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This presentation is an overview of females in sport, especially female coaches.
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WOMEN COACHES IN SPORTBy Rewa Gonzalez-Granda Inder
K0517329
AIMS:
To explore and understand females participation in sport.
Examine the factors affecting females participation in sport.
To explore and understand the lack of female coaches in sport.
Examine the factors affecting female coaches.
INTRODUCTION If women participate in sport, people assume
that it is their hobby
Males sexual orientation is hardly ever questioned because of their interest and participation in sports, and the media reaction to them multi-tasking parenthood or marriage alongside a career is a big plus
Women on the other hand have to fight for a picture of them sweating on the field as opposed to twiddling the ball in high heels for portraits
Ahmed, M(2003)
INTRODUCTION
Women's sexual preferences are constantly under attack, especially if they are rising athletes. They are also never commended for managing a full-time career and their personal relationships.
It is expected that if a woman steps into sports, she has to work twice as hard to maintain her familial responsibilities.
Ahmed, (2003)
DEFINITIONS:
Femininity has been characterized by certain qualities, such as sensitivity, fragility, dependence on men and slim (Coakley, 2001).
Masculinity has been characterized as aggression, tough, independent, strength and power (Cassidy, Jones and Potrac, 2004).
Hegemony (masculinity) refers to the dominance of one form of masculinity over others (Connell, 1995).
TITLE IX
“No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.”
(Coakley, 2007. p235).
TITLE IX Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972
concentrated on the rights of all individuals, regardless of sex, to join in educational programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance.
Title IX required that both boys and girls have equal opportunities to participate in sports and derive the benefits of participation.
Title IX have been overshadowed by the losses women have suffered despite their supposed protection under Title VII.
Whisemant, 2003
TITLE IX
Since the passing of Title IX there was a rise in female participants in sport, including 90% of female coaches (Knoppers, 1994).
Nevertheless, females coaches gradually decreased in numbers and by 1985 there was a 32% decrease (True, 1986) as cited by Weiss & Stevens (1993). The reasoning for this decline can be explained by their high-pressured working schedules, lack of female role models and family life (Weiss & Stevens, 1993).
FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALES IN SPORT
Media
Social Class
Homophobia
Race
MEDIA
“Media stories and images provide the symbols, myths and resources which help constitute a common culture for the majority of individuals...” (Kellner, 1995)
MEDIA
Sports media associate male athleticism with strength, courage and competence, whilst at the same time relating female athleticism with sexual appeal, femininity and so-called limited physical capacity.
This stereotypical coverage represents a common sports culture in which men have the power and women do not (Duncan & Hasbrook, 1988).
Kane & Lenskyj, (1998)
MEDIAMale Sports Illustrated Cover
Female Sports Illustrated Cover
SOCIAL CLASS
Wilson (2002) stated that the ‘upper’ class are more likely to involved in sports, however, only certain sports , which are not associated with the ‘lower’ class .
Upper class more likely to be spectators and participants in sport (Coakley, 1998; Nixon & Frey, 1996; Scholsberg, 1987).
Social Class in sport is a paradox, which can be explained by Pierre Bourdiu’s concept of cultural capital
SOCIAL CLASS
According to Bourdieu all cultural consumption, including sports consumption, requires the appropriate preferences and tastes as well as skills and knowledge, which he terms cultural capital (Wilson, 2002).
As women usually do not earn as much as men, they might not be able to afford to participate in certain or desired sports.
HOMOPHOBIA AND RACE IN SPORT
Although opportunities and involvement have increased, many significant differences have been exacerbated by racial barriers (Theberge & Birrell, 1994)
Many factors affecting female participation and female coaching are Heterosexism and/or Homophobia (Coakley, 2007). Many females do not want to be perceived as lesbians and participating or coaching in sport could stereotype and generalize their role (Coakley, 2007).
WHERE ARE ALL THE WOMEN COACHES?
“ Coaching remains one of the most prestigious areas of sport which embodies grossly unequal gender relations”
WHERE ARE ALL THE WOMEN COACHES?
Evidence shows that there is a lack of female coaches (Fasting & Pfister, 2000)
The institution of sport and it’s many sub-cultures clearly implying a male domination in sport.
Sports council shows evidence that demonstrates a general trend toward fewer women coaches, as the level of coaching awards increase.
PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN COACHES BY LEVEL OF COACHING AWARD
Level of award
Gymnastics
Badminton
Volleyball Tennis
5 24 0 8 21
4 39 19 - 20
3 55 22 13 31
2 70 24 16 24
1 78 36 35 22
Sports Council, 1993
TYPE OF NGB AWARD BY GENDER
Award Male (%) Female (%)
Advanced 13.7 4.2
Senior 41.3 16.7
Intermediate 34.8 62.5
Elementary/Introductory
10.0 16.7
Sports Council, 1993
PERCENTAGES OF FEMALE COACHES IN THE UK SUMMER OLYMPIC SQUADS
Year Male Coach (%)
Female Coach (%)
1976 96 4
1980 91 9
1984 96 4
1988 90 10
1992 92 8
Sports Council, 1993
FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALE COACHES IN SPORT
Low expectations
Limited scale of performance sport
Absence of social support
Patterns of recruitment
Lack of social flexibility
Lyle, 2006
LOW EXPECTATIONS
Absence of expectations
Reinforcement of lack of expectations
Opportunity missed
Lack of motive
Failure of social learning
Lyle, 2006
LIMITED SCALE OF PERFORMANCE SPORT
Recruitment avenue straight from performance
Scale of women participants is much less than males, decreasing the chance for females to carry on coaching their sport
It can be exacerbated by two factors: The age range of popular female sports such as
gymnastics and swimming may negatively influence the transition to becoming a coach
Fewer rewards in females sports have resulted in less professionalisation Lyle, 2006
ABSENCE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT
Due to the domination of males in sport it is evident that there is a lack of social networks and support mechanisms.
The lack in females coaches, influence, power and authority, and the failure to provide formal support structures are likely to affect, recruitment, maintenance and retention.
PATTERNS OF RECRUITMENT
Motives
Experience
Personal Qualities
Education and Training
Ladders of opportunity
Stages in professional development
Reward environment
Achieved status
Perceptions of coaching practice
Pool of Performance coachesX X
Initiation Development Maintenance
Relative status and standing of the sport
LACK OF SOCIAL FLEXIBILITY
Society often make the assumption that females will take responsibility of the children and domestic household.
This restricts a females social freedom and flexibility
Factors such as lack of financial resources and early exit from performance sport may also influence recruitment and progress in coaching
CONCLUSION
Title IX has caused much controversy, receiving a great deal of resistance when it came to promoting sport. Previously men had dominated sports departments and the notion of sharing their equipment with females seemed unreasonable
Hasbrook et al. (1990) indicate that a coach needs to be aggressive, competitive and firm and women are perceived as soft, feminine and yielding.
CONCLUSION
The fact that there is a large number of women participation coaches should not be overlooked.
Females in performance coaches are greatly under-represented.
Coaching is perceived to be more male orientated and early socialisation into coaching roles is not an expectation for women performers
Lyle, 2006
REFERENCES: Ahmed, M (2003)
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/local/scisoc/sports03/papers/mahmed.html
Cassidy, T., Jones, R & Potrac, P. (2004) Understanding Sports Coaching. (2nd Edition) New York: Routledge.
Coakley, J. (2007) Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies (9th Edition) London: McGraw-Hill
Coakley, J.J. (1998) Sport in Society (6th Edition). Boston, MA: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
Connell, R., W (1995) Masculinities. Sydney: Allen & Unwin Hasbrook, C., A. Mathes, S., A. & True, S. (1990) Sex Bias and
the Validity of Believed Differences between Male and Female Interscholastic Athletic Coaches. Researcg Quarely for Exercise and Sport. 61:3: 259-267
Kane, M., J & Lenskyj H., J. (1998) Media Treatment of Female Athletes: Issues of Gender and Sexualities. In: Wenner, L., A.(1998) Media Sport. USA: Routledge, Pgs 186-202
REFERENCES: Knoppers, A. (1994) Gender and the Coaching Profession.
Birrel, S. & Cole, C., L (Ed) Women, Sport, and Culture. p. 119-133. USA: Human Kinetics
Lopiano, D., A. (2000) Modern History of Women in Sport: Twenty-five Years of Title IX. Clinics in Sport Medicine. 19:2. Pg 163-173
Nixon, H.L., II, and Frey, J.H. (1996) A Sociology of Sport. USA: Wadsworth. (cited in Wilson, T., C. (2002) The Paradox of Social Class and Sports Involvement: The roles of Cultural and Economic Capital. International Review of Sociology of Sport. 37:5
Rowe, D. (2004) Sport, Culture and the Media. (2nd Edition) UK; McGraw-Hill
Theberge, T & Birrell, S. (1994) Structural Constrains Facing Women in Sport. Costa, M & Guthrie, S., R. (Ed) Women and Sport Interdisciplinary Perspectives. P 331-340. United Kingdom: Human Kinetics
Weiss, M., R. & Stevens, C. (1993) Motivation and Attrition of females Choaches: An Application of Social Exchange Theory. The Sports Psychologist. 7, 244-261
Wilson, T., C. (2002) The Paradox of Social Class and Sports Involvement: The roles of Cultural and Economic Capital. International Review of Sociology of Sport. 37:5. http://irs.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/37/1/5
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