIC

RECOGNITION AND SUPPORT.

ATTITUDESATTITUDES

ATTITUDESATTITUDES

EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS OR JUDGMENTS

CONCERNING OBJECTS, PEOPLE, OR

EVENTS.

COGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDECOGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE

THE OPINION OR BELIEF SEGMENT OF AN

ATTITUDE.

AFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDEAFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE

THE EMOTIONAL OR FEELING SEGMENT OF AN

ATTITUDE.

BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDEBEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE

AN INTENTION TO BEHAVE IN A CERTAIN WAY

TOWARD SOMEONE OR SOMETHING.

TYPES OF ATTITUDETYPES OF ATTITUDE

A PERSON CAN HAVE THOUSANDS OF ATTITUDES, BUT

OB FOCUSES OUR ATTENTION ON A VERY LIMITED

NUMBER OF JOB-RELATED ATTITUDES. THESE JOB-

RELATED ATTITUDES TAP POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE

EVALUATIONS THAT EMPLOYEES HOLD ABOUT ASPECTS

OF THEIR WORK ENVIRONMENT. MOST OF THE

RESEARCH IN OB HAS BEEN CONCERNED WITH THREE

ATTITUDES: JOB SATISFACTION, JOB INVOLVEMENT,

AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT.

JOB SATISFACTIONJOB SATISFACTION

THE TERM JOB SATISFACTION REFERS TO AN

INDIVIDUAL’S GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARD HIS

OR HER JOB. A PERSON WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB

SATISFACTION HOLDS POSITIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE JOB; A

PERSON WHO IS DISSATISFIED WITH HIS OR HER JOB HOLDS

NEGATIVE ATTITUDES ABOUT THE JOB.

JOB INVOLVEMENTJOB INVOLVEMENT

THE DEGREE TO WHICH A PERSON IDENTIFIES WITH

HIS OR HER JOB, ACTIVELY PARTICIPATES IN IT, AND

CONSIDERS HIS OR HER PERFORMANCE IMPORTANT

TO SELF-WORTH.

EMPLOYEES WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB INVOLVEMENT

STRONGLY IDENTIFY WITH AND REALLY CARE ABOUT

THE KIND OF WORK THEY DO. HIGH LEVELS OF JOB

INVOLVEMENT HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE RELATED TO

FEWER ABSENCES AND LOWER RESIGNATION RATES.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENTORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

THE DEGREE TO WHICH AN EMPLOYEE

IDENTIFIES WITH A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATION

AND ITS GOALS,

AND WISHES TO MAINTAIN MEMBERSHIP IN THE

ORGANIZATION.

SO HIGH JOB INVOLVEMENT MEANS

IDENTIFYING WITH

ONE’S SPECIFIC JOB; HIGH ORGANIZATIONAL

COMMITMENT MEANS IDENTIFYING WITH

ONE’S

EMPLOYING ORGANIZATION.

MODELS OF ATTITUDEMODELS OF ATTITUDE

• COGNITIVE MODEL

• OBJECT MODEL

• BEHAVIOUR MODEL

• PERFORMANCE MODEL

ATTITUDE FORMATIONATTITUDE FORMATION

• CLASSICAL ATTITUDE FORMATION

• INSTRUMENT OR OPERANT ATTITUDE FORMATION

• COGNITIVE ATTITUDE FORMATION

ATTITUDE CHANGEATTITUDE CHANGE

• CHANGING MOTIVES OF EMPLOYEES

• ADMIRING EMPLOYEES

• COMPARING CONFLICTING ATTITUDES

• CHANGING THE BELIEFS

““HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE”HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE”

Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or

attitudes that individuals have towards their jobs. When a person

says that he has high job satisfaction, it means that he really likes

his job, feels good about it and values his job highly.

WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION? WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION?

• Mentally challenging work.

• Equitable rewards.

• Supportive working conditions.

• Supportive colleagues

• Don’t forget the personality – Job fit.

SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTIONSOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION

1. Organizational factors.

2. Work environmental factors.

3. Factors related to work itself.

4. Personal factors.

1.1. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS

• Salaries and wages

• Promotions

• Company policies

2.2. WORK ENVIRONMENTWORK ENVIRONMENT

• Supervisory style

• Work group

• Working conditions

3.3. WORK ITSELFWORK ITSELF

The job content has two aspects. One is the “job scope” that

involves the amount of responsibility. The second aspect is

variety. It has been found that a moderate amount of variety

is most effective.

4.4. PERSONAL FACTORSPERSONAL FACTORS

THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCEON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

• Satisfaction and Productivity

• Satisfaction and Absenteeism

• Satisfaction and Turnover

HOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS DISSATISFACTIONHOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS DISSATISFACTION

Active

Passive

Destructive Constructive

EXIT VOICE

NEGLECT LOYALTY

Responses to Job DissatisfactionResponses to Job Dissatisfaction

ExitExitDissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving the organization.

VoiceVoiceDissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.

LoyaltyLoyaltyDissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve.

NeglectNeglectDissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen.

CONSEQUENCES OF JOB DISSATISFACTIONCONSEQUENCES OF JOB DISSATISFACTION

• Employee unrest

• Absenteeism

• Tardiness

• Employee turnover

• Union activity

• Early retirement

• A job satisfaction

PERCEPTION

Chronological Development of Law

Notion

Perception

Conception

Assumption

Theory

Law

PERCEPTIONPERCEPTION

• A PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE

AND INTERPRET THEIR SENSORY IMPRESSION IN

ORDER TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR

ENVIRONMENT

Perception• Perception

– The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting environmental information.

– Based on internal factors (e.g., personality) and external factors (e.g., accuracy of information).

– Self-esteem describes how individuals perceive themselves.

Factors in the perceiver• Attitudes• Motives• Interests • Experience• Expectations

Perception

Factors in the target• Novelty• Motion• Sounds• Size• Background• Proximity

Factors in the situation• Time• Work setting• Social setting

Factors that Influence PerceptionFactors that Influence Perception

THE PERCEIVERTHE PERCEIVER• WHEN AN INDIVIDUAL LOOKS AT A TARGET

AND ATTEMPTS TO INTERPRET WHAT HE OR SHE SEES, THAT INTERPRETATION IS HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PERCEIVER.

• A MAJOR REASON IS THAT THEY HOLD

DIVERGENT ATTITUDES CONCERNING LARGE

CLASSES.

• UNSATISFIED NEEDS OR MOTIVES STIMULATE

INDIVIDUALS AND MAY EXERT A STRONG

INFLUENCE

ON THEIR PERCEPTIONS.

• THE FOCUS OF OUR ATTENTION APPEARS TO

BE INFLUENCED BY OUR INTERESTS.

• EXPECTATIONS CAN DISTORT YOUR

PERCEPTIONS IN THAT YOU WILL SEE WHAT

YOU EXPECT TO SEE.

THE TARGETTHE TARGET•CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TARGET THAT IS BEING OBSERVED CAN AFFECT WHAT IS PERCEIVED.• BECAUSE TARGETS ARE NOT LOOKED AT IN ISOLATION.• THE RELATIONSHIP OF A TARGET TO ITS BACKGROUND INFLUENCES PERCEPTION, AS DOES OUR TENDENCY TO GROUP CLOSE THINGS AND SIMILAR THINGS TOGETHER

THE SITUATIONTHE SITUATION• THE CONTEXT IN WHICH WE SEE OBJECTS OR

EVENTS IS IMPORTANT. ELEMENTS IN THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCE OUR PERCEPTIONS.

• THE TIME AT WHICH AN OBJECT OR EVENT IS SEEN CAN INFLUENCE

ATTENTION, AS CAN LOCATION, LIGHT, HEAT, OR ANY NUMBER OF SITUATIONAL FACTORS.

Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others

Attribution theory

This theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior.

Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.

Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others,

Determinants:

1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

2. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

3. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Determinants:

1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

2. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

3. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Attribution Theory

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Errors and Biases in Attributions

BARRIERS TO PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS TO PERCEPTUAL ACCURACYACCURACY

Selective Perception

• People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Halo Effect

• Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.

Selective Perception

• People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Contrast Effects

• Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

Projection

• Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

Stereotyping

• Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group

to which that person belongs.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

• When one person inaccurately perceives a second person and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception.

Overcoming Biases• Don’t overlook external causes of

others’ behavior• Identify and confront your

stereotypes• Evaluate people based on objective

factors• Avoid making rash judgments

SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS

• EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW

• PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS

• PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

• EMPLOYEE EFFORT

• EMPLOYEE LOYALTY

Specific Applications of Shortcuts in Organization

• Employment Interview– Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of

interviewers’ judgments of applicants.• Performance Expectations

– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

• Performance Evaluations– Appraisals are subjective perceptions of

performance.

• Employee Effort– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective

judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

• Employee Loyalty– Employee support towards the organization.

• Whistle-Blowers– Individuals who report unethical practices by

their employer to outsiders.

Motivation• The willingness to exert high

levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

Need

• Some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive

Work Motivation: The psychological forces that

determine the direction of a person’s behavior in an organization, a person’s level of effort, and a person’s level of persistence.

Work Motivation

• Direction of Behavior - Which behaviors does a person choose to perform in an organization?

• Level of Effort - How hard does a person work to perform a chosen behavior? (Arousal)

Work Motivation

• Level of Persistence - When faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how hard does a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior successfully? (Maintaining)

Early Theories of Motivation

Need-Based Theories of Motivation

The basic premise of need theories is that humans are motivated primarily by deficiencies in one or more important needs or need categories.

The Hierarchy of Needs

• Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s.

• Maslow believed that people have an innate desire to satisfy a given set of needs.

• Maslow believed that these needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, with the most basic needs at the foundation of the hierarchy.

The Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslow believed that each need level must be satisfied before the level above it becomes important.

• The escalation up the hierarchy continues until the self-actualization needs become the primary motivators.

The Hierarchy of Needs

Self-

actualization

Esteem

Affiliation

Physiological

Security

• Lower Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied externally;

physiological and safety needs.

Higher Order Needs:Needs that are satisfied internally;

social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

The Hierarchy of Needs• Physiological Needs:

Adequate wages, ventilation, and comfortable temperatures and working conditions are measures taken to satisfy this most basic level of need.

• Security Needs:Security needs can be satisfied by such things as job

continuity, a grievance system, and an adequate insurance and retirement system.

The Hierarchy of Needs

• Affiliation Needs– Managers can help satisfy these needs by

fostering a sense of group identity and interaction among employees.

• Esteem Needs– These needs are met at least partially by job

titles, choice offices, merit pay increases, awards, and other forms of recognition.

The Hierarchy of Needs

• Self-Actualization Needs

– The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

– Achieved when people meet their full potential.

– These needs are the hardest to understand and the most difficult to satisfy.

ERG Theory

–Represents an extension and refinement of the need hierarchy theory by Clayton Alderfer.

–The ERG theory describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs.

Existence

Concerned with providing our basic

material existence requirements. It

includes the items that Maslow considered

physiological and safety needs.

Relatedness

The desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. The social and status desires require interaction with others if they are re-satisfied and they align with Maslow’s social need and external component of Maslow’s esteem classification.

Growth

An intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow’s esteemed category and the characteristics included self-actualization.

ERG theory

–The ERG theory suggests that if people become frustrated trying to satisfy one set of needs, they will regress back to the previously satisfied set of needs.

How does ERG Theory differ from Maslow’s

In contrast to hierarchy of need theory, the ERG Theory demonstrates:

1. More than one need may be operative at the same time.

2. If the gratification of higher level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy lower-level need increases.

The Dual-Structure Theory (Motivation –Hygiene Theory)

• Developed by Frederick Herzberg• Herzberg conceptualized motivation as a

dual structure phenomenon consisting of motivation factors and hygiene factors.

–Motivation factors are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition. These factors cause motivation and satisfaction.

The Dual-Structure Theory

• Motivation and hygiene factors (continued)– Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and

include factors such as pay and job security. – These factors do not necessarily lead to

satisfaction. If inadequate, however, these factors can lead to dissatisfaction.

The Dual-Structure Theory

Motivation Factors Hygiene Factors

- Achievement

- Recognition

- The work itself

- Responsibility

- Advancement

- Supervision

- Working Conditions

- Pay and Job Security

- Company Policies

- Relationships

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Achievement power, and affiliation are three

important needs that help to understand motivation.

Learned Needs Theory (nAch)

• Most frequently associated with the work of David McClelland.– Need for Achievement (nAch)– Need for Affiliation (nAff)– Need for Power (nPow)

The Need for Achievement

• The need for achievement is the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past.

The Need for Affiliation

• The need for human companionship.• Individuals with a high need for affiliation

tend to want reassurance and approval from others and usually are genuinely concerned about others’ feelings.

• People with a high need for affiliation often work in jobs with a lot of interpersonal contact.

The Need for Power

• The desire to control the resources in one’s environment.

• People with a high need for power can be successful managers if three conditions are met:– They must seek power for the betterment of the

organization rather than for their own interests.

The Need for Power

• Three Conditions (continued)– They must have a fairly low need for affiliation

(fulfilling a personal need for power may well alienate others in the workplace).

– They need plenty of self-control to curb their desire for power when it threatens to interfere with effective organizational or interpersonal relationships.

Equity Theory

A process theory about work motivation that focuses on workers’ perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs.

Equity Theory

According to equity theory, what is important to motivation is the way a worker perceives his or her outcome / input ratio compared to that of another person.

Outcome / input ratio

Outcome / input ratio is the relationship between

what a worker gets from a job and what the worker

contributes to the job.

Two Basic Types of Inequity

Overpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that their outcome / input ratio is greater than the ratio of the referent.

Underpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that their outcome / input ratio is less than the ratio of the referent.

Four referent comparisons an employee can use:

• Self-inside

• Self-outside

• Other-inside

• Other-outside

Employee perceive an inequity Employee perceive an inequity they can be predictedthey can be predicted

• Change their inputs• Change their outcomes• Distort perceptions of self• Distort perceptions of others• Choose a different referent• Leave the field

Ways to Restore Equity

• Workers change their inputs or outcomes.

• Workers change the referents’ inputs or outcomes.

• Workers change their perceptions of inputs and outcomes.

• Workers change the referent.

• Workers leave the job or organization or force the referent to leave.

Expectancy Theory

• A process theory about work motivation that focuses on how workers make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort.

• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Theory focuses on three relationships

1. Effort-performance relationship

2. Performance-reward relationship

3. Rewards-personal goals relationship

Expectancy Theory

Individual Individual Organizational Personaleffort performance rewards goals

1. Effort-performance relationship

2. Performance-reward relationship

3. Rewards-personal goals relationship

Expectancy Theory - Key Terms

• Valence: the desirability of an outcome to an individual.

• Instrumentality: a perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome.

• Expectancy: a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.

Goal-Setting Theory

• Goal-Setting Theory suggests that an individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior.

• Developed by Locke and Latham.

Components of Goal-Setting Theory

• Goal Difficulty– The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires

effort.– Difficult, yet realistic, goals are typically the most

effective.

• Goal Specificity– The clarity and precision of a goal.– Specific, rather than vague, goals are typically the most

effective.

Components of Goal-Setting Theory

• Goal Acceptance– The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his

or her own.

• Goal Commitment– The extent to which a person is personally

interested in reaching a goal.

Reinforcement Theory

• In Reinforcement Theory we have a behavioristic

approach which argues that reinforcement

conditions behavior.

• Behavior is being environmentally caused.

• Theory ignores the inner state of individual and

constraint solely on what happens to a person when

he or she takes some action.

Theory Theory XX Theory Theory YY

• Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.

• After viewing the way in which managers dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior toward subordinates according to these assumptions.

Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers:Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers:

1. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will

attempt to avoid it.

2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or

threatened with punishment to achieve goals.

3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction

whenever possible.

4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with

work and will display little ambition.

McGregor listed four positive assumptions, which McGregor listed four positive assumptions, which

he called Theory Y:he called Theory Y:

1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.

2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are

committed to the objectives.

3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.

4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed

throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province

of those in management positions.