LEARNING AND REINFORCEMENT

By Chetan Kumar Tarun

CONTENTS

• Overview of Learning Theories

• Learning Through Rewards and Punishments

• Contingencies of Reinforcement

• Schedules of Reinforcement

Nature of Learning

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or

observable behavior that results from practice or experience.

• Importance of Learning to OB

Most organizational behavior is learned (remember that only 2-12% of

behavior is directly linked to personality)

By controlling the situation, a manager can influence behavior/performance.

The manager is held accountable for the performance of his/her subordinates.

• Classical Conditioning: The learning of

“involuntary,” reflexive behavior, such as emotional

reactions

• Operant Conditioning: The learning of voluntary,

goal-directed behavior through the direct experience

of consequences

• Social Learning: The learning of voluntary, goal-

directed behavior through observation and imitation of

others

Classical Conditioning

Unconditionedstimulus(food)

Conditionedstimulus(metronome)

Reflexresponse(salivation)

Examples of Operant Behaviors and their

Consequences BEHAVIORS CONSEQUENCES

The Individual

Examples of the Three Types of Learning:

Which Example Illustrates Each Type?

• After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker sees a

coworker fired for excessive tardiness, resulting in increased attention

to arriving on time

• After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker receives a

written reprimand for being late twice in one month, resulting in

increased attention to arriving on time

• After witnessing a coworker’s accidental loss of several fingers in a

machinery accident, a worker experiences anxiety when operating the

same piece of machinery

Contingency of Reinforcement• Definition: The relationship between a behavior and the preceding and

following environmental events that influence that behaviour.

• Basic Components:

• Antecedent -- the stimulus that precedes the behaviour.

• Behavior -- the behavior emitted in response to the stimulus.

• Consequence -- the positive or negative consequence of the behaviour.

• Important Note: Managers can often control the contingencies of

reinforcement influencing their subordinate’s behavior, and thereby, the

behavior itself

Example of Contingent Reinforcement

Manager complimentsemployee foraccomplishment

Manager andemployeeset goal

Does employeeachieve goal?

Manager is silent orreprimands employee

YES

NO

ReinforcementContingent on Consequence

EmployeeTaskBehaviour

Antecedent(precedes thebehavior)

Consequences(result of thebehaviour)

Categories of Reinforcers

• All reinforcers fall into one of two categories:

• Primary Reinforcers -- Based upon the satisfaction of

physiological needs, such as food, water, air, sex, escape from

pain, etc. (Note that the text defines this as: “an event for

which the individual already knows the value.”)

• Secondary Reinforcers -- Learned reinforcers; the text

defines this as “an event that once had neutral value but has

taken on some positive or negative value for an individual

because of past experience

Types of Contingencies of Reinforcement

PleasantEvent

UnpleasantEvent

Event is Added Event is Removed

Positivereinforcement

(increases behaviour)

Negativereinforcement

(increases behaviour)

Omission(decreases behaviour)

Punishment(decreases behaviour)

(best to use)

(worst to use)

Rewards Used by Organizations

MATERIAL REWARDSPayPay raisesStock optionsProfit sharingDeferred compensationBonuses/bonus plansIncentive plansExpense accounts

SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITSCompany automobilesHealth insurance plansPension contributionsVacation and sick leaveRecreation facilitiesChild care supportClub privilegesParental leave

STATUS SYMBOLSCorner officesOffices with windowsCarpetingDrapesPaintingsWatchesRingsPrivate restrooms

SOCIAL/INTER-PERSONAL REWARDSPraiseDevelopmental feedbackSmiles, pats on the back, other nonverbal signalsRequests for suggestionsInvitations to coffee or lunchWall plaques

REWARDS FROMTHE TASKSense of achievementJobs with more responsibilityJob autonomy/self-directionPerforming important tasks

SELF-ADMINISTEREDREWARDSSelf-congratulationSelf-recognitionSelf-praiseSelf-development through expanded knowledge/skillsGreater sense of self-worth

Negative Reinforcement

• Definition: An unpleasant event is occurring which can be

removed by emitting the desired behaviour.

• Differs from punishment, but may result from the fear of

punishment.

• Two types are identified:

• Escape Learning: An unpleasant event occurs until the

employee emits an “escape response” to terminate it

• Avoidance Learning: An employee prevents an unpleasant

event from occurring by emitting the proper behaviour.

Potential Negative Effects of Punishment

Fear ofmanager

Recurrenceof undesirable

employee behaviour

Undesirableemotional reaction

Aggressive,disruptivebehaviour

Apathetic,noncreative

performance

High turnoverand absenteeism

But leads to

long-term

Short-termdecrease infrequency

ofundesirable

employeebehaviour

Punishmentby

manager

Undesirableemployeebehaviour

Antecedent

Which tendsto reinforce

Punishment and Interpersonal Relations

• The inappropriate use of punishment increases with:

• Anger and/or frustration on the part of the manager

• Inadequate interpersonal communication

• In such cases, this inappropriate punishment creates long term

interpersonal problems, by:

• Reducing trust

• Stifling motivation

• Undermining and/or destroying relationships.

How to Make Punishment EffectiveManagers should:

• Use the principles of contingent punishment, immediate

punishment, and punishment size.

• Praise in public, punish in private.

• Develop alternative desired behaviour.

• Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events.

• Use “positive discipline” (i.e., change behaviour through reasoning,

with an emphasis on personal responsibility or “self control,” rather

than by imposing increasingly severe punishments)

Guidelines for UsingContingencies of Reinforcement

Managers should:

• Not reward all employees the same (i.e., take individual differences into account to

reward employees with consequences that they personally value, within the

constraints of perceived equity)

• Consider consequences of both actions and non-actions

• Make employees aware of what behavior will be reinforced (and then be sure to

reinforce it uniformly)

• Let employees know what they are doing wrong

• Not punish in front of others

• Make their response equal to workers’ behaviour

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Definition: The determination of when reinforcers are applied; after every response or

only after some responses

• Two general categories of schedule are:

• Continuous Reinforcement: Every behavior is reinforced; the simplest schedule

• Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some behaviors are reinforced; four types are

identified in the text:

• Fixed Interval: based on a fixed time interval

• Fixed Ratio: based on a fixed number of responses

• Variable Interval: based on a variable time interval

• Variable Ratio: based on a variable number of responses

Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed interval Reward on fixed time basis

Leads to average and irregular performance

Fast extinction of behavior

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio

Variable interval

Reward tied to specific number of responses

Leads quickly to very high and stable performance

Moderately fast extinction of behavior

SCHEDULEFORM OF REWARD

Reward given after varying periods of time

Leads to moderately high and stable performance

Slow extinction of behavior

Reward given for some behaviors

Leads to very high performance

Very slow extinction of behavior

INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE

EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR

Thank you