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TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. INTRODUCTION
B. MANOMETER
C. ELASTIC-ELEMENT MECHANICAL PRESSURE GAGES
D. ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS
E. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SENSORS
F. HIGH PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
G. LOW-PRESSURE (VACUUM) MEASUREMENT
PRESSUREPressure is defined as force per unit area but force = mass x
acceleration (Newton’s second law of motion) and acceleration
is rate of change of velocity. Thus if pressure is force/area, it
equates to (mass x rate of change of velocity)/area. This gives
pressure the dimensions of mass x length/(time2 length2) which
simplifies to mass/(length x time2) or M.L-1.T-2. Thus, from the
definition it can be shown that pressure is derived from three
base quantities; mass, length and time.
The relationship between pressure (p), force (F) and area (A) is
given by:
If a vessel were to contain no molecules whatsoever, the pressure
would be zero. Pressures measured on the scale which uses this zero
value as its reference point are said to be absolute pressures.
Atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth varies but is
approximately 105 Pa (1 000 mbar); this is 105 Pa absolute pressure
because it is expressed with respect to zero pressure that is no molecules at all.
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted on a surface of unit area caused by
the earth’s gravitational attraction of the air vertically above that area. It is
transmitted equally in all directions within the air and may be measured by a
variety of techniques. The density of the air above the surface of the earth is
related to changes in temperature and global weather patterns, causing
variations in the downward force and hence pressure. We are all familiar with
effect of changes in atmospheric pressure: high pressure systems are linked to
clear skies, low pressure areas to rain and storms.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. At the top of a
mountain, the remaining column of air above us is smaller and the accelerationdue to gravity is less.
Atmospheric pressure
Gage Pressure
Such a gauge is designed to measure pressure values expressed with
respect to atmospheric pressure and thus indicates zero when its
measurement port ‘merely’ contains molecules at atmospheric
pressure. These measurements are commonly known as gauge-mode
pressure measurements. Thus the difference between an absolute
pressure value and a gauge pressure value is the variable value of
atmospheric pressure:
absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
Vacuum Pressure
Vacuum definition is not precise but it is commonly taken to
mean pressures below, and often considerably below,
atmospheric pressure. It does not have separate units and we do not say that “vacuum equals force per unit area”.
INTRODUCTION :Standards and Calibration
Deadweight testing
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Dead-Weight Pressure
Testers use these measurements of
force and area to produce a
pressure to calibrate instrument with great accuracy. The force is
derived from weights and the area is that of a piston in a cylinder
Liquid column instruments• Barometer
• A mercury barometer has a glass tube closed at one end with an open mercury-filled reservoir at
the base. The weight of the mercury creates a vacuum in the top of the tube known as Torricellian
vacuum. Mercury in the tube adjusts until the weight of the mercury column balances the
atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir. High atmospheric pressure places more force on the
reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column. Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column by lowering the force placed on the reservoir.
Evangelista Torricelli; (1608–1647) was an
Italian physicist and mathematician, best known for his invention of the barometer,
Manometer
• A manometer is a device similar to a barometer that can be used to measure the pressure of a gas trapped in a container. A closed-end manometer is a U-shaped tube with one closed arm, one arm that connects to the gas to be measured, and a nonvolatile liquid (usually mercury) in between. As with a barometer, the distance between the liquid levels in the two arms of the tube (h in the diagram) is proportional to the pressure of the gas in the container. An open-end manometer (Figure) is the same as a closed-end manometer, but one of its arms is open to the atmosphere. In this case, the distance between the liquid levels corresponds to the difference in pressure between the gas in the container and the atmosphere
ELASTIC TRANSDUCERS : Diaphragm pressure gage
Diaphragm pressure gage
A diaphragm is a sheet of a semi-flexible material anchored at its
periphery and most often round in shape. It serves either as a barrier
between two chambers, moving slightly up into one chamber or down
into the other depending on differences in pressure, or as a device that vibrates when certain frequencies are applied to it
What is Strain?• Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an
applied force. More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure below.
Definition of Strain
Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive).
Shearing Strain
• Shearing strain,γ, is defined as the angular change
in radians between two line segments that were orthogonal in the undeformed state.
If we had a thick book sitting on a table top and we
applied a force parallel to the covers, we could see the shear strain by observing the edges of the pages.
Stress and Strain
• Stress is the force an object
generates inside by responding to
an applied external force, P. If an
object receives an external force
from the top, it internally
generates a repelling force to
maintain the original shape. The
repelling force is called internal
force and the internal force
divided by the cross-sectional
area of the object is called stress,
which is expressed as a unit of Pa (Pascal) or N/m2.
Bonded metallic strain gauge.
Strain gauge is a device whose electrical
resistance varies in proportion to the amount of
strain in the device. For example, the piezoresistive
strain gauge is a semiconductor device whose
resistance varies nonlinearly with strain. The most
widely used gauge is the bonded metallic strain gauge.
Gage Factor
The gage factor, K, differs depending on the
metallic materials. The copper-nickel alloy
(Advance) provides a gage factor around 2.
Thus, a strain gage using this alloy for the
sensing element enables conversion of
mechanical strain to a corresponding electrical resistance change.
Major types of resistance strain gages
• Bonded foil strain gages
•The first bonded, metallic wire-type strain gage was developed in
1938. The metallic foil-type strain gage consists of a grid of wire
filament (a resistor) of approximately 0.001 in. (0.025 mm)
thickness, bonded directly to the strained surface by a thin layer of
epoxy resin. When a load is applied to the surface, the resulting
change in surface length is communicated to the resistor and the
corresponding strain is measured in terms of the electrical
resistance of the foil wire, which varies linearly with strain.
INC 336 Industrial process measurement, 2005
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS : Strain gauge
Bonded foil strain-gage pressure transducer
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS : Strain gauge
Strain gauge transducer with diaphragm element
Wheatstone circuit
Boned semiconductor strain gages
A further improvement is the thin-film strain gage that eliminates
the need for adhesive bonding. The gage is produced by first
depositing an electrical insulation (typically a ceramic) onto the
stressed metal surface, and then depositing the strain gage onto this
insulation layer. Vacuum deposition or sputtering techniques are
used to bond the materials molecularly.
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS : Diffused sensor
Diffused sensor transducers and auto reference techniques
Thin film strain gages
In the case of strain gauges, thin film sensor deposition directly
onto the stressed substrate is an option to foil strain gauges
epoxied to the substrate, resistive strain gauges and silicon
strain gauges that eliminates many of the problems of these later technologies.
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS : Strain gauge
• Sensors to be deposited directly onto conductive and non-conductive
components. No mounting cements or adhesives needed.
• Minimal process intrusion. Structural modifications of components
typically not necessary. Will not disrupt gas flows.
• Fast time response. Adds neglible amount of mass to system and made
with thermally conductive materials.
• Harsh environment capability. Can be made to withstand temperatures
in excess of 1000oC.
• Sensors to be placed on 3 dimensional parts. Thin film conductive
traces can route leads around corners and edges.
Thin-film strain gages
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS : Resonant wire
A wire is gripped by a static
member at one end, and by the
sensing diaphragm at the other. An oscillator circuit
causes the wire to oscillate at its resonant frequency. A
change in process pressure
changes the wire tension,
which in turn changes the resonant frequency of the wire. A digital counter circuit detects the shift. Because this change
in frequency can be detected
quite precisely, this type of
transducer can be used for low
differential pressure
applications as well as to detect absolute and gauge pressures.
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS : Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric crystal circuit Piezoelectric Sensor
Quartz crystal Oscillator crystal
Linear reluctance transducer
Inductance is that property of an electric circuit that expresses the
amount of electromotive force (emf) induced by a given rate of change
of current flow in the circuit. Reluctance is resistance to magnetic flow,
the opposition offered by a magnetic substance to magnetic flux. In
these sensors, a change in pressure produces a movement, which in turn changes the inductance or reluctance of an electric circuit.
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS : Electro-Optical
Optical pressure transducers detect the
effects of minute motions due to changes in
process pressure and generate a
corresponding electronic output signal . A
light emitting diode (LED) is used as the
light source, and a vane blocks some of the light as it is moved by the diaphragm.
DIFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
Diffused strain-gage differential-pressureTransmitter (Honeywell Inc.)
LOW PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
McLeod gauge
The McLeod Gage is considered the standard for low-pressure (vacuum)
measurements, where the pressure is below 10-4 torr* (10-4 mmHg, 1.33×10-2 Pa,
1.93×10-6 psi). A McLeod Gage compresses a sample of low pressure gas to a
sufficiently high pressure, obtains the compressed pressure from a standard
manometer, and then calculates the original low pressure through Boyle's law.
The compression is passed through a dense, nearly-incompressible, low vapor
pressure fluid, such as mercury.
*1 Torr; ≈ 1 mmHg
LOW PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
McLeod gage
A McLeod gauge is a scientific instrument to measure very low pressures, down to 10-7 Torr.
The torr (symbol: Torr), defined as 1/760 atm.
1 Torr; ≈ 1 mmHg
Today, these gauges have largely been replaced by electronic vacuum gauges. McLeod gauges continue to be used as a calibration standard for electronic gauges
LOW PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Pirani gageThermocouple gage
Thermal Conductivity gauge rely on the fact that the ability of a gas to conduct heat decreases
with pressure*. In this type of gauge, a wire filament is heated by running current through it.
A thermocouple or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) can then be used to measure the
temperature of the filament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament
loses heat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common
variant is the Pirani gauge which uses a single platinum filament as both the heated element and RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10 Torr to 10−3 Torr.
*If the gas pressure is reduced, the cooling effect will decrease
The simplest form of an ionization gauge. The grid is a loosely
wound spiral of wire surrounding the filament, and exerts little
control on the electron stream. With a constant high current of
electrons to the anode, positive ions from the remaining gas are
attracted to the grid and the resulting grid current is measured and taken as proportional to gas pressure.
Ionization gauge
DYNAMIC EFFECTS OF VOLUMES AND TUBING
Fill Fluid : The fill fluid will affect the safety of process, accuracy
and response time of the measurement. The following four points
need to be considered:
• Temperature limitations
• Expansion coefficient
• Process compatibilty
• Viscoscity
Temperature Effects : Three variables can be changed to
reduce the errors caused by temperature effects
• Diameter of capillary
• Choice of fill fluid
• Diaphragm size
ACCESSORIES
Gauge cock and gauge valves are applied
to the temporary stoppage of measuring
fluid for the purposes of pressure gauge
maintenance,inspection and repair
These joints are applied to the connection
between diipe diameters.
This dampener is of variable type being
able to adjust pressure amplitude and
applied to the decrease in pressure pulsation.
Gauge cock Gauge valve
Connecting joint
Dampener
ACCESSORIES
This pipe siphon is applied to
measuring steam pressure or
the case where the
temperature of measuring fluid is high
This tank siphon is applied
to the sulstitution
measuring fluid and the
case where oil is forbidden.
Recommended