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Modern european
History
the Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of
Since 1789
Nicholas atkiNMichael Biddiss
FraNk tallett
the Wiley-Blackw
ell Dictionary of
Mo
dern eu
ropean
Histo
ry Sin
ce 1789
The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 is an authoritative and highly accessible reference guide to the major people, events, and issues that have shaped Europe’s development from the time of the French Revolution to the opening of the twenty-first century. This comprehensive volume features almost 1,000 encyclopedic entries, written in collaboration by a trio of distinguished historians. The authors move well beyond basic definitions and descriptions to provide readers with a richer analytical understanding of the wider significance of historical events as they unfolded over the course of two centuries. Associated links and connections are revealed through an extensive series of cross-references. A sequence of maps charting the evolution of modern European states offers further clarity. The work covers the whole of continental Europe, as well as relevant aspects of the British experience.
Lively and authoritative, The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 is an indispensable reference guide to the broad sweep of historical events and experiences that have shaped the Europe we see today.
Nicholas Atkin was Professor of History and Head of the School of Humanities at the University of Reading and the author or editor of several books on European issues. At the time of his death in 2009, he had just published Themes in Modern European History, 1890–1945, co-edited with Michael Biddiss.
Michael Biddiss is Emeritus Professor of History at the University of Reading, and a former President of the Historical Association. He is the author, co-author, or co-editor of numerous books and articles on modern Europe.
Frank Tallett is Head of the School of Humanities at the University of Reading, and Co-Director of its Centre for the Advanced Study of French History. A Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, he is also the author or co-author of several books, including Priests, Prelates and People: A History of European Catholicism from 1750 to the Present (2003).
Jacket image: French School, The Taking of the Bastille, 14 July 1789 (18th century).Château de Versailles/ Giraudon/ The Bridgeman Art Library
Jacket design by Simon Levy Associates
Also available from Wiley-Blackwell
atkiN,Biddiss, tallett
The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of
MODERNEUROPEAN
HISTORYSINCE 1789
The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of
MODERNEUROPEAN
HISTORYSINCE 1789
NICHOLAS ATKINMICHAEL BIDDISSFRANK TALLETT
This edition first published 2011� 2011 Nicholas Atkin, Michael Biddiss, Frank Tallett
Blackwell Publishing was acquired by JohnWiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program hasbeen merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.
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Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brandnames and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registeredtrademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associatedwith any product or vendormentioned inthis book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to thesubject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in renderingprofessional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competentprofessional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Atkin, Nicholas James, 1960- , author.The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 / Nicholas Atkin,
Michael Biddiss, and Frank Tallett.p. cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-8922-4 (hardback)1. Europe–History–1789-1900–Encyclopedias. 2. Europe–History–20th century–Encyclopedias. 3. History, Modern–Encyclopedias. I. Biddiss, Michael D.(Michael Denis), 1942- , author. II. Tallett, Frank, author. III. Title.D299.A84 2011940.203–dc22
2010044399
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Set in 9.5/11.5pt Minion by Thomson Digital, Noida, IndiaPrinted in
1 2011
Dedicated by his Co-Authors
To the Memory of
NICHOLAS ATKIN
(1960–2009)
Contents
Preface ix
Summary Listing of Entries and Principal Cross-Headings xi
Maps xxv
The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 A–Z 1–473
vii
Preface
Although this work has three authors, the respon-sibility for composing its Preface falls sadly to twoof us alone. Our friend and colleague NicholasAtkin died in October 2009, during the very finalstages of the writing, at the tragically early age of49.We have therefore dedicated the Dictionary tohismemory, as a token of our deep admiration fora collaborator possessed of so many intellectualand personal qualities.The book stems from the many years of expe-
rience shared by all three of us while teaching andresearching in the field of European history at theUniversity of Reading. It sets out to provide asubstantial work of reference that encompassesthe whole period from the late eighteenth centurythrough to the opening years of the twenty-first.Within it we have aimed to do justice to theeastern as well as western parts of the maincontinental landmass, as well as to certain aspectsof the particular British experience that are inte-gral to an understanding of Europe in its mostinclusive sense. Spread across nearly a thousandentries supported by a sequence of maps, theencyclopaedic subject matter of this Dictionarycovers personalities, states, regions, and institu-tions, together with significant themes and dis-tinctive terms likely to be encountered in therelevant historical literature.The entries contain ample cross-referencing,
indicated by use of SMALL CAPITALS. However, wehave been anxious not to distract readers byindiscriminate resort to this device. Therefore wehave tried to refrain from such capitalizationwhenever mention of a particular person, state,
region, or other topic covered more fully else-where happens to be occurring in away thatmightbe thought fairly incidental to the main subjectmatter of the entry immediately at issue. Thisconsideration has particular bearing on someimportant terms whose very frequent appearancein a work of this kind could hardly be avoided: forexample, “Balkans,” “Napoleon I,” “nationalism,”or “Soviet Union.” Conversely, our policy hascertainly been to capitalize cross-references tothese andother headwordswherever such pointerstowards the text of further entries might seemlikely to offer more positive help to our readers.
Regarding foreign words and phrases, we havenot normally italicized these when they occur inthe titles of institutions, movements, or politicalparties and similar organizations. Beyond that liesa set of cases where the crucial, but often hazier,issue is whether the terms concerned have nowbeen sufficiently “naturalized” into English.There we have tried to follow whatever seems tobe the generally prevailing usage in the mostrecent historical literature. Thus readers will en-counter here, for instance, “biennio rosso” and“szlachta” on the one hand, together with“d�etente” and “Junkers” on the other. It can alsobe seen from the last of those examples that wehave always retained the proper form of initialcapitals for German nouns. For dating, we haveconsistently followed the Gregorian (“new style”)calendar, as distinct from the Julian (“old style”)version: the latter survivedmost notably in Russiauntil January 1918, at which point it was running13 days behind the system already adopted nearly
ix
everywhere else in Europe by the late eighteenthcentury.
In conclusion, we wish to record our thanks tothose who have been most generous in assistingour completion of this project. The deepest debtsof gratitude go to Claire Atkin, Ruth Biddiss, andJudy Tallett for their constant encouragement tothe authors over a substantial period of prepara-tion. Our former colleague, Dr David Laven, wasdirectly involved in the preliminary planning ofthe Dictionary and, upon his move to the Uni-versity of Manchester, he kindly allowed us tomake use of his initial drafting for some entries.
We are pleased to acknowledge the unfailinglyefficient support provided to us by Wiley- Black-well, including the editorial and production ex-pertise of Tessa Harvey, Tom Bates, Sarah Dancy,and Janey Fisher. Finally, we owe a debt of grat-itude to Dr David Trim for his assistance incompiling the electronic edition of the book.
Michael BiddissFrank Tallett
University of Reading
October 2010
P REFACE
x
Summary Listing of EntriesandPrincipal Cross-Headings
A (pp. 1–23)
Aaland (A�land) Islands
Abdul Hamid II (of Turkey)
Aberdeen, George Hamilton
Gordon, Earl of
Abgrenzung
absolutism
Abwehr
AbyssinianWar (see ITALO-ETHIOPIAN
WAR)
acquis communautaire
Action Francaise
Adenauer, Konrad
Adrianople, Treaty of
Aehrenthal, Alois Baron Lexa von
Africa, Scramble for (see underIMPERIALISM)
Agadir crisis (see under MOROCCAN
CRISES)
agitprop
agriculture (see under RURAL
SOCIETY)
Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of (see
under CONGRESS SYSTEM)
Albania
Albert
Alexander I (of Russia)
Alexander I (of Yugoslavia)
Alexander II (of Russia)
Alexander III (of Russia)
Alfonso XII (of Spain)
Alfonso XIII (of Spain
Algeciras Conference (see under
MOROCCAN CRISES)
Algerian War
Alsace-Lorraine
Alto Adige (see SOUTH TYROL)
Amendola, Giovanni
Amiens, Treaty of
Amsterdam, Treaty of
anarchism
Ancien Regime
Andorra (see MICRO-STATES[1])
Andrassy, Count Gyula
Andreotti, Giulio
Andropov, Yuri
Anglo-French Union
Anglo-German naval agreement
Anglo-Russian Entente
Anschluss
anticlericalism
Anti-Comintern Pact
antisemitism
Antonescu, Ion
apparatchik
appeasement
aristocracy
Armenian genocide
Arrow Cross
artel
artisans
Aryanism (see under RACISM)
assignats
Attat€urk, Kemal
August decrees
Auschwitz camp (see under
CONCENTRATION CAMPS)
Ausgleich
Austerlitz, Battle of
Austria
Austrian Netherlands
Austro-Hungarian empire (see
under HABSBURG EMPIRE;AUSGLEICH)
Austro-Prussian War
Axis, Rome–Berlin
Aza~na, Manuel
xi
B (pp. 24–59)
Baader–Meinhof Group
Babeuf, Francois-No€el(“Gracchus”)
Bach, Alexander, Baron von
Badoglio, Pietro
Bakunin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich
Balbo, Cesare
Balkan Entente
Balkan Leagues
Balkan Pact
Balkan Wars
Balkans
Ballhausplatz
Baltic States
banking
Barbarossa, Operation
Barr�es, Maurice
Basic Treaty
Basle, Treaties of
Basques
Bastille, fall of the
Batavian Republic
Battle of Britain
Bauer, Gustav
Bavaria
Beck, J�ozef
Beer Hall putsch
Belarus
Belgium
Benelux
Bene�s, Edvard
Beria, Lavrenti
Berlin blockade
Berlin Conference
Berlin Congress
Berlin Wall
Berlinguer, Enrico
Berlusconi, Silvio
Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste
Bernstein, Eduard
Bessarabia (see under MOLDAVIA;
MOLDOVA; ROMANIA)
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von
Beust, Count Friedrich Ferdinandvon
biennio rosso
Bierut, Bolesław
Bismarck, Otto von
Black Hand
Blair, Tony
Blanc, Louis
Blanqui, Louis Auguste
Blitzkrieg
Bloc National
Bloody Sunday (see under RUSSIAN
REVOLUTION OF 1905; IRELAND)
Bl€ucher, Gebhardt von
Blum, L�eon
Bohemia
Bolsheviks
Bonaparte, Joseph
Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon (seeNAPOLEON III)
Bonaparte, Napoleon (see NAPOLEON
I)
Bonapartism
Bonomi, Ivanoe
Bormann, Martin
Borodino, Battle of
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Bosnian Civil War (see underBOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA)
Bosphorous
Boulanger affair
Bourbon dynasty
bourgeoisie (see under CLASS)
Brandt, Willy
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of
Bretton Woods agreement
Brezhnev, Leonid
Briand, Aristide
Brissot, Jacques-Pierre
Britain, Battle of (see BATTLE OF
BRITAIN)
Britain and Europe
Brousse, Paul
Brumaire, Coup of
Br€uning, Heinrich
Brusilov offensive
Brussels, Treaty of
Bucharest, Treaties of (1812, 1913,1918)
Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich
Bukovina
Bulganin, Nikolai
Bulgaria
Bulgarian massacres (see underBULGARIA)
Bulge, Battle of the
B€ulow, Bernhard von
Buonarotti, Filippo
bureaucracy
Burgenland (see under TRIANON,
TREATY OF)
Burschenschaften
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xii
C (pp. 60–106)
Cabet, Etienne
caciquismo
Caetano, Marcello
Cagoulards
Campo Formio, Treaty of
Canning, George
C�anovas del Castillo, Antonio
capital cities
capitalism
Caporetto, Battle of
Caprivi, Leo Graf von
Carbonari
Carlism
Carlsbad Decrees
Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite
Carol II (of Romania)
Cartel des Gauches
Casablanca Conference
Castlereagh, Robert Stewart,Viscount
Catalonia
Catherine II (of Russia)
Catholicism
Cattaneo, Carlo
Caudillo
Cavaignac, General Louis-Eug�ene
Cavour, Camillo
Ceausescu, Nikolae
Center Party (Germany) (see
ZENTRUM)
Central Powers
Champ de Mars massacre
Charles I of Austria (see under
HABSBURG EMPIRE)
Charles X (of France)
Charles Albert (of Piedmont-Sardinia)
Charles Felix (of Piedmont-Sardinia)
Chateaubriand, Francois Ren�e,Vicomte de
Chaumont, Treaties of
Chechnya
Cheka
Chemin des Dames (see under
NIVELLE)
Chernenko, Konstantin
Chernobyl disaster
Chernyshevsky, Nikolai
Chetniks
Chirac, Jacques
Chouans
Christian Democracy
Churchill, Winston
Ciano, Galeazzo
Cisleithania
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
class
Clausewitz, Karl Philipp Gottlieb
von
Clemenceau, Georges
Code Civil
Code Napol�eon (see CODE CIVIL)
Codreanu, Corneliu Zelea
Cold War
collaboration
collectivization
colonialism (see under IMPERIALISM;
DECOLONIZATION)
Comecon
Cominform (see under THE
INTERNATIONAL)
Comintern (see under THE
INTERNATIONAL)
Committee of Public Safety
Common Agricultural Policy
(CAP)
Common Market (see under
EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS)
communications
communism
Compromise of 1867 (see AUSGLEICH)
Comte, Auguste (see underPOSITIVISM)
concentration camps
concordat
Confederaci�on Nacional delTrabajo (CNT)
confederalism (see under FEDERALISM[1])
Conf�ed�eration G�en�erale du Travail(CGT)
Confederation of the Rhine
Conference on Security and
Cooperation in Europe (seeHELSINKI CONFERENCE)
Congress of Europe
Congress System
Consalvi, Ercole
conservatism
Constantinople agreements
Constituent Assembly
constitutionalism (see under
LIBERALISM)
Consulate
Continental System
Convention
Copenhagen, Battles of
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I ES AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xiii
Cordeliers Club
Corfu incident
corporate state
Council of Europe
Craxi, Bettino
Crimean War
Crispi, Francesco
Crna Gora (see MONTENEGRO)
Croatia
Croix de Feu
Crystal night (see KRISTALLNACHT)
Curzon line
Custozza, Battles of
Cuza, Alexandru
Cyprus
Czartoryski
Czech Republic
Czechoslovakia
D (pp. 107–23)
D’Annunzio, Gabriele
D’Azeglio, Massimo
Daladier, Edouard
Danton, Georges-Jacques
Danube question
Danubian principalities
Danzig corridor
Dardanelles
Darlan, Jean Francois
Darnand, Joseph
Darwinism (see SOCIAL DARWINISM)
Dawes Plan
Dayton Accord
D-Day (see NORMANDY LANDINGS)
DDR (see GERMAN DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC)
de Gasperi, Alcide
de Gaulle, Charles
de Valera, Eamon
De�ak, Ferenc
D�eat, Marcel
Debr�e, Michel
Decembrist conspiracy
dechristianization
Declaration of the Rights of Man(see RIGHTS OF MAN)
decolonization
Degrelle, L�eon Marie
Joseph Ignace
Delcass�e, Th�eophile
Delors, Jacques
democracy
demography (see POPULATION)
Denmark
Depressions (see GREAT DEPRESSIONS)
Depretis, Agostino
D�eroul�ede, Paul
d�etente
Dimitrov, Georgi
Directory
Djilas, Milovan
Dolchstoss
Dollfuss, Engelbert
Doriot, Jacques
Dreikaiserbund (see THREE EMPERORS’
LEAGUE)
Dreyfus Affair
Dual Alliance
Dual Entente (see FRANCO-RUSSIANALLIANCE)
Dual Monarchy (see underHABSBURG EMPIRE)
dualism (see under HABSBURG
EMPIRE)
Dub�cek, Alexander
Duce (see MUSSOLINI)
Duma
Dunant,Henri (see under RED CROSS,INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE)
Dunkirk, evacuation from
Dunkirk, Treaty of
E (pp. 124–39)
East Germany (see GERMAN
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC)
Eastern Question
Eastern Rumelia
Ebert, Friedrich
Economic and Monetary Union(EMU)
Eden, Anthony
education
Eichmann, Adolf
Eire (see under IRELAND)
emancipation of the serfs (see underSERFDOM)
emigration (see under MIGRATION)
Ems Telegram
Enabling Act
Engels, Friedrich
ENIGMA (see under ULTRA)
Enlightenment
enosis
Entente Cordiale
environmentalism
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xiv
Erfurt Union
Erhard, Ludwig
Erlander, Tage
Estado Novo
Estates General
Estonia (see under BALTIC STATES)
Ethiopian War (see ITALO-ETHIOPIAN
WAR)
ethnic cleansing
Eupen-Malm�edy
Euratom
Eurocommunism
Europe des patries (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION; DE GAULLE)
European Coal and SteelCommunity (ECSC)
European Commission (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
European Community (EC) (seeunder EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
European Constitution Treaty (seeunder EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
European Convention on HumanRights
European Council (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
European Court (of Justice; ofHuman Rights)
European Defence Community(EDC) (see under WESTERN
EUROPEAN UNION)
European Economic Area (EEA)
(see under EUROPEAN FREE TRADE
ASSOCIATION)
European Economic Community(see under EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
European Free Trade Association(EFTA)
European integration
European Monetary Union (see
ECONOMIC AND MONETARY UNION)
European Parliament (see under
EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
European Political Community (see
under EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
European Union (see under
EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
extermination camps (see under
CONCENTRATION CAMPS)
F (pp. 140–63)
Fabius, Laurent
Falange Espa~nola
Falkenhayn, Erich von
Falloux Law
Fanfani, Amintore
Fascism
Fashoda crisis
February Revolution (see underRUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1917)
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)
federalism
feminism
Ferdinand I (of Austria)
Ferry, Jules
Fifth Republic (France)
Final Solution
Finland
First Empire (France) (see underNAPOLEON I)
First International (see under THE
INTERNATIONAL)
First Republic (France) (see underFRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789)
First World War (see WORLD WAR I)
Fiume
Five-Year Plans
Foch, Ferdinand
Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia (see under MACEDONIA;YUGOSLAVIA)
Fouch�e, Joseph
Fourier, Charles
Fourteen Points
Fourth Republic (France)
France (see, principally and in broadchronological sequence, FRENCH
REVOLUTION OF 1789; FRENCHREVOLUTIONARY WARS; NAPOLEON I;
NAPOLEONIC WARS; LOUIS XVIII;CHARLES X; JULY MONARCHY; SECOND
REPUBLIC; NAPOLEON III; FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR; PARIS COMMUNE;
THIRD REPUBLIC; VICHY REGIME;FOURTH REPUBLIC; FIFTH REPUBLIC)
Francis I (of Austria)
Francis Ferdinand, Archduke
Francis Joseph I (of Austria-
Hungary)
Franco, Francisco
Franco-Austrian War
Franco-Prussian War
Franco-Russian alliance
Frankfurt, Treaty of
Frankfurt parliament
Frederick III (of Prussia)
Frederick William III (of Prussia)
Frederick William IV (of Prussia)
Free French
free trade (see LAISSEZ-FAIRE)
Freemasonry
Freikorps
French Revolution of 1789
French Revolutionary Wars
Front National
F€uhrer (see HITLER)
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I ES AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xv
G (pp. 164–88)
Galicia (regions in [1] Habsburgempire and [2] Spain)
Gallipoli campaign
Gambetta, L�eon
Gamelin, Maurice
Garibaldi, Giuseppe
Gastein, Convention of
Gaullism (see under DE GAULLE)
gender
Generalgouvernement
Geneva Conventions
German Confederation
German Democratic Republic(GDR)
German empire
German Federal Republic (see
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY)
German reunification
German Revolution of 1918–19
German unification
Germany (see, principally and inbroad chronological sequence,
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE; HABSBURG
EMPIRE; CONFEDERATION OF THE
RHINE; GERMAN CONFEDERATION;BISMARCK; AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR;
NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION;GERMAN UNIFICATION; GERMAN
EMPIRE; WEIMAR REPUBLIC; HITLER;NAZISM; FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF
GERMANY; GERMAN DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC; GERMAN REUNIFICATION)
Gestapo
Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe
Gibraltar
Gierek, Edward
Gioberti, Vincenzo
Giolitti, Giovanni
Girondins
Giscard d’Estaing, Val�ery
glasnost (see under GORBACHEV)
Gleichschaltung
Gneisenau, Count August von
Goebbels, Joseph
Goering, Hermann
gold standard
G€omb€os, Gyula
Gomulka, Władisław
Gonz�alez, Felipe
Gorbachev, Mikhail
Gottwald, Klement
Gramsci, Antonio
Great Depressions ([1] 1873–96;
[2] 1929–34)
Great Fear
Great Purges
Great War (see WORLD WAR I)
Greece
Greek Civil War
Greek colonels
Greek War of Independence
Greek–Turkish War
Greenland (see under DENMARK;
SCANDINAVIA)
Gregory XVI, Pope
Gromyko, Andrei
grossdeutsch/Grossdeutschland (see
under GERMAN UNIFICATION).
Guderian, Heinz Wilhelm
Guernica
Guesde, Jules
Guizot, Francois
Gulag
H (pp. 189–202)
Habsburg empire
Hague Conferences
Hague Tribunals
Hallstein, Walter
Hanover
Hardenberg, Karl August von
Haussmann, Georges Eug�ene,Baron
Havel, V�aclav
Heath, Edward
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Helsinki Conference
Helvetic Confederation (seeSWITZERLAND)
Helvetic Republic (see underSWITZERLAND)
Herriot, Edouard
Herzen, Alexander
Herzl, Theodor
Hess, Rudolf
Himmler, Heinrich
Hindenberg, Paul von
Hitler, Adolf
Hitler Youth
Hoare–Laval Pact
Hohenzollern candidature (see EMS
TELEGRAM)
Hohenzollern dynasty
Holocaust (see FINAL SOLUTION)
Holy Alliance
Holy Roman Empire
Honecker, Erich
Horthy de Nagyb�anya, Mikl�os
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xvi
Hossbach meeting
Hoxha, Enver
human rights (see RIGHTS OF MAN;EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN
RIGHTS)
Humboldt, Wilhelm von
Hundred Days
Hungarian rising of 1956
Hungary
Hus�ak, Gust�av
I (pp. 203–17)
Iceland
Illyrian movement
immobilisme
imperialism
industrialization
The International
International Brigades (see under
SPANISH CIVIL WAR)
International Working Men’s
Association (see under THE
INTERNATIONAL)
Ireland
Iron Curtain (see under COLD WAR)
Iron Guard
irredentism
Islam (see MUSLIMS)
Istria
Italian unification
Italo-Ethiopian War
Italo-Turkish War
Italy
Izvolsky, Alexander Petrovich,Count
J (pp. 218–24)
Jacobins
Jaruzelski, Wojciech
Jaur�es, Jean L�eon
Jela�ci�c, Josip
Jena-Auerst€adt, Battles of
Jenkins, Roy
Jews
Joffre, Joseph
John XXIII, Pope
John Paul II, Pope
Juan Carlos I (of Spain)
July crisis
July Days (see under RUSSIAN
REVOLUTIONS OF 1917)
July Monarchy
July plot
July Revolution (see under JULY
MONARCHY; REVOLUTIONS OF
1830–2)
June Days
Junkers
Jutland, Battle of
K (pp. 225–34)
K�ad�ar, J�anos
Kadets
Kaliningrad
Kamenev, Lev
Kapp putsch
Karadjordjevi�c dynasty (see under
SERBIA)
Karamanlis, Constantine
K�arolyi, Mih�aly
Katyn massacre
Kautsky, Karl
Kekkonen, Urho
Kellogg–Briand Pact
Kerensky, Alexander
Keynes, John Maynard
KGB
Khrushchev, Nikita
Kiesinger, Kurt Georg
Kirov, Sergei
kleindeutsch/Kleindeutschland (seeunder GERMAN UNIFICATION)
Kohl, Helmut
kolkhoz
Kolowrat, Count Anton
K€oniggr€atz, Battle of (see SADOWA)
Kornilov affair
Kosovo
Kossuth, Louis
Kosygin, Alexei
Kreisky, Bruno
Kristallnacht
Kronstadt uprising
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I ES AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xvii
Kropotkin, Peter
Krupps
kulaks
Kulturkampf
Kun, B�ela
Kursk, Battle of
L (pp. 235–50)
Lafayette, Gilbert Motier, Marquisde
Laibach, Congress of (see underCONGRESS SYSTEM; TROPPAU,
CONGRESS OF)
laissez-faire
Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louisde
Lamennais, F�elicit�e Robert de
Lassalle, Ferdinand
Lateran Treaties
Latvia (see under BALTIC STATES)
Lausanne, Treaty of
Laval, Pierre
Le Chapelier Law
Le Pen, Jean-Marie
League of Nations
Lebensraum
Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre
legitimism
Leipzig, Battle of
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich
Leningrad, Siege of
Leninism (see under LENIN;
COMMUNISM)
Leo XII, Pope
Leo XIII, Pope
Leopold II (of Belgium)
Lesseps, Ferdinand Marie de
liberalism
Lidice massacre
Liebknecht, Karl
Liechtenstein (see MICRO-STATES[2])
Lisbon, Treaty of, 2007 (see under
EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
List, Friedrich
literacy
Lithuania (see under BALTIC STATES)
Little Entente
Litvinov, Maxim Maximovich
Lloyd George, David
Locarno Treaties
London, Treaties of (1827, 1839,
1852, 1913, 1915)
Louis XVI (of France)
Louis XVIII (of France)
Louis Napoleon (Bonaparte) (see
NAPOLEON III)
Louis-Philippe, of France (see JULY
MONARCHY)
Ludendorff, Erich
Ludwig II (of Bavaria)
Lueger, Karl
Lun�eville, Treaty of
Luxemburg
Luxemburg, Rosa
Luxemburg compromise
M (pp. 251–79)
Maastricht, Treaty of
Macedonia
Macmahon, Marie Edm�e PatriceMaurice de
Madrid, Siege of (see under SPANISH
CIVIL WAR)
Mafia
Maginot Line
Mahmud II (of Turkey)
Makarios III, Archbishop
Malenkov, Georgi
Malta
mandates
Manin, Daniele
Marat, Jean-Paul
March on Rome
Marchais, Georges
Marengo, Battle of
Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France
Marne, Battles of the
Marshall Plan
Marx, Karl
Marxism (see under MARX;COMMUNISM; SOCIALISM)
Masaryk, Jan
Masaryk, Tom�a�s
mass society
Matignon agreements
Matteotti affair
Maura, Antonio
Maurras, Charles
Mazzini, Giuseppe
Mediterranean agreements
Medvedev, Dmitri (see under
PUTIN)
Memel
Mend�es-France, Pierre
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xviii
Mendiz�abal, Juan �Alvarez
Mensheviks
Merkel, Angela
Mers-el-K�ebir
Messina Conference
Metaxas, Ioannis
Metternich, Klemens von
mezzogiorno
Mickiewicz, Adam
micro-states (Andorra,
Liechtenstein, Monaco, SanMarino, Vatican City)
middle class (see under CLASS)
migration
Millerand, Alexandre Etienne
Milo�sevi�c, Slobodan
mir
Mitteleuropa
Mitterrand, Francois
modernism (cultural, religious)
Moldavia
Moldova
Molotov, Vyacheslav
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (see
NAZI–SOVIET PACT)
Moltke, Helmut Karl Bernhard,
Count von, “the Elder”
Monaco (see MICRO-STATES[3])
monarchism
Monnet, Jean
Montenegro
Montreux Convention
Moravia (see under BOHEMIA; CZECHREPUBLIC; CZECHOSLOVAKIA)
Morgenthau plan
Moro, Aldo
Moroccan crises
Moscow, retreat from
M€unchengr€atz Convention
Munich agreement
Munich putsch (see BEER HALL
PUTSCH)
Murat, Joachim
Muslims
Mussolini, Benito
Mustafa Kemal (see ATAT€URK, KEMAL)
N (pp. 280–305)
Nagy, Imre (see under HUNGARIAN
RISING OF 1956)
Nansen, Fridtjof
Naples and Sicily, Kingdom of (see
TWO SICILIES)
Napoleon I (of France)
Napoleon III (of France)
Napoleonic Wars
Narodniks (see under POPULISM)
nation-state (see underNATIONALISM)
National Guards
National Socialism (see NAZISM)
nationalism
NATO
naturalism
Navarino, Battle of (see under GREEK
WAR OF INDEPENDENCE)
Nazi-Soviet Pact
Nazism
Necker, Jacques
Negrin, Juan
Nelson, Vice-Admiral Horatio,
Viscount
NEP (see NEW ECONOMIC POLICY)
Nesselrode, Karl Robert, Count
Netherlands
Neuilly, Treaty of
neutrality
New Economic Policy (NEP)
New Order
newspapers
Nice, Treaty of, 2001 (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION)
Nicholas I (of Russia)
Nicholas II (of Russia)
Night of the Long Knives
Nightingale, Florence
nihilism
Nivelle, Robert Georges
NKVD
nomenklatura
Nordic Council
Normandy landings
North Atlantic Treaty Organization(see NATO)
North German Confederation
Norway
Novara, Battles of (1821, 1849)
Novi Pazar, Sanjak of
Novotny, Anton�ın
Nuremberg laws
Nuremberg trials
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I ES AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xix
O (pp. 306–10)
Obrenovi�c dynasty (see underSERBIA)
October days
October manifesto
October Revolution (see underRUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1917)
Oder–Neisse line
oil crises
Ollivier, Emile
Olm€utz agreement
Opus Dei
Oradour massacre
Organization for European
Cooperation and Development(OECD)
Organization for Security andCooperation in Europe (see
under HELSINKI CONFERENCE)
Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele
Orleanism
Orsini plot
Orthodox Christianity
Ostpolitik
Ottoman empire (see under TURKEY
AND EUROPE)
P (pp. 311–38)
Palack�y, Franti�sek
Pale of Settlement
Palmerston, Henry John Temple,
Viscount
Panama Canal scandal (see under
LESSEPS)
Pan-Germanism
Pan-Slavism
papacy (see under CATHOLICISM;
PAPAL STATES)
Papadopoulous, Georgios (see
under GREEK COLONELS)
Papal States
Papen, Franz von
Paris, Pact of (see KELLOGG-BRIAND
PACT)
Paris, Treaties of (1814, 1856, 1947)
Paris Commune
Paris Congress (see under CRIMEAN
WAR)
Paris Peace Settlement
parliamentary government (see
under DEMOCRACY)
Partitions of Poland (see under
POLAND)
Pa�si�c, Nikola
Passchendaele, Battle of
Paul I (of Russia)
Paveli�c, Ante
peasantry (see under RURAL SOCIETY)
Peninsular War
perestroika (see under GORBACHEV)
P�etain, Henri Philippe Omer
philhellenism
phoney war
Piedmont-Sardinia
pillarization
Pillnitz, Declaration of
Piłsudski, J�ozef
Pius VII, Pope
Pius IX, Pope
Pius XI, Pope
Pius XII, Pope
place names
Plekhanov, Georgi
Plombi�eres agreement
Pobedonostsev, Konstantin
pogroms
Poincar�e, Raymond
Poland
Polignac, Jules, Prince de
Polish corridor (see DANZIG
CORRIDOR)
Polish-Soviet War (see RUSSO-POLISH
WAR)
Politburo
Pompidou, Georges
Popular Fronts
population
populism
Porte, the Sublime
Portugal
positivism
Potsdam Conference
Poujade, Pierre
Prague, Treaty of (see under
AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR)
Prague Spring
Pressburg, Treaty of
Primo de Rivera, Miguel and Jos�eAntonio.
proletariat (see under WORKING
CLASS)
Protestantism
Proudhon, Pierre
Prussia
Putin, Vladimir
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xx
Q (pp. 339–40)
Quadrilateral, The
Quadruple Alliance
Quai d’Orsay
Quintuple Alliance (see underQUADRUPLE ALLIANCE)
Quisling, Vidkun
R (pp. 341–71)
racism
Radetzsky, Josef Wenzel, Count
Radical Party (France)
railways (see underCOMMUNICATIONS)
R�akosi, M�aty�as
Ralliement
Rapallo, Treaties of (1920, 1922)
ras
Rasputin, Grigori
Rathenau, Walter
realism (see under NATURALISM)
Realpolitik
Red Army
Red Brigades
Red Cross, InternationalCommittee of the (ICRC)
Reichstag Fire
Reinsurance Treaty
reparations
republicanism (see under
MONARCHISM)
resistance
Restoration (see under VIENNA
CONGRESS; MONARCHISM)
Revolutions of 1830–2
Revolutions of 1848–9
Revolutions of 1989–91
Rexists
Reynaud, Paul
Rhine, Confederation of the (seeCONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE)
Rhineland crisis
Ribbentrop, Joachim von
Ricasoli, Bettino
Riga, Treaty of (see under RUSSO-
POLISH WAR)
Rights of Man and of the Citizen,
Declaration of the
Riom Trials
Risorgimento
Rivoli, Battle of
Robespierre, Maximilien FrancoisMarie Isidore de
R€ohm, Ernst
Roman question (see under PAPAL
STATES)
Romania
Romanov dynasty (see under RUSSIA;
and in chronological order
CATHERINE II, PAUL I, ALEXANDER I,
NICHOLAS I, ALEXANDER II, ALEXANDERIII, NICHOLAS II)
romanticism
Rome, Treaties of
Rome Statute
Rommel, Erwin
Roon, Albrecht Theodor Emil, Grafvon
Rothschild family (see underBANKING)
Ruhr occupation
rural society
Russia
Russian Civil War
Russian Revolution of 1905
Russian Revolutions of 1917
Russification
Russo-Finnish War
Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Polish War
Russo-Turkish Wars
Ruthenes
S (pp. 372–414)
SA (see STURMABTEILUNG)
Saarland
Sadowa, Battle of
Saint-Just, Louis-Antoine-L�eon
Saint-Simon, Claude-Henri de
Rouvroy
Salazar, Ant�onio de Oliveira
Sal�o Republic
Sammlungspolitik
San Marino (see MICRO-STATES[4])
San Stefano, Treaty of (see underRUSSO-TURKISH WARS; TURKEY AND
EUROPE; BERLIN CONGRESS)
Sanjak of Novi Pazar (see NOVI
PAZAR)
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I ES AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xxi
sans-culottes
Sarajevo assassination, 1914 (see
JULY CRISIS)
Sarkozy, Nicolas
Saverne affair (see ZABERN AFFAIR)
Saxony
Scandinavia
Scharnhorst, Gerhardt Johann
David, Graf von
Schengen Agreement
Schleswig-Holstein question
Schlieffen Plan
Schmidt, Helmut
Sch€onbrunn, Treaty of (see VIENNA,
TREATIES OF[1])
Schr€oder, Gerhard
Schuman, Robert
Schuschnigg, Kurt von
Schutzstaffel
Schwarzenberg, Karl Philipp,
Count
Scramble for Africa (see under
IMPERIALISM)
SD (see SICHERHEITSDIENST)
Second Empire (France) (see underNAPOLEON III)
Second International (see under THE
INTERNATIONAL)
Second Reich (see GERMAN EMPIRE)
Second Republic (France)
Second Republic (Spain)
Second World War (see WORLD
WAR II)
secret police (see, for differentcountries, CHEKA; GESTAPO; KGB;
NKVD; STASI)
secularization
Sedan, Battle of
separatism
September massacres
Serbia
serfdom
Sevastapol, Siege of (see under
CRIMEAN WAR)
S�evres, Treaty of
sexuality
Shoah (see FINAL SOLUTION)
Sicherheitsdienst
Sicily (see under TWO SICILIES)
Siey�es, Emmanuel-Joseph, Abb�e
Sikorski, Władysław Eugeniusz
Silesia
Single European Act (SEA)
The Six
SixWeeksWar (see AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN
WAR)
Slavophiles
Slovakia
Slovenia
Soares, M�ario
social Darwinism
social democracy (see underSOCIALISM)
Social Democratic Party ofGermany
socialism
Socialist Revolutionary Party
Solidarity
Solidarnos�c (see SOLIDARITY)
Somme, Battle of the
Sonderbund (see under
SWITZERLAND)
Sorbs
Sorel, Georges
South Tyrol
Soviet Union.
Soviets
Spaak, Paul-Henri
Spain
Spanish Civil War
“Spanish” influenza
Spartacist rising
Speer, Albert
Speransky, Mikhail Mikhailovsky,
Count
squadristi
Srebrenica massacre
SS (see SCHUTZSTAFFEL)
St Germain, Treaty of
“stab in the back” (see DOLCHSTOSS)
Stalin, Josef
Stalingrad, Battle of
Stalinism (see under STALIN;COMMUNISM)
Stamboliisky, Alexandar
Stambolov, Stefan
Stasi
Stavisky affair
Stein, Karl, Baron vom
Stolypin, Pyotr
Straits question
Stresa Front
Stresemann, Gustav
student revolts of 1968
Sturmabteilung
Su�arez Gonz�alez, Adolfo
subsidiarity
succession states
Sudetenland
Suez crisis
Svoboda, Ludv�ık
Sweden
Switzerland
Sykes-Picot agreement
syndicalism
Sz�alasi, Ferenc (see under ARROW
CROSS)
Sz�echenyi, Count Istv�an,
szlachta
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xxii
T (pp. 415–31)
Taaffe, Count Eduard
Talleyrand, Charles Maurice
Tannenberg, Battle of
Tehran Conference
Tennis Court Oath
The Terror
terrorism
Teschen dispute
Thatcher, Margaret
Thermidor
Thiers, Louis Adolphe
Third International (see under THE
INTERNATIONAL)
Third Reich (see under HITLER;
NAZISM)
Third Republic (France)
Thorez, Maurice
Three Emperors’ League
Tilsit, Treaties of
Tirpitz, Alfred von
Tiso, Jozef
Tisza, Istv�an (see under TISZA,
K�ALM�AN)
Tisza, K�alm�an
Tito
Tocqueville, Alexis de
totalitarianism
trade unionism
Trafalgar, Battle of
Transleithania (see under
CISLEITHANIA)
Transnistria (see under MOLDOVA)
transport (see underCOMMUNICATIONS)
Transylvania
trasformismo
Treaty on European Union (seeMAASTRICHT TREATY)
trialism (see under HABSBURG
EMPIRE)
Trianon, Treaty of
Trieste
Triple Alliance
Triple Entente
Tripolitanian War (see under ITALO-TURKISH WAR)
Troppau, Congress of
Trotsky, Leon
Truman doctrine
Tudjman, Franjo
Tuileries, attack on the (see underFRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789)
Turkey and Europe
Two Sicilies, Kingdom of the
U (pp. 432–7)
Ukraine
Ulbricht, Walter
Ulm, Battle of
ULTRA
ultramontanism (see underCATHOLICISM)
Ultras
Uniates (see under CATHOLICISM;ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(see SOVIET UNION)
United Kingdom (see BRITAIN AND
EUROPE)
United Nations
UNRRA (see under UNITED NATIONS)
urbanization
USSR (see SOVIET UNION)
Usta�se (see under PAVELI�C)
utopian socialism
V (pp. 438–46)
Valmy, Battle of (see under FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS)
Varennes, flight to
Vatican City (see MICRO-STATES[5])
Vatican Councils
Vend�ee
Vend�emiaire, rising of (see underNAPOLEON I)
Venizelos, Eleftherios
Verdun, Battle of
Verona, Congress of (see underCONGRESS SYSTEM)
Versailles, Treaty of
Vichy regime
Victor Emmanuel II (of Italy)
Victor Emmanuel III (of Italy)
Victoria, Queen ofGreat Britain andIreland
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I ES AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xxiii
Vienna Congress
Vienna Treaties (1809, 1815, 1864,
1866)
Villafranca, truce of
Visegr�ad states
Vojvodina
vonMoltke, HelmutKarl Bernhard,Count (see MOLTKE)
von Papen, Franz (see PAPEN)
vozhd
W (pp. 447–64)
Wagram, Battle of
Waldheim, Kurt
Wałesa, Lech
Wall Street Crash (see under GREAT
DEPRESSIONS[2])
Wallachia (see under DANUBIAN
PRINCIPALITIES; ROMANIA)
Wannsee conference
War Communism
warfare
Warsaw, Grand Duchy of
Warsaw ghetto
Warsaw Pact
Warsaw rising
Waterloo, Battle of
Weimar Republic
welfare state (see under WELFARISM)
welfarism
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, first
Duke of
Weltpolitik
Wends (see SORBS)
West Germany (see FEDERAL REPUBLIC
OF GERMANY)
Western European Union (WEU)
White Terror
Wilhelmine empire (see GERMAN
EMPIRE)
Wilhelmstrasse
William I (of Germany)
William II (of Germany)
Wilson, Thomas Woodrow (see
under FOURTEEN POINTS; PARIS PEACESETTLEMENT)
Windischgr€atz, Prince Alfred
Windthorst, Ludwig
Winter War (see RUSSO-FINNISH WAR)
Witte, Sergei
Wollstonecraft, Mary
women, emancipation of (see under
FEMINISM; GENDER)
working class
World War I
World War II
W€urttemberg
Y (pp. 465–9)
Yalta Conference
Yeltsin, Boris
Yezhovshchina (see under GREAT
PURGES)
Young Czechs
Young Italy (see under MAZZINI)
Young Plan
Young Turks
Ypres, Battles of (1914, 1915, 1917)
Ypsilantis, Alexander
Yugoslavia
Z (pp. 470–3)
Zabern affair
zemstva
Zentrum
Zhdanovshchina
Zhivkov, Todor
Zhukov, Georgi
Zinoviev, Grigori
Zionism
Zog (of Albania)
Zollverein
SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS
xxiv
Maps
Moscow
SW
ED
ENNORWAY
(underDanish
rule)
BRITAIN DENMARKDUTCH
REPUBLIC
AUSTRIANNETHERLANDS
FRANCE
HUNGARY
POLAND
GALICIA
O T T O M A N EM P I R E
SPAINPO
RTU
GAL
SWITZ.
REPUBLICOF GENOA
TUSCANYPAPALSTATES
VENICE
SAVOY
NAPLES
N o r t h S e a
A t l a n t i cO c e a n
B l a c k S e a
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
Ba
l ti c
Se
aRUSSIA
1772 toAustria–Hungary
Bukovina, 1775 toAustria–Hungary
AUSTRIA–
Border of the HolyRoman Empireof the German Nation
500 miles
500 km
London
Paris
Madrid
Rome
St Petersburg
Constantinople
Berlin
Vienna
SICILY
MAP 1. Europe in the 1780s.Adapted from: S. Berger (ed.), A Companion to Nineteenth-century Europe (Blackwell, 2006), map 1.
xxv
Holland12 Berg (part)
Oldenburg34 Hanseatic States and Hanover (part)
Danzig (French occupation)56 Berg
Neuchâtel7Helvetic Confederation8
9 Republic of the Valais10 Kingdom of Italy11 Lucca12 Piombina13 Illyrian Provinces14 Montenegro15 Bessarabia (to Russia 1812)16 Catalonia
French satellites/allies
Britain anddependencies
Frontier ofConfederationof the Rhine
French Empire(frontiers ofDecember 1809)
French Empire(annexations 1810–12)
French occupation/administration
SWEDEN
RUSSIA
FRENCHEMPIRE AUSTRIAN
EMPIRE
DUCHY OFWARSAW
SPAIN
KINGDOMOF NAPLES
HOLLAND
SARDINIA
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
PRUSSIA
BRITAIN
CO
NF
ED
ER
ATION
OF
THE
RH
INE
12 3 4
6
78
9 10
11
12
14
13
16
15
N o r t h S e a
A t l a n t i cO c e a n
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
Ba
l ti c
Se
a
5
PO
RTU
GAL
SICILY
500 miles
500 km
DENMARK
NORWAY(underDanish
rule)
MAP 2. Napoleonic Europe, May 1812.Adapted from: G. Ellis, Napoleon (Longman, 1997), map 3.
MAPS
xxvi
SWEDEN
NORWAY
BRITAINDENMARK
THENETHERLANDS
FRANCE
AUSTRIA–HUNGARY
O T T O M A N EM P I R E
SPAIN
PO
RTU
GAL
SWITZ.
PIEDMONT–SAVOY PAPAL
STATES
N o r t h S e a
A t l a n t i cO c e a n
B l a c k S e a
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
Bal
ticS
ea
R U S S I A NE M P I R E
FINLAND
KINGDOMOF THE TWO
SICILIES
PR
US
SIAPRUSSIA
BAVARIA
ALGERIA
GREECESICILY500 miles
500 km
The secession of Greece fromthe Ottoman Empire in 1830
The secession of Belgium fromthe United Kingdom of theNetherlands in 1830
MAP 3. Europe, 1815-48.Adapted from: S. Berger (ed.), A Companion to Nineteenth-century Europe (Blackwell, 2006), map 2.
MAPS
xxvii
Zurich
VeronaTrieste
FiumeTurin
Venice
Florence
Rome
Genoa
Gaeta
Naples
Palermo
AUSTRIA–HUNGARY
SWITZERLAND
FRANCEOTTOMAN
EMPIRE
KINGDOMOF THE TWO
SICILIES
PAPALSTATES
NAPLES
KIN
GD
OM
OF
SA
RD
I NI A
PIEDMONTPARMA
1860
MO
DENA18
60
PAPAL LEGATIONS/ROMAGNA1860
CORSICA(French)
NICEto France
1860
LOM
BARD
Y
1859
VENETIA1866
TUSCANY1860
UMBRIA1860
THEPATRIMONY
1870
MARCHES
1860
Entered by GaribaldiSept 7 1860
SARDINIA
SICILY
DALMATIAIS
TRIA
TYROL
Magenta1859
Castelfidardo1860
Lissa1866
Aspromonte1862
ELBAA d r i a t i c
S e a
T y r r h e n i a nS e a
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
R. Po
SAVOYto France
1860 Milan
Solferino1859
Custozza1866
Mentana1867
100 miles
100 km
MAP 4. Italian Unification, 1859–70.Adapted from: R. Gildea, Barricades and Borders: Europe, 1800–1914 (2nd edn., Oxford University Press, 1996), map 4.
MAPS
xxviii
Recommended