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EsTRELLA MoNroLÍo

Advising without Committing :

The Use of Argumentative Reservationin Texts

"Written by Consultants

l.Introduction

In today's knowledge-based society, consulting companies have estab-

lished themselves as a profession in the economic markeþlace.Consultants advise their clients on how to improve critical aspects oftheir entrepreneurial activity. In their reports, they often try to protect

themselves in case their advice turns out to be wrong or simply inap-

propriate.The present paper has three goals: the first goal is to analyze

reports written by professional consultants and to describe the linguis-tic procedures they use to implement the rhetorical strategy known as

reservation. The second aim is precisely to review, clarify, and

describe this notion. As we shall see, reservation consists of aclding a

proviso to a statement that places limits on the circumstances needed

for their advice to hold true. Reservations, hence, allow the consultant

to save face in case the advice eventually proves to be inaccurate. The

third objective is to describe the textual genre of the consulting report

as a sociological product of the contemporary knowledge sociefy. Inshort, this chapter also aims to establish a link between works on

business discourse, which sometimes lack theoretical and methodo-

logical foundations, and contributions from linguistics and pragmatics

- today's descendant of rhetoric - which provide theoretically rigor-

ous and useful frameworks to describe linguistic uses in business and

organizational contexts. I

I concur with Limaye/Cherry ( 1987: 87) and Rodman (2001 : 10) that business

discourse studies can profit from linguistics as a source of theoretical and

252

This study applies an interdisciplinary methodology, employingdescriptive tools and concepts from a variety of disciplines: grammar,

pragmatics, discourse analysis, rhetoric, studies on argumentation and

LSP (specifically, the study of discourse in business settings)' The

corpus used contains 50 reports drafted by professional consultants

working for national and international consultancies. These reports

were made accessible during training seminars on expert witing tech-

niques organized by various consultancy firms for the purposes of this

study on personalized consulting. Spanish was the original language

of most of the documents, although nine of them were written in

Catalan (i.e., 18% of all the reports). Where Catalan was the original

language of a selected passage, I translated it into castilian Spanish.

These passages have also been translated into English.

2. The dissemination and management

of knowledge through texts

2.1. The rhetorical context

The twenty-first cenhrry has often been described as 'the information

age' (Castells 1996). However, information that is not adequately

processed cannot have a synergic and productive relation to other data

ãnd cannot therefore be converted into knowledge. Indeed, informa-

tion is a fundamental commodity for social and economic survival in

this new society, where information is a fundamental commodity that

depends on one's ability to convert the barrage of data into items that

allow the construction tf knowledge from the information received.2

Knowledge is valuable because it is close to action (Davenport/Prusak

Estrella Montolío Advis in g Without Committing

2000: 7). All this explains the rapidly increasing importance of lcnotvl-

edge management, adiscipline that stiil lacks a clear definition.

In this scenario, it is evidently vital that companies gather and

analyze information to make appropriate strategic clecisions. In other

*ordr, the very livelihood of today's organizations clepends on their

ability to process raw data and transform them into information in

such a way that timely decisions can be made (Bartolomé 1993). In

fact, the dègree to which a decision is correct greatly depends on the

quantity, quality and timeliness of the available information (Menguz-

zatolRenau 1991: 391).

As it is very difficult for a company to employ experts in all the

fields in which it is involved, the need to gather as much relevant

information as possible in a very short time period has led many firms

to outsource the function of "bringing knowledge to business proc-

esses". An increasing number of companies, organizations and insti-

tutions (including universities) now offer help in communicating criti-

cal knowledg" uod provide expert advice to professionals and organi-

zations. It isln this setting that the consulting industry has emerged to

offer the information companies require at specifîc moments, partictt-

larly when strategic decisions have to be made. Indeed these consult-

ing firms are exPanding raPidlY.

Many of the documents produced by consultants consist of a

presentation of data which should allow the contracting organization

io take the most appropriate decisions. These are expository texts with

the implicit o. .*ptl"it aim of offering advice; this means that they

also contain an argumentative component'

2.2. Consultancy texts: a new genreþr a new kind of economy

The discursive production of consulting companies constitutes a good

example of how, in today's knowledge-based society, discourse takes

on a crucial role, as it is precisely through discourse that knowledge is

circulated (Chiapello/Fairclough 2002: 195).In this new knowledge-

economy and knowledge-society, new ways of acting and interacting

include new linguistic forms, new genres (Fairclough 2002: 164)-

Genre change is an important part of the transformation of new capi-

methodological rigor. See also Ventola (2003), who demands a greater

involvement of linguistics in business communication research.

Drucker (1993) defines information as "important data with intention".

Davenport and Prusak (2000: 4) add: "Differently from data, information has

meaning".

253

254

talism (Fairclough 2003: 38). In this sense, the consulting reportundoubtedly constitutes a new textual geffe, one in the process offormal transformation.3 In a sense, this new genre has been convertedinto a commodity (a report can be worth up to thousands of euros),which in turn exemplifies Fairclough's afTirmation that "The emer-gence of a 'knowledge-based' economy means that knowledge, bothas 'know-how' and 'know-that,' and hence semiosis both as genres('know-how') and discourses ('know-that'), become commodities"(Fairclough 20t2: | 64).

The genre of the consulting report clearly reflects the idea ofdiscourse !'as a social and economic product" (Sarangi 2001). Thistype of text reflects Bourdieu's concept of language, by whichlanguage is not understood as an object of analysis, but rather as aninstrument of power and action (Bourdieu 1991).

Furthermore, in the majority of cases analyzed the symbolicvalue of the reports exists in their legitimizing power, as quite oftenthe report serves as a scientific and technical justification for the

organization carrying out a certain action. In this sense, the report isdeveloped in a discourse of authority (it is drawn up by an expert,often in economics or technology); it has prestige (it is rigorous and itcosts a significant amount of money) and is therefore associated with'truth'. In fact, the major consulting firms are organized in terms of'think tanks,' i.e., centers that elaborate and disseminate ideas from'the stamp of approval'of recognized experts.

If it is true that legitimating is one of the principal social func-tions of ideologies (van Dijk 1998: 318ff.), then it is arguable that the

majority of the documents generated by consulting firms share and

broaden the ideology inherent in the knowledge economy. As Fair-clough (2002: 164) suggests, "management literature contains bothnew methods of running enterprises and making profit, and justifica-

Estrella Montolío Advísing Without Committing 255

tion for the way these are done - arguments which managers çan use torespond to criticisms and to demands for them to justiff themselves".

In sum, the genre of the consulting report exemplifies quitefittingly the notion of dominant discourse. This kind of wòrk is gener-ally grounded in the new knowledge-economy model, though, some-times, local cultural traditions and beliefs, as well as personal values,clash with the ideas engenderecl by this economic system. Thefollowing section takes a brief look at such situations.

2.3. Consultancy texts: explicitnes.s and ambiguity

Perhaps because of the newness of the genre, there seem to be twofundamentally different beließ among consultants concerning how togive counsel. Professionals offering expert advice adopt a variety ofattitudes regarding the extent to which they should make their recom-mendations explicit. some advocate clear, non-ambiguous advice("my client wants to know what an expert considers the most suitablething to do in such a situation and my obligation is to communicate itin a clear wây"), while others prefer to raise several alternatives with-out showing a clear preference for any of them (,.I prefer clients tomake their own decision on the basis of the data provided,'). Most pro-fessionals suggest an attenuated solution. Not without a hint ofsarcasm, consultants themselves call the ability to present situations oralternatives without committing to any of them "the management ofambiguity".

This deliberate ambiguify is manifest in the form of two strate-gies:

a. I do not strongly affirm anything; that way, I cannot err;b. I am not comfortable making some affirmations.

In this sense, the analyzed texts * and certain extracts in particular -reflect the values of their authors. For example, in a society like thatof Spain, which has been traditionally protective of the workplace,firings and layofß are perceived as a socially clamaging action, andtherefore, they are interpreted in a negative way. Thus, rvhen a

In a very short amount of time, this genre has gone from being formally and

linguistically based on the 'classic' word-processed text, in which the

fundamental element is the discursive elaboration of the text, to one of a

PowerPoint format, printed on paper, where the graphic elements are the

focus, and the text that accompanies them is rather weak. The implications ofth:is change for the correct interpretation of the facts will be analysed in futureresearch.

256

consultant has to put forth proposals suggesting employee dismissals,mechanisms of reservation and attenuation are introduced, as seen inexample 6 (in Section 4.3 below). In extracts such as this one, weobserve the dialectic that exists between the dominant ideology in the

field of business re-engineering (limitation of costs at any price,

employees considered strictly in terms of profit), and the culturalvalues of traditional Spanish society.

2.4. Consultancy texts: presenting and advising

The function of advising or recommending in consultancy reports

requires the use of discursive and linguistic mechanisms that are farmore complex to elaborate than those of a simple presentation ofexpert data; specifically, recommending involves interactive conse-

quences which are not present in simple expository texts ot presenta-

tions.Presentations oÍ expository texts have a clear textual sequence

that is generally mastered by experts in different areas of knowledge(economy, biotechnology, engineering law, computing, chemistry,

sociology, and so on). But for those who work as consultants, presen-

tations have a special interpersonal function in which the reputation ofthe writer (the consultant) can be seriously compromised should the

recommendation eventually turn out to be inappropriate' In fact, in

spite of the limited training received by consultants in writing reports

and in expert writing techniques in general, consultants are well aware

of the professional risk involved in the writing of certain documents.

As already suggested, proposals and recommendations are potential

minefields.The example below is taken from a report written by a consult-

ant advising a local government unit on how to reduce economic costs

(and, specifically, staff costs). The consultant introduces an explana-

tion (in italics) to indicate that his recommendation is not a self-

fulfrlling prophecy, but it depends on a highly specific condition

('correctly managing') being accomplished beforehand:

Estrella Montolío Advi s ing ll ithout C ommit t i n g

(l) Hemos de señalar, por último, que un proceso como ésteo siempre Ete segestione correctamentq puede tener un efecto demostración importante tantorespecto de los mandos como en relación a los funcionarios, en general.

(1) We should indicate, finally, that a process tike this one, if'managed corcectly,can have art important demonstration effect for both managers and employeesin general.

The clause headed by siempre que (tf, provided thar) irúroduces acomment that links the accomplishment of a previous condition("siempre que se gestione correctamente", "only if it is managedcorrectly") to the achievement of the proposed solution ("the processcan have an important demonstration effect for both managers andemployees in general").

In this type of passage where advice or a proposed solution ispresented, some consultants have recourse to linguistic devices thatare examples of what in classic rhetoric is referred to as reservation.They do so intuitively, given their lack of training in written strategies.

3. On the speech act of recommendation:

257

Directive speech acts

Since Wittgenstein's Ph ilos oph i cal Inves ti gations, in linguistics ancl,

in general, in philosophy of language, it has been accepted that humanbeings use language with multiple purposes. Searle's (1970) theory ofspeech acts proposes a classification of different types of speech actsto carry out different illocutionary acts (to achieve different purposes).According to Searle ancl Vanderveken (1985), there are five types ofillocutionary acts:

(1) Assertive: its aim is to represent a state of things as real.(2) Commissive: its aim ìs to commit the speaker to a future course

of action.(3) Directive: its aim is to commit the hearer to a new situation.

2s8 Estrella Montolío

Declarative: its aim is to create a new situation.Expressive: its aim is to express the speaker's feelings and atti-tudes.

(4)(5)

This table shows ways in which different speech acts can be used toexpress similar propositional contents in the business setting:

The comoanv is in exoansion

I promise you that the company willhave a nrocess of expansion

This company must open a process ofexpansion

STATEMENT

I name this company "The besl

comoanv ofthe vear"Our company is expanding!

Table 1. Types of speech acts.

When their function is advising or recommending, consultancy reports

are commissive acts of speech, as the consultant assures the client (i'e.

promises) that what he/she says will materialize; and, above all, they

are also directive speech acts, as the consultant proposes that the

contracting company should act in a specific way.Both commissive and directive speech acts present specific

characteristics from the point of view of social interaction. Commis-

sive acts compromise the speaker, as he/she is compelled to accom-

plish them on fear oflosing face. For their part, directive speech acts,

through which the speaker tries to influence the recipient's behavior,

present the need for the speaker to mitigate his/her formulations inaccordance with the demands of the situation, so that hisiher inter-

locutors do not feel 'invaded'by an excessively exhortative tone.

Given the semantic-pragmatic characteristics of both types ofspeech acts, it is understandable that consultants try either (i) to safe-

guard their credibility when formulating promises or (ii) to qualify

some of their recommendations. It is here that the specific strategies ofwhat we term 'argumentative reservation' come into play.

Assertíve

Commissive (promises, entreaties, threats,

etc.)

Directive (requests, orders, questions,

recommendations. etc.)

SPEECH ACT

Declarative

Entressive

A dvis ing Il itho ut C omm itt in g

4. The concept of argumentative reservation

4.1. Introduction

Reservation is an argumentative resource frequently neglectedstudies of specialized communication.a Many researchers makereference to it and those that do tend to mention it only in passing.s

Moreover, the terminology used is varied and relatively unsys-tematic. Mechanisms such as that of reserve may be found under a

range of labels such as, among others, cession (Robrieux 1993: I74),unexpressed premises (van Eemeren/Grootendorst 1984: chap. 6),exemplum in contrarium (Perelman/Olbrechts-Tyteca 1958: 543,734),6 ceturis paribus clause (Searle 1970: 183), pretexî clauses (vanDijk 1978: 160), etc.7 Among scholars who have given attention tothis mechanism, Toulmin (1958), whose statements appear in later

studies (such as Freely 1993, and Plantin 1990, 1996), deserves

special mention.

259

For the preparation of the sections on the rhetorical tradition of the concept ofreservation López Samaniegos' bibliographic review (Argumentative Reserva'

tion in Rhetorical Tradition) was of invaluable help. This was a doctoral study

carried out at the Spanish Language section of the Deparlment of Spanish

Philology at the University of Barcelona.

See, for example: Bréton (1996); CratisiHazen (eds) (1990); Declerq (1992);

Moeschler (1985); Nysenholc/Gelgely (1991); Oléron (1983); Perelman/

Olbrechts-Tyteca (1958); Robrieux (1993); Van Eemeren/Grootendolstl

Jackson/Jackobs (1 997); Weston (1 987).

In another section, these authors also deal with palliatives against the risks ofwide-ranging mechanisms, that is, mechanisms that limit the range of a clairn

in order to facilitate its validity, avoiding risks such as the appearance ofconflicts, referential ambiguity ofa notion or the diversion ofthe considered

object to non-relevant aspects. However, these authors focus on other types ofrefutation restrictions such as reticence or preterition more than on clevices ofrestriction of the statement.

The English version of it is not systematic either: in some cases the linguisticphenomenon analysed here is called exception; in others, rebuttal, reservation

or defeasible argumentation In the French tradition, reservation devices are

without distinction called restriction, rélitÍaîion or exceplion.

byno

260

Though little attention has traditionally been paid to reservation

by rhetoric studies it is a device that occurs frequently in everyday

life. Spontaneous speech, such as that shown in italics in example (2)

below, serves to restrict the scope of the proposition in the first part ofthe statement. The expression in italics ensures that the speaker's back

is covered'.

(2) En esta función estriba el problema del programa, si no me equivoco'\

(2) The problem of this program lies in this function, if I am not mistaken'

The 2001 edition of the Diccionario de la Real Academiø de laLengua Española (the Dictionary of the Spanish Language of the

Spanish Royal Academy) gives as the second entry for reservation

"reservación o excepción de una ley camún" ("exception of a common

law"), and this is the sense closest to the meaning which interests us

here. Since all rules and generalizations may have exceptions, reser-

vations will be found in both. Laws are probably the clearest example,

because texts which aim to regulate social behavior impartially must

be as precise as possible and be applicable to the variety ofreal cases

that rnay arise. For this reason, legislative texts are full of reservations,

beginning with all presumptions, the best known among them being

the presumption of innocence:

(3) Everybody is considered innocent, until proved guilty'

In The uses of argument, Toulmin (1958: 101) underlines the rela-

tionship between the formulation of laws and the use of the mecha-

nisms of argumentative reservation:

Itisoftennecessaryinthelawcourts,notjusttoappealtoagivenstatuteorcommon-law doctiine, but to discuss explicitly the extent to which this

particularlawfitsthecase,orwhetherspecialfactsmaymakethecaseanexception to the rule (Toulmin 1958: chap' III)'

Estrella Montolío Advis ing llithout Commitling

The notion of reservation has also made its impact on scientificdiscourse, especially since Karl Popper's theory of fallibility, whichstates that it should be possible for any scientific empirical statementto be falsified; the more possibilities a theory has of being provenfalse, the more scientifrc it will be, and it will be valid until one of the

conditions which refute it be demonstratecl.

In the same way, a legislative assembly, a business meeting andeven a residents' association meeting finishes only if there is notltingelse to add; in the traditional ceremony, the couple ean marry if'nobody lcnows of any impediment In fact, as we can see, resewation is

so rooted in daily life that some aspects of it are highly ritualized.We can expect to find this device in any type of text with argu-

mentative pu{poses, because one of the fundamental characteristicsthat distinguishes argumentative texts from other textual pieces such

as demonstration or deduction, as Moeschler (1985: 47) points out, istheir possibility of being refuted. Argumentative consultancy reportsare no exception, as they tend to present mechanisms of reservationwhich try to avoid any fìrture refutation.

4.2. Definitions

As outlined above, reservation is a linguistic expression by means ofwhich speakers limit the applications or extension of their statements.

In spite of the importance of this strategy, it is only rarely mentioned

in discussions of rhetoric and argumentation. Three definitions byscholars from different traditions who have analyzed this mechanism

are provided below:

Modal qualifiers (Q) and conditions of exception or rebuttal (R) complement

implicitly on the bearing of W lwawanll on this step-qualifiers (Q) indicating

circumstances in which the general authority of the wanant would have to be set

aside, conditions capable ofdefeating or rebutting the warranted conclusion [...]What our information does do is to establish that the conclusion holds good

'presumably', and subject to the appropriate provisos (Toulmin 1958: chap. 3).

For a detailed study of grammatical characteristics and pragmatic functions of

reservation in conditional clauses such as those in the example, see Montolío

(1993; 1999a).

261

Restriction qui modalise le passage de la donnée à la conclusion [...]inférences peuvent,] dans certaines circonstances, ne pas s'appliquer; il

llesdoit

262

toujours y avoir une place prévue pour une éventuelle non-application des

règles d'inférence, voire pourune réfutation (Adam 1992: 106)'

Restriction that modalises the passage of the premise to the conclusion [... ] [the inferences can] in certain circumstances, not to be applied; an anticipated

space for possible non application of the inference rules, even for a rebuttal,

must always exist.

RISERVA: Informazioni, o dati che spingono a conclusioni o a tesi diverse da

quelle a cui si è pervenuti. si tratta, insomma, di esitazioni e riserve s|ttlla

validità od opportunità della tesi cha sono state già magari preannunciate dal

fatto che la tesi o conclusione è stata accompagnata da un modale, cioè da un

'qualificatore (Q)' Go Cascio 1991: 154).

Reservation: information or data that give rise to conclusions or theses that are

different from those that they actually came from. In short, the concept refers

to the reluctance and reserve with regard to the the validity and opportuneness

ofthose theses that have perhaps already been preannounced by the fact that

the thesis or conclusion is accompanied by a modal operator or by a

"quantiflrer."

As can be appreciated, the three definitions coincide (in fact, the last

two are clearly based on Toulmin's definition) in suggesting the

equivalence of this argumentative mechanism with a formulation ofthe thesis in terms of probability,n us Toulmin explicitly states:

when I say ..S is probably P", I commit myself guardedly, tentatively or with

reservations to the view that S is P, and (likewise guardedly) lend my author-

ity to that view [...] the characteristic function of our particular, practical

probability statements is to present guarded or qualified assertions and

conclusions.

4.3. Reservation and mitigation of the assertion

Indeed, presenting the information in terms of probability and not as a

statement of faci is one of the resoufces most commonly used by

EsÍrella Montolío Advising Without Committing

consultants when they do not want to be excessively assertive. This

mitigation aims to avoid overcommitting to an excessively categorical

recommendation. The extract below, from a report where the consult-

ant proposes a redundancy plan as a consequence of the merging ofseveral Company Headquarters, provides an example (the different

mechanisms of mitigation of the assertion are indicated in italics):

(4) Esta afirmacìón se basa en la hipótesis de que, normalmente, las Direcciones

Generales (DG) tienen estructuras muy reducidas de apoyo a la gestión, que

serían las afectadas por una fusión o absorción. Además, se puede pensar que

aquellas Direcciones Generales que tuvieran equipos de apoyo más amplios

(DG más grandes)./ueran aquellas que sufríeran menos procesos de fusión o

absorción. Por otro Iado, una hipótesis probable es que la reducción de DG se

produjera posteriormente a la reducción de los Departamentos y con un

proceso escalonado.

(4) This affrrmation is based on the hypothesis that, normally, Company

Headquarters (CH) have very limited structures of management support, and

these structures would be aîfecæd by a merger or takeover. In addition, one

might think that the Company Headquarlers that have wider support network

(larger cH) would be the ones that are less liable lo [literally, would he the

ones that undergo fewer processes oJ) merger or takeover. A probable

hypothesìs is that the downsizing of the CH would take place aÍ\er the down-

sizing of the Departments and would occur in stages.

In this extract we observe various grammatical mechanisms which

aim to reduce the assertive strength of the statement by presenting the

data as being probable or possible, but not definite. The devices

include: (i) the explicit formulation that it is a hypothesls; (ii) adjec-

tives which refer to contingency, such as probable; (iii) modal verbs

(puede, can); (iv) subjunctives (the mood used in Romance languages

to denote non-assertion); (v) the use of the impedect subjunctive, the

tense that expresses more remote possibility (tuvieran, had; fueran,were; se produiera, took place); (vii) and the conditional (serían,

u¡ould be).10 Another assessment report, this time of a regional

Toulmin dedicates a complete chapter of his book to the analysis of the

philosoohical concept of probability and discusses in consiclerable depth the

importance of modal verbs in argumentation.

263

10 Most of mitigatìng devices analysed here are also present in other fegisters ofthe language, such as the oral colloquial register (Briz 1998: chap. 6). Often,

these moderating devices are used for linguistic courtesy (Brown/Levinson

264

government unit (example 5), provides a similar example. This is aproposal of strategies for achieving the economic promotion of aregion. As above, the extract uses modal verbs Qtoder, can), condi-tionals and relative clauses containing the imperfect subjunctive:

(5) En este sentido, dada su experiencia en cuestiones de planificación tenitorial,esta comarca podría fomentar actividades de investigación y desarrollo demodelos de intervención del territorio y crear un modelo propio de integracióndel sector vitivinícola y agroalimentario en la economía del conocimiento.Siguiendo este mismo razonamiento, desde la comarca podrían buscarse yexperimentarse modelos integradores de furismo integrado, vinculado alpatrimonio cultural, natural y etnográfico del territorio, que aprovecharan laventaja competitiva de la comarca buscando al mismo tiempo un elementoinnovador en la apuesta por un desarrollo equilibrado y sostenible.

(5) Given its experience in tenitorial planning, this region could promote activi-ties of development and research on models of territorial intervention andcreate its own model of integration of the wine and food and agriculturesectors inside the knowledge economy. Following the same reasoning, insidethe region itselfmodels ofintegrated tourism couldbe tried and tested, linkedto culfural, natural, and ethnographic heritage of the area, which made use ofthe competitive advantage of the region at the same time looking for innova-tive elements to promote balanced, sustainable development.

Note that the strength of the assertion modulated by the choice oftense and mood: the imperfect subjunctive (modelos integradores deturismo integrado que aprovecharan; integrated tourism modelswhich made use o/) expresses a lower degree of probability and,hence, gives rise to a weak assertion. This contrasts with the use of thepresent indicative, which would also be possible in this syntacticcontext (modelos integradores de turismo integrado que aprovechan;integrated tourism models of integration which make use ofl. Theassertion would be much stronger, as the present indicative does notact as a hedge on the statement's truth value.

On other occasions (example 6), probability is moderated bymeans of verbal morphology (using conditionals or subjunctives) and

also by lexical items expressing virtual or hypothetical non-factual

Estrella Montolío Advising ll¡ithout Committing 265

actions. In the example below from a report on the delicate issue ofmaking redundancies, notice the use of the adjective previsible (fore-seeable) in addition to the use of the conditional (necesitarían, woulclneed) and imperfect subjunctive Qtudieran, would be able to)discussed above:

(6) La segunda limitación refuerza la primera y hace referencia a la previsiblefalta de adecuación enhe las características profesionales cle los excedentes ylos previsibles lugares de trabajo que podrían crearse. Este hecho implica quese necesitar/an bastantes más lugares cle trabajo que número de excedentespara que éstos pudieran ser recolocados.sl lo que hemos afïrmado en el apartado anterior es razonable, posiblementeserá necesario empezar a evaluar otras alternativas que implicas¿n la salidadel sistema, íntentando mantener la idea de soluciones lo menos traumáticasposibles (prejubilaciones, incapacidades, salidas incentivaclas, etc.).

(6) The second limitation reinforces the first one and refers to the foreseeable lackof adjustment between the professional characteristics of the employees maderedundant and,r.heforeseeable places ofwork that could be created. This factmeans that considerably more jobs would be needed than workers maderedundant, so that they could be re-assigned to new jobs.If what we've stated in the previous section is reasonable, it willpossiåir benecessary to begin fo evaluate other altemativ es thaT would imply taking leaveof the system by trying to sustain the idea of solutions that are the least trau-matic possible (early retirement, incapacity, pension incentives, etc.)

In fact, Toulmin (1958), in the first definition of reservation incontemporary studies on argumentation, already pointed to the clear-est argumentative function of reservation: namely, to reduce thespeaker's commitment to what he/she states, that is, 'to cover one,sback'. In the terms of symbolic interactionism, reservation is thereforea face-saving mechanism (Goffman I97l).

In chapter 2 Toulmin (1958) indicates protorypical acts inwhich this method is used, namely in (i) assessments, (ii) promisesand (iii) predictions. Strict promises âre common in oral daily interac-tions (or in political discourse), but assessments and predictions arehighly frequent in argumentative texts such as the documents writtenby consultants. For instance, examples (4) and (6) above are predic-tions, while example (5) is an assessment.

1987; see Haverkate 1994 for Spanish), but on other occasions mitigating has

different strategic aims.

266

Note that all the linguistic processes that we have analyzed in thissection constitute mechanisms of epistemic modality. They may also be

called hedge expressions, if we consider this term in its broad sense.

On the other hand, notice that all these mitigating linguisticdevices distance the speaker from the statement that he/she has pro-duced, as they show that the producer does not commit himself/herselfto it. From this point of view, the consultant displays the linguistic-discursive behaviour of facilitator rather than that of a scientist (cf.

Galán 2004: 185), as he/she distances himself/herself from theproposed statement.

4.4. The role of reservation in Toulmin's argumentative model (and inlate,r related models)

Toulmin's (1958) argumentative model - an expanded version ofAristotle's model adapted to the requirements of more complexcontexts, such as legal discourse - adds structural elements to the

premises and the conclusion such as waruan| or general rule, backing,

the source or foundation of the warrant, the qualifier, and rebuttal orexception, or reservation. The complete model of argumentation

proposed by Toulmin is the following, which is clearly based on

Anglo-Saxon jurisprudence:

Estrella Montolío

(record of facts)

Advis ing Without Committing

Extract 7 below is the well known example Toulmin offers in The

Uses of Argument (1958). It was followed by other books mentioninghis model (for example, Hoogaert 1995 or Van Eemeren/Grootendorst1996, among others):

(7) Harry was bom in Bermuda (Data) so, since a man born in Berrnuda will. generally be a British subject (Warrant) on account of the present legislation

(Backing), presumably (Qualiflter) llarry is a British subject (Claim\, unless

his parents are foreigners, or he is a nahralised American (Rebuttal)(Toulmin 1958).

Here is an example of reservation contmon in Spanish legislative texts:

(8) No tendrá derecho el inquilino o arrendatario a la prórroga legal cuando la

vivienda no esté ocupada durante más de seis meses en el curso de un año a

menos que la desocupación obedezca aiusta causa. (2I4lsentl.doc).

(8) The tenant will not have the right to legal extension when the house is not

occupied for more than six months in the course of a year unless (1iust reasotl

can be províded (p. 2 1 /sentl .doc).

Notice that the italicised parts restrict the scope of application of the

previously stated premises and indeecl invalidate them in cerlaincircumstances. Reservation here consists of stating situations which, ifthey occur, make the law inapplicable.

Toulmin's model was so successful among scholars in argu-

mentation that it is the only one mentioned in many of the references

to reservation.tt After Toulmin, Lo Cascio (1991) has contributed

significantly to the description of reservation, which he considers to

be a premise of a parallel argumentation, coordinated to the main one

(with which it shaies the data, but not the general rule)lz and which,

',,ÞûÃilFIF |õLAIM" ne c e s s ari ly, (conclusion)

On account of

FÃõKINõ(law record)

(reservation)

267

t1

T2

This is so in Hoogaert (1995: 155-169), Plantin (1996: 38), Van Eemeren/

Grootendorst ( I 996 : chap. 5. I I ), or Vega Reñón (2003 : 24).

Van Eemeren and Grootendorst (1996: chap. 1l) mention Lo Cascio's (1991)

proposal and also refer to reservation as an indirect act of speech: "stylistictool for performing an indirect speech act, by proposing as secondary an

argumentation which should, ultimately, be taken ¿ìs true, or as being the

preferred one".

268 Estrella Montolío

according to him, 'ois no good to reinforce

(1991: 1s5).In addition reservation could also be

(1990: 33) suggested when referring to the

argumentative model, as an allusion to the

discourse in order to forestall it'Dubucs (1995) also adds that the expression of reservation

would be equivalent to adding the premise in normal conditions,

showing the conditional nature of this strategy. In fact, our own

.r."ur.ñ on legal and administrative discourse suggests that the

conditional nature of reservation lies not only in the fact that it is

optional,r3 but also in the fact that it is frequently expressed using

cãnditional structures, as the above examples of legal discourse show.

The extract below is from a consulting context, which recom-

mends a model of territorial policy to a local govemment unit in

Barcelona. It also presents reservation in conditional form:

(9)Comoyaseavanzabaenelsegundoapartadodeestedocumento,elprocesode expansión de la Región Metropolitana se ha producido' en el caso

.rp."íh.o de Barcelona, no sobre territorios vacíos sino sobre territorios con

unatradiciónsocialyeconómicapropiayconsolidada.Elhechoesquelaidiosincrasiadelasciudadesyterritoriosqueahoraformanlaconstelaciónmetropolitanacomportatambiénunconjuntodeesclavitudeshistóricamenteforjadas en relación a los usos del suelo, a la ubicación de determinadas

actividades económicas, a las características del mercado de trabajo, etc' Todo

ellodificultaquecualquieractividadnuevaencuentreunencajefácilenelterritorio,amenosqueseopteporunarupturãdesuequilibrioeconómicoysocial y por un modelo de àesarrollo que obvie la actividad económica

arraigada.

(9)Asputforwardinsectiontwo,theprocessofexpansionoftheMetropolitanArea, specifically in Barcelona, hasiot taken place oveî empty territories but

overterritorieswithaconsolidatedsocialandeconomictradition.Thefactisthattheidiosyncrasyofcitiesandtenitorieswhichnowmakeupthemetro-politan area also involves a set of historically created rules with regard to the

the maintained opinion"

described, as Plantinrebuttal in Toulmin'sopponent's potential

lAdvis ing Without Committ ing

use of soil, the site of certain economic activities, the characteristics of the

labour market, etc. All this makes it difficult for any new activity to Ïìt iri eas-

ily within the territory, unless it decides to disrupt its economic and social

balance and to introduce a model of development that avoids the traditional

economic activity.

As in the previous examples from legal documents, the negative

complex conditional connector,l4 a menos que (unless), introduces the

only possible situation which would invalidate the truth of the previ-

ously stated proposition, and, consequently, reduce the commitment.

4.5. The expression ofreservation and condiîional conslrttctions

A limited number of scholars of reservation since Toulmin have

proposed only a restricted set of examples. Most of them, like

Toulmin, present cases of clauses introduced by a negative cr:mplex

conditional connector, such as a no ser que, a menos que, salvo que,

excepto que (and their English and French equivalents unle.ss and â

moiis que).rs Although few studies of specialized communication

have focused on reservation, ifit is understood as the introduction ofasequence which festricts the scope of applicability of the assertion,

then it can be also introduced by an Affirmative Complex Conditional

Connector (ACCC). This is especially the case of siempre que,

providing that, a connector that is used more in this type of documents

than other ACCC such as a condición de que ot con tal de que (on

condilion that, or as long as).

In examples (10) and (11) below, taken from reports contracted

by local and regional governments, it can be noted that the clause with

,í"*pr" que (providing that) introduces the limitation to the pfoposed

13 Reservation is a recurrent device in the preparation of laws and in legal and

legislative discourse in general, which explains the high frequency and

ar:gumentative relevance of tlt" diff.tent types of conditional clauses in

documents of this kind (Montolío 1999b)'

2"69

iii}ril,,,;it

,i{i,l, i.li ,

iirilr,iirl

¡' ,

I r'r'È:ìîi

,f

,'1

l4 with regard to names and grammatical and discursive characteristics of this

type ofconditional structures, see Montolío (1999a) and (2000)'

Fór example, Lo Cascio inclucles in the repertoire of linguistic expressions

used to introduce reservations, which he denominates relativizers, a no ser

que, salvo que, a menos que, excepîo que, si, sj no and aunque (unless, if,

ixcept that, save that, otherwise, although, even ifl' Notice that r'vith the

exception of the concessive link aunque (although, even ífl, the rest are

connectors which introduce conditional sentences,

270 Estrella Montolío

statement, as it expresses the only factor which allows the consultant,srecommendation to be accomplished:

(10) En segundo lugar, proponemos la organización de actividades no estacionalesen la fachada marítima, pero siemote que se garantíce su conexión con elcentro del municipio, auténtico corazón de una firtura área comercial central.Para ello, se proponen dos tipos de acciones [...].

(10) Secondly, we propose organizing non-seasonal activities near to sea, when-ever its connection with the centre of the city is guaranteed, the heart of afuture central business area. For this, two types ofactions are proposed [...].

(11) Por último, en la búsqueda de nichos de especialización sería preciso nodescartar el sector del papel. Tradicionalmente éste ha tenido un peso impor-tante en la economía comarcal, que podría mantenerse siempre aue las empre-sas consigan adaptarse a los cambios tecnológicos e ìntroducir nuevosprocesos productivos a lin de poder responder a las nuevas exigencias delmercado.

(ll) Finally, in the search for specialization niches it would be important not torule out the paper making sector. Traditionally this industry has beèn one ofthe leaders in the local economy, which could be maintained, providins thatthe companies are able to adapt to technological changes and to introducenew production processes to respond to the new market demands.

In both cases, reservation is inhoduced in the text where recommen-dation appears. As can be seen, the function of the emphasizedsequence - the reservation - consists of expressing the conditionwhich must necessarily take place if what has been stated is to beaccomplished; if this condition does not obtain, the statement loses itsvalue.

In other cases, the condition which must obtain for the proposedstatement not to be invalidated is introduced by means of the affirma-tive complex conditional connector sólo si (or únicamente si) (only ifl:

(12) En este modelo, que lleva a la necesidad de una verdadera concertación de laspoliticas, la eficacia sólo puede alcanzarse si aquellos que diseñan lasactuaciones son los que posteriormente vayan a implementarlas, esto es, elconjunto de agentes socioeconómicos locales.

Advising llithout Committing 271

(12) In this model, which requires true agreement between policies, effectivene,sscan only be achi.eved lf rhe planners of the actions are the people whou *,illIater implement them,that is, local policy-makers.

Reservation is also expressed by means of other conditional structures(such as de otro modo, cuando + subjunctive) (otherwise,when * sub-junctive, etc.), which, for reasons of space, cannot be elaborated here.16

5. Concluding remarks

Analyses of argumentation have indicated that the main function ofmechanisms of reservation is to protect the proponent (here, theconsultant), as they allow himlher to weaken or qualify a categoricalstatement. Qualifying the statement involves committing to a morerestricted thesis (a recommendation), since cases which v/ould refute ithave been eliminated. At the same time, the writer achieves gre¿ìterprecision in his/her words, as he/she restricts the conditions of acorrect application ofthe thesis defended. As a consequence, reserva-tion deactivates possible future objections to the proposed recommen-dation and is a way of refuting them in advance.

Simultaneously, by carefully restricting the circumstances inwhich his/her statement is valid, the consultant constructs an image ofhimself/herself which is not only rigorous but also honest. As Aris-totle said, a speaker's self-censorship enhances credibility: "(it is) thedevice by which the speaker puts in some criticism of himself; forthen people feel it must be all right for him to talk thus, since hecertainly knows what he is doing" (1408b).

l6 An unusual expression of conditional supposition is made with ceteris parihus'all other things being equal'; that is, 'provided the conditions do not change'.In fact, this expression shows a highly grammaticalized reservation commonlyused in the Social Sciences. It is used when the impact of one variable onanother is isolated assuming that the rest remains the same. Though this is a

common expression in the oral professional discourse of consultants wjth aneconomic background, no instances were fnund in the documents analyzecl.

272

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