Stress, Coping, and Health

Chapter 7

Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986) - For student populations

• Instructions: – People may use the following statements to describe

themselves. For each statement, decide whether the statement is uncharacteristic or characteristic of you using the following 5 point scale. Note that the 3 on the scale is Neutral – the statement is neither characteristic nor uncharacteristic of you. In the box to the right of each statement, fill in the number on the 5 point scale that best describes you.

1. I often find myself performing tasks that I had intended to do days before.

Enter your response.

Mean = 1 2

20%1. Strongly Agree

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

5. Strongly Disagree

2.* I do not do assignments until just before they are to be handed in.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

3.* When I am finished with a library book, I return it right away regardless of the date it is due.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

4. When it is time to get up in the morning, I most often get right out of bed.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

5. A letter may sit for days after I write it before mailing it.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

6. I generally return phone calls promptly.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

7. Even with jobs that require little else except sitting down and doing them, I find they seldom get done for days.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

8. I usually make decisions as soon as possible.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

9. I generally delay before starting on work I have to do.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

10.* I usually have to rush to complete a task on time.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

11. When preparing to go out, I am seldom caught having to do something at the last minute.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

12. In preparing for some deadline, I often waste time by doing other things.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

13.* I prefer to leave early for an appointment.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

14.* I usually start an assignment shortly after it is assigned.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

15. I often have a task finished sooner than necessary.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

16. I always seem to end up shopping for birthday or Christmas gifts at the last minute.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

17. I usually buy even an essential item at the last minute.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

18. I usually accomplish all the things I plan to do in a day.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

19. I am continually saying “I’ll do it tomorrow”.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

20. I usually take care of all the tasks I have to do before I settle down and relax for the evening.

Mean = 1 2

2. Agree

3. Neutral

4. Disagree

I. Relationship between Life Events and Stress

• A. Demands, Strain, Coping, and Stress– Demands are environmental requirements that

motivate behavior.– Strain occurs when resources are inadequate to

meet demands.– Coping is behavior to meet demands.– Stress or distress is a case of excessive strain;

coping is inadequate.• Excessive demands• Limited resources

• B. Characteristics of Stress– 1. Physical Symptoms of Stress

• Allergies, colds, flu, headache.

– 2. Psychological Symptoms of Stress• Anxiety, boredom, depression, feel helpless, negative

– 3. Behavioral Symptoms of Stress• Consume alcohol, nicotine, drugs, eat comfort foods,

waste time.

• C. Characteristics of Stressors– 1. Negative Life Events as Stressors

• Same domain effect: negative life demands produce distress or stress; positive life demands produce eustress.

– 2. Magnitude of Life Events• Cataclysmic events are high magnitude stressors. Daily

hassles are low magnitude stressors. Daily uplifts bring relief, joy, amusement.

• C. Characteristics of Stressors– 3. Predictability and Controllability of Life Events

• Predictable stressors are preferred over unpredictable stressors.

• Preparatory response hypothesis: predictive stimulus allows for preparation of shock.

• Safety hypothesis: person can relax and feel safe during signaled-shock free intervals.

• D. Stressor-Stress Relationship• Generally stress increases with increases in stressors

magnitude.

– 1. Retrospective versus Prospective Research• Retrospective: stressed individual tries to recall past

stressors.• Prospective: measure person's stress level before and

after onset of suspected stressor.

– 2. Determining the Impact of Stressors• Life change unit: measure of amount of adjustment a

demand requires• Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire provide life change

units for demands faced by university students.

• D. Stressor-Stress Relationship– 3. Stressor Magnitude and Stress

• Acute stress disorder: fear and helplessness reaction to a traumatic event that threatens death or serious injury; subsides in four weeks.

• Posttraumatic stress disorder: acute stress disorder lasts more than four weeks. Person experiences distressing recollections, physiological reactivity, social impairment, and avoids stimulus reminders.

• Terrorist attack of 11 September 2001 produced PTSD.– 4. Cumulative Effects of Stressors

• As life demands accumulate they become stressors and produce stress.

– 5. Racism as a Stressor• Racism experienced by African Americans and other minorities

is associated with stress and psychiatric symptoms.

II. Bodily Effects of Stress

• A. Physiological Effects of Stressors– 1. General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye, 1976)

• The body's physiological reaction to all stressors occurs in three stages:

• alarm, resistance, and exhaustion (adaptation energy depleted).

• death– 2. Psychological Stressors and Physiological Responses

• Such stressors as public speaking and job interviews can cause stress.

• B. Stressors and Psychophysiologic Disorders– Stressors, e.g., anger can interact with chronic risk factors

(cholesterol, high blood pressure) to increase the likelihood of heart attacks.

• C. Stressors and the Immune System• Psychoneuroimmunology: study relationship between

psychological stressors, strength of the immune system, and disease.

• Immune system is body's line of defense against bacteria and viruses.

– 1. Stressor Effects on the Immune System• Stressors reduce effectiveness of immune system and

disease occurs.

– 2. Open Window Hypothesis• Few hours after strenuous exercise the immune system

is weak, which provides an open window for germs to invade and infect the body.

• C. Stressors and the Immune System– 3. Stressors, Immune System, and the Common

Cold• Psychological stressors can downgrade the immune

system and increase the likelihood that a cold virus will result in a cold.

– 4. Multiple Stressor Effects• Stressors simultaneously affect a person's psychological,

physiological, and immune systems.

III. Variables Moderating the Impact of Life Events

• A. Appraisal of Life Events• Moderating variables: environment or person

characteristics that alter the relationship between the stressor and stress.

– 1. Appraisal and Stress• Primary appraisal: is event relevant, benign, positive, or

stressful?• Secondary appraisal: inventory resources for coping with

stressor.

– 2. Appraisal as a Moderator• With trauma orientation appraisal a gruesome event was

stressful; with denial or intellectualization appraisal, it was less stressful.

• B. Coping and Behavior– 1. Coping

• Problem focused coping: identify problem clearly and consider potential solutions.

• Emotion focused coping: managing the distress the person feels.

• Appraisal and subsequent coping is a process, not static event.– 2. Health Behaviors

• Health enhancing behaviors help prevent stress or reduce its impact.

• Health impairing behavior increase the likelihood and severity of stress; such behaviors as alcohol, drugs, and tobacco use.

• C. Social Support as a Moderator• Buffering hypothesis: social support buffers or protects a

person from harm of a potential stressor. Social support also buffers immune system and physical health against stressors.

• D. Personality Differences as Moderator Variables– 1. Procrastination

• Procrastinating students experience more stress at semester's end than do non-procrastinating students.

– 2. Sense of Humor• With this sense, a person is inclined to smile, laugh, and

be amused. It can help with stressor-appraisal and reduce the impact of stress.

– 3. Hardiness• With this personality trait, a person sees life events as

challenging, feels in control, and is committed to various activities.

Stress, Coping, and Health

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