Last time we discussed the correlation between cognition and depression. Please describe that correlation and how that possibly relates to the origins of depression. (Hint: Longitudinal study of “positive” thinking vs. “negative” thinking.

Quick Write

Psychology 12 (2.8)Learned hopelessness/

Sociocultural factors in Depression

I wanted to finish that discussion today by highlighting the concept of learned hopelessness. This concept has a strong connection to our discussion of “positive” thinking (or lack thereof) and depression.

Last time we met we focused on the possible cognitive etiology of depression

Based heavily on the ideas and research of Seligman (1967)

This concept was originally demonstrated using animals.

The results of Seligman’s study seemed to run counter to Skinner’s concepts of conditioning.

Learned hopelessness

Three groups of dogs were placed in harnesses.

One group was put in the harness for a particular time period and then later released.

One group was shocked. However, they could stop the shock by pressing a lever.

The last group was wired to a dog in the second group. They received the same shock, but did not have the ability to press a lever to stop it.

Seligman and Maier (1967)

Later, the dogs (all three groups) were put in a box where they would receive a shock. In this case, the dogs could remove themselves from the shock.

Interestingly, a number of the group three dogs did not try. They simply whined and stayed put.

It is worth noting that not every dog in the third group reacted in this way. Although it was a significant amount (about 1/3).

Seligman and Maier (1967) (cont.)

These concepts are translated to the behavior of humans.

Seligman conceived that experiences with uncontrollable events can lead to learned helplessness (the expectation of non-contingency between one's response and desired outcomes).

In other words, nothing you do matters.

“This belief, in turn, results in motivational deficits (passivity and lowered persistence), cognitive deficits (inability to perceive existing opportunity to control outcomes), and emotional deficits (sadness and self-esteem).”

Learned helplessness

Abramson et al. (1989) specified that learned helplessness involves a high expectancy of non-contingency between one's response and desired outcomes

Likewise, learned hopelessness (a low expectancy of goal attainment) involves negative expectations about the occurrence of highly valued outcomes in addition to a helplessness expectancy. Thus, hopelessness

is a subset of helplessness.

What connection then would learned hopelessness have with depression?

Most researchers agree that life “stressors” can lead to the onset of depression.

Remember those groups that seem particularly vulnerable based on current research:

Impoverished (Low-SES) Women

Social and Cultural factors of Depression (Social Stress)

Loss of employment Abuse Caring for children (or several) No SOCIAL SUPPORT Loss of parents

What are “stressors”?

Widely accepted model that can be used as an explanation of more than just depression.

The Diathesis-Stress model claims that the onset of depression or depressive episodes is a result of genetic predisposition and “stressors”.

Diathesis-Stress Model

Study completed in England that sought to link social factors and depression.

The sample included females both that were patients being treated for depression and a general population between 18-65 years old.

When interviewed, they found that about 82 percent who were depressed had at least one life “stressor” when compared to those who were not depressed.

Brown and Harris (1978)Social Factors in Depression

About 23% of working class women studied had recently suffered from depression as opposed to 3% of the middle class women.

Amongst the working-class, those with young children were more likely to become depressed than those with no children or older children.

Women who were widowed or divorced seem susceptible to much higher rates of depression.

Stressful life events did not guarantee the onset of depression. Data seems to show that “support” can significantly reduce the likelihood of depression.

Brown and Harris (1978)Other results