2015 Congress & Exposition

Las Vegas, Nevada

September 15-17, 2015

Abstracts from the

2015 NRPA Research Sessions

Copyright 2015 NRPA

National Recreation and Park Association

22377 Belmont Ridge Road

Ashburn, Virginia 20148

PREFACE—2015 NRPA RESEARCH SESSIONS

This year marks the 38th

year that the National Recreation and Park Association has hosted

research presentations in conjunction with the Annual Congress. At the 2014 Congress, the

research Co-Chairs collaborated with NRPA organizers and the President of the Education

Network to find ways to increase research presentation attendance. The group agreed to change

the name of the research presentations from the Leisure Research Symposium to the NRPA

Research Sessions to parallel the corresponding NRPA Education Sessions, and to put greater

emphasis on applicability of research to practice and attention to implications for practitioners.

These changes are reflected in the abstracts as well as in the oral and poster presentations. This

year we received 101 abstracts for review, including two panel presentations. Of those, 53 oral

paper presentations and 23 posters are included in this year’s sessions. All the abstracts were

blind peer reviewed in a process where the reviewers do not know if the abstract is to be

considered for a poster or an oral presentation.

The 2015 NRPA Research Sessions commence on Tuesday, September 15 with the Butler

Lecture. The 2015 Butler Lecture Keynote Speaker is Peggy O’Dell, Deputy Director of

Operations for the National Park Service. She will address the role of parks in urban areas and

the importance of connecting with people for engagement and sustainability. An abstract for her

Keynote address is the first in the 2015 NRPA Research Sessions Book of Abstracts.

Oral presentations for the 2015 Research Sessions will begin on Wednesday, September 16th at

8:00a.m. Authors were encouraged to identify thematic areas for their abstracts at the time of

submission. This year, thematic areas for abstracts reflect the NRPA pillars; Health and

Wellness, Conservation, and Social Equity. Additional thematic areas include Recreation

Administration to accommodate papers specific to issues of management and operations, and

Research Methodology to maintain important discussions and learning opportunities for research

methods and approaches. Overall, the presentations represent an impressive diversity and depth.

The moderators have been asked to facilitate Q & A between presenters and attendees at the end

of each session; please plan to attend the entire session to reap full benefits of the research and

subsequent discussions.

The organization of the NRPA Research Sessions is a collaborative effort. Our thanks go to the

review coordinators and reviewers whose dedication and willingness to serve are much

appreciated. We want to extend thanks and appreciation to NRPA staff liason Tom Crosley, who

has been invaluable in the process again this year, and to Dr. Joey Gray for coordinating the

poster session. We also extend our thanks to the presenters for sharing their work and the

moderators for facilitating the sessions.

Dorothy Schmalz and Ed Gómez

2015 NRPA Research Sessions Co-Chairs

Reviewers and Coordinators for the 2015 NRPA Research Sessions

NRPA Reserch Sessions Co-Chair: Dorothy Schmalz, Clemson University

NRPA Research Sessions Co-Chair: Edwin Gómez, Old Dominion University

NRPA Research Sessions Poster Coordinator: Joey Gray, Middle Tennessee State University

Review Coordinator

Lee DeLisle

Southern Connecticut State

University

Eddie Hill

Old Dominion University

Deb Jordan

East Carolina University

Toni Liechty

University of Illinois

Rasul Mowatt

Indiana University

Reviewers

Lauren Duffy

Clemson University

Patti Freeman

Brigham Young University

Tina Liang

Missouri State University

Ron Ramsing

Western Kentucky University

Nuno Ribeiro

University of Illinois

Laurel Richmond

California State University, Long Beach

Don Rockey

Coastal Carolina University

Amy Shellman

State University of New York at Cortland

Rob Steifvater

North Carolina Central University

Felice Yuen

Concordia University

REDIFINING THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE ROLE IN URBAN AREAS:

BRINGING PARKS TO THE PEOPLE

Peggy O’Dell, Deputy Director of Operations

National Park Service

The National Park Service will celebrate its 100th birthday on August 25, 2016. This is more

than a one-day celebration, as the goal of the National Park Service centennial is to connect with

and create the next generation of park visitors, supporters, and advocates. As the National Park

Service aspires to reach our centennial goal, we have developed an Urban Agenda that will

strengthen the relevancy and sustainability of parks, programs, and partners.

More than 80% of Americans live in urban areas. For these Americans, urban parks are a part of

their daily life. As urban centers become more crowded and dense, the value of the common

good and the common space found in these urban parks becomes increasingly valuable. In an

effort to re-imagine the NPS' role in urban areas, the Urban Agenda looks to strategically align

National Park Service parks and programs to better serve cities and communities.

Deputy Director O’Dell will provide an overview of the National Park Service’s Centennial

efforts and how the Urban Agenda is a key part of our nation’s future.

Peggy O’Dell was appointed NPS Deputy Director

of Operations in January 2011. In this position, she

oversees every aspect of operations in the 407

National Parks and offices in the country,

including, but not limited to its 20,000 employees,

the preservation and protection of 84 million acres,

and the recreation, education and hospitality for

283 visitors to National Parks every year. In her 30

year career with the NPS, Deputy Director O’Dell

has served as an interpreter, regional director, and

superintendent of some of the most widely visited

and recognized parks and monuments in the

nation.

WHAT VISITORS OF ADVENTURE TOURISM WANT?

Andrew Bailey, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga

Sunhwan Hwang, University of Seoul

Hyoung-Kil Kang, Kyungnam University

Hyodong Woo, University of Seoul

Adventure tourism, a burgeoning niche of the sport tourism industry, may provide economic

and social enhancements for regions with desirable natural resources (Buckley, 2006). Recent

research has begun to paint a picture of adventure tourism, as well as participant characteristics

and motivations (Lamoureux et al., 2010; D.K. Schifflett & Assoc., 2012). These studies

describe adventure tourists as primarily younger, with higher education levels than other types of

tourists. Such a clientele is likely to seek information about the destination to which they are

travelling. Accordingly, the adventure travel industry establishes rankings for destinations

(Adventure Travel Trade Assoc. [ATTA], 2012), based on criteria designed to measure the

image, desirability, and social impacts of tourism for the host community. These criteria include

factors such as: safety, humanitarianism, infrastructure, image, and cultural resources, among

others. These rankings, however, are performed on the national level and cannot account for

regional variance in tourist characteristics, preferences, and priorities. Practitioners require valid

information at the local level to prioritize planning initiatives. The purpose of this study was to

describe adventure tourists at an emerging destination in the southeastern United States and

elucidate their tourism preferences and priorities.

Methods

This study was conducted at the RiverRocks festival held annually in Chattanooga. This

weeks-long festival involves a host of outdoor events and races at locations across the county,

including: kayak/paddle boarding race, 50k trail run, bouldering competition, Reel Rocks film

tour, and other family activities. Volunteers utilized a randomized stint sampling method to

collect responses from people either participating in or spectating at 5 high profile RiverRocks

events. A total of 186 surveys were collected from visitors. The survey included socio-

demographic items (gender, age, education, and income) and 13 items regarding initiatives to

promote tourism in the region based on criteria used in national-level research (ATTA, 2012).

Visitors were asked, “Would these initiatives encourage you to visit the Chattanooga area more

often?” Then visitors marked five point likert scale items, 1 = no, 5 = absolutely, corresponding

to the 13 following descriptions, “more events like RiverRocks”, “a better greenway system

(bike trails, etc.)”, “a better general infrastructure (road, services)”, “better access to equipment

for outdoor activities”, “a more vibrant downtown”, “a more unique local character/charm”, “less

crime”, “more cultural/artistic activities”, “more environmental initiatives (sustainability,

protected areas)”, “local residents who were more accepting”, “better equality for residents (race,

gender, orientation, etc.)”, and “a more tolerant culture.” Exploratory factor analysis, descriptive

analyses and bivariate correlation analyses were conducted using SPSS.

Results

The majority of visitors were White (88.5%), mean age was early 40s (M = 41.92, SD =

13.12), and gender, evenly split (51.6% male, 48.4% female). Forty percent of visitors completed

a college education, 20.2% of visitors received a master’s degree, and 11.2% received a doctoral

degree. Exploratory factor analysis resulted in a factor (KMO value = .931, eigenvalue above 1,

factor loadings from .634 to .890). Thus two descriptive analyses for male and female visitors

with descending means was conducted. The top five initiatives for male visitors were: 1) more

events (M = 4.00, SD = 1.24), 2) vibrant downtown (M = 3.87, SD = 1.23), 3) unique local

character (M = 3.78, SD = 1.29), 4) less crime (M = 3.70, SD = 1.42), 5) cultural/artistic activities

(M = 3.66, SD = 1.29). The highest five priorities for female visitors included: 1) more events (M

= 3.83, SD = 1.31), 2) vibrant downtown (M = 3.62, SD = 1.22), 3) information about outdoor

activities (M = 3.60, SD = 1.26), 4) unique local character (M = 3.58, SD = 1.32), 5) less crime

(M = 3.51, SD = 1.52).

Bivariate correlation analyses indicated that among male visitors, age was significantly

negatively associated with information about outdoor activities (r = -.24, p < .05) and vibrant

downtown (r = -.29, p < .01), and income was significantly negatively associated with better

access to equipment for outdoor activities (r = -.35, p < .01). Among female visitors, age was

significantly negatively associated with information about outdoor activities (r = -.22, p < .05),

better access to equipment for outdoor activities (r = -.32, p < .01), environmental initiatives (r =

-.30, p < .01), and equality for residents (r = -.25, p < .05).

Discussion

Compared with other research (Lamoureux, et al., 2010) the sample in this study was older

(M= 42 versus 35) and more educated (71% college graduates versus 63%), but demonstrated a

similar gender ratio. Although a bivariate correlation indicated that older male visitors cared less

about a vibrant downtown, special events and a vibrant downtown were the top two preferred

initiatives regardless of gender. This highlights the multifaceted experience sought after by

adventure tourists. While outdoor amenities are their main reason for travel, they also enjoy

exploring a vibrant urban environment. Male visitors prioritized safety, infrastructure (e.g. less

crime, better general infrastructure) and culture (e.g. unique local character, cultural/artistic

activities, more tolerant residents), whereas female visitors prioritized information about outdoor

activities and humanitarianism (e.g. environmental initiatives, and equality for residents). Older

female visitors, however, reported a lower priority for humanitarian concerns. These findings,

based on established criteria (ATDI, 2011), illustrate priorities for management and marketing to

promote adventure tourism in this specific region.

This study also found that as both male and female visitors aged, information about outdoor

activities dropped in priority. This may be due to previous experience with the activity and/or the

region of travel. It could also be indicative of a lack of desire for novel experiences with age

(Lepp & Gibson, 2003). In addition, wealthier males and older females had less need of access to

equipment for outdoor activities. More than likely, older, wealthier tourists can afford their own

equipment and have the ability to bring it with them.

Implications for Practice

This study provides insight into the adventure tourism market and a comparison of regional

data with that of a national scope. The findings suggest that regional data generally agree with

broad market reports, but regional reports may be a better guide for specific planning priorities.

Such information empowers practitioners to implement initiatives that enhance experiences for

both tourists and residents. The main priorities identified in this study (more special events and a

vibrant downtown) could certainly be mutually beneficial to tourists and residents. Neither of

these priorities was identified in the other literature cited. When combined with tourism impact

studies, these descriptive reports provide valuable information for planners seeking to allocate

funds and resources.

Andrew Bailey, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, (423) 425-2125, Andrew-

Bailey@utc.edu

Selected References

Adventure Travel Trade Association [ATTA]. (2012). Adventure Tourism Development Index.

Washington, DC: Adventure Travel Trade Association.

D.K. Shifflet & Associates, Ltd. (2012). 2012 Tennessee visitor profile (pp. 1–75). Retrieved

from http://www.tnvacation.com/industry/uploads/174/2012-TN-Visitor-Profile-Web.pdf

Lamoureux, K., Duverger, P., & Martin, N. (2010). Adventure Tourism market report (pp. 1–15).

George Washington University: Adventure Travel Trade Association.

Lepp, A., & Gibson, H. (2003). Tourist roles, perceived risk, and international tourism. Annals of

Tourism Research, 30(3), 606–624.

USING SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS TO UNDERSTAND ORGANIZATIONAL

COLLABORATIONS

Martha Barnes, Brock University, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies

The delivery of community recreational and sport opportunities is increasingly reliant on an

organization’s ability to pursue, manage and sustain partnerships, linkages, and other

collaborative strategies (Boase, 2000; Thibault, Kikulis & Frisby, 2002; Cousens, Barnes,

Stevens, Mallen & Bradish, 2006). This shift in delivery approach is also being advanced by

policy makers who continue to emphasize the need to move beyond institutional silos when

addressing complex societal issues and governments who have recognized the value of

collaborations when undertaking capital infrastructure development (Simmonds, 2000). When

considered together, it becomes evident that community recreation and sport organizations must

first understand how they operate within a broader context to then be able to strengthen their

position as a valuable community asset.

Networks, sometimes referred to as councils and/or coalitions are focused on problem-

solving complicated issues, across sector boundaries, and allow for the measurement of multiple

linkages. Social network analysis (SNA), which is embedded in network theory, allows the

examination of relationships among organizations or individuals and the patterns and

implications of these relationships (Wausserman & Fraust, 1994). SNA can have multiple

purposes (i.e. as a statistical tool, a theoretical framework, and/or a form of coordination and

governance) (Lewis, 2006). As institutional structures of community recreation and sport

organizations vary (i.e. municipal government type to grassroots), so do networks. For example,

networks can mimic formal institutions with hierarchies and objectives or in comparison;

networks can replicate an informal arrangement where an invisible structure with few specific

objectives guide the work (Ziakas & Costa, 2010). The value of SNA is that it allows us to

understand and quantify the collaborative relationships that shape the delivery of community

recreation in our communities. Examples of collaborative action include the sharing of

information, referrals, and resources (i.e. facilities space, staff, etc.), joint marketing strategies,

legitimacy and fundraising initiatives (Amis & Slack, 2003; Provan et al., 2005; Stockdale &

Williams, 2007). Once providers understand how collaborations work, they can develop

strategies to establish and/or strengthen key collaborative relationships.

Methods

To illustrate the use of SNA in understanding collaborations, a subset (swimming) of a larger

research study which examined collaboration in community recreation and sport (i.e. basketball

and swimming) in Ontario, Canada is used. Provan et al.’s (2005) survey which assessed the

level of coordination amongst chronic disease providers was adapted to reflect a community

sport context. For the study, linkages were operationalized as sharing information, resources,

marketing, and fundraising – all collaborative strategies that can strengthen recreation and sport

delivery. Swimming providers were identified in multiple ways: contacting key individuals;

researching regional websites; and linking with the contact for the swim network group that

operated in the region of twelve municipalities. Surveys were collected in paper format, and

electronically through a web-based platform (i.e. survey monkey). The response rate was 75%

(18 out of a possible 24 organizations involved in swimming) satisfying the statistical

requirements suggested by Provan and Milward (2001). Measures of density and centrality were

computed using the network software program Ucinet 6, (Borgatti et al., 2002) and then the

relationships were mapped using NetDraw.

Findings

Organizations in this network included the lifesaving society (n=1), dedicated swim

programs (profit and non-profit) (n=5), municipalities (n=8), a YMCA (n=1), higher education

(n=1), a health organization (n=1), and a regional aquatics group (n=1). Figure 1 and 2 illustrate

the data for how the organizations in the network shared resources and shared information,

respectively. Each organization is represented by a circle; and lines connecting circles (i.e.

organizations) indicate relationships. In other words, the lines illustrate which organizations

share resources and/or information. But, the network maps also illustrate how organizations

interact. For example, shorter lines linking organizations indicate a denser and more connected

network with an easier pattern of sharing. As well, the large circles (i.e. actors/organizations)

indicate multiple relationships which translate into a powerful, central position in the network.

Organizations which hold these central positions tend to function as gatekeepers for the overall

network. The results of Figure 1 indicate that there are three main actors/organizations (higher

education, the lifesaving society, and a regional aquatics group) that control much of the

resources in the network. There is also very little evidence of inter-sectoral, and/or inter-

municipal collaboration given the high number of non-reciprocal relationships. In other words, in

a region with 12 municipalities in close proximity, there is little sharing of resources. Figure 2

illustrates how information is shared and depicts a situation where the key actors are not as

prominent and there is much more communication occurring between between municipalities.

Figure 2 also illustrates a clear separation between municipalities and swim programs. To

strengthen the relationships between actors/organizations in this network, it is important to start

encouraging actors/organizations to share information and resources with each other – and not to

rely on the key actors/organizations to do all their communicating and brokering for them.

Discussion and Implications

By examining the ways in which organizations link with other organizations using SNA,

valuable insights are gained and strategic directions can be identified. A key finding with this

work is that the same organizations can behave in different ways based on the linkage (i.e.

information versus resources). For example, with respect to swimming, municipalities do not

tend to share resources with other municipalities, but municipalities do share information. The

implications of SNA lie in its ability to translate statistical analysis into user friendly maps which

can be shared with community groups, organizations, and network members as a starting point in

discussing collaborations and then strengthening collaborations. Leading scholars in the area of

SNA have found this step in the research process to be essential to strengthening networks

(Provan et al., 2004). When organizations see their network visually, they can see which

organizations are on the outskirts (far from the largest circle), which organizations are the central

actor(s), and to what extent linkages are being shared. It also becomes apparent where there are

weaknesses and/or gaps in the network that can be addressed.

Dr. Martha Barnes, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock University, 905-688-

5550, 5011, e-mail: mbarnes@brocku.ca.

Figure 1: Shared Resources

Figure 2: Shared Information

Selected References

Amis, J., & Slack, T. (2002). Values and organizational change. Journal of Applied Behavioral

Sciences, 38(4), 436–465.

Boase, J.P. (2000). Beyond government? The appeal of public-private partnerships. Canadian

Public Administration, 43(1), 75–92.

Borgatti, S.P., Everett, M.G., & Freeman, E.C. (2002). Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social

Network Analysis. Analytic Technologies, Harvard.

Cousens, L., Barnes, M., Bradish, C., Mallen, C., & Stevens, J. (2006). Who’s your partner?

Who’s your ally? Exploring the characteristics of public, private and voluntary recreation

linkages. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 24(1), 32–55.

Lewis, J. (2006). Being around and knowing the players: networks of influence in health policy.

Social Science and Medicine, 62, 2125–2136.

Provan, K., & Milward, H. B. (2001). Do networks really work? A framework for evaluating

public-sector organizational networks. Public Administrative Review, 61(4), 414-423.

Provan, K., Veazie, M., Teufel-Shone, N., & Huddleston, C. (2004). Network analysis as a tool

for assessing and building community capacity for provision of chronic disease services.

Health Promotion Practice, 2, 174-181.

Provan, K., Veazie, M., Staten, L., & Teufel-Shone, N. (2005). The use of network analysis to

strengthen community partnerships. Public Administration Review, 65(5), 603–613.

Simmonds, B. (2000). Trends in public/private sector partnerships. Journal of Leisure Property,

1(1), 66-74.

Stockdale, S., & Williams, S. (2007). Leading a small business? No, it’s a rugby club! Industrial

and Commercial Training, 39(6), 339–342.

Thibault, L., Kikulis, L., & Frisby, W. (2002). Partnerships between local government sport and

leisure departments and the commercial sector: Changes, complexities, and

consequences. In T. Slack (Ed.), The Commercialization of Sport (pp.119-140). Essex,

UK: Frank Cass.

Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications.

Cambridge University Press, New York.

Ziakas, V., & Costa, C. (2010). Explicating inter-organizational linkages of a host community’s

events network. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 1(2), 132–147.

CULTURAL YOUTH DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN

GIRLS

Aishia Brown, Doctoral Candidate, Texas A&M University

Corliss Outley, PhD, Associate Professor, Texas A&M University

Harrison Pinckney, PhD, Assistant Professor, Clemson University

Introduction

Many African American (AA) youth face challenges (i.e., poverty, violence, racism,etc.,)

during their development (Pinckney, et al., 2011). As a result, since the 1970s many parents,

educators, religious leaders and youth leaders have turned to Afrocentric Rites of Passage (ROP)

programs to prepare youth to transition from childhood to young adulthood through positive

cultural identity development (West-Olatunji et al., 2008). These programs have typically

followed the general model described by Genepp (1960). ROP programs are seen as a powerful

means to provide an alternative path of socialization that neutralizes the negative patterns

induced by the social forces that continue to marginalize AA youth in U.S. society. Within this

process ROP programs serve to cultivate an understanding of, and commitment to, values and

behaviors that can foster positive outcomes for both the individual and his/her reference group.

Although there are several sources from which the values that are promoted through ROP

programs have been drawn, Afrocentric thought is the most widely used framework for values

education within ROPs serving AA youth. This framework adopts Africa and African concepts

as the focal point of the belief system (Warfield-Coppock, 1990). One feature of Afrocentric

thought is the interconnection with the ancestral past and the importance of relationships within

the family, community and ethnic group. However, there is not a great deal of research on the

ways in which these relationships inform positive identity development among AA girls in ROP

programs. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence youth-adult relationships in

ROP programs have on the identity development of AA girls.

Methods

Efforts were made to choose programs in the US with varied characteristics including

mission/goals, program size, training type, adult-youth leadership relationships, geographic

classification, and funding level. Data was collected during Fall of 2012 with ten sites located in

Houston, TX (2); Dallas, TX; Harlem, NY; Newark, NJ; Atlanta, GA; Miami, FL; Queen Creek,

AZ; Stamford, CT and Little Rock, AK were identified. Fourteen focus groups with AA girls

aged 8 – 18 years old were conducted to provide insight on the meaning and quality of staff and

participant interactions.

Results

Three themes related to the development of positive identity were identified. Promotion of

Positive Relationships. All of the ROP programs that participated in the study incorporated

specific activities to foster positive youth-adult relationships for all youth. On ROP participant

described her adult leaders by saying: “The women are so welcoming and loving, and caring.

Nurturing, just wonderful people. You can be down and they know exactly what’s wrong. They

actually treat you like you belong here and you’re here for a reason, not just another person

would.” The importance of peer relationships were emphasized as well. Another youth

participant spoke about both the relationship she had with her peers in the program as well as her

relationship with the adult leaders: “Okay, for me, I really enjoy Rites of Passage because I’m an

only child,…It was nice being in a program where you can just talk, and you know that someone

is going to listen, and someone is going to help you.” The development of positive relationships

with both peers and adults in the program was shown to occur through the connection of

common experiences and issues throughout their development. Understanding of Cultural

History. A number of the ROP programs focused on African-American and African history

lessons. African history was used as a tool by adult leaders to engage the youth on positive

identity development. “I learned more about African History, social skills, entrepreneurship,

leadership skills, and fundraising skills.” Another participant said, “I learned more about myself,

and I got to travel to Africa.” These history lessons fostered an understanding of not only the

African diaspora which indicates that all people of African descent are connected in some way,

but it also provided the girls in the program to reflect on who they are based on their ancestors

and to reject negative stereotypes. One participants stated, “I learned to be who I am because

who I am is a very great person. I come from a great people and should not be ashamed of it.”

Development of Self. The girls in the ROP programs had a great deal to say about how their

participation in the program has influenced how they view themselves. One participant reported,

“It gave me a sense of who I am and what I am really worth. It helped to build my self

confidence and to learn to trust others because these friendships and bonds can last for a

lifetime” and “It helped me with peer pressure and helped me to learn how to respect myself.”

Many of the study participants were able to reflect on their development of self and how it was

informed and/or fostered by the adult leaders in their program. It is specifically important to shed

light on how they spoke about the transformations they went through due to their program

participation.

Discussion

As African-American girls transition into adulthood, they face many challenges in relation to

the positive development of their identities. The influence of the mass media as well as peers

shape the ways in which young African-American girls view themselves and each other

(Pinckney, et al., 2011. The results of this study showed that African-American girls are

constantly negotiating their identities but also learning from the adults in their lives about the

importance of viewing oneself in a positive light. With this being said, one could argue that these

youth-adult relationships serve as a protective factor for many African-American girls (Rhodes,

2004). These relationships also assist African-American girls in their transition into adulthood by

providing them with spaces to discuss and foster positive ideals of self and each other. In

conclusion, based on the experiences of African-American girls in recreational ROP programs,

positive relationships, understanding of cultural history, and the development of self all

contribute to positive identity development.

Implications for Practice

Knowledge of self and culture is crucial for youth to develop in order to face the many

challenges that exist in their lives (Pinckney, et al., 2011). However, many African American

youth experience low levels of Black identity and until this identity is enhanced, youth may

develop a negative sense of self and could possibly internalize some of the negative images

presented to them by the media. This shows how critical understanding your cultural background

and developing a positive view of oneself is to the development of African American youth.

Afrocentric Rites of Passage programs can help promote cultural awareness and affirming

identities among African American youth.

Aishia Brown, Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University,

College Station, TX, (979) 845-5330, aishia.brown@tamu.edu

Selected References

Gennep, A. (1960). Rites of passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Pinckney IV, H., Outley, C., Blake, J., & Kelly, B. (2011). Promoting positive youth

development of black youth: A rites of passage framework. Journal of Park and

Recreation Administration, 29(1), 98-112.

Rhodes, J. E. (2004). The critical ingredient: Caring youth‐staff relationships in after‐school

settings. New Directions for Youth Development, 2004(101), 145-161.

Rhodes, J. E., Spencer, R., Keller, T. E., Liang, B., & Noam, G. (2006). A model for the

influence of mentoring relationships on youth development. Journal of Community

Psychology, 34(6), 691-707.

Warfield-Coppock, N. (1992). The rites of passage movement: A resurgence of African-centered

practices for socializing African American youth. Journal of Negro Education, 471-482.

West‐Olatunji, C. I. R. E. C. I. E., Shure, L., Garrett, M. T., Conwill, W., & Rivera, E. T. (2008).

Rite of Passage Programs as Effective Tools for Fostering Resilience Among Low‐

Income African American Male Adolescents. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling,

Education and Development, 47(2), 131-143.

THE ROLE OF TRAVEL CONDITIONS IN ORGANIZING SPORT EVENTS

Richard Buning, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis

Heather Gibson, University of Florida

As traveling to and hosting amateur sports events has grown over the past decade scholarly

and practitioner attention has similarly developed. In particular, events for running, cycling and

triathlon have become popular. Getz (2008) advanced the concept of the event travel career to

help researchers in this area extend our understanding of the motives and travel behaviors

associated with this style of physically active leisure. Drawing on the concepts of serious leisure

(Stebbins, 1992) and travel careers (Pearce, 2005), Getz suggested these event travel careers are

likely to be characterized by an evolution in motivations and preferences for event participation

and associated patterns of travel. Developing this idea further, Buning and Gibson (2015)

advanced the term Active Sport Event Travel Career (ASETC) in the context of event cycling

which they defined “as a career like pattern of involvement and commitment to event-related

travel and participation in physically active sport events, which leads to progression through time

in regards to motivations, preferences, and modified behavior” (pp.3-4.). Buning and Gibson

(2015) found that individual travel behavior was more dependent on travel conditions rather than

career progression. Travel conditions are the circumstances surrounding a particular trip such as

traveling with family or the travel distance associated with a specific event or destination

characteristics of the community hosting the event. Previous research on amateur athletes

suggests event criteria are paramount while destination criteria are relatively unimportant in

influencing event-travel and choosing to participate in a specific event. (Bull, 2006; Chalip &

McGurity, 2004). The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of travel conditions on

preferred event participation choices and travel behavior utilizing a mixed methods design.

Methods

Following the development of a grounded theory model using a qualitative approach, the

current study investigated ASETCs through quantitative methods. Two research questions were

posed: (1) Does the presence of a non-cycling travel companion or travel distance change

preferences for participation in a particular event or the associated destination characteristics? (2)

Does the presence of a non-cycling travel companion change preferences for travel style? A

questionnaire was developed consisting of items identified in the qualitative phase and adapted

from Getz & McConnell (2011) measuring preferences for event-related (22-items), destination-

related (10-items), and travel-style characteristics (12-items). The questionnaire was distributed

on-line to an international sample of amateur cyclists using social networks, organizational

affiliations, and industry associations. A sample of n=1190 responses from 49 states and eight

countries resulted. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 85 (M=52.03, SD=13.446) and 1 month

to 60 years of cycling travel experience (M=12.42, SD=9.97). Analysis consisted of three steps.

Results

First, a series of repeated measure one-way ANOVAs were conducted to compare the

preferred event characteristics (22-items) across three travel conditions: (1) traveling solo/with

other cyclists, (2) traveling with non-cyclists, and (3) traveling more than four hours one-way.

The differences in the event items based on travel conditions were statistically significant for 21

of the 22 event items. 21 of the event items were rated as less important when traveling with

non-cyclists as only the single item ‘a recommendation to attend the event from someone I trust’

was higher when traveling with non-cyclists. Further, five items were rated as the most important

when traveling more than four hours one-way. Second, a series of repeated measure ANOVAs

were conducted to compare preferred destination characteristics (10-items) across the three travel

conditions. The differences in the destination items based on the travel conditions were

statistically significant for 9 of the 10 the items except the single item ‘the destination is scenic’,

F (1, 622) = 2.79, p=.096. Pairwise comparisons revealed four items were more important when

traveling with non-cyclists and four items were rated as more important when traveling more

than four hours one-way. Lastly, a paired samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the changes in

travel style preferences (12-items) across two travel conditions: with a non-cycling travel

companion and solo/with other cyclists. A significant difference at the p<.05 level was found

between the travel conditions for 10 of the travel style items. Six of the travel style items (e.g.,

luxury lodging, visit family/friends) were rated as more important when traveling with non-

cyclists, while four items were rated as more important when traveling solo/with other cyclists

(e.g., ability to drive to the event, combine with a vacation)

Discussion

Contrary to previous research (Getz, 2008; Getz & McConnell, 2011 the current study found

travel behavior is more of an outcome related to the conditions associated with the travel rather

than career progression. The results indicated an individual’s event, destination, and travel style

preferences are dependent on whether he or she was traveling with a non-cyclist (e.g., family)

and the distance traveled. For example, several event preferences were less important when

traveling with non-cyclists and more important when traveling more than four hours (e.g.,

website quality, event/course safety). Still, when participants were traveling solo or with cyclists,

they favored other event preferences (e.g., low fees, scenery) compared to other travel

conditions. Thus, individuals tend to diminish the importance of some event attributes when

traveling with non-cyclists, but become more critical of certain event attributes when traveling

further away from home. Although, Getz and McConnell (2011) argue attractive destinations

have “a comparative advantage”, the findings here suggest attractive destinations only become

advantageous if the participants are traveling with non-cyclists or longer distances. The majority

of destination preferences except scenery, terrain, and safety became more important when

traveling with non-cyclists or more than four hours. Travel style was largely dependent on travel

conditions as participants altered their travel style to accommodate the interests of a non-cyclist.

If participants were traveling solo/with other cyclists, they preferred traveling with friends,

budget lodging, and driving. However, once a non-cyclist was added, the participants shifted

their travel style towards luxury accommodations and staying with friends or family.

Implications for Practice

Events and destinations should seek to market and organize events in regards to the family

dynamics and experience of their potential participants. Destination and event managers seeking

to expand the travel distance of their potential participants should focus on the identified event

characteristics (e.g., uniqueness) that promote this behavior. Further, if destination and event

managers are seeking to increase the economic impact of their event then it should be organized

and marketed to individuals traveling with non-cyclists (e.g., family members). For individuals

travelling with non-cyclists, attractive destination criteria is often more important than event

characteristics so events should be not only be organized around the participants, but also their

companions. Communities seeking to attract tourists should leverage participatory sport events

as a form of sustainable tourism and community development.

Richard J. Buning, Tourism, Conventions, and Event Management, Indiana University – Purdue

University Indianapolis, IN, rbuning1@gmail.com.

Selected References

Bull, C. J. (2006). Racing cyclists as sports tourists: The experiences and behaviours of a case

study group of cyclists in East Kent, England. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 11, 259-274.

Buning, R. J. & Gibson, H. J. (2015). The evolution of active sport event travel careers. Journal

of Sport Management. doi: dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2014-0215.

Chalip, L., & McGuirty, J. (2004). Bundling sport events with the host destination. Journal of

Sport & Tourism, 9, 267-282.

Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: Definition, evolution, and research. Tourism Management, 29,

403-428.

Getz, D., & McConnell, A. (2011). Serious sport tourism and event travel careers. Journal of

Sport Management, 25, 326-338.

Stebbins, R. A. (1992). Amateurs, professionals, and serious leisure. Buffalo, NY: McGill-

Queen's University Press.

Pearce, P. L. (2005). Tourist behaviour: Themes and conceptual schemes. Buffalo, NY: Channel

view publications.

SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS SUPPORTING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF PARKS

Kaowen Chang, National Chiayi University

Hungju Chien, National Chiayi University

Following with the advance of technology, the need for body movements has reduced

significantly. While enjoying the convenience, lifestyles have tended to become sedentary. Based

on the survey of World Health Organization (WHO) (2013), the lack of physical activity is the

fourth risk factor for mortality globally; causing estimated over 3 million deaths every year.

Participating in regular medium level activities such as walking and bicycling can promote

health, reduce the chance to suffer from cardiac disease, diabetes, colon cancer, metabolic

syndrome, and depressive disorder as well as the risk of bone fracture. Based on the social

ecological research framework, studies have indicated how the physical environments can create

constrains and chances for people to perform physical activity. Parks and green spaces are vital

environments for residential quality. However, from the angle of park planning and design, more

research efforts are needed for the catch of spatial principles and pattern languages that can

provide park professionals information to achieve parks’ role as a supportive setting promoting

health behaviors. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the park design factors that

relate to healthy behavior in populated, mixed-use urban environments. Based on individual

responses to environmental information, this study explored the park space characteristics that

influence physical activity. It targeted on investigating the association between the spatial

characteristics regarding park planning and design and the function of activity magnitude and

participation.

Methods

Based on the research design, the data collection had two parts. One was the collection of

physical activity performance. This part used SOPARC (System for Observing Play and

Recreation in Communities) (McKenzie, 2006), which was a triangulation survey method,

conducting non-participatory, structured, direct, naturalistic observation and momentary time

sampling technique. This tool was designed to catch the behavioral characteristics of performed

physical activities in park settings. The other part of the collection focused on the corresponding

spatial characteristics in parks. This part referenced EAPRS (Environmental Assessment of

Public Recreation Spaces) (Saelens et al., 2006) to develop the space survey instrument. The

purpose was to select the effective park design factors for health benefit in dense urban

environment. The result might contribute to the practices of park planning and design for healthy

environment.

In total, 18 parks were surveyed with 220 identified target areas. The sampled parks were

located in Chiayi, Taiwan. Based on the park condition, the investigators selected items from

EAPR, such as the activity facility features, accessibility features, maintenance condition,

microclimate data, regional population, land use, automotive transportation, terrain, vegetation,

and other items to record the park content information. The parks’ 2D site plans were constructed

in AutoCAD 2014 and ArcGIS10 was used for analyses. The spatial characteristics included

such as shape, size, view shed, openness, connectedness and other spatial features.

Physical activities were recorded using counters and SOPARC coding form that included

gender (female, male), age group (child, teen, adult, senior), and activity level (sedentary,

walking, vigorous). Spatial Correlation technique was used to analyze the associations between

the characteristics of the target areas in park settings and physical activities conducted.

Results and Discussions

The findings showed that waking in a corridor shape space was the physical activity mostly

performed by adults and seniors in park settings. Park users demanded for paved path in a

relatively opened space for fast waking as exercise. Also outdoor training and stretch facilities

were highly used by adults. The area of parks positively associated with the diversity of activity

types and area was also a significant factor for activity magnitude. The larger the park area the

higher the potential vigorous activity was performed by adults in the park. Children and the

young often performed physical activities in their plays or social activities in groups around

playground or square shape area with shade. Whether the design could create comfortable

microclimate, especially on the atmosphere temperature, showed an effect on the use of the space

for physical activity.

Because vegetation was an important landscape element that forms and shapes spaces, the

arrangement of vegetation could relate to multiple spatial characteristics such as brightness,

connectedness, openness, naturalness, and sense of privacy that can have influences on people’s

choice for physical activity. The openness of the space was related to the type of the physical

activity performed. Openness was not always a preferred spatial characteristic for conducting

physical activity. Spaces that had a proper spatial scale with approximately half visibility from

other people may keep a sense of privacy and thus indicated higher potential for a small group

and an individual’s choice than the space that was completely exposed. Park facilities that

provided clues of physical activities, such as outdoor training equipment, effectively increased

the diversity of activity types and magnitude levels in a non-corridor shape target area. If the

maintenance condition was above average, the findings showed no difference for the space

choice. Parks that surrounded by major roads receive more park users, wilder age spectrum, and

more diverse activity types during the night time than the parks surrounded by minor roads.

Implications for Practice People are sensitive to environment. When planning and design a park space, professionals

may consider designing: (1) linear corridor shape space to promote prevalent walking, running,

and biking activity; (2) vegetation also as the instrument to mitigate the microclimate factors; (3)

spaces with a balance with the sense of privacy and openness; (4) equipment to provide

resources that correspond with popular activities and create opportunities for the new and fresh

activities to engage people to use parks as their health fort.

Kaowen Chang, Landscape Architecture Department, National Chiayi University, Chiayi City,

Taiwan, +886-5-2717581, kaowen@mail.ncyu.edu.tw

Selected References

Chang, C.Y., Perng, J.L. 1998. Effect of landscape on psychological and physical responses.

Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture 9, 73-76.

Kaczynski, T.A., Henderson, K.A. 2008. Parks and recreation settings and active living: a review

of associations with physical activity function and intensity. Journal of Physical Activity

and Health, 5, 619-632.

Lee, S.W., Ellis, C.D., Kweon, B.S., Hong, S.K. 2008. Relationship between landscape structure

and neighborhood satisfaction in urbanized areas. Landscape and Urban Planning 85, 60-

70.

Maas, J., Verheij, R.A., Groenewegen, P.P., Vries, S.d., Spreeuwenberg, P. 2006. Green space,

urbanity, and health: how strong is the relation? Journal of Epidemiology and Community

Health 60, 587-592.

McKenzie, T.L., Cohen, D.A., Sehgal, A., Williamson, S., Golinelli, D. 2006. System for

Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC):Reliability and Feasibility

Measures. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 3, Suppl 1, S208-S222.

Saelens, B.E., Frank, L.D., Auffrey, C., Whitaker, R.C., Burdette, H.L., Colabianchi, N. 2006.

Measuring physical environments of parks and playgrounds: EAPRS instrument

development and inter-rater reliability. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 3, Suppl 1,

S190-S207.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001. Healthy People 2010. McLean, VA-

International Medical Publishing, Inc.

World Health Organization. 2010. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health.

Geneva, Switzerland- WHO Press.

IMPACTS OF WORK-RELATED SMARTPHONE USE ON WORK-LEISURE

CONFLICT, STRESS, & SATISFACTION

Chun-Chu Chen, University of Idaho

Julie Son, University of Idaho

Erik Luvaas, University of Idaho

There is little research on technology’s impact on leisure behavior and work-life balance,

although this topic has received attention in mass media outlets. The wireless connectivity

facilitated by the smartphone coupled with its enhanced functionality has changed how, when

and where employees communicate and complete work-related tasks (Derks, van Mierlo, &

Schmitz, 2014). In order to meet the increasing expectations from employers and customers

regarding availability, many employees feel obligated to respond promptly to work-related

messages and issues even after hours or weekends (Yun, Kettinger, & Lee, 2012). Therefore,

even though the use of smartphone can potentially contribute to work flexibility and

productivity, more and more employees find it difficult to disconnect themselves from work

(Derks et al., 2014; Yun et al., 2012). This phenomenon has implications for leisure and work-

life balance.

Several negative impacts of work-related smartphone use on the workplace as well as the

family and personal life have been identified (Derks & Bakker, 2012). Many smartphone users

engage in continual communication and monitoring, which might lead to work overload and

stress (Yun et al., 2012). As an increasing number of people use smartphone for work purposes

after hours or on weekends, another downside of smartphone use is that it blurs the boundary

between work and non-work domains, which might obstruct the process of stress recovery and

pose challenges in managing work-life balance (Derks et al., 2014).

This research intends to examine the impacts of work-related smartphone use on work-leisure

conflict, work stress, and life satisfaction. As shown in Figure 1, it is hypothesized that work

overload due to smartphone use should contribute to the work conflict with leisure, and then lead

to increased work stress and decreased life satisfaction. This research also examines a potential

solution for this issue. Organizations can establish a strong segmentation culture that helps

employees detach themselves from work demands. It is thus hypothesized that segmentation

culture should have a mitigating effect on the negative impacts of smartphone use.

Methods

A total of six variables were assessed in this study using existing scales, including: (1) the

work overload due to smartphone use and segmentation culture scales adopted from Yun et

al.(2012), (2) the time-based and strain-based work conflict with leisure scales adopted from

Tsaur, Liang, and Hsu (2012), (3) the work stress scale adopted from Fritz and Sonnentag

(2006), and (4) the life satisfaction scale from Diener, Emmons, and Larson (1985). Regarding

sampling, Taiwanese smartphone users who were aged 18 to 54 were considered to be the target

population. In order to obtain a representative sample, respondents were selected from a survey

company’s database based on their gender, age, and residence. As a result, a total of 500

respondents completed the survey from May to June, 2014.

Results

As can be seen from Figure 1, two structural models were established. The first model

included time-based work-leisure conflict as the mediator between two predictors (work

overload and segmentation culture) and two outcome variables (work stress and life satisfaction).

The second model had strain-based work-leisure conflict as the mediator with the same

predictors and outcome variables. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) showed

that work overload due to smartphone use had significant effects on time-based work conflict

with leisure (β=.53; p<.001) and strain-based work conflict with leisure (β=.55; P<.001). It was

also found that work-leisure conflict increased work stress (time-based: β=.51; P<.001; strain-

based: β=.24; P<.001) and decreased life satisfaction (time-based: β=-.19; P<.001; strain-based:

β=-.25; P<.001). Overall, the total effects of work overload on stress were found to be greater

(time-based: β=.27; strain-based: β=.42) than the total effects of work overload on life

satisfaction (time-based: β=-.10; strain-based: β=-.14). Moreover, the proposed mitigating effects

of segmentation culture on the negative impacts of work-related smartphone use were

demonstrated. The results showed that segmentation culture also had greater total effects on

work stress (time-base: β=-.10; strain-based: β=-.11) than life satisfaction (time-base: β=.04;

strain-based: β=.04).

Discussion

Given the proliferation of smartphone use as well as the potential problems of work-related

smartphone use after work (Derks et al., 2014; Yun et al., 2012), this research examined the

impacts of work-related smartphone use on work-leisure conflict, work stress, and life

satisfaction. Derived from a sample of 500 Taiwanese employees aged 18 to 54, the research

findings showed that the extra workload resulting from smartphone use can prevent employees

from participating in leisure activities, leading to increased work stress and decreased life

satisfaction. It was also found that the negative impacts of work-related smartphone use can be

mitigated by establishing a work-home segmentation culture in the organization.

Implications for Practice

These findings have several implications. First, as leisure and recreation scholars have made

concerted efforts to examine how the use of free time can contribute to an individual’s health and

wellness (Bowen, Driver, & Peterson, 1992), this research further demonstrates that the extra

workload resulting from smartphone use can be a serious drain on our free time, which deserves

further investigation. Moreover, since an organization’s policies and culture can be an important

factor influencing how employees use their free time, it is argued that future leisure studies

should pay more attention to the conflict between human resources policies and free time use.

Second, it is important for managers and employers to know the dark side of work smartphone

use – it can lead to increased stress and decreased life satisfaction. Both outcomes can eventually

have a negative impact on work productivity (Mughal, Walsh, & Wilding, 1996). It is thus

recommended that every organization should establish a strong segmentation norm to help

employees detach from work demands after hours and on weekends. Finally, the study results

also indicate that it is important for leisure and recreation service providers to encourage people

to be totally unplugged from work when participating in leisure and recreation activities. Further

research should examine other outcome variables such as leisure satisfaction and physical and/or

mental health.

Chun-Chu Chen, Recreation Program, Department of Movement Sciences, University of Idaho,

Moscow, Idaho, (208) 885-7921, bchen@uidaho.edu.

Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework & Results of the Study

Selected References

Bowen, P. J., Driver, B. L., & Peterson, G. L. (1992). Benefits of Leisure. State College, PA:

Venture.

Derks, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). Smartphone use, work-home interference, and burnout: A

diary study on the role of recovery. Applied Psychology, 63(3), 411-440.

Derks, D., van Mierlo, H., & Schmitz, E. B. (2014). A diary study on work-related smartphone

use, psychological detachment and exhaustion: Examining the role of the perceived

segmentation norm. Journal of Organizational Health Psychology, 19(1), 74-84.

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larson, R. J., & Griffin W. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale.

Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75.

Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S. (2006). Recovery, well-being, and performance-related outcomes: The

role of workload and vacation experiences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(4), 936-

945.

Mughal, S., Walsh, J., & Wilding, J. (1996). Stress and work performance: The role of trait

anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 20(6), 685-691.

Tsaur, S.-H., Liang, Y.-W., & Hsu, H.-J. (2012). A multidimensional measurement of work-

leisure conflict. Leisure Sciences, 34(5), 395-416.

Yun, H., Kettinger, W. J., & Lee, C. C. (2012). A new open door: The smartphone’s impact on

work-to-life conflict, stress, and resistance. International Journal of Electronic

Commerce, 16(4), 121-151.

CONSTRAINTS TO PARTICIPATION IN INTRAMURALS: COMPARISON

BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND NON-INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS

Dongwook Cho, Oklahoma State University

Pedro Velasco, Oklahoma State University

Introduction

The expectation of students regarding college life has become an important consideration for

administrators of higher education institutions as the population of college students continues to

increase. In particular, there has been a rise in concerns surrounding healthier lifestyles among

college student populations. Enrollment at higher education institutions in the US was 21 million

in the fall 2011, and is expected to increase to 24 million by 2021. Additionally, enrollment of

international students has been rapidly increasing within these same institutions (Snyder &

Dillow, 2013). As the populations of international students continues to grow within US

colleges, the boundary between international and non-international students is getting smaller.

However, international students have been affected by the various constraints they face in their

college life with regard to education, social relationships, cultural and economic differences, and

ethnic discrimination. Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991) classified the three leisure

constraints factors as interpersonal, intrapersonal or structural leisure constraints in nature.

Interpersonal constraints are connected to interactions through social relationships with others

such as family, friends, coworkers and neighbors. Intrapersonal constraints refer to the

individual’s psychological barriers that arise within the individuals such as personality, attitudes

or moods. Structure constraints include factors such as external conditions, the lack of

opportunities, time barriers or the financial limitations.

Purpose of Study

This research study intends to determine 1) whether differences exist in participation in

competitive activities and experience of intramural activities between international and non-

international student, 2) how leisure constraints (intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural

constraints) affect participation in intramural activities and 3) if there are significant differences

between international and non-international students on leisure constraints to participation in

intramural activities.

Methodology

A total of 291 participants responded this survey on a university campus in southwestern city

in the United Stated during two different periods in 2013. Of these responses, 273 (international:

77, non-international: 196) were deemed useful for this research.

The survey consisted of three main sections comprised of: three participation questions to

determine degree of involvement in competitive leisure activities in general or university

intramural activities; 17 leisure constraints questions; and two demographic questions. Leisure

constraints questions in the instrument were based on the Shifman and colleagues’ (2011)

instruments of leisure constraints that followed Crawfod et al’s (1991) hierarchical model.

Validity of this instrument for the 17 constraints questions was confirmed by a panel of experts

composed of faculty members with experience with constraint research. Reliability was

evaluated by Cronbach alpha which is an accepted method when using the Likert scale. The

researchers employed the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 20 (SPSS 20) to calculate

the internal consistency of the 17 leisure constraints items. Results indicated that these were

reliable (Cronbach’s alpha = 0. 893).

Results

Results revealed that international students had significantly lower frequency of participation

in competitive activities [t (1, 271) = -2.308; p < .05] and lower experience of intramural

activities [t (1, 271) = 2.850; p < .01]. The mean of all three leisure constraints were higher in

international students than non-international students. Five point is the highest leisure constraints

that indicated intrapersonal (international: 2.43, non-international students: 2.06), interpersonal

(international: 2.02, non-international students: 1.89), and structural constraints (international:

2.68, non-international students: 2.16). In addition, international students had significantly higher

intrapersonal [t (1, 271) = 3.049; p < .01] and structural constraints [t (1, 271) = 4.993; p < .001]

than non-international students.

Discussion

The results support that international students have higher constraints to participate in

intramural activities (Shifman et al., 2011; Walker, Jackson & Deng, 2007). Shifman and

colleagues (2011) found that interpersonal constraints were the highest among international

student and they also presented significantly higher intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints in

comparison to non-international students. Walker et al. (2007) found international students had

more constraints of interpersonal and intrapersonal compared to non-international students.

However, results of the research presented in this paper show that structural constraints were the

highest constraints among international students and intrapersonal and structural constraints were

significantly higher when compared with non-international students. Young, Ross and Barcelona

(2003) recommended free instructional sport-specific clinics that would allow international

students to be more comfortable with a particular sport activities and feel less self-conscious to

participate in intramural activities. In addition, international students might need much more time

for their academic responsibilities, and/or work obligations as graduate assistants or student

employees. Administrators would consider reducing international students’ structural constraints

such as providing short duration activity programs or activities that occur later in the evening or

during the weekends. It is important to consider that the study cannot be generalized to the

population of international students in all American colleges, but it does suggest that there need

to be additional research efforts. Further studies should consider researching specific

intrapersonal and structural constraints and how these affect the motivation of international

students to participate in intramural sports. Similar cross-sectional studies through campuses in

other regions of the US are needed to seek out more generalized results in the international

student population in the US.

Implications for practice

The findings and conclusions from this study should be considered by practitioners in the

development of strategies to make intramural sports more attractive and accessible. In some

cases, determining the international population demographics could allow for competitive sports

that would cater to this particular group. However, if the practitioner were to consider the

findings of this study in their programming strategy it would be necessary to survey the

population of participants to determine interest in specific competitive activities. Furthermore,

previous research by the program administrator on the cultural characteristics of the nationalities

with greater representation can give insights to the practitioner as to which sports and activities

could be of interest to the international population.

Dongwook Cho, Leisure Studies, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, (850) 320-5470,

dongwook.cho@okstate.edu

Table 1

Means, Standard Deviation Independent Samples T-Test Scores for Competitive activities and

Experience of Intramural Activities: Comparison International and Non-international Students

International Non-international

Mean SD Mean SD t

Frequency of Competitive activities 2.06 .976 2.37 1.081 -2.308*

Experience of Intramural 1.71 .456 1.54 .500 2.850**

Note: *p < .05; **p < .01; *** p < .001

Table 2

Means, Standard Deviation Independent Samples T-Test Scores for constraints: Comparison

International and Non-international Students

Constraints International Non-international

Mean SD Mean SD t

Intrapersonal 2.429 .947 2.057 .889 3.049**

Interpersonal 2.021 .821 1.889 .755 1.286

Structural 2.680 .765 2.162 .772 4.993***

Note: *p < .05; **p < .01; *** p < .001

Selected References

Artinger, L., Clapham, L., Hunt, C., Meigs, M., Milord, N., Sampson, B., & Forrester, S. (2006).

The social benefits of intramural sports. Naspa Journal,43(1).

Crawford, D. W., Jackson, E. L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure

constraints. Leisure sciences, 13(4), 309-320.

Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, L. (1994). Psychometric theory (3nd ed.). New York: McGraw

Hill.

Reed, J. (2007). Perceptions of the availability of recreational physical activity facilities on a

university campus. Journal of American College Health, 55(4), 189-194.

Rothwell, E., & Theodore, P. (2006). Intramurals and college student development: The role of

intramurals on values clarification. Recreational Sports Journal, 30(1), 46-52.

Shifman, R., Moss, K., D’Andrade, G., Eichel, J., & Forrester, S. (2012). A comparison of

constraints to participation in intramural sports between international and

noninternational students. Recreational Sports Journal, 36(1), 2-12.

Snyder, T. D., & Dillow, S. A. (2013). Digest of education statistics, 2012. NCES 2014-

015. National Center for Education Statistics.

Sturts, J. R., & Ross, C. M. (2013). Collegiate intramural sports participation: Identified social

outcomes. International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation and Tourism, 11, 25-

41.

Walker, G. J., Jackson, E. L., & Deng, J. (2007). Culture and leisure constraints: A comparison

of Canadian and mainland Chinese university students. Journal of Leisure Research.

Young, S. J., Ross, C. M., & Barcelona, R. J. (2003). Perceived constraints by college students to

participation in campus recreational sports programs.Recreational Sports Journal, 27(2),

47-62.

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A NOSTALGIA SCALE FOR SPORT

TOURISM: A MULTILEVEL APPROACH

Heetae Cho, Clemson University

Hong Choi, Missouri Western State University

Kyoung Tae Kim, Southeast Missouri State University

Tae Jun Chon, Soongsil University

Sei-Yi Oh, Soongsil University

The concept of nostalgia is complex and difficult to measure, and emotional perspectives

regarding nostalgia are diverse. Chase and Shaw (1989) mentioned that people have a desire to

return to the past, particularly individuals who live in modern society, as they tend to miss the

past and want to escape from complex and busy environments. In the same context, nostalgia

plays an important role in explaining and understanding consumers and tourists. Havlena and

Holak (1996) and Holak, Havlena, and Matveev (2006) suggested a classification of nostalgia

and scale of nostalgia from the perspective of the consumer. However, since their scale is mainly

focused on consumer behavior, it is not appropriate to measure the phenomenon in the sport

tourism field. To measure the concept of nostalgia in the context of sport tourism, the unique

features of sport should be considered, such as sport-specific atmosphere, personal identity,

group rituals, norms, irrational passion of fans, limited availability, vicarious identification, and

competitive balance (Edwards, 1973; Fairley, 2003; Hinch & Higham, 2001; Kelly, 1982;

Stewart & Smith, 1999; Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010). Furthermore, Holak et al. conducted

factor analysis to develop the nostalgia scale. However, there are two drawbacks of Holak et al.’s

research. First of all, in their research, the initially developed questionnaire contains thirty one

items, including twenty one items for personal nostalgia, two items for interpersonal nostalgia,

four items for cultural nostalgia, and four items for virtual nostalgia. From the results of factor

analysis, there are four factors. However, they did not name each factor and the items of each

section such as personal nostalgia, interpersonal nostalgia, cultural nostalgia, and virtual

nostalgia are not loaded on the same factor. For example, among 21 items of personal nostalgia,

six items are loaded on factor one, and one item each is loaded on factors two, three and four.

Second, Holak et al.’s scale showed low reliability. Among four factors in the Holak et al. study,

α values of factor three and factor four are lower than .7, and they did not conduct any validity

tests. Therefore, even though the scale of nostalgia was developed by Holak et al., the nostalgia

scale needs to be developed in the context of sport tourism and the uniqueness of sport should be

considered to better understand sport-specific nostalgia. The aim of this study is to develop a

Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism (NSST) based on previous research in the field of sport

tourism. The multilevel approach was employed to develop NSST, which is a useful method to

analyze hierarchically structured data (Julian, 2001; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002, Snijders &

Bosker, 1994). For example, most people attend football games with a group, and individuals in

the same group share common characteristics or perceptions with their group members. This can

be considered the hierarchical structure, since each individual is nested within each group. The

hierarchically structured data should be analyzed using the multilevel analysis as the single-level

analysis generates more biased results because of the shared common characteristics within

groups (Byrne, 2006; Muthén, 1994; Reise, Ventura, Nuechterlein, & Kim, 2005).

Method/Results

This study referenced Menor and Roth’s (2007) scale development procedure to develop a

valid and reliable Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism (NSST). Specifically, there are seven

procedures to develop a measurement: 1) specify theoretical domain and operational definitions

of constructs, 2) generate items, 3) purify and pretest items, 4) questionnaire development, 5)

survey data collection, 6) confirmatory analyses, 7) item and scale refinement. The first and

second stages of Menor and Roth’s process are covered by the preceding literature review.

Through literature review, items of each domain were developed to prepare an initial

questionnaire. Initially 69 items were developed from the four different concepts, including

nostalgia, motivation, identity theory, and social identity theory, since the concept of nostalgia

has a comprehensive nature and is closely related to the notion of sport fan motivation, identity

theory, and social identity theory. After developing the initial questionnaire, Q-sort and expert

review were conducted to provide evidence of face validity and content validity in the third

stage. The third stage is also included in the process of pilot testing. From the results of Q-sort

(20 items were deleted which presented low (0%-20%) consensus percentages), expert review

(16 items were reworded or modified, and six items were deleted), and pilot test (14 items were

deleted), 40 out of 69 items were dropped, and 29 items were used in the main study (fourth,

fifth, sixth, and seventh stages). This study used the systematic sampling technique for gathering

the data, and 985 responses were collected at five Clemson home football games. The total

response rate was 84.7%. Before conducting multilevel CFA, an Intra-class Correlation

Coefficient (ICC) was examined to identify whether multilevel CFA is necessary or not. The

ICC is the ratio of the between group variance to total variance (Muthén, 1989, 1991). Muthén

(1997) stated that multilevel analysis is required if the ICC values are larger than 0.1. ICC values

of most variables are greater than .1 except one variable. It means that more than 10 % the

variance in responses are due to group membership. Therefore, the multilevel CFA should be

conducted to develop the NSST. This study found five factors of nostalgia: sport team,

environment, socialization, personal identity, and group identity. The multilevel CFA model

showed acceptable fit for the data (see Table 1). Next, this study assessed internal consistency of

both level 1 (individual) and level 2 (group), convergent validity, discriminant validity, and

criterion validity, and results were acceptable.

Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to develop and test the Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism

(NSST) based on theoretical based literature and conducting empirical tests. Weed (2008) noted

that sport tourism has been advanced as a unique academic field by putting two separate

concepts of sport and tourism together. Sport tourism has now been established as a unique

concept. Furthermore, because of the uniqueness of sport, it is necessary to develop a nostalgia

scale in the context of sport tourism. This study developed Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism

(NSST) through a strict scale development process to provide theoretical basis, such as expert

review, extensive literature review, q-sort, pilot study, a multilevel CFA, identifying a content,

face, and criterion validity. Moreover, the scale demonstrated its convergent validity,

discriminant validity, and internal consistency. The results indicated that the NSST has adequate

psychometric properties. The developed scale required examinations in different settings to

identify whether the scale presents consistent results. There is little empirical study of the

relationship between nostalgia and other related constructs in the sport tourism field. Therefore,

future research needs to measure nostalgia with diverse constructs.

Heetae Cho, Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson University,

Clemson, SC, 29634, (864)-650-8545, hcho@g.clemson.edu

Table 1. The Measurement Model Fit Indices of Multilevel Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Model Fit indices

Values x2(df) RMSEA SRMR CFI NNFI

1920.887 (734) .072 .053 .918 .909

Selected References

Byrne, B. M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and

programming (2nd

ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Chase, M. & Shaw, C. (1989). The dimensions of nostalgia. In C. Shaw & M. Chase (Eds.), The

imagined past: History and nostalgia (pp. 1-17). Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Edwards, H. (1973). Sociology of Sport. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

Fairley, S. (2003). In search of relived social experience: Group-based nostalgia sport tourism.

Journal of Sport Management, 17(3), 284-304.

Havlena, W. J., & Holak, S. L. (1996). Exploring nostalgia imagery through the use of consumer

collages. In P. K. P. Corfman & J. G. Lynch Jr (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (pp.

35-42). Prove, UT: Association for Consumer Research.

Hinch, T. & Higham, J. (2001). Sport tourism: A framework for research. International Journal

of Tourism Research, 3(1), 45-58.

Holak, S., Havlena, W., & Matveev, A. V. (2006). Nostalgia in post-socialist Russia: Exploring

applications to advertising strategy. Journal of Business Research, 60, 649-655.

Julian, M. (2001). The consequences of ignoring multilevel data structures in nonhierarchical

covariance modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 325-352.

Kelly, J. R. (1982). Leisure. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Menor, L., & Roth, A. V. (2007). New service development competence in retail banking:

Construct development and measurement validation. Journal of Operations Management,

25(4), 825-846.

Muthén, B. O. (1989). Latent variable modeling in heterogeneous populations. Psychometrika,

54(4), 557-585.

Muthén, B. O. (1991). Multilevel factor analysis of class and student achievement components.

Journal of Educational Measurement, 28, 338-354.

Muthén, B. O. (1994). Multilevel covariance structure analysis. Sociological Methods &

Research, 22, 376-398.

Muthén, B. O. (1997). Latent variable modeling of longitudinal and multilevel data. In A. E.

Raftery (Ed.), Sociological methodology 1997 (pp. 453-480). Washington, D.C.: American

Sociological Association.

Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data

analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Reise, S., Ventura, J., Nuechterlein, K., & Kim, H. (2005). An illustration of multilevel factor

analysis. Journal of Personality Assessment, 84, 126-136.

Snijders, T. A. B., & Bosker, R. J. (1994). Modeled variance in two-level models. Journal of

Educational Statistics, 18, 259-273.

Stewart, B., & Smith, A. (1999). The special features of sport. Annals of Leisure Research, 2, 87-

99.

Uhrick, S., & Benkenstein, M. (2010). Sport stadium atmosphere: Formative and reflective

indicators for operationalizing the construct. Journal of Sport Management, 24, 211-237.

Weed, M. E. (2008). Sport & tourism: A reader. New York: Routledge.

SPORT AND NOSTALGIA: A CLASSIFICATION OF NOSTALGIA IN SPORT

TOURISM

Heetae Cho, Clemson University

Sunhwan Hwang, University of Seoul

William Norman, Clemson University

Gregory Ramshaw, Clemson University

The concept of nostalgia can be considered as one type of memory, possessing its own

unique characteristics. The definition of nostalgia differs depending on social situations, and

many researchers have tried to define nostalgia from a variety of perspectives. Nostalgia was

originally used as a medical term referring to disease of homesickness (Hofer, 1934). However,

since the late 20th

century, the meaning of nostalgia has changed from a medical disease to an

individual’s emotion and memory, so that today the usage of the word is not the same as it was in

the past. It is now broadly understood to be a highly selective view of the past, and is almost

certainly a positive view of that selective past, as juxtaposed with a negative or uncertain present

and future (Davis, 1979). In other words, one’s positive memories surely influence the evocation

of nostalgia, and an individual’s negative feelings for the present or future are also related to

nostalgia, since a person cannot return to the past. Both positive and negative feelings are

associated with nostalgia, and nostalgia is best described as a sentimental and bittersweet

yearning for a positive and pleasant past.

Chase and Shaw (1989) noted that nostalgia is often a result of a rapidly changing social

structure. Technological advances provide opportunities for sport consumers to experience

current and previous games. For example, new high-definition video boards, handheld devices

and apps, cameras (i.e., number of locations and angles and types like 3D), in-home surround

sound, and viewing options (e.g., channels available, change camera angles, call up statistics,

etc.) could provide a new potential direct experience regardless of physical location. Some may

long for the past that they have experienced directly (Holak & Havlena, 1998), while others may

feel nostalgic for a past experienced vicariously through pictures, photos, articles, and movies

(Goulding, 2002; Havlena & Holak, 1991; Stern, 1992). Moreover, individuals could have

positive emotions and memories from participating in sport or attending sporting events, and the

diverse attractive features of sport lead individuals to experience nostalgia. Specifically, there are

unique features of sport such as rules, the irrational passion of fans, competitive balance,

vicarious identification, limited availability, physical exertion, group rituals, norms and sport-

specific atmosphere (Edwards, 1973; Fairley, 2003; Hinch & Higham, 2001; Stewart & Smith,

1999; Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010). The unique characteristics of sport could create the

conditions for very specific categorizations of nostalgia and should be considered to better

understand the notion of nostalgia in the context of sport. Even though a classification plays a

significant role in measuring a concept, to date, a classification of nostalgia has not been

suggested in the field of sport tourism, which could conceptually organize the notion of

nostalgia. Therefore, this research develops the classification of nostalgia in the context of sport

tourism.

Method/Results

The suggested classification of nostalgia in this study was derived from previous literature

related to nostalgia sport tourism (Davis, 1979; Gibson, 1998; Fairley, 2003; Fairley & Gammon,

2005; Gammon & Ramshaw; 2012), identity theory (Hogg, Terry, & White, 1995; McCall &

Simmons 1966; Petkus, 1996; Stryker, 1968, 1980, 1987), and social identity theory (Festinger,

1954; Korte, 2007; Stets & Burke, 2000; Tajfel, 1970; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The suggested

classification of nostalgia in the context of sport tourism consists of two dimensions: (1)

structure of nostalgia (object based nostalgia and interpersonal relationship based nostalgia) and

(2) purpose of nostalgia (experience based nostalgia and identity based nostalgia) (see Table 2).

Structure of nostalgia, the first dimension, suggests a structuralizing medium that generates

nostalgia. Fairley and Gammon (2005) pointed out that nostalgia is engendered not only by sport

objects but also by social experience. Thus, the structure of nostalgia is composed of object

based nostalgia and interpersonal relationship based nostalgia. The second dimension, purpose of

nostalgia, is to provide what people want to pursue and place a value based on their past

experience. Nostalgia is evoked by one’s positive memories of what he or she experienced in the

past and also affects continuity of identity (Aden, 1995; Wilson, 2005). An individual can put

one’s value on the pursuit of nostalgic experience by itself and of verifying one’s identity. These

two dimensions provide a two by two matrix, and there is a four-way classification of nostalgia

in sport tourism: (1) nostalgia as experience, (2) nostalgia as socialization, (3) nostalgia as

personal identity, and (4) nostalgia as group identity (see Figure 1). The first factor is nostalgia

as experience, and nostalgic feelings are evoked by sport objects, such as athletes, teams, places,

facilities, and atmosphere. The second factor is nostalgia as socialization. A person feels

nostalgia through diverse social interaction experiences including building friendships,

socializing with others, and making new friends (e.g., tailgating). The third factor is nostalgia as

personal identity. Nostalgia as personal identity could be explained based on identity theory.

Individuals feel nostalgic recollections as they long for their past experiences (i.e., value and

pride of being a fan, cheering a favorite team, etc.), which could identify who they are based on

their role in sporting events. The last factor is nostalgia as group identity, which is based on

social identity theory. Positive memories of individuals’ group behavior (i.e., group rituals,

norms, social bonding, etc.) evoke nostalgia.

Discussion

In the field of sport tourism, nostalgia is an important factor to understand sport tourists’

behavior. The emotional perspective regarding nostalgia is diverse, and the concept of nostalgia

is greatly complicated and difficult to measure. Previous research have studied various issues of

nostalgia, such as historical and personal nostalgia (Fairley, 2003; Goulding, 2002; Stern, 1992),

level of nostalgia (Holbrook & Schindler, 1991), and private and collective nostalgia (Baker &

Kennedy, 1994; Davis, 1979; Havlena & Holak, 1991; Snyder, 1991). However, a classification

has not been developed yet, even though it could enhance understanding of the concept of

nostalgia. Thus, to better understand the features of nostalgia in sport tourism, this research

organized previous research on nostalgia and developed the classification of nostalgia which

includes four factors that represent the notion of nostalgia in sport tourism. The findings of this

study could provide the foundation to understand the concept of nostalgia in the field of sport

tourism. Furthermore, this research will contribute to extending knowledge relating to nostalgia

and increasing nostalgia-related research. The classification of nostalgia is a useful tool for

analyzing an individual’s nostalgic behavior. In addition, it can be used in both qualitative and

quantitative research and lead to a better understanding of sports events attendees’ nostalgic

behavior.

Heetae Cho, Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson University,

Clemson, SC, 29634, (864)-650-8545, hcho@g.clemson.edu

Table 1. Classification of Nostalgia in the Context of Sport Tourism

Selected References

Aden, R. C. (1995). Nostalgic communication as temporal escape: “When it was a game’s”

reconstruction of a baseball work community. Western Journal of Communication, 59(1),

20-38.

Baker, S. M., & Kennedy, P. F. (1994). Death by nostalgia: A diagnosis of context-specific

cases. Advances in Consumer Research, 21(1), 169-174.

Davis, F. (1979). Yearning for yesterday: A sociology of nostalgia. New York: The Free Press.

Chase, M. & Shaw, C. (1989). The dimensions of nostalgia. In C. Shaw & M. Chase (Eds.), The

imagined past: History and nostalgia (pp. 1-17). Manchester: Manchester University

Press.

Edwards, H. (1973). Sociology of Sport. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

Fairley, S. (2003). In search of relived social experience: Group-based nostalgia sport tourism.

Journal of Sport Management, 17(3), 284-304.

Fairley, S., & Gammon, S. (2005). Something lived, something learned: Nostalgia's expanding

role in sport tourism. Sport in Society, 8(2), 182-197.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117-140.

Gammon, S., & Ramshaw, G. (2012). Nostalgia and sport. In A. Fyall & B.Garrod (Eds.),

Contemporary cases in sport (pp. 201-220). Oxford, UK: Goodfellow Publishers.

Gibson, H. J. (1998). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review,

1(1), 45-76.

Goulding, C. (2002). An exploratory study of age related vicarious nostalgia and aesthetic

consumption. Advances in Consumer Research, 29(1), 542-546.

Havlena, W. J., & Holak, S. L. (1991). The good old days: Observations on nostalgia and its role

in consumer behavior. Advances in Consumer Research, 18(1), 323-329.

Hinch, T. & Higham, J. (2001). Sport tourism: A framework for research. International Journal

of Tourism Research, 3(1), 45-58.

Hofer, J. (1934). Medical dissertation on nostalgia.(C. K. Anspach, Trans.). Bulletin of the

History of Medicine, 2, 376-391.

Hogg, M. A., Terry, D. J., & White, K. M. (1995). A tale of two theories: A critical comparison

of identity theory with social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58, 255-269.

Holak, S. L., & Havlena, W. J. (1998). Feelings, fantasies, and memories: An examination of the

emotional components of nostalgia. Journal of Business Research, 42(3), 217-226.

Holbrook, M. B., & Schindler, R. M. (1991). Echoes of the dear departed past: Some work in

progress on nostalgia. Advances in Consumer Research, 18(1), 330-333.

Korte, R. F. (2007). A review of social identity theory with implications for training and

development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 31(3), 166-180.

McCall, G. J., & Simmons, J. L. (1966). Identities and interactions. New York: Free Press.

Petkus, E. (1996). The creative identity: Creative behavior from the symbolic interactionist

perspective. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 30(3), 188-196.

Snyder, E. E. (1991). Sociology of nostalgia: Sport halls of fame and museums in America.

Sociology of Sport Journal, 8(3), 228-238.

Stern, B. B. (1992). Historical and personal nostalgia in advertising text: The fin de siecle effect.

Journal of Advertising, 21(4), 11-22.

Stets, J. E., & Burke, P. J. (2000). Identity theory and social identity theory. Social Psychology

Quarterly, 63, 224-237.

INCORPORATING ROLE IDENTITY INTO THE VOLUNTEER PROCESS MODEL

Elizabeth Covelli Metcalf, University of Montana

Nate Trauntvein, University of New Hampshire

Meg Rogosienski, Missoula Parks and Recreation

Ski resorts in the United States rely on over 23,000 dedicated and certified volunteer ski

patrollers to serve as emergency care and safety service providers on ski slopes (Patrol). Previous

research on volunteers has shown that for the average volunteer the act of volunteering changes

their self-concept incorporating volunteerism into their self-identity. This role identity is related

to increased commitment, positive volunteer intentions and behaviors (Grube & Piliavin, 2000;

Penner & Finkelstein, 1998; Stryker, 1980). Time spent volunteering leads to a strengthened

identity as a volunteer, which often relates to and increases volunteer retention. The concept of

role identity may be particularly salient for certified volunteers, such as National Ski Patrollers.

The Volunteer Process Model (VPM) suggests there are three stages to volunteering

(Finkelstein, 2008). First, antecedents to the volunteer experience (Clary & Snyder, 1999; Clary

et al., 1998; Omoto & Snyder, 2002); second, the experience itself; and third, the consequences

of the volunteer experience (Snyder & Omoto, 1992).

It can be argued that another important consequence of volunteering is role identity. Role

identity theory suggests volunteers who develop a strong sense of identity with their

volunteering, are more likely to be more committed and increase their volunteering over time

(Callero, Howard, & Piliavin, 1987; Grube & Piliavin, 2000). The role identity model contends

that as one volunteers for an organization his/her commitment as a volunteer increases and one

develops an identity to this role in one’s life (Penner & Finkelstein, 1998; Stryker, 1980). The

purpose of this paper is to assess the impacts of role identity on the Volunteer Process Model

within the context of National Ski Patrol Volunteers.

Methods

This cross-sectional quantitative study examined the volunteer membership of the National

Ski Patrol. A stratified random sample based on National Ski Patrol geographic division from

the National Ski Patrol database of volunteer patrollers was used. Of the 3340 individuals

sampled, 747 completed the survey for a final response rate of 22.4%. In an effort to increase

response rate a modified Dillman Method was utilized.

Utilizing the VPM framework, antecedents, volunteer experience, and consequences were

operationalized in various ways. Motivations were operationalized using a modified version of

the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) (Clary et al., 1998). To assess the volunteer experience

items from the Volunteer Satisfaction Inventory (VSI) were used (Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley,

2001). Two variables were included as consequences of the volunteer experience, volunteer role

identity and the self-reported number of years patrolled as National Ski Patrollers. The five item

role identity salience scale was used to operationalize role identity as being part of the

participants ‘self’. (Callero, 1985; Callero, Howard & Piliavin, 1987)

The VPM was analyzed using LISREL 8.8. The domains for each construct were analyzed

through confirmatory factor analysis to determine goodness of fit through four fit indices:

Normal Fit Index (NFI), RHO statistic, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Root Mean Square

Error of Approximation (RMSEA).

Results

Of the 643 respondents 75% were male and 24% were female. Respondents ranged in age

from 18 to 82 years old, with an average age of 50.5 years (SD = 13.3). Only 22% of

respondents made less than $50,000 in annual household income. Over one third of all

respondents reported an annual household income above $100,000. On average respondents had

been ski patrolling for an average of 15 years and ranged from one to as many as 53 years.

During the 2011/12 ski season respondents reported volunteering an average of 21 days. Most

ski resorts required patrollers to volunteer a minimum number of days (84%). Over 70% of

patrollers at resorts with a minimum volunteer day requirement volunteer more days than were

required.

Structural Equation Modeling was used to test the VPM with role identity as a distal

consequence and years of service as the ultimate dependent variable. Through the use of

confirmatory factor analysis, it was determined that this model had adequate fit to the data (NFI

= .91, NNFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.072). Role identity significantly predicted years of

service (β = .13) along with the antecedent variable age (β = .61) and resulted in 39% of the

variance explained (figure 1). Other significant paths were satisfaction (β = .48) and motivations

(β = .32) predicting role identity (R2 = .51). Additionally, age (β = .12) and motivations (β = .56)

were both positive predictors of satisfaction (R2 = .51). Results support the mediation of role

identity between satisfaction and years of service. Role identity was also directly related to

motivations and satisfaction, but was only indirectly related to age as independent predictor

variables.

Discussion

This study tested the inclusion of role identity in the Volunteer Process Model. Results

indicate that the VPM could potentially be strengthened by incorporating role identity. As

expected age was strongly related to the number of years of service of a patroller. However, it

was not a patroller’s motivations or satisfaction with past experiences that were directly related

to years of service, rather it was role identity. The concept of role identity may be particularly

salient for certified volunteers, such as National Ski Patrol due to the required training and

certification. This level of commitment requires persistence and may not be for the casual

volunteer. Time spent volunteering as a ski patroller strengthens role identity and thus increases

the number of years of service to the organization. Other volunteer organizations might benefit

from utilizing identity-building techniques similar to the National Ski Patrol. Such techniques

include developing a comprehensive and standardized training regimen for all volunteers,

+(Patrol)providing a uniform that represents a certain level of skill and ability in skiing, and

offering ample opportunities to seek positions of leadership within the organization. Such

techniques might require a significant investment on the part of the volunteer organizations,

however the retention of quality volunteers might warrant such an investment.

Implications

Including role identity in the VPM has several implications. Volunteer retention is especially

important to service organizations and this study suggests that one’s identity could assist with

volunteer retention (Callero, Howard, & Piliavin, 1987; Laverie & McDonald, 2007). Further

research on dedicated career type volunteers (i.e., volunteer fire fighters, EMTs, etc) is needed to

better understand the relationship between role identity and volunteer retention, participation and

engagement. Beyond career volunteers, role identity could be an important indicator for

volunteer engagement in other settings, such as, park friend group volunteers, trail crew

volunteers or sport team volunteers.

Elizabeth Covelli Metcalf, College of Forestry and Conservation, University of Montana,

Missoula, MT, 406.243.4448, elizabeth.metcalf@umontana.edu

Figure 1. Volunteer Process Model with Role Identity Designates

* p < .050, ** p < .010, *** p < .001,

Selected References

Callero, P. (1985). Role-identity salience. Social Psychology Quarterly, 48(3).

Callero, P., Howard, J., & Piliavin, J. (1987). Helping behavior as role behavior: Disclosing

social structure and history in the analysis of prosocial action. Social Psychology

Quarterly, 50(3).

Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1999). The motivations to volunteer theoretical and practical

considerations. Current directions in psychological science, 8(5), 156-159.

Clary, E.G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R.D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A.A., Haugen, J., & Miene, P.

(1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional

approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1516-1530.

Finkelstein, M. A. (2008). Predictors of volunteer time: The changing contributions of motive

fulfillment and role identity. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal,

36(10), 1353-1363.

Galindo-Kuhn, R., & Guzley, R. M. (2002). The volunteer satisfaction index: Construct

definition, measurement, development, and validation. Journal of Social Service

Research, 28(1), 45-68.

Grube, J. A., & Piliavin, J. A. (2000). Role identity, organizational experiences, and volunteer

performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(9), 1108-1119.

Laverie, D. A., & McDonald, R. E. (2007). Volunteer dedication: Understanding the role of

identity importance on participation frequency. Journal of Macromarketing, 27(3), 274-

288.

National Ski Patrol, N. S. NSP Fact Sheet. Retrieved Jan 1, 2015, 2015, from

http://www.nsp.org/press/documents/NSPFactSheet.pdf

Omoto, A. M., & Snyder, M. (2002). Considerations of Community The Context and Process of

Volunteerism. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(5), 846-867.

Penner, L. A., & Finkelstein, M. A. (1998). Dispositional and structural determinants of

volunteerism. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(2), 525.

Snyder, M., & Omoto, A. M. (1992). Who helps and why? The psychology of AIDS

volunteerism.

Stryker, S. (1980).Symbolic interactionism. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.

PERCEPTIONS OF LEISURE BY COMBAT VETERANS AND THEIR SPOUSES

John Dattilo, Penn State University

Derrick Taff, Penn State University

Kelly Davis, Penn State University

Jeremy Moeller, Penn State University

Veterans of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) are at

increased risk for mental health disorders and suicide (e.g., Cohen et al., 2010) and interpersonal

difficulties (Cigrang et al., 2014). Effects of military combat are not confined to veterans but

extend beyond them to influence their families and communities; therefore, the health and

wellbeing of veterans is of utmost importance (Miller & Zwerdling, 2010). With more

significantly ill or injured veterans returning from combat than any previous war (Carlock,

2007), efforts to understand recovery are imperative (Vella, Milligan, & Bennett, 2013). Leisure

can divert attention away from negative events, generate optimism, help reconstruct life stories,

and facilitate personal transformation (Hutchinson et al., 2003). Leisure has the potential to

provide veterans with support that may facilitate adjustment (LePage & Garcia-Rea, 2008).

Although, spouses play a key role in the lives of combat veterans (Badr et al., 2011) and couple

leisure engagement improves marital satisfaction (Johnson et al., 2006), little is known about

perceptions of combat veterans and their spouses concerning their leisure post-deployment.

Methods

Sampling Procedures. Flyers were placed in public areas in a U.S. town and sent

electronically to military related listservs to recruit OIF or OEF combat veterans and spouses.

Once couples were interviewed, they were asked to help identify and recruit participants.

Participants. Ten couples, including male combat veterans (ages 28-56, M=37) and spouses

(ages 26-52, M=36) who were married (2-25 years, M=9) consented to participate. Veterans

served 1-5 combat tours (M=2 tours) totaling 4-44 months of combat (M=15 months) with 7-25

years active service experience (M=14 years), across military branches of Army (n=5), Marines

(n=3) and Air Force (n=2) with four being retired and six being active duty or guard.

Data Collection. Veterans and spouses independently completed a brief demographic

questionnaire and then were interviewed separately to discuss leisure and identify connections of

their leisure experiences with their combat and deployment. They were interviewed at their home

or on a university campus. A male researcher with military service interviewed the male

participant and a female researcher interviewed the female participant. After approximately 45

minutes, participants were debriefed and asked to help recruit possible participants.

Data Analysis. Similar to procedures followed by Malderen et al. (2013), the constant

comparative analytic framework (e.g., Strauss & Corban, 1990) was adopted to identify data

patterns that facilitated discovery of relationships between ideas and concepts. To complete a

thematic content analysis, open coding was initially used. Next, focused coding was used to

identify patterns and relationships among codes. All transcripts were read separately by four

researchers to promote understanding prior to development of codes and categories following

Creswell’s (2007) protocol completed by Heinz et al. (2013). Data were then coded and

categorized individually by these researchers. To facilitate reliability, the researchers met and

reviewed codes with supporting quotes and agreed on application of codes. After reliability was

determined, the researchers individually generated themes. Next, two researchers met repeatedly

to discuss and refine themes. These themes, with accompanying descriptors and illustrative

quotes, were shared with the team who then further refined the themes and associated quotes.

Findings

Participant quotes clustered into three categories associated with their leisure including

facilitators, constraints, and outcomes that emphasized benefits of their leisure engagement.

Those themes that apply specifically to veterans and their spouses are highlighted here.

Leisure Facilitators. Eight themes emerged describing conditions promoting leisure. Four

facilitators were: (a) a designated time or place for leisure, (b) being organized and responsible,

(c) having a spouse with similar interests, and (d) competitive activities. The other themes are

directly connected to the military and deployment. With the theme, “Military Life Creates

Opportunities” participants described the military as providing them a chance to travel and meet

different people with whom to pursue leisure. They explained how activities provided on military

bases contributed to their leisure with the theme “Military Bases Provide Resources.” Because

the sample was composed of veterans who, relatively recently, experienced combat, a theme

emerged “Deployment Instills a Sense of Appreciation for Leisure.” Although being in nature

facilitates leisure for many, veterans emphasized that the outdoors created a chance to experience

peace and quiet that was captured in the theme “The Outdoors Gets Me Off the Grid.”

Leisure Constraints. Thirteen themes identified leisure barriers. Although participants

described military life as creating opportunities for leisure, being in the military meant they

moved frequently and such transience led to the theme “Military Life Creates Impermanence.”

Another theme associated with inflexibility of military life, “Military Life Imposes Structure,”

made spontaneity with free time and planning vacations difficult. Two themes emerged related to

deployment including “Deployment Influences Who I Am” that reflected triggers to behaviors

developed during combat and a sense of unease creating problems during leisure. “Deployment

Produces a Cycle of Adjustment” emerged based on descriptions of how challenges to leisure

occurred based on the veteran leaving and returning home. Nine themes identified other leisure

constraints: (a) lack of time and associated fatigue, (b) spouses’ differing interests, (c) spouses’

differing physical capabilities, (d) family/spouse obligations, (e) limited finances, (f) technology

creep, (g) physical injuries, (h) cold weather, and (i) lack of leisure information.

Leisure Outcomes. Eight themes delineating outcomes from leisure arose including primarily

benefits: (a) positive emotions (relaxation, fun, enjoyment, happiness, and comfort), (b) family

cohesion, (c), stress relief, (d) exercise, and (e) the opportunity to teach others. Two themes were

specific to only veterans - “Connect to Military Life” and to their spouses - “Cope with

Deployment.” A final benefit that appeared distinctly related to veterans’ desire to bond with

others through leisure emerged “Camaraderie and Social Interaction.” Two themes highlighted

drawbacks to leisure engagement: (a) produces frustration, and (b) generates relationship stress.

Implications for Practice

Participants identified that military life both facilitated leisure by creating opportunities and

providing resources as well as constrained it by creating residential impermanence and imposing

structure. Therefore, it may be helpful to factor in this dialectical tension when developing

leisure services that include veterans and their spouses. Both negative influences of deployment

on veterans and spouses and a sense of appreciation for time shared as couples during

reintegration are valuable to consider when developing leisure services. Also, outdoor recreation

programs that facilitate periods of quiet and solitude may be helpful. The valued leisure

outcomes of connecting to military life, coping with deployment, and establishing camaraderie,

further provide direction for developing leisure education programs.

John Dattilo, Penn State University, 814-863-0720, jxd8@psu.edu

Table 1. Themes Specific to Combat Veterans and Spouses with Sample Supportive Quotes

Leisure Facilitators

Military Life Creates Opportunities

Veteran: You get to meet different people and those different people like doing different things. And I think that kind

of gave me a broader spectrum of things to do . . .

Spouse: . . . because of that, being in the military, and the opportunity it gave us, it kind of started this whole travel

thing with us. So for five years, like a five yearlong honeymoon, we were able to travel all over Europe a lot . . .

Military Bases Provide Resources

Veteran: Sometimes when we live near a military base, there’s usually more opportunities to play basketball . . .

Spouse: When we lived on base, the morale and welfare things were really accessible so it was really nice. Like pool

and the libraries and those kind of things were awesome (his spouse).

Deployment Instills a Sense of Appreciation

Veteran: appreciating those things that you couldn’t have while you were over there. The bowling alley, the movie

theater, the bar, you know? . . The leisure activity in Iraq was the gym . . . look forward to was going to the gym and

going to the chow hall. And everything in the middle was just filling time

Spouse: I mean I definitely feel like we didn’t take each other for granted. After that, it was like such a huge blessing

to have him home again.

The Outdoors Gets Me Off the Grid

Veteran: it’s so quiet in the woods and there’s no cell phones going on. There’s no cars going by because to get

where you go to hunt, you’re sometimes walking miles . . . you can’t get word to us at all. So we’re off the grid . . .

Leisure Constraints

Military Life Creates Impermanence

Veteran: So that first year is where you indoctrinate into the area and figure out what’s going on and what you

should be doing [for leisure] . . . But the limitation is that the military takes you away from that during your time

there and it also moves you very quickly from base to base.

Veteran: . . . because we have to move so often so we have to re-setup stuff all the time and most people in the

military don’t do much gardening because of that moving.

Military Life Imposes Structure

Veteran: . . . it dictates a lot you’re on a set schedule so you have to schedule your leisure activities around that

Spouse: . . . with him being in the military, you have to put in leave; you got to do all of these steps. Sometimes he

isn’t approved or you have to do it like months in advance when you have no idea and you put in the leave [for a

vacation], but you’ve decided you don’t want to go now.

Deployment Influences Who I Am

Veteran: It’s not like you’re just blindly walking down there and it’s like I think I’ll go in here and it’s going to be

fine. It’s like no, there’s places that you’re like it’s a trap . . .

Spouse: . . . like he can be having a good time and if we go or see someone and he’s instantly on edge and he’s not

focused anymore on what we’re doing . . . he’s like agitated and on edge . . .

Deployment Produces a Cycle of Adjustment

Veteran: You go away for so long and then you come back and then you kind of have to take a step back . . .

sometimes your friends have already moved and some people are not there that used to do stuff with.

Spouse: It was really hard to be back together after 18-19 months apart . . . And leisure time, yeah I think you

sometimes had to force there to be leisure time because you really tried to catch up on the systems of the family . . .

Leisure Outcomes

Connect to Military Life

Veteran: I like shooting [video] games. See I’m in the military so I’m all about that stuff…

Veteran: The hunting, you know, I have a comfort level and a want to be around weaponry.

Cope with Deployment

Spouse: I used to shop like whenever he’d be away at drill every month . . .it gave me something to do

Spouse: There was a series of books that I read while [name] was deployed . . . It took me outside of myself.

Camaraderie and Social Interaction

Veteran: It builds kind of like a team camaraderie [combat videos]…Yeah. I play online with my brothers. That’s

pretty much what I play . . . sometimes I play sports depending . . .

Veteran: I’m very introverted so that’s the only people I really get to know well . . . who I play basketball with . . .

Selected References

Badr, H., Barker, T. M., & Milbury, K. (2011). Couples’ psychosocial adaptation to combat

wounds and injuries. In S. MacDermid Wadsworth & D. Riggs (Eds.), Risk and resilience

in military families (pp. 213-234). New York: Springer.

Carlock, D. (2007). A guide to resources for severely wounded operation Iraqi Freedom and

Operation Enduring Freedom veterans. Retrieved from http://www.istl.org/07-

fall/internet2.html

Cigrang, J. A., Wayne Talcott, G., Tatum, J., Baker, M., Cassidy, D., Sonnek, S., ... & Smith

Slep, A. M. (2014). Impact of combat deployment on psychological and relationship

health: A longitudinal study. Journal of traumatic stress, 25, 58-65.

Cohen, B. E., Gima, K., Bertenthal, D., Kim, S., Marmar, C. R., & Seal, K. H. (2010). Mental

health diagnoses and utilization of VA non-mental health medical services among

returning Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25, 18-

24.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five

approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Heinz, M., Martin, P., Margrett, J. A., Yearns, M., Franke, W., Yang, H., Wong, J., & Chang, C.

K. (2013). Perceptions of technology among older adults. Journal of Gerontological

Nursing, 39(1), 42-51.

Hutchinson, S. L., Loy, D. P., Kleiber, D. A., & Dattilo, J. (2003). Leisure as a coping resource:

Variations in coping with traumatic injury and illness. Leisure Sciences, 25(2-3), 143-

161.

Johnson, H. A., Zabriskie, R. B., & Hill, B. (2006). The contribution of leisure involvement,

leisure time, and leisure satisfaction to marital satisfaction. Marriage & Family Review,

40.

LePage, J. P., & Garcia-Rea, E. A. (2008). The association between healthy lifestyle behaviors

and relapse rates in a homeless veteran population. The American journal of drug and

alcohol abuse, 34(2), 171-176.

Malderen, L. V., Mets, T., Vriendt, P. D., & Gorus, E. (2013). The active ageing-concept

translated to the residential long-term care. Quality of Life Research, 22, 929-937.

Miller,T. C., & Zwerdling, D. (2010, September 9). Purple Hearts elusive for traumatic brain

injuries. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.

php?storyId=129606127

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures

and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Vella, E. J., Milligan, B., & Bennett, J. L. (2013). Participation in outdoor recreation program

predicts improved psychosocial well-being among veterans with post-traumatic stress

disorder: A pilot study. Military medicine, 178(3), 254-260.

ETHNIC AND RACIAL PARTICIPATION IN LEISURE: INTRODUCING A SYSTEMS

MODEL Ryan J. Gagnon, Clemson University

Garrett A. Stone, Clemson University

Barry A. Garst, Clemson University

Modeling of ethnic and racial constraints to leisure began in part with Lindsay and Ogle's

(1972) modeling of the physical, financial, and socio-economic barriers to leisure participation.

While providing a notable foundation for understanding the structural constraints to leisure

experienced by minority groups, the theory did not consider deeper interpersonal and

intrapersonal issues such as cultural differences or discriminatory systems that prevent leisure

participation for these groups. The work of Klobus-Edwards (1981) introduced a more holistic

model of understanding the leisure constraints of minority groups, blending physical, financial,

and SES constraints with systemic and cultural constraints. While broader in scope, the Klobus-

Edwards (1981) model was highly complex and consequently difficult to implement or interpret.

In 2002, Gomez introduced the ethnicity and public recreation model, which provided a clearer

representation of both the real and perceived constraints to leisure participation for minorities.

In this same time period More and Averill (2003) introduced a typology of recreation

behavior outlining three subtypes: functionalist theories which relate to the utility of a given

recreation pursuit, often characterized by the activity's benefits, mechanistic theories which relate

to flow, arousal, or more generally to how recreation functions are experienced at the individual

and group level, and capacity theories which relate to the capability for or constraints to

recreation. The purpose of this study was to understand USA Climbing (USAC) member’s

perceptions of the barriers to ethnic and racial diversity in indoor competitive climbing. The

parallel purpose of the study was to develop a context specific model of minority leisure

participation that builds on prior research in this area. The resultant model consolidates the work

of Gomez (2002; 2006) and More and Averill (2003) and takes the form of functions,

mechanisms, and capacities that inhibit or promote recreation participation for racial and ethnic

minorities in a competitive climbing. The results of this study may be used by leisure providers

to address and reduce constraints to participation.

Methods

In partnership with USAC, the national governing body for competitive climbing in the

United States, the research team administered a 79 item survey to USAC members and affiliates

via links posted to the organization's social media platform and email list. This study examines

descriptive information and 582 short answer responses to the question “From your perspective

why don’t we see more ethnic and racial diversity in competitive climbing?” Using content

analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) and a grounded theory approach to coding (Glaser & Strauss,

1969), the researchers independently coded the qualitative responses on two occasions (Buzan &

Buzan, 1995). Independent, open, and selective coding was conducted to identify initial topics

followed by collaborative coding to uncover patterns or trends, which allowed the researchers to

arrive at five primary themes each with multiple sub topics (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).

Trustworthiness of data was established through an audit trail and a reflexive process in

which investigators met together to reflect, assess biases, and justify coding decisions (Creswell

& Miller, 2000). A percent agreement strategy was used to establish an intercoder reliability of

.886, which is approaching the acceptable level of .90 (Lombard et al., 2002). Additionally, to

understand if there were any differences in thematic patterns between white and non-white

respondents, we conducted a multinomial logistic regression using racial status as a predictor of

theme membership. The regression was not statistically significant, indicating no difference in

response to the question based on racial affiliation (chi square = .681, p = .409, df = 1). The

results of this test should be interpreted with caution, as non-white members of USAC were

likely to be more acculturated than other minority groups; however, findings mirrored, in many

ways, results from prior studies of ethnic constraints to recreation participation.

Results A total of 582 respondents answered the question, "from your perspective why don’t we see

ethnic and racial diversity in competitive climbing." The majority of respondents were white

(88.8%), with 23 respondents reporting as Asian (4%), 21 reporting as Multiple Race (4.7%).

The remaining respondents (1.5%, n = 9) reported as either African American, Native American,

Indian (East Asian), or Pacific Islander. Respondents reported an average age of 34.36 years (SD

= 13.83, range 11– 66) and were fairly even split by sex. Respondents indicated an average of

12.69 climbing days per month (SD = 6.31 days), and 7.53 years of climbing experience (SD =

7.46 years). Themes related to exposure, resources, access, culture, and alternative perspectives

(Table 1), were developed from the data and identified as either functions (e.g. alternative

perspectives, “climbing is useless”), mechanisms (e.g. sport culture and socio-cultural difference,

“black people don’t climb”) or capacities (e.g. resources, “climbing is expensive”). These themes

were then discussed in how they align with existing models of racial and ethnic diversity.

Discussion & Implications

Models of general ethnicity related recreation constraints are many and vary in scope and

complexity. This study builds on a contemporary model of ethnic participation in public

recreation, noted for its simplicity and clarity, and derived from a thorough review and synthesis

of existing models (Gomez, 2002). This model posits that acculturation, socio-economic status,

subcultural identity, perceived benefits and perceived discrimination are predictive of recreation

participation (Gomez, 2002; 2006). The results of the present study corroborate Gomez’s (2006)

model in a private sport context, add specificity to its individual components, and are

reorganized via More and Averill's (2003) recreation behavior model (see Figure 1). The first or

functional domain embodies Gomez's (2002) perceived benefits and encapsulates responses

indicating that climbing lacks utility or benefit. Benefits in the form of paths to fame, glory, and

careers in the sport were non-existent, this lack of perceived benefits may result from lack of

awareness of the sport in general, or reflect ethnic differences in what constitutes a benefit.

Second, mechanisms encapsulate Gomez's acculturation, sub cultural identity, and perceived

discrimination. In the present study, respondents believed the social mechanisms that welcome

new, diverse entrants to the sport are not currently in place and the sport culture excludes

individuals who are less acculturated. Lastly, the resources theme is reflective of capacities

which in our study were evident in responses that highlighted the expense of competing.

Situating traditional and emergent models of ethnic recreation participation in a functional,

mechanistic, and capacities model may help recreation providers to more accurately target and

eliminate barriers or enhance benefits to recreation participation for diverse groups. Specifically,

the model serves as a reminder that constraints at a functional level are addressed differently than

those at a mechanical level and draws attention to the layers within each level that ought to be

considered.

Ryan J. Gagnon, Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson

University, SC, (509) 270- 0197, rjgagno@clemson.edu.

Table and Figures

Table 1.

Primary Ethnic and Racial Themes (N = 582)

Theme Definition Frequency

Exposure

Lack of experience or contact with the sport 119 (20.4%)

Resources

Lack of resources in terms of time or money 281 (48.3%)

Access

No climbing is available in areas with diversity 58 (10%)

Culture

It is a white sport; Climbing is not inclusive to new users 84 (14.4%)

Alternative

Perspectives

It isn’t a problem; It doesn’t matter 40 (6.9%)

Figure 1. A structural systems model of ethnic recreation participation.

Selected References

Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (1995). The Mind Map Book. London: BBC Books.

Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D.L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into

Practice, 39(3), 124-130.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1999). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative

research. New York, NY: Aldine De Gruyter.

Gomez, E. (2006). The ethnicity and public recreation participation (EPRP) model ©: An

assessment of unidimensionality and overall fit. Leisure Sciences, 28(3), 245-265.

Gomez, E. (2002). The ethnicity and public recreation participation model. Leisure Sciences,

24(2), 123–142.

Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis.

Qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277-1288.

Klobus-Edwards, P. (1981). Race, residence, and leisure style: Some policy implications. Leisure

Sciences, 4(2), 95–111.

Lindsay, J.J., & Ogle, R.A. (1972). Socioeconomic patterns of outdoor recreation use near urban

areas. Journal of Leisure Research, 4(2), 19–24.

Lombard, M., Snyder-Duch, J., & Campanella-Bracken, C. (2002). Content analysis in mass

communication: Assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human

Communication Research, 28(4), 587-604.

More, T.A., & Averill, J.R. (2003). The structure of recreation behavior. Journal of Leisure

Research, 33(4), 372-395.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and

techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

INDOOR COMPETITIVE CLIMBING AS A CONTEXT FOR POSITIVE YOUTH

DEVELOPMENT

Barry A. Garst, Clemson University

Garrett A. Stone, Clemson University

Ryan J. Gagnon, Clemson University

With 60 million U.S. youth participating in organized sports annually (National Council of

Youth Sports, 2008), there has been heightened interest in the relationship between sport

participation and Positive Youth Development (PYD). Contemporary sports-based youth

development models align supportive orientations and actions from peers, parents, coaches, and

administrators with growth opportunities available as a result of the material and cultural

contexts under which sport participation occurs (Coakley, 2011). Developmental psychologists

have labeled this type of growth as the ‘‘5 Cs” of positive youth development, which include:

Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, and Caring (Lerner, 2004). Although sports

have been promoted as a mechanism for enhancing PYD (Anderson-Butcher et al., 2012; Perkins

& Noam, 2011), evidence of these developmental outcomes has been mixed (Anderson-Butcher

et al., 2013). Youth sports advocates have been criticized for emphasizing the outcomes of sport

participation while failing to address the underlying mechanisms of change (Coakley, 2011).

The emerging sport of indoor competitive climbing has experienced significant growth over

the past 20 years with a rapid expansion of climbing walls in both schools and commercial

facilities (Baláš et al., 2009). Climbing has also undergone a transition from an unorganized

recreational activity to a formalized sport with a national governing body, organized

competitions, formal coaching, and a team structure (USA Climbing, 2014). Although roughly

1.2 million youth between the ages of 6 and 17 participate in climbing (Outdoor Foundation,

2013), few studies have examined indoor competitive climbing as a sport that may enhance PYD

outcomes. Therefore the purpose of this study was to explore indoor competitive climbing as a

developmental experience for youth. Based on the youth development and sports literature, it

was hypothesized that indoor competitive climbing experiences would exhibit some features of

positive youth development, but it was unknown exactly how, and to what extent, climbers

would describe climbing as contributing to PYD.

Methods

In partnership with USA Climbing (USAC), the research team administered a 79 item

electronic survey to the USAC membership via email and social media posts. This study

examined short answer responses to the question “How does indoor competitive climbing

contribute to positive youth development?” Using conventional content analysis (Hsieh &

Shannon, 2005) and a qualitative approach, the researchers independently coded the open-ended

responses, using highlights to tag key words and develop separate themes from the data (Buzan

& Buzan, 1995). Independent, open and axial coding identified initial themes followed by

collaborative coding to identify patterns or trends, which allowed the researchers to arrive at the

five main themes (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Trustworthiness procedures included creation of an

audit trail, researcher reflection to acknowledge and minimize bias, and the use of an inter-coder

reliability test (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Lombard et al., 2002). The percent agreement strategy

established an inter-coder reliability of .921 (Lombard et al., 2002).

Results

A total of 623 USAC members answered the research question. Respondents indicated an

average of 12.69 climbing days per month (SD = 6.31 days), and an average of 7.53 years of

climbing experience (SD = 7.46 years). The majority of respondents were White (86.5%),

affluent, and well educated. Respondents reported an average age of 34.5 years (SD = 14.33,

range 11 years – 70 years; 12%, 17 and under). A simple one-way ANOVA confirmed no

differences between youth and adult responses. Four themes emerged from the qualitative

analysis, including: holistic development; supportive relationships, confidence and self-efficacy;

and sportsmanship and character development. See Table 1 for the frequencies and percentages.

Discussion Though exploratory in nature and not analyzed with the Five Cs of PYD theory in mind,

this study uncovered themes strongly reflecting the Five Cs, suggesting that the current

supportive environment of indoor competitive climbing contributes to positive youth

development for USAC climbing members. Moreover, respondents frequently stated their belief

that climbing was unique when compared with traditional sports, in that competitors encourage

one another and focus as much on the development of their peers as they do on personal success.

Furthermore, indoor competitive climbing was seen by respondents as an alternative sport where

youth whose personalities and abilities did not align with the traditional sport model could thrive.

The study findings suggest that indoor competitive climbing, when integrated with the right

social supports and opportunities, contributes to PYD. Even with these encouraging results,

indoor competitive climbing can benefit from greater intentionality. Coalter (2010) suggested

that while certain factors may intuitively influence positive youth development, the most

effective PYD experiences are intentionally designed and regularly evaluated. Movement toward

intentionality by competition organizers, trainers, and coaches may increase PYD impacts and

the legitimacy of claims to this end. Being mindful of how specific supports (i.e., people,

programs, and skills) and opportunities (i.e., novel, challenging, and engaging experiences) are

provided before, during, and after climbing competitions may enhance the extent to which indoor

competitive climbing is perceived as a PYD setting. In addition, when trainers and coaches

collaborate to provide these supports and opportunities, then parents may be more likely to

associate indoor competitive climbing with PYD (Morrison & Schöffl, 2007).

Implications

Holistic development through indoor competitive climbing participation, which included

whole-body development in the areas of strength and health, cognition and mental conditioning,

and social skills, appears to be a hallmark of the sport. Providers should highlight this unique

whole-body benefit to parents and the public. Moreover, the association of strength development

and confidence through climbing, particularly for girls, and the influence of this relationship on

girls’ body image that was indicated by the study findings is compelling for program providers

interested in developing programs to enhance adolescent girls’ body image and sense of self.

Skill enhancement associated with indoor competitive climbing is also noteworthy. Many of

the developmental benefits of indoor competitive climbing reflected important 21st century skills

(Casner-Lotto et al., 2006), including work ethic, teamwork/collaboration, and critical

thinking/problem solving. The influence of indoor competitive climbing on these timely and

relevant skills (Duerden et al., 2014) provides added support for the provision of indoor

competitive climbing programs and opportunities. Program providers, including municipal

recreation departments, day and resident camps, and K-12 educational institutions might

consider the addition of climbing walls and programs in their facilities, to this end.

Barry A. Garst, Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson

University, SC, (864) 656-1891, bgarst@clemson.edu.

Table 1. Developmental Outcomes of Climbing Mapped to the Five C Model of PYD (N = 623)

Five C Model of

Youth Development

Themes Associated with Indoor Competitive

Climbing as Developmental*

Theme

Frequency

Competence Holistic development (physical, cognitive, social) 254 (40.8%)

Connection & Caring Supportive, caring relationships with peers and adults 183 (29.4%)

Confidence Confidence and self-efficacy 124 (19.9%)

Character Sportsmanship and character 45 (7.2%)

* Note: Dissenting voice accounted for 2.7% (n = 17) of sample

Selected References

Anderson-Butcher, D., Riley, A., Iachini, A., Wade-Mdivanian, R., & Davis, J. (2012). Sports

and youth development. In R.J.R. Levesque (Ed), Encyclopedia of Adolescence (pp.

2846-2859). New York : Springer.

Anderson-Butcher, D., Ianchini, A., Riley, A., Wake-Mdivanian, R., Davis, J., & Amorose, A.J.

(2013). Exploring the impact of a summer sport-based youth development program.

Evaluation and Program Planning, 37, 64-69.

Baláš, J., Strejcová, B., Malý, T., Malá, L., Martin, A. (2009). Changes in upper body strength

and body composition after 8 weeks indoor climbing in youth. Isokinetics & Exercise

Science, 17(3), 173-179.

Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003). Youth development programs: Risk, prevention and policy. Journal of

Adolescent Health, 32, 170–182.

Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (1995). The Mind Map Book. London: BBC Books.

Casner-Lotto, J., Barrington, L., & Wright, M. (2006). Are they really ready to work?:

Employers’ perspectives on the basic knowledge and applied skills of new entrants

to the 21st century U.S. workforce. Conference Board, Inc., the Partnership for 21st

Century Skills, Corporate Voices for Working Families, and the Society for Human

Resource Management.

Coakley, J. (2011). Youth sports: what counts as “positive development?” Journal of Sports and

Social Issues, 35(3), 306-324.

Coalter, F. (2010). Sport-for-development: Going beyond the boundary? Sport in Society:

Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, 13(9), 1374-1391.

Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis.

Qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277-1288.

Holt, N. L. & Neely, K. C. (2011). Positive youth development through sport: A review.

Wanceulen Editorial Deportiva.

Lerner, R. M. (2004). Liberty: Thriving and civic engagement among American youth. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lombard, M., Snyder‐Duch, J., & Bracken, C. C. (2002). Content analysis in mass

communication: Assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human

communication research, 28(4), 587-604.

Morrison. A.B. & Schöffl, V.R. (2007). Physiological response to rock climbing in young

climbers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41(2), 852-861.

National Council of Youth Sports. (2008). Report on Trends and Participation in Organized

Youth Sports, 2008 Edition. Retrieved from http://www.ncys.org/pdfs/2008/2008-ncys-

market-research-report.pdf

Roth, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003). Youth development programs: Risk, prevention and policy.

Journal of Adolescent Health, 32, 170–182.

The Outdoor Foundation. (2013). 2013 Outdoor Recreation Participation Report. Retrieved

from http://www.outdoorfoundation.org/research.participation.2013.html.

USA Climbing. (2014, December 29). About us. Retrieved from http://www.usaclimbing.net.

Woollings, K.Y., McKay, C.D., Kang, J., Meeuwisse, W.H., & Emery, C.A. (2015). Incidence,

mechanism and risk factors for injury in youth rock climbers. British Journal of Sports

Medicine, 49, 44-50.

10-YEAR ALUMNI STUDY OF AN ADVENTURE REACTION PROGRAM Michael Gebhard, Brigham Young University

Mat Duerden, Brigham Young University

Andrew Lacanienta, Brigham Young University

Although significant research has looked at the outcomes of adventure recreation programs

(e.g., Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997; Sibthorp, Paisley, & Gookin, 2007), less attention

has been given to the perceived long-term impacts of such experiences. Although follow-up

research that takes places four to six months after participation is not uncommon, our interest

was on understanding the impacts of such experiences multiple years after they occurred. The

tenth anniversary of one adventure program, Camp WILD, presented an opportunity to

investigate the issue of long-term impact. Camp WILD was a two-week adventure recreation

camp for adolescents started in 2004 as a partnership between a non-profit and a large university

in the Western United States. The purpose of this qualitative research study was to investigate

the post-participation experiences, including long-term perceived impacts, of adventure

recreation participation and the processes related to the integration and retention of impacts.

Methods

Participants of Camp WILD completed a two-week adventure program located in Idaho’s

Salmon-Challis National Forest. Participants were assigned to teams of four youth, for a total of

six teams per session, each under the supervision of one male and one female staff member. The

program consisted of three different activity rotations: (a) backpacking, (b) whitewater rafting,

and (c) exploration (e.g., mountain biking, team building activities, and environmental

education). Through a variety of efforts spurred by the program’s 10-year anniversary, contact

was made with alumni. This included Facebook announcements, emails to old contact lists, and

snowball sampling. Once alumni were contacted they were invited to participate in dyadic

interviews about their Camp WILD experience. Participants included three females and two

males between the ages 22-24. All participants attended Camp WILD in 2005. Participants

were asked to recall memories of their experiences, reflect on its impact, and identify the causes

of such impacts. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. Interview transcriptions were

analyzed using a grounded theory coding approach (Creswell, 2007).

Results

After the initial coding, 97 codes were identified. Based on the research question, we

combined and collapsed codes due to lack of pertinence to the study. We found 12 codes were

most applicable to the focus of this study: Increased personal vision of potential – three

participants included having expanded dreams of their future careers and educations (e.g., they

“made me see where I could be and where I want it to be”). Increased liking and participation in

outdoors activities – All participants expressed this idea (e.g., “I never thought that biking could

be so fun”). One recounted, “I feel like I have a greater connection to being outdoors.”

Application – three participants shared experiences of later applying lessons they learned from

camp (e.g., “I remember there was an activity I took from camp wild…and our football team was

falling apart at one point, and I used the activity as a team building activity”). Self-discovery –

All participants found new interests and abilities (e.g., One learned, “that I was capable of doing

more than I thought it was”). Post-Camp Wild - Camp WILD continues to have a recognized,

positive influence in all participants’ lives. One participant recognizes being a better employee

at a sporting goods store. He said, “I go upstairs and I can talk fly fishing with some of the guys

up there. I can talk rafting with some of the guys up there, and they're like, ‘wow you kind of

know what you did down there.’” Another participant is studying recreation management. She

said, “part of why I chose the major I chose is because I want to give those kind of opportunities

to more people.” Reflection – For four participants, realization of perceived impacts and the

personal value of Camp WILD experience came years after participation (e.g., “Because now I

look back and I'm like, ‘oh I learned so much and it had such a big impact,’ but I think initially

the first few years after going there, all I thought was it was a happy experience”).

Participants identified the following key components of their Camp WILD experiences:

Examples of counselors – four participants commented on this (e.g., “they were good examples

to me of what I wanted to eventually achieve”). Counselors actively pushed and supported –

four participants commented on positive counselor involvement (e.g., “a lot of the time that I

spent with my counselors was learning to not give up, and they pushed me far and helped me

with so many things”). Becoming close with counselor – four participants commented that they

became great friends with their counselor. This was facilitated by the administration of the

camp. (e.g., “after they interviewed you, they paired you up with counselors who are very

similar to you”). Team building – three participants comments on benefits of team building

activities. Novelty – four participants liked the feeling of newness (e.g., Camp WILD “gave me

opportunity to experience a lot of new things”).

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceived long-term impacts from this

adventure program and what processes led to the incorporation of those perceived impacts. The

study's results provide insights into the perceived impacts and their facilitating elements. We

found that many participants still have vivid memories of experiences, people, and names from

Camp WILD. These data emphasize the role of the counselors. Strong relationships with the

counselors provided a conduit through which participants internalized lessons and self-

discovered. Having three activity rotations appears to have maintained the sense of novelty

throughout the two weeks, which kept participants engaged and learning. This study is limited

because interviews were conducted with a limited number of participants and their views do not

necessarily represent those of all participants. Those we were able to interview are more likely

to be those who had a good experience and want to share it. Because Camp WILD had all

volunteer staff, further research could test the difference between volunteer and paid staff. The

additional next step in this research is already being formulated. Additional work is underway to

expand the sample and reach data saturation.

Implication for Practice Our findings validate the importance of counselors in adventure recreation programs. Great

effort should be put into the selection and training of staff members. Ten years after

participation in Camp WILD, participants attribute most of their perceived impacts to their

counselors. An appreciation of the perceived long-term impacts on participants could reinforce

or revise specific adventure recreation programs. These findings hopefully make a meaningful

contribution to the understanding of the long-term impacts of adventure recreation programming.

Michael Gebhard, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, (970) 640-9797,

Michael.p.gebhard@gmail.

Selected References

Sibthorp, J., Paisley, K., & Gookin, J. (2007). Exploring participant development through

adventure-based programming: A model from the National Outdoor Leadership School.

Leisure Sciences, 29(1), 1-18.

Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and outward

bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational

Research, 67(1), 43-87.

Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five

Approaches (2nd

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

TENSIONS AND CHALLENGES OF PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH IN

PARK AND RECREATION CONTEXTS Troy D. Glover, University of Waterloo

Bryan Grimwood, University of Waterloo

Lisbeth Berbary, University of Waterloo

In their efforts to generate high-impact scholarship, leisure researchers are increasingly

utilizing research as a vehicle for meaningful engagement with potential users of the knowledge

it generates (Glover, 2015). The engaged scholarship of participatory action research (PAR)

promises to advance this good intention through the application of “a more democratic research

process, which respects and builds co-researchers’ capacity and generates more rich, diverse, and

appropriate knowledge for community change” (Kindon, 2005, p. 207). PAR “involves

researchers and participants working together to examine a problematic situation or action to

change it for the better” (Kindon, Pain, & Kesby, 2007, p. 1). “Better”, under PAR, tends to

reflect participant-driven definitions as researchers seemingly abandon their position as experts

to avoid controlling the research process in favor of adopting a facilitative role meant to respond

to the voices and wisdom of participants (Frisby et al., 2005). In Grimwood’s (2015) words,

“[PAR] is done with and by participants, rather than on or for them” (original emphasis). In so

many ways, PAR resonates with the values of our field.

Given the appeal of this approach and its potential to produce socially relevant findings, calls

for the adoption of PAR in parks and recreation research abound. In making the case, Parry,

Johnson and Stewart (2013) identified PAR as an approach that “enable[s] researchers to most

effectively enhance social justice within their communities of concern.” Likewise, Dupuis et al.

(2012) regarded it as a way to establish self-critical communities of people who work together to

achieve personal and social change. Floyd (2014, p. 385) positioned PAR as an approach that

“afford[s] opportunities for building trust and bridging social divides”, particularly for those

studying race and ethnicity. Though relatively few studies of PAR appear in our literature, their

proliferation indicates a growing need to inform best practice.

Beyond its role in engaged scholarship, PAR introduces unique challenges to researchers not

fully fleshed out in the leisure literature. Balancing power (see Dupuis et al., 2012), holding onto

faulty assumptions that research partners are in need of our expertise (Floyd, 2014), and sharing

ownership over projects (Hutchison & Lord, 2012), though acknowledged as challenges of the

experience, need to be documented and discussed with greater reflexivity. Those who engage in

the PAR process can undoubtedly appreciate the challenges and tensions associated with efforts

to build sustainable, functioning relationships with research participants as co-researchers, yet

more introspection is needed. The purpose of this paper is to explore challenges and tensions in

the PAR process to better inform its practice. Accordingly, the authors “write themselves at risk”

(Johnson, 2009) by sharing stories of research experiences that expose some of the

uncomfortable tensions encountered in PAR.

Method

This paper presents a “collaborative narrative refraction” (see Berbary & Boles, 2014) that

examines narrative data of PAR projects in leisure environments and experiences of tension

associated with the process. By narrative data, we mean “stories constructed about past events

that give an account for those events” (Schwandt, 2001, p. 170). We engaged in a collaborative

process of sharing personal experience stories that centred on significant episodes, events, or

personal experiences with PAR projects. Stories of working with remote, Northern communities

in Canada, ethno-cultural communities in a mid-sized city, and LGBTQ communities in

American and Canadian contexts were selected for the challenges they posed to the authors and

for their relevance as illustrations of the anxieties and conflicts that can arise in the PAR process.

The themes from these stories were identified, not by breaking down the internal features of the

story and coding or counting the parts, but by what we interpreted as their centrality to narrative

fidelity, meaning, and identity. The goal of analysis, then, was to recognize the common themes

or plots in the narrative data.

Results

We organize our findings under three themes: (1) community representation, (2) sharing

critical observations, and (3) invisibility of the researcher. The first theme, community

representation, refers to the assumption that a group of people with shared identity markers

represents the community of relevance in the PAR project. Such assumptions recognize the

group as “experts” of a community “reality” without considering those who may be silenced.

Under what circumstances can researchers insist on the inclusion of participants not identified as

community members? The second theme, sharing critical reflections, refers to the ethics of

pointing out to community co-researchers the exclusivity, prejudice, or privilege apparent in their

community, yet “invisible” or unproblematic to them. How do we maintain a critical perspective

in our research when doing so has the potential to create negative effects for the individuals with

whom we work? This theme highlights the tensions that exists between our ethical responsibility

to act on our critical observations and our ethical responsibility to do no harm. The third theme,

invisibility of the researcher, explores how PAR prompts researchers to render themselves

invisible in the process and outcomes of the research to avoid being perceived as controlling.

Evading the role of expert, however, can be unethical when working with populations that accept

internalized oppression and false needs. At what point to we assert ourselves when working

democratically with others? When does it become unethical not to do so?

Discussion & Implications

These tensions underscore the complexity of establishing an honest and working relationship

with our community co-researchers and the challenges associated with balancing our roles as

facilitators and experts in the PAR process. Clearly, “working across differences” requires effort

and vigilance over the course of a project (Lord & Church, 1998). Understandably, the PAR

literature underscores the ethical need for researchers to be sensitive to their positions of power

in forging working relationships with co-researchers, but in doing so, can unintentionally

romanticize the contribution and conduct of co-researchers. Conflicts can and do arise from

differing agendas.

As PAR gains in popularity, partnerships between leisure researchers, park and recreation

professionals, and broader communities are likely to increase and take on a variety of

approaches. PAR offers a particularly attractive, collaborative option that can be mobilized to

advance knowledge and benefits of social equity, health and wellness, and conservation through

research. This study offers insight into the challenges and tensions associated with PAR, thereby

providing guidance for those interested in adopting it. As Grimwood (2015) noted, PAR is

always a work in progress. Findings from this study underscore how partners can bring different

styles, resources and expectations to the effort. The process of ongoing relationship building with

partners requires time and commitment.

Troy D. Glover, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, Ontario,

Canada, (519) 888-4567, troy.glover@uwaterloo.ca

Selected References

Berbary, L. A., & Boles, J. C. (2014). Eight Points for Reflection: Revisiting Scaffolding for

Improvisational Humanist Qualitative Inquiry. Leisure Sciences, 36(5), 401-419.

Dupuis, S. L., Whyte, C., Carson, J., Genoe, R., Meshino, L., & Sadler, L. (2012). Just dance

with me: An authentic partnership approach to understanding leisure in the dementia

context. World Leisure Journal, 54(3), 240-254.

Floyd, M. F. (2014). Social justice as an integrating force for leisure research. Leisure Sciences,

36(4), 379-387.

Frisby, W., Reid, C. J., Millar, S., & Hoeber, L. (2005). Putting “participatory” into participatory

forms of action research. Journal of Sport Management, 19, 367-386.

Glover, T. D. (2015). Leisure research for social impact. Journal of Leisure Research, 47(1), 1-

14.

Grimwood, B. S. R. (2015). Participatory action research: Democratizing knowledge for social

justice. In C. W. Johnson & D. C. Parry (eds.), Fostering social justice through

qualitative inquiry (pp. 217-250). Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.

Hutchison, P., & Lord, J. (2012). Community-based research and leisure scholarship: a

discernment process. Leisure/Loisir, 36(1), 65-83.

Kindon, S. (2005). Participatory action research: In I. Hay (ed.), Qualitative methods in human

geography, (pp. 207-220). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.

Kindon, S., Pain, R., & Kesby, M. (eds.). (2007). Participatory action research approaches and

methods: Connecting people, participation and place. New York: Routledge.

Lord, J., & Church, K. (1998). Beyond “partnership shock”: Getting to ‘yes,’ living with ‘no.’

Canadian Journal of Rehabilitation, 12(2), 113–121.

Parry, D. C., Johnson, C. W., & Stewart, W. (2013). Leisure research for social justice: A

response to Henderson. Leisure Sciences, 35(1), 81-87.

Schwandt, T. A. (2001). The Sage dictionary of qualitative inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

CAMPUS RECREATION DAY CAMPS: PREDICTING CAMPER OUTCOMES

Jennifer Goff, Old Dominion University

Eddie Hill, Old Dominion University

Jean Holt, Old Dominion University

Ron Ramsing, Western Kentucky University

Takeyra Collins, Virginia Wesleyan College

Before the early 1990s, the absence of negative or undesirable behaviors was the benchmark

for youth development (Benson & Saito, 2006). During the mid-70’s, there was push for

recreation services to move past being just diversionary and to become developmental (Pittman;

Hurtes, Allen, Stevens, & Lee, 2000; Gray & Greben 1974). The American Camp Association

(ACA), with a mission of enriching the lives of children, youth, and adults, is a community of

professionals who support character-building, skill development, and healthy living (ACA, 2013;

2014). The American Camp Association (ACA) reported that there are approximately 12,000

camps (accredited and non-accredited) that take place annually with over 28,000 sessions (2014),

with over 11 million campers in the United States (ACA, 2011).

The ACA has been integral in supporting Positive Youth Development (PYD) by identifying

and documenting outcomes associated with participation in organized camping. In their seminal

outcomes study, four domains were comprised of ten constructs of PYD and included positive

identity, social skills, positive values and spiritual growth, and thinking and physical skills,

(Henderson, Bialeschki, Scanlin, Thurber, Whitaker, & Marsh, 2007). The ACA sponsored

research is salient in that it provides evidence of what many practitioners already know;

organized camping is beneficial to the development of youth (Henderson, Bialeschki, & James,

2007; Marsh, 1999). Specifically, the ACA has created the Youth Outcome Battery, which

includes an assortment of instruments used to measure outcomes (i.e., Camper Learner Scale).

Positive Youth Development (PYD) programs seek to improve health, happiness, and

competence in youth so they can become productive and satisfied adults (Linver, Roth, &

Brooks-Gunn, 2009). According to Wiess (2008), this is accomplished when skill acquisition in

one domain is beneficial in other domains. Positive Youth Development is a strengths-based

approach which is aimed to optimize the development of youth (Mohamad, Mohammad, & Ali,

2014). Recreation programs allow youth to try new activities (e.g., rock climbing) develop new

skills, build new relationships, while providing them with beneficial experiences that help

support important life skills (Morgan, Sibthorp, Wells, 2014; Larson, 2000; Eccles & Barber,

1999). Outcome-Focused Programming (OFP) formally known as Benefits-Based Programming is a

four step model for agencies to use to support evidence-based research in the field of recreation.

The purpose of this study was to determine which participant characteristics (e.g., gender)

predict camper outcomes as operationalized by the dimensions on the Camper Learner Scale.

Specifically, the following camper characteristics were used: gender, enjoyment at camp, weeks

attended at camp, willingness to return to camp, number of years at camp, number of previous

weeks at camp, and age of participants in camp.

Methods

This study recruited 115 participants based on their roles as campers in an ACA accredited

university camp during the summer of 2014. Participants’ ages ranged from 6 to 12 years old.

Participants were asked to participate in the study on a voluntary basis. Parents/Guardians signed

letters of consent allowing their children to participate and each camper signed a letter of assent.

Three, 1 week themed camp sessions were evaluated with one being a traditional camp setting

and two were outdoor-based camps. The ACA’s Camper Learner Scale was used and has been

found to be effective at measuring the seven common PYD outcomes or subscales (Hill, Holt &

Ramsing, 2014). The items included friendship, family citizenship, teamwork, perceived

competence, independence, interest in exploration and responsibility. The survey used a 4 point

Likert-type scale (1: I didn’t learn about this – 4: I learned a lot about this). The Camper Learner

Scale is a retrospective design and was completed after the end of each one week camp. The

survey was read to participants by their camp leaders in groups of three or four.

Results

A multiple Regression was conducted to determine the variation in the Camper Learner Scale

explained by age, number of camps attended, number of years attended, type of camp, likeness to

return and enjoyment of camp. Age, number of camps attended, number of years attended, Type

of camp (indoor vs. outdoor), likeliness to return to camp next year, enjoyment at camp

statistically significantly predicts higher score on the camper learner scale, F(7, 81)= 6.126,

MSE=29.057, p < .001, R2

=.346. There was independence of residuals, as assessed by a Durbin-

Watson statistic of 1.809. It was found that those that enjoyed camp more had higher scores on

the Camper Learner Scale (ß=.36, p=.001). Younger individuals (ages 6-9) scored higher on the

Camper Learner Scale compared to older group (10-12) (ß=-.25, p=.008). It was also found that

those who want to return to camp next year scored higher on the Camper Learner Scale

compared to those that said they did not want to return (ß =-.23, p=.02).

Discussion

Practitioner friendly evaluation tools have been developed to help recreation professionals

publicize what they already know to be effective programming. Over the course of the summer

during the one-week themed camps, those that enjoyed camp more had higher scores on the

camper leaner scale. Younger campers (ages 6-9) scored higher on the camper learner scale

compared to the older campers. Other camps studies have also found different age campers

benefit from specific design, younger campers benefited from age-appropriate activities (Hill,

Ramsing, Hill, 2007; Taylor, Piatt, Hill, & Malcolm, 2012). It was also found that those who

wanted to return to camp the next year scored higher on the Camper Learner Scale than those

that stated they did not want to return. These results are significant to the recreation field as it

continues to support the profession and validates recreation programming.

Implications for Practice

Practitioner friendly evaluation tools, such as the ACA Youth Outcomes Battery, is easy for

recreation professionals to administer and interpret results. Scores are averaged to determine a

retrospective look on skills acquired during camp, such as friendship, family citizenship,

teamwork, perceived competence, independence, interest in exploration and responsibility.

Following the OFP, meeting the goals of the program can have an economic, environmental,

individual and community outcomes. When recreation professional focus on outcomes and goals

while selecting appropriate program structures, the impact of programming can be greatly

increased (Hurtes, Allen, Steven, Lee, 2000).

Jennifer Goff, Sport and Recreation Management Program , Old Dominion University, Norfolk,

VA, (757) 683-6048, jgoff@odu.edu

References American Camp Association. (2013). Camp trends: Enrollment. Retrieved from:

http://www.acacamps.org/media-center/camp-trends/enrollment

American Camp Association. (2011). Camp youth outcome battery: Measuring developmental

outcomes in youth programs (2nd

ed.). Martinsville, IN: American Camp Association.

Benson, P.L., & Saito, R.N. (2006). The scientific foundations of youth development.

Minneapolis: Search Institute. Retrieved from www.ppv.org/ppv/publication/assets/

74_sup/ydv_4.pdf.

Brown, L., Hill, E., Shellman, A., & Gómez, E. (2012). Positive youth development: A

resiliency-based afterschool program case study. Journal of Youth Development:

Bridging Research and Practice, 7(4), 50-62.

Flanagan, C., & Levine, P. (2010). Civic engagement and the transition to adulthood. Future Of

Children, 20(1), 159-179.

Henderson, K., Bialeschki, D., Scanlin, M., Thurber, C., Whitaker, L., & Marsh, P. (2007).

Components of camp experiences for positive youth development. Journal of Youth

Development: Bridging Research and Practice, 1(3), 2-12.

Hill, E., Holt, J., & Ramsing, R. (2014, October). The ACA youth outcomes battery: Practicality

for university recreation camps. Paper presented at the NRPA Leisure Research

Symposium (pp. 98-101). Ashburn, VA: National Recreation & Park Association

Hill, E., Milliken, T., Goff, J., Gregory, N. (2013). Promoting Character and Resiliency

through Programming. Parks & Recreation, April, 38-39.

Lerner, R., Almerigi, J., Theokas, C., & Lerner, J. (2009). Positive youth development: A view

of the issues. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 10-16.

Linver, M. R., Roth, J. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009). Patterns of adolescents’ participation in

organized activities: Are sports best when combined with other activities? Developmental

Psychology, 45, 354–367.

Marsh, P. (1999). Does camp enhance self-esteem? Camping Magazine, 72(6), 17-21.

Mohamad, M., Mohammad, M., & Ali, N. M. (2014). Positive Youth Development and Life

Satisfaction among Youths. Journal Of Applied Sciences, 14(21), 2782-2492.

Morgan, C., Sibthorp, J., & Wells, M. S., (2014). Fun, activities, and social context: Leveraging

key elements of recreation programs to foster self-regulation in youth. Journal of Park

and Recreation Administration, 32(3), 74-91.

Pittman, K., Irby, M., & Ferber, T. (2001). Unfinished business: Further reflections on a decade

of promoting youth development. In P.L. Benson and K.J. Pittman (Eds.), Trends in

youth development: Visions, realities and challenges. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic

Publishers.

Sibthorp, J., Bialeschki, D., Morgan, C., & Browne. (2013). Validating, norming, and

utility of a youth outcomes battery for recreation programs and camps. Journal of

Leisure Research, 45(4), 541-536.

Taylor, J., Piatt J., Hill, E., & Malcolm T. (2012). Diabetes Camps and Self- Determination

Theory: Controlling Glycemic Level in Youth with Type 1 Diabetes. Annual in

Therapeutic Recreation (Vol. XX), 46-58

Thurber, C., Scanlin, M., Scheuler, L., & Henderson, K. (2006). Youth development outcomes

of the camp experiences: Evidence for multidimensional growth. Journal of Youth and

Adolescence, 36, 241-254. doi 10.1007/s10964-006-9142-6

NON-PROBABILITY-BASED SAMPLING IN REACHING DIVERSE GROUPS AND

COMMUNITIES

Tian Guo, North Carolina State University

Gareth Jones, North Carolina State University

Myron F. Floyd, North Carolina State University

Roger L. Moore, North Carolina State University

In order to achieve goals related to conservation, health, wellness, and social equity,

recreation researchers and practitioners need to understand the needs and preferences of diverse

groups and communities. Collecting representative and valid data is critical to developing this

understanding, and has been extensively discussed in the context of the general population

(Vaske, 2008). However, recent trends in research design encourage data collection strategies

that better represent the unique historical, social-economic, political, spatial, and cultural

contexts of study populations (Floyd, 2014). These trends respond to increasing desires to

include diverse populations in recreation research to promote social justice and a growing

awareness that recreation research can benefit from diverse research paradigms. Qualitative

research designs have contributed to these trends by obtaining rich findings related to diverse

populations. Quantitative data can similarly contribute to this trend by testing relationships

specific to groups and communities. However, collecting quantitative data about specific groups,

such as low income communities and racial/ethnic minorities, is challenging. For example, issues

of nonresponse have been shown to be particularly prominent in neighborhoods characterized by

concentrated poverty and social disorganization (Johnson, Cho, Campbell, & Holbrook, 2006).

Similarly, distrust and skepticism toward research is not uncommon among African Americans

(McAvoy, Winter, Outley, McDonald, & Chavez, 2000). To address these challenges, creative

data collection protocols and deliberate efforts from researchers are often needed to reach diverse

groups and communities.

Specifically, non-probability-based sampling methods such as convenience and respondent-

driven sampling are increasingly used to engage diverse groups and communities, as opposed to

traditional probability-based methods, such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and

cluster sampling. However, these non-probability-based samples should be analyzed differently

from probability-based samples, which is often not the case in the literature. The reason is that

most statistical methods require known probabilities of each case being included in the sample to

extrapolate information to the whole population (Lohr, 2010). Probability-based samples have

this property, but non-probability-based samples do not. Sampling conditions often associated

with non-probability-based samples such as non-response and non-recruitment can introduce

biases in results and often require modified estimators (Tomas & Gile, 2010). Misuse of

statistical methods is more than a technical issue. Inaccurate inference from data may be

misleading and result in policies or interventions that actually exacerbate problems that the

research was designed to help mitigate. An examination of use of non-probability-based samples

is important and timely.

Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of non-probability-based samples in

leisure and recreation research. Two research questions were addressed: (1) How prevalent are

non-probability-based samples in recent leisure and recreation research? and (2) What are the

advantages and disadvantages of non-probability-based samples?

Methods

A systematic literature review was conducted on articles published in the Journal of Leisure

Research (JLR) and Leisure Sciences (LS) from 2005 to 2014. In the first phase of this review,

two of the authors (Guo and Jones), scanned all articles and coded studies that used quantitative

research methods in their research designs. In particular, articles were coded based on the

sampling strategies (e.g., random, convenient, secondary, and experiment), data collection

methods (e.g., in-person, mail, internet, phone survey, secondary data, and experiment), and

response rates (e.g., 0-100%). In the second phase, studies that explicitly used social justice as

their conceptual frameworks or theoretical perspectives were coded and reviewed for barriers

researchers encountered in data collection (e.g., trust, access, funding) Inter-coder reliability was

achieved through multiple training sessions and continuous spot-checks throughout the coding

process.

Results and Discussion

Results indicate over half of the articles published on JLR and LS from 2005 to 2014

employed some quantitative methods. Among these quantitative studies, surveys were the

dominant data-collection method including in-person and/or mail survey. Non-probability-based

samples were used relatively frequently in leisure and recreation studies, representing

approximately a quarter of the studies examined. Some studies failed to report response rates

resulting in missing information on an important indicator of sampling quality.

Although non-probability-based approaches may reduce sampling costs and reach populations

that usually do not respond to standard recruitment messages, they may also introduce bias in

estimation when subsequent analysis is not adjusted. Alarmingly, despite the prevalence of non-

probability-based sampling in recreation research these limitations are rarely discussed, perhaps

due to the preponderance and overall acceptance of non-probability-based sampling in the

broader social sciences. However, statistical research on respondent-driven sampling suggests

that opportunities exist to improve the quality of non-probability-based sampling by developing

diagnostic tools (e.g., Gile, Johnson, & Salganik, in press) and adjusting estimation methods

(e.g., Gile & Handcock, in press). Sustained methodological inquiry from recreation researchers

to find more rigorous and robust methods to study diverse populations is needed.

Implications

This study sounds a cautionary note for recreation researchers. Researchers taking a social

justice perspective should consider ways to negotiate constraints to reach diverse populations.

More methodological studies are needed to establish statistically robust data collection and

analysis procedures that will fit diverse groups while maintaining validity and accuracy of the

results. More detailed discussion of results and implications will be provided.

Tian Guo, North Carolina State University, (612)356-3336, tguo@ncsu.edu

Selected References

Floyd, M. F (2014). Social justice as an integrating force for leisure research. Leisure Science,

36(4), 37–41.

Gile, K. J., Johnston, L. G., & Salganik, M. J. (in press). Diagnostics for respondent-driven

sampling. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. Retrieved from

http://arxiv.org/pdf/1209.6254v1.pdf.

Gile, K., J., & Hancock, M. S. (in press). Network model-assisted inference from respondent-

driven sampling data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. Retrieved from

http://arxiv.org/pdf/1108.0298v1.pdf.

Johnson, T., Cho, Y., Campbell, R., & Holbrook, A. (2006). Using community-level correlates

of evaluate nonresponse effects in a telephone survey. Public Opinion Quarterly, 70(5),

704-719.

Lohr, S. L. (2010). Sampling: Design and Analysis (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Brooks/Cole:

Cengage learning.

McAvoy, L., Winter, P. L., Outley, C. W., McDonald, D., & Chavez, D. J. (2000).Conducting

research with communities of color. Society and Natural Resources, 13(5), 479–488.

Tomas, A. & Gile, K. (2010). The effect of differential recruitment, non-response and non-

recruitment on estimators for respondent-driven sampling. Electronic Journal of

Statistics, 5: 899-934.

Vaske, J. J. (2008). Survey Research and Analysis: Applications in Parks, Recreation and

Human Dimensions. State College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.

THE TEMPORAL PHASES OF LEISURE: EXPECTATION, EXPERIENCE AND

REFLECTION

Justin Harmon, Texas A&M University

Rudy Dunlap, Middle Tennessee State University

There is more to a leisure experience than just the involvement that occurs during the activity.

Quite common to most leisure experiences are an identity and social component, but just as

important, and often overlooked, is the temporal dimension of the experience. Clawson and

Knetsch (1966) asserted that recreational experiences are multi-phase and comprised of five

stages: anticipation, travel to event, onsite experience, travel from event, and recollection of

participation. We believe that travel to an event should be included as part of anticipation and

travel from an event should be included as part of the recollection phase making for three vital

phases of a leisure experience. And while there have been numerous studies whose methodology

has relied on evaluations of pre-, during and post-participation experiences (Hammitt, 1980;

Mitchell, Thompson, Peterson, & Cronk, 1997; Wirtz, Kruger, Scollon, & Diener, 2003), it is far

more common that research on leisure does not consider the three temporal phases of a leisure

experience. Further, none of the studies that have attempted to encompass the multiple temporal

phases of experiential leisure involvement have focused on participants who had established

significant leisure careers or had been involved in recreational events for extended periods of

time. Previous studies of recreation’s multi-phase nature utilized experimental design, relied on

paid participants or students earning college credits, and therefore failed to explore the multi-

phase nature of recreation experiences that had been initiated by participants.

In contrast, the purpose of this study was to explore the three temporal phases of a recreation

experience in the context of individuals’ in situ attendance at a popular music performance.

These phases consisted of participants’ expectations associated with participation before an

event, the actual experience itself during the event, and the memory of that experience after the

event was over. This study was guided by the question, how do expectations of leisure

involvement affect experience of the activity and reflection on the experience?

Methods

The research took place in three phases: one month before the event (the Dixie Mattress

Festival in rural Oregon), during the event and one month after the event. The authors conducted

thirty semi-structured interviews with ten participants (three with each informant) who were fans

of the band Jerry Joseph & the Jackmormons (JJJ), most for a decade or longer. An interview

guide was used to ensure consistency and all interviews were audio-recorded for accuracy.

Within the multiphase structure, data were analyzed inductively using Charmaz’s (2006)

constructed grounded theory.

Results

During the pre-festival interview period, many fans reported being overly excited about their

upcoming involvement. As most had been deeply immersed in this music scene for lengthy

periods of time, it was common for them to reflect on past experiences about the music and

friends they would get to interact with and reestablish relationships. It was also common for

there to be a high degree of preparation in order to ensure everything went smoothly. Kevin said:

I love it. The countdown from now to DMF gets my blood boiling. This is one of the

longest stretches between shows for me; since [his last shows, two months earlier]. I

prefer to see them at least once a month! Excitement builds, my money is being stashed

away, my plans are being made. It’s all positive.

During the festival expectations for what was still to unfold both socially and musically

remained high. Once everyone had got their camps in order, the festival venue turned more into a

vacation experience. People would wander through the grounds getting reacquainted with other

fans who came from all over the country, but who they only got to see on special occasions like

this. And while the social component was integral to this community of fans, the reason

everyone was there was for the music. We asked Arlo to describe his relation to the music during

the actual experience, to which he replied:

Usually at the show we all gravitate towards the band, because once you’re there, it’s

totally up to them [the band] and you have no control over where the music is going to

go. It’s giving yourself up to the band. You think you know what’s coming eventually,

but the fact that you don’t, that space where you think you know what’s [about to

happen], and you get surprised, the experience of watching the band live, you’re in that

space, you’re taking whatever ride they’re on.

As this was the last installment of the DMF, there was a degree of sorrow that accompanied

the passing of this annual ritual. Upon reflection most participants reported sadness in not having

the festival to look forward to in the future. But because they knew in advance that this was the

last rendition, many stated that they made a point to be conscious of all that transpired through

the weekend, and made mindful effort to soak it all in and take advantage of their time with

friends and the music they love. Additionally, many were excited about what was to come;

several fans had made plans to “take the reins” and host another festival in the spirit of DMF the

following year. This allowed the participants to not only appreciate the final DMF experience

fully, but to anticipate their future involvement in what had come to be a core component of the

community that was created surrounding the band.

Discussion

As was indicated in the preceding results section, Kevin indicated the high level of

anticipation that accompanies the typical fan in this music scene. Many indicated that a

significant reason for their involvement, and therefore their anticipation of upcoming concerts,

was the number of close friends they had made through their participation, though the actual

music was typically the motivating factor for involvement as well as the conduit to make and

maintain these meaningful friendships. This was indicated through the selected excerpt of Arlo;

that once the music started, the music became the sole focus of the moment. This corroborates

the findings of Ruud (1997a, b) who stated that passionate involvement in music is a way of

performing identity and acts as a source of personal authenticity which helps one perceive and

give meaning to their world. It is through the establishment of one’s personal connection to the

music first that allows them to build and maintain successful social relationships (Lewis, 1983).

In the reflection stage of interviews fans commented on the many transitions that were taking

place in the music scene. Each participant expected the weekend to be nothing short of fun; no

one imagined that it could be anything but. Because of this tremendously positive set of

expectations, each interviewee recalled the weekend as capturing the essence of their long and

committed participation in the music scene. Having positive expectations for the weekend led to

having meaningful experiences that were remembered favorably, even in the face of inclement

weather and travel delays. Fans reflected on their experiences with gratitude which caused them

to look forward to the opportunity to participate together again in the future.

Justin Harmon, Recreation, Park & Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station,

TX, 77840, (303) 875-3977, jtharmon77@tamu.edu.

Selected References

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative

analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Clawson, M., & Knetsch, J.L. (1966). Economics of outdoor recreation. Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins Press.

Hammitt, W.E. (1980). Outdoor recreation: Is it a multi-phase experience? Journal of Leisure

Research, 12(2), 107-115.

Lewis, G.H. (1983). The meanings in the music and the music’s in me: Popular music as

symbolic communication. Theory, Culture & Society, 1(3), 133-141.

Mitchell, T.R., Thompson, L., Peterson, E., & Cronk, R. (1997). Temporal adjustments in the

evaluation of events: The “rosy view.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33,

421-448.

Ruud, E. (1997a). Music and identity. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 6(1), 3-13.

Ruud, E. (1997b). Music and the quality of life. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 6(2), 86-97.

Wirtz, D., Kruger, J., Scollon, N., & Diener, E. (2003). What to do on spring break? The role of

predicted, on-line, and remembered experience in future choice. Psychological Science,

14(5), 520-524.

LEISURE AND SPIRITUAL WELL-BEING: RESEARCH AND MEASUREMENT

Paul Heintzman, University of Ottawa

Dale Connally, Baylor University

Introduction

Recently Johan Bouwer (2013) published a chapter titled “Leisure as Moderator for Spiritual

Well-Being?” His goal was to theoretically examine whether leisure may be viewed as a

moderator for spiritual well-being, i.e., does leisure contribute to spiritual well-being? He

discussed the conceptualization of leisure and spiritual well-being, reviewed research on leisure

and spirituality conducted by two leisure scholars, and evaluated this research in light of his

conceptualization of leisure and spiritual well-being in order to determine if leisure is a

moderator for spiritual well-being. Bouwer claimed that these leisure scholars’ research is more

in line with psychological well-being than spiritual well-being. His recommendations for future

research on this topic included: a more precise analysis of spirituality; a more meticulous

analysis of well-being in regards to spirituality; and more quantitative research. Bouwer

concluded “that the existent evidence for supporting the statement that leisure is a moderator for

spiritual well-being is (conceptually) too weak to make a valid case for it” (p. 292). Bouwer

based his analysis on the work of only two leisure researchers: Heintzman (2002, 2009, 2010a,

2010b; Heintzman & Mannell, 1999) and Schmidt (2007, Schmidt & Little, 2007; Little &

Schmidt, 2006). However he analyzed Heintzman’s speculative (2002) and review (2009, 2010a,

2010b) articles rather than Heintzman’s empirical research studies (1999, 2007, 2008, 2011;

Heintzman & Mannell, 2003), while Schmidt’s research focuses on spiritual experience not

spiritual well-being. This paper applies Bouwer’s original research question of whether leisure is

a moderator of spiritual well-being to existing research on leisure and spiritual well-being.

Methods

An exhaustive search was conducted to locate empirical studies on leisure and spiritual well-

being. Content analysis of 14 studies determined their conceptual understanding of spiritual

well-being, the methodology used (e.g., qualitative, quantitative), instruments used to measure

spiritual well-being, the sample size, and results in regards to spiritual well-being.

Results

In the last 20 years, there has been a dramatic expansion of empirical research on leisure and

spirituality; dozens of studies now exist. These studies have tended to focus on immediate

spiritual experience rather than long-term spiritual well-being. Nevertheless 14 studies (Table 1)

were found that focus on leisure and spiritual well-being (Doi, 2004; Gu, 2011; Heintzman,

1999, 2000, 2007, 2008, 2011; Heintzman & Mannell, 2003; Lemieux et al., 2012; Pham, 2013;

Ragheb, 1989, 1993; Tsai & Wu, 2005; Weight, 1996). Most of these studies investigated leisure

in general however some focused on specific activities: birdwatching (Gu, 2011), wilderness

canoeing (Heintzman, 2007, 2008), park visitation (Lemieux et al., 2012) and yoga (Pham,

2013). Seven studies (Doi, 2004; Heintzman, 1999, 2000; Heintzman & Mannell, 2003; Pham,

2013; Tsai & Wu, 2005; Weight, 1996) included a discussion of how spiritual well-being was

conceptualized while the others did not. Four (Heintzman, 2000, 2007, 2008, 2011) were

qualitative studies based on in-depth interviews with sample sizes ranging from six to eight. In

these studies participants were asked to define their understanding of spiritual well-being prior to

answering questions that explored the relationships between their leisure and their spiritual well-

being. Nine studies (Doi, 2004; Gu, 2013; Heintzman, 1999; Heintzman & Mannell, 2003;

Lemieux et al., 2013; Ragheb, 1989, 1993; Tsai & Wu, 2005, Weight, 1996) involved survey

research with sample sizes ranging from 104 to 394. Pham’s (2013) study used mixed methods

with an experiment (31 in both the experimental group and control groups) along with analysis

of interviews with 10 members of the experimental group. Spiritual well-being was measured in

a variety of ways: the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Pham, 2013); the religious dimension of the

Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Weight, 1996); a shortened, modified version of the Spiritual Well-

Being Scale along with the Spiritual Well-Being subscale of the MPI well-being scale

(Heintzman, 1999; Heintzman & Mannell, 2003), the Perceived Wellness Survey that included

six spiritual wellness items (Tsai & Wu, 2005); a three item scale with two items focused on

nature (Lemieux et al., 2013); two items (Ragheb, 1993); and one item that asked how one’s

leisure contributed to one’s spiritual well-being (Ragheb, 1989). Doi (2004) claimed to measure

spiritual well-being with the Leisure-Spiritual Processes scale which actually does not measure

spiritual well-being. It was not clear how Gu (2011) measured spiritual well-being. Excluding

the Doi (2004) study that did not measure spiritual well-being, and the Weight (1996) study in

which the sample was too small to make any statistical inferences, all qualitative and quantitative

studies concluded that leisure contributed to spiritual well-being. Heintzman (1999, 2000;

Heintzman & Mannell, 2003) also discovered that leisure could detract from spiritual well-being.

Discussion

Bouwer’s conclusion that “existent evidence for supporting the statement that leisure is a

moderator for spiritual well-being is (conceptually) too weak to make a valid case for it” (p. 292)

was based on a very limited review of leisure literature, and did not include a review of any of

the 14 studies identified in the current study. His conclusion is applicable to some of the studies

reviewed, that is, studies (e.g., Lemieux et al., 2013; Ragheb, 1989, 1993) which did not provide

a conceptual understanding of spiritual well-being and that were based on only a few items that

make it difficult to capture the complexity of spiritual well-being and assess the reliability of its

measurement. However his conclusion is less applicable to those studies that provided a

thorough discussion of spiritual well-being and used standardized spiritual well-being scales

used widely in other disciplines and that have documented high levels of test-retest reliability,

internal consistency, face validity, and convergent validity.

Implications for Practice

Leisure service practitioners and researchers need to use discernment when considering the

results of studies on leisure and spiritual well-being. Care needs to be taken when interpreting

qualitative studies, with small sample sizes, as these studies allow participants to self-define

spiritual well-being so there may be little conceptual clarity regarding the use of this term in

these studies. Caution also needs to be exercised when interpreting the results of studies that do

not provide a conceptual background for spiritual well-being and rely on only one or two items

to measure this concept. As Bouwer suggested, in both these cases, findings might reflect

psychological rather than spiritual well-being. More confidence can be placed in studies that use

spiritual well-being scales that have been used widely in other social science disciplines and that

have high levels of reliability and validity. Given that much existing research on leisure and

spirituality is qualitative and focuses on spiritual experience, more quantitative research needs to

be conducted using well-known spiritual well-being scales. Only when more of this type of

research is conducted will we be able to conclude with confidence that leisure is a moderator of

spiritual well-being.

Paul Heintzman, Leisure Studies, University of Ottawa, 125 University, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5.

613-562-5800 ext. 4251, pheintzm@uottawa.ca

Table 1

Empirical Studies on Leisure and Spiritual Well-Being

Authors Study Focus Method Sample Size Conceptualization

of Spiritual

Well-Being

Measurement

Doi (2014) Leisure

preferences in

college students

Survey Study 1: 141

Study 2: 104

Yes Leisure-Spiritual

Processes Scale

(Heintzman, 1999)

Gu (2011) Birdwatching Survey 211 Unknown Unknown

Heintzman

(1999)

Leisure style of

general population

Survey 248 Yes 1. Modified version of

the Spiritual Well-Being

Scale (Ellison & Smith,

1991)

2. Spiritual Well-Being

subscale of the MPI

Well-Being scale (Vella-

Brodrick & Allen, 1995)

Heintzman

(2000)

Leisure style of

general population

Qualitative In-

Depth

Interviews

8 Yes Not applicable

Heintzman

(2007)

Wilderness

Canoeing

Qualitative

In-Depth

Interviews

6 No Not applicable

Heintzman

(2008)

Wilderness

Canoeing

Qualitative In-

Depth

Interviews

6 No Not applicable

Heintzman

(2011)

Youth Leisure Qualitative In-

Depth

Interviews

8 No Not applicable

Heintzman &

Mannell (2003)

Leisure style of

general population

Survey 248 Yes 1. Modified version of

the Spiritual Well-Being

Scale (Ellison & Smith,

1991)

2. Spiritual Well-Being

subscale of the MPI

Well-Being scale (Vella-

Brodrick & Allen, 1995)

Lemieux,

Eagles,

Slocombe,

Doherty, Elliot,

& Mock (2012)

Park visitation Survey 166 No Three items with two

focused on nature

Pham (2013) Yoga Experiment

& Interviews

Experiment: 62

Interviews:10

Yes Spiritual Well-Being

Scale (Ellison & Smith,

1991)

Ragheb (1989) Leisure of general

population

Survey 361 No One item

Ragheb (1993) Leisure of general

population

Survey 219 No Two items

Tsai & Wu

(2005)

Leisure

participation of

older persons

Survey 394 Yes Six spiritual wellness

items from the Perceived

Wellness Survey (Adams,

Bezner, & Steinhardt,

1997)

Weight (1996) Leisure

functioning in

adults

Survey 84 Yes Religious Dimension of

the Spiritual Well-Being

Scale (Ellison & Smith,

1991)

Selected References

Bouwer, J. (2013). Leisure as moderator for spiritual well-being? In H. Westerink (Ed.),

Constructs of meaning and religious transformation: Current issues in the psychology of

religion (Vol. 4, pp. 275-274). Göttingen, Germany: V& R Unipress.

Doi, A.S. (2004). Spiritual well-being and leisure preferences in college students. Unpublished

master’s thesis. Springfield College, Springfield, MA.

Gu, J. (2011). The pre-factors of birdwatchers’ spiritual health: The relationship among leisure

involvement, spiritual functions of leisure and satisfaction. Unpublished master’s thesis.

National Pingtung Institute of Commerce, Pingtung, Taiwan.

Heintzman, P. (1999). Leisure and spiritual well-being: A social scientific exploration.

Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON.

Heintzman, P. (2000). Leisure and spiritual well-being relationships: A qualitative study. Society

and Leisure, 23, 41-69.

Heintzman, P. (2007). Men’s wilderness experience and spirituality: A qualitative study. In R.

Burns & K. Robinson (Comps.), Proceedings of the 2006 Northeastern Recreation

Research Symposium (pp. 216-225) (Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-14). Newton Square, PA:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Services, Northern Research Station.

Heintzman, P. (2008). Men’s wilderness experience and spirituality: Further explorations. In C.

LeBlanc & C. Vogt (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2007 Northeastern Recreation Research

Symposium (pp. 55-59) (Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-23). Newton Square, PA: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Services, Northern Research Station.

Heintzman, P. (2011). Youth leisure and spirituality: A qualitative study of senior high school

students. In K. Andereck & M. Stodolska (Comps.) Leisure Research Symposium.

Ashburn, VA: National Recreation and Park Association.

Heintzman, P., & Mannell, R. (2003). Spiritual functions of leisure and spiritual well-being:

Coping with time pressure. Leisure Sciences, 25, 207-230.

Lemieux, C.J., Eagles, P.F.J., Slocombe, D.S., Doherty, S.T., Elliot, S.J., & Mock, S.E. (2012).

Human health and well-being motivations and benefits associated with protected area

experiences: An opportunity for transforming policy and management in Canada. Parks:

The International Journal of Protected Areas and Conservation, 18(1), 71-85.

Pham, K. H. (2013). Outcomes of a recreation therapy yoga meditation intervention on prison

inmates' spiritual well-being. Unpublished master’s thesis. San Jose State University,

California.

Ragheb, M. G. (1989). Step-wise regression analysis of leisure domains and the reported

contribution of leisure activities to individuals’ well-being: An exploratory study. Society

and Leisure, 12, 399-412.

Ragheb, M.G. (1993). Leisure and perceived wellness: A field investigation. Leisure Sciences,

15, 13-24.

Schmidt, C., & Little, D.E. (2007). Qualitative insights into leisure as a spiritual experience.

Journal of Leisure Research, 39(2), 222-247.

Tsai, C-Y., & Wu, M-T. (2005). Relationship between leisure participation and perceived

wellness among older persons in Taiwan. Journal of ICHPER, 41(3), 44-50.

Weight, B.N. (1996). The relationship between spirituality and leisure functioning in adults, as

measured by spiritual well-being and perceived freedom in leisure. Eugene, OR:

Microform Publications, International Institute for Sport and Human Performance,

University of Oregon.

THE BENEFITS OF BIKING SCALE: A NATIONAL APPLICATION AMONG

MOUNTAIN BIKERS

Eddie Hill, Old Dominion University

Brian Smith, International Mountain Bicycling Association

Lindsay Usher and Edwin Gomez, Old Dominion University

Introduction

Mountain biking is currently one of the fastest growing recreational activities in the world

(The Outdoor Foundation, 2013), but documenting the benefits has been challenging. The

Benefits of Hiking Scale (BHS) has been used in other national and state park trail research

(Freidt, Hill, Gómez, Goldenberg, & Hill, 2010; Hill et al., 2014). The BHS, a 32-item

instrument assessing the values and benefits of using trails, is theoretically grounded, reflecting

Gutman’s (1982) means-end theory and reflecting Driver’s (1998) leisure benefits. Gutman

identified three key concepts within means-end: attributes, consequences, and values

(Goldenberg et al., 2000). A benefit of leisure, as defined by Driver (2008), is an outcome that

causes (a) a change resulting in a more desirable condition than the preexisting state, (b) the

continuance of a desired condition in order to prevent an undesired condition from occurring, or

(c) the realization of a satisfying experience with regards to recreation. Research demonstrating

objective, measurable benefits is needed to justify funding, advocate for and guide the

development of new facilities, improve best practices for management and programming, and

increase participation (Driver, 2008). Empirical evidence of health benefits is also instrumental

in positioning and promoting recreation and parks as a means to address current public issues,

especially those related to health and quality of life. Recreation professionals should not assume

that recreation is inherently rewarding, but instead should identify and measure outcomes (Allen

& Cooper, 2003). The purpose of this study was to examine the values and health outcomes

associated with mountain biking in the U.S. by using a modified BHS.

Methods

Using a convenience sample data were collected with a self-administered online survey

through the International Mountain Biking Association’s (IMBA) listserv and posted on their

website in the summer of 2015. For the purposes of this study, the word “hiking” was substituted

with the word “biking” to reflect the recreation activity context related to trail use, thus the

modified BHS will be the Benefits of Biking Scale (BBS). The survey included the BBS items

and demographic questions. All analyses were performed at the 95% confidence interval.

Results

With an N = 1319, the national sample represented all states except North Dakota and

Delaware. The sample represented the following demographic aspects: gender (80.7% male),

race (92.2% white), marital status (66.0% married), and IMBA membership (49.9% members).

The KMO value of 0.89 and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity of p < .05 met the requirements for

sampling adequacy. The Cronbach’s alphas for the three dimensions of BBS (Prevention α = .90,

Improve α = .85, Psych α = .87) and the three dimensions of M-ERS (Values α = .91,

Consequences α = .67, Attributes α = .60) were at or above the minimum 0.60 cut-off

(Tabacknick & Fidell, 1996).

Regarding the Means-end analyses, no significant differences were found between

IMBA/non-IMBA members and expected values from mountain biking. However, significant

differences were found between the attributes ascribed to mountain biking and health

consequences expected from mountain biking, with IMBA members scoring higher on both

attributes and consequences than non-IMBA members. No differences were found between

genders on attributes, but differences were found between men and women and their perceptions

of values and consequences, with women scoring higher on both these dimensions. No

differences were found between married/non-married bikers. No significant differences were

found between age groups (13-34; 34-40; 41-50; 51+) and consequences or attributes; however

the 13-34 group viewed perceived values significantly higher than their older counterparts (41-50

and 51+).

Regarding the benefits analyses, no significant differences were found between IMBA/non-

IMBA members and prevention benefits from mountain biking. However, significant

differences were found between the improvement and psychological benefits of mountain biking,

with IMBA members scoring higher on both improvement and psychological benefits than non-

IMBA members. Differences were found in terms of prevention and psychological benefits, with

men scoring higher on prevention and women scoring higher on psychological benefits.

Differences were found related to improvement and prevention benefits. No significant

differences were found between age groups and improvement or psychological benefits; however

the 13-34 age group was significantly lower the 51+ age group cohort in prevention benefits.

Discussion

This national study explored differences between gender, IMBA membership, age, and

marital status in mountain bikers. Our findings indicate that IMBA members scored higher on

perceived values of mountain biking, as well as higher scores on improvement and psychological

benefits. One could speculate that mountain bikers who also belong to IMBA as a member, gain

more value than non-members because they are more attached to the sport in its entirety, not just

as participants. This is similar to previous research on place attachment and Appalachian Trail

hikers (Hill et al., 2014). With respect to gender, differences were found between genders on

four of the six dimensions. In previous research among Eastern Virginia mountain bikers, Hill,

Smith, Usher, and Gómez (2014) found the benefits dimension of the BBS to be homogeneous

with regard to benefits across a heterogeneous sample, with no significant gender difference

between the three benefits. Thus, our findings at the national level are divergent.

Implications for Practice

This research can be used for public land managers. In addition, this research may be useful

to outdoor recreation programmers to better understand the “participants” while on park trails;

and to allow for better recognition of benefits of biking on trails. For example, trail

administrators could market the benefits of biking trails differently to women by focusing on the

psychological benefits, and could focus on prevention benefits, particularly to older men. Lastly,

the data indicate that both men and women perceive similar improvements to their health from

biking, but women enjoy the psychological (social) aspects of biking more than men.

Furthermore, the complete BBS includes a measure for benefits and for values. Exploring values

of mountain bikers, and their differences, might help isolate motives for mountain biking. The

building of mountain parks is at an all-time high (Outside, 2015); researchers need to further

investigate the benefits and values for users. Clearly values were significantly higher among

IMBA members, indicating a greater appreciation for biking by its members – something which

could be advertised. These new data will be useful for park managers and programmers to

effectively identify the needs of mountain bike trail users and better target market their product.

Eddie Hill, Park, Recreation and Tourism Studies Program, Old Dominion University, Norfolk,

VA, (757) 683-4881, ehill@odu.edu.

Selected References

Driver, B. L. (1998, February). The benefits are endless…but why? Parks & Recreation, 33(2),

26-30.

Freidt, B., Hill, E., Gómez, E., Goldenberg, M. & Hill, L. (2010) A benefits-based study of

Appalachian Trail users: Validation and application of the benefits of hiking scale.

Physical Health Education Nex (us)/ (phén) ix Éducation Physique et à la Santé Journal]

(2)1, 1-22.

Gómez, E., Freidt, B., Hill, E., Goldenberg, M., & Hill. L. (2010). Appalachian Trail hiking

motivations and means-end theory: Theory, management, and practice. Journal of

Outdoor Recreation, Education and Leadership 2(3), 261-285.

Gómez, E., Hill, E., Freidt, B., & Goldenberg, M. (2013). Benefits of recreation scale: An

example of best practices for scale development using EFA and CFA. Abstracts from the

2013 Leisure Research Symposium, pp. 48-51. Ashburn, VA: National Recreation & Park

Association.

Guadagnoli, E. & Velicer, W. F. (1988). Relation of sample size to the stability of component

patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 265-275.

Gutman, J. (1982). A means-end chain model based on consumer categorization processes.

Journal of Marketing, 46, 60-72.

Hill, E., Gómez, E., Freidt, B., & Goldenberg, M. (2013). Benefits of recreation at First Landing

State Park, Virginia. Abstracts from the 2013 Leisure Research Symposium, pp. 61-64.

Ashburn, VA: National Recreation & Park Association.

Hill, E., Goldenberg, M., Gómez, E., Freidt, B., Fellows, S., & Hill. L. (2014). Appalachian and

Pacific Crest Trail hikers: A comparison of benefits and motivations. Journal of

Unconventional Parks, Tourism, & Recreation Research, 5(1), 9-16.

Outdoor Foundation (2013). Outdoor Participation Report. Retrieved from

www.outdoorfoundation.org

Tabacknick, B. G. & Fidell, L.S. (1996). Using multivariate statistics (3rd

ed.). New York:

Harper Collins.

PROGRAMMING FOR URBAN YOUTH: THE CARE NOW IN- AND AFTERSCHOOL

PROGRAM

Eddie Hill, Jennifer Goff, Tammi Milliken, Jamie Bower and Melissa Turnage

Old Dominion University

The absence of negative or undesirable behaviors was the benchmark for youth development

prior to the early 1990s (Benson, et al., 2006). There has been a continual shift from viewing

adolescence as a period of strife, to a time where youth may develop into successful contributing

members of society (Damon, 2004). Pittman captured the essence of this shift by stating that the

youth who were problem free were not necessarily fully prepared (Pittman, Irby, & Ferber,

2001). In response to this paradigm shift there has been increased research and practitioner

involvement, national policy discussions, and increased funding for practice and research, that

the moniker, Positive Youth Development (PYD) became ascribed to guiding young people in a

variety of environments. Character and Resiliency Education (CARE) Now is a comprehensive

in- and afterschool program designed to promote academic achievement. In math classes and

throughout afterschool activities, the CARE Now program focuses on the enhancement of

character and resiliency because of their established, inextricable link to academic achievement

and positive youth development. Hill & Milliken (2011) identified significant gains among the

middle school participants in CARE Now. Resiliency increased for males differentially than for

females; high usage of the program was especially beneficial. Therefore, the purpose of the study

was to investigate CARE Now’s impact on resiliency and character among urban elementary

school students.

Methods

The public school district in Southeast Virginia was selected for the project. The student

population exhibits higher-than-average rates of failure, truancy, higher dropout rates,

disciplinary infractions, and poor relationships with school personnel, family, and the community

at large. Many of the schools’ students live in government-subsidized housing with 98% of the

students are eligible to receive free and reduced meals (VDOE, 2012). The CARE Now program

aimed to provide outcome-focused character and resiliency programming to all 3rd-5th graders

as a means to promote academic readiness and student motivation. Using the resiliency and

character traits, and an Outcome-Focused Programming (OFP) model, CARE Now was created.

During the in-school and afterschool program, held Monday through Thursday, undergraduate

college students worked with the elementary students. The in-school advocates used counseling

techniques learned throughout their coursework to redirect participants who are struggling in the

classroom. One day each week, advocates led a guidance lesson during class introducing the

character and resiliency traits of the week that were reinforced when working with students to

solve problems, communicate appropriately, and express their feelings. These traits were also

mirrored in the after-school portion of the program. The after-school activities included

cooperative teambuilding exercises that promoted planning and problem-solving within a group,

and required students to listen to one another and follow through with handling conflicts. Within

these groups, over the course of the school year, they developed friendships through experiential

education, challenge initiatives, and academic support from one another.

Results

The 40-item Resiliency and Attitudes Skills Profile (RASP) has been used in several studies,

and shows promise as an effective measure (Brown, Hill, Shellman, & Gómez, 2012). Other

studies have continued to test the robustness of the RASP with various findings (Williams et al.,

2013). More recently Hill, Gómez & Milliken (2014) developed a 24-item RASP scale that was

used in this study. The 12-item Citizenship Scale was used as an assessment of honesty,

trustworthiness, rule following, and conscientiousness. The measurement falls into James Rest’s

(1986) third component of moral behavior, ethical focus or motivation (other components are

ethical sensitivity, ethical judgment and ethical action). Initially tested as part of a battery of

items examining ethical identity, duty, and citizenship in elementary school students, twelve

items loaded together as one factor termed “citizenship.” Of the 132 students who participated in

the 2013-2014 school year, 76 students were granted permission from their parents/guardians

and assented to complete the questionnaires, and of those, 39 students had matched pre- and

posttest data. This resulted in a 30% response rate. Of the 39 participants, 13 were males and 26

were females. Paired samples t-tests were used to compare participants from pretest to posttest

scores. Results indicated a statistically significant increased difference between participants’

pretest of the RASP (M = 4.99, SD = .65) and posttest scores (M = 5.26, SD= .57, with t(38) = -

2.75, p=.009, with a corresponding effect size, r2pb = 0.16. Additionally, while not statistically

significant, a slight increase of scores in the Citizenship Scale was also found between pretest (M

= 4.66, SD = 0.54) and posttest (M = 4.70, SD= 0.44), with t(38) = -.46, p = .65, with a

corresponding effect size, r2pb = 0.005. There was no significant difference between males and

females on resiliency or character, although males scored higher than females at RASP pretest,

but lower than females on the Citizenship pretest.

Conclusion

Developmental assets have been identified as a set of supports (i.e., adult figure) who are

related to promoting school success, reducing risk behaviors, and increasing social-valued

outcomes including prosocial behavior, leadership, and resilience” (Benson, Scales, & Syvertsen,

2011). In previous CARE Now programs, Hill & Milliken (2011) found a usage group x gender

interaction about there being an adult at school that the student could talk to about their

problems. A positive role model is especially important in inner-city areas, where youth are often

lacking that person in their lives. In addition, they found specifically, a higher level of usage or

involvement with the program was beneficial for male students (Hill & Milliken). In the current

study both male and female participants made positive improvements. Gains in resilience and

character, being associated with a greater capacity to cope with adversity, higher moral

consciousness, and greater success academically, are of value to all students, and particularly to

those faced with the challenges of poverty and instability experienced by so many of the

elementary school students. While students did not meet accreditation benchmarks this academic

year, their positive gains in resilience are still important as these children need as many internal

resources as possible for coping with day to day life.

Implications for Practice

It is noteworthy to acknowledge any positive shift in scores considering the short amount of

time the children participated in the programming. Particularly in light of research that has

repeatedly shown that significant gains in core developmental constructs takes a minimum of one

year (Rest, 1986). The positive increase in scores offer continued support to advocate for

evidence-based recreation programs for both male and female urban youth. Many of the youth

lack academic assistance outside of school, and do not have a safe place to go afterschool, which

programs such as CARE Now can address.

Eddie Hill, Park, Recreation and Tourism Studies Program, Old Dominion University, Norfolk,

VA, (757) 683-4881, ehill@odu.edu.

Selected References

Byrne, B.M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications,

and programming (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.).

Prentice-Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Hill, E., Brown, L., & Cosnett, E. (2011). Creating a benefits-based afterschool program. The

Voice, Winter, 16-18.

Hill, E., Milliken, T., Goff, J., Gregory, N. (2013). Promoting Character and Resiliency

through Programming. Parks & Recreation, April, 38-39.

Hurtes, K.P., & Allen, L.R. (2001). Measuring resiliency in youth: The resiliency attitudes and

skills profile. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 35(4), 333-347.

Kline, R.B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rded.). New York:

The Guilford Press.

Mullen, G., Turner, J., & Narvaez, D. (April, 2005). Student Perceptions of Climate Influence

Character and Motivation. American Educational Research Association, Montreal.

Narvaez, D., Bock, T., Endicott, L., & Lies, J. (2004). Minnesota’s Community Voices and

Character Education Project. Journal of Research in Character Education, 2, 89-112.

Narvaez, D., Gardner, J., & Mitchell, C. (August, 2001). Community bonding: A protective

factor or at-risk behaviors and attitudes. American Psychological Association, San

Francisco.

Rest, J. (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger.

Sprinthall, N.A., & Mosher, R.L. (1978). Value development...As the aim of education.

Schenectady, NY: Character Research Press.

Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and

applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Williams, T., Gómez, E., Hill, E., Milliken, T., Goff, J., & Gregory, N. (2013). The

resiliency and attitudes skills profile: An assessment of factor structure. Illuminare: A

Student Journal in Recreation, Parks, & Leisure Studies, 11(1), 16-30.

CONNECTING ADOLESCENT RECREATION BEHAVIORS TO ADULT SIBLING

RELATIONSHIP QUALITY

Camilla Hodge, Penn State University

Michael Kanters, North Carolina State University

Jason Bocarro, North Carolina State University

Karla Henderson, North Carolina State University

Toby Parcel, North Carolina State University

Sibling relationships are potentially the longest-lasting across the lifespan (Cicirelli, 1994;

Whiteman, McHale, & Soli, 2011). Even as birthrate and family size in the U. S. decline,

children are more likely to grow up sharing a household with a sibling than with a father

(Feinberg, Sakuma, Hostetler, & McHale, 2013). Little is known about the role leisure and

recreation play in sibling relationships (Whiteman, McHale, & Crouter, 2007). Recreation is

considered to be a means of family relationship development and maintenance (Orthner, Barnett-

Morris, & Mancini, 1994), and family leisure is positively related to family functioning,

satisfaction with family life, family cohesion, and family adaptability (Holman & Epperson,

1984; Orthner & Mancini, 1990; Poff, Zabriskie, & Townsend, 2010; Zabriskie & McCormick,

2001; Zabriskie & McCormick, 2003). These conclusions, however, are largely based on

individual-level analyses of cross-sectional couple or parent-child data in which the child is an

adolescent. Examinations of the longevity of leisure as a predictor of family outcomes over time

have been limited. Moreover, sibling perspectives are missing from family leisure literature.

Thus, our understanding of the role of recreation in sibling relationships is limited, especially

when considering transitions across life stages, or when examining developmental stages other

than childhood or adolescence. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine adolescent

recreation behaviors as predictors of adult sibling relationship quality. Specifically, we explored

technology-based and active recreation in adolescence and their relationships to higher or lower

perceptions of sibling closeness, contact, communication, and conflict in adulthood.

Methods

Data were drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add

Health), a nationally representative longitudinal study of adolescents in the United States (Harris

et al., 2009) beginning in adolescence and spanning into adulthood. A fifth wave of data

collection is underway. We used Adolescent Pairs Data that identified sibling pairs. The sample

was delimited to full sibling pairs (npairs =1,251, nrespondents =2,502) of all gender compositions.

Instrumentation. We used a five-item scale (α =.741) to measure sibling relationship quality

(SRQ). Additionally, we used four items to assess technology-based leisure, and three items to

assess active leisure. Finally, we included age, birth order, mother’s education, household

income, family size, race, relationships with parents, and family structure in model estimation.

Analyses. We addressed missing data with multiple imputation. We computed descriptive

statistics, correlations, and a series of multilevel models that accounted for family-level effects

when predicting sibling relationship quality. Data were weighted according to Add Health terms.

Results Most respondents were female (n = 1,276, 51%), White (n = 1,380, 55%), and lived with

both their mother and father (n = 2,106, 84%). Mean age was 15.1 years old (SD = 1.50), and

mean family size was 5.0 (SD = .87) with a range of 1 to 7 people per household. Mother’s

education ranged from less than a high school education (n = 311, 12%), to high school or GED

(n = 892, 36%), to some college (n = 720, 29%), to graduated from a college or university (17%),

to professional training beyond a four-year degree (n = 147, 6%). Most respondents (n = 1,450,

58%) reported watching TV or videos five or more times per week, and 22% (n = 544) reported

watching TV or videos three or four times per week. Overall, respondents spent an average of 23

hours a week engaged in some form of technology-based recreation. One in four respondents

reported not playing an active sport during the week (n = 635, 25%), and nearly one in five

reported no exercise in the last week (n = 401, 16%). Slightly more respondents (n = 661, 26%)

had played an active sport at least once in the last week. About one-third of respondents (n =

780, 31%) reported exercising once or twice in the last week, and slightly more than half (n =

1,321, 53%) reported exercising three or more times.

We estimated an unconditional model from which we calculated the intraclass correlation

coefficient (ICC). The ICC was 46.6%, meaning nearly half of the variance in perceptions of

adult sibling relationship quality was explained by family-level effects, or between-family

differences. Household income, gender, relationship with mother, and race were significant

predictors of adult sibling relationship quality. Family size and birth order, while not significant,

were retained in the model because both have effects on sibling relationships (Downey, 2001).

Rollerblading or bicycling was positively related to adult sibling relationship quality (β = .214, t

= 2.96, p = .003) as was playing an active sport (β = .225, t = 3.45, p = .001). Conversely,

exercising was negatively related to adult sibling relationship quality (β = -.143, t = -.2.17, p =

.030). Hours spent watching videos were positively related to perceptions sibling relationship

quality (β = .042, t = 3.85, p < .001). No gender-recreation interactions were significant.

Discussion

Findings suggest that recreation behaviors in adolescence contributed to sibling relationship

quality years later in adulthood. Whether adolescent recreation was positively or negatively

related to adult sibling relationship quality varied by activity. Of note, the positive relationship

between sibling relationship quality and some technology-based recreation behaviors may

contradict mainstream perceptions of technology-based recreation. Overall, these findings

suggest that adolescent recreation plays at least some part in sibling relationships over time.

Major contributions of this paper include the explicit examination of the positive relationship

between leisure and family relationship well-being at siblings’ different developmental stages.

Moreover, sibling relationships are potentially the longest lasting and most stable across the life

span (Whiteman et al., 2011), and of importance to individual development and well-being

(Cicirelli, 1995). Future research should consider the specific aspects of sibling recreation

including shared and non-shared recreation experiences, and examine a greater variety of

individual and family outcomes and a broader scope of family contexts in which siblings operate.

Implications for Practice

Current findings suggest adolescent recreation is an important context for developing adult

sibling relationships. Close adult sibling relationships are related to greater life satisfaction and

lower levels of depression (Cicirelli, 1995). Recreation provides a context for critical sibling

processes such as communication (e.g., Smith, Freeman, & Zabriskie, 2009) and conflict

resolution that facilitate close sibling relationships. Recreation may therefore provide an

accessible, cost effective, unobtrusive, and typically enjoyable avenue through which family and

recreation practitioners can intentionally influence adolescent sibling relationships, and in turn,

increase individual well-being across the lifespan.

Camilla Hodge, Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management, The Pennsylvania State University,

University Park, PA, (814) 863-8989, cjhodge@psu.edu

Selected References

Cicirelli, V. G. (1994). The longest bond: The sibling life cycle. In L. L’Abate (Ed.), Handbook

of developmental family psychology and psychopathology (pp. 44–59). New York, NY:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cicirelli, V. G. (1995). Sibling rleationships across the life span. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Feinberg, M. E., Sakuma, K. L., Hostetler, M., & McHale, S. M. (2013). Enhancing sibling

relationships to prevent adolescent problem behaviors: theory, design and feasibility of

Siblings Are Special. Evaluation and Program Planning, 36(1), 97–106.

Folwell, A. L., Chung, L. C., Nussbaum, J. F., Bethea, L. S., & Grant, J. A. (1997). Differential

accounts of closeness in older adult sibling relationships. Journal of Social and Personal

Relationships, 14(6), 843-849.

Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Whitsel, E., Hussey, J., Tabor, J., Entzel, P., & Udry, J. R. (2009).

Research Design. The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Retrieved June

18, 2013, from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.

Holman, T., & Epperson, A. (1984). Family and leisure: A review of the literature with research

recommendations. Journal of Leisure Research, 16(4), 277–294.

Orthner, D., Barnett-Morris, L., & Mancini, J. (1994). Leisure and family over the life cycle. In

L. L’Abate (Ed.), Handbook of developmental family psychology and psychopathology.

New York, NY: Wiley.

Poff, R., Zabriskie, R., & Townsend, J. (2010). Modeling family leisure and related family

constructs: A national study of US parent and youth perspectives. Journal of Leisure

Research, 42(3), 365–391.

Whiteman, S. D., McHale, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2007). Explaining sibling similarities:

Perceptions of sibling influences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(7), 963–972.

Whiteman, S. D., McHale, S. M., & Soli, A. (2011). Theoretical perspectives on sibling

relationships. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 3(2), 124–139.

Zabriskie, R., & McCormick, B. (2001). The influences of family leisure patterns on perceptions

of family functioning. Family Relations, 50(3), 281–289.

Zabriskie, R., & McCormick, B. (2003). Parent and child perspectives of family leisure

involvement and satisfaction with family life. Journal of Leisure Research, 35(2), 163–

189.

ENGAGING URBAN YOUTH WITH NATURAL AREAS: MESSAGING THAT

RESONATES

Susan Houge Mackenzie, Keri Schwab, Lindsey Higgins, Brian Greenwood, Marni Goldenberg,

Jerusha Greenwood, & William W. Hendricks, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis

Obispo

Multiple studies demonstrate a positive relationship between natural areas and physical and

mental well-being (e.g. Pretty, Peacock, Sellens, & Griffin, 2005). Scholars have hypothesized

that natural settings provide benefits through attention restoration and cognitive functions (e.g.

Kaplan, 1995). Research highlights the importance of inclusively engaging and strengthening all

youth’s connections to natural areas. Urban youth, particularly minority youth, often do not

participate in outdoor activities (Outdoor Foundation, 2013). These findings are even more

alarming considering that minority youth are less likely to be physically active; are at higher risk

for diabetes and other obesity-related diseases; and are more mentally taxed due to living in

stressful urban environments (Eaton et al., 2006; Kuo, 2001). Barriers to participation for

minority groups may be structural, social, cultural, or due to lack of awareness. Predominantly

African-American U.S. neighborhoods have fewer built or natural settings for physical activity

(Powell, Slater, Chaloupka, & Harper, 2006). Poor access to natural areas is especially prevalent

in Los Angeles, with many neighborhoods considered ‘park poor.’ As minority groups may

experience unique structural, social, and/or cultural constraints, different messaging strategies

may be required when communicating with minority urban youth about natural areas (e.g.

Shores, Scott, & Floyd, 2007). However, the ideal content and mediums for these strategies

remains unclear. Due to its widespread popularity amongst youth, social media may present an

effective medium. In a study of Latino health communications, investigators found that 97% of

participants had at least one social media account and called for further research on effective

social media strategies for youth (Vyas et al., 2012). In light of these issues, the current study

investigated (a) how and why minority urban youth use social media, and (b) key nature-based

messages of interest to minority urban youth. These findings are anticipated to inform larger

initiatives for engaging urban youth with nature.

Methods

Seven focus groups were conducted with 42 minority youth ages 11-20 from urban LA (x̄

=15; 42% female, 58% male; 55% Latino, 24% Black, 5% Chinese, 2% Native American and

14% ‘other’ or mixed ethnicities). Participants were selected by identifying underserved LA

areas with high minority populations and contacting youth groups from those areas using a

snowballing method (Patton, 2002). A 15-item semi-structured interview guide was created

based on the literature, which was piloted and revised prior to data collection. Questions focused

on perceptions of outdoor recreation, motivation to recreate outdoors, desired outcomes, barriers

and facilitators, and social media use. Each focus group was transcribed verbatim. Three

researchers and two assistants conducted content analysis of the data by initially classifying

reoccurring themes independently to reduce bias and allow for triangulation (Patton, 2002). To

better identify unique messages of interest to youth, themes were based on emergent, rather than

predetermined, concepts in the data. Using the constant comparison method, researchers

discussed and condensed initial emergent concepts into higher order themes using a master

spreadsheet that displayed each theme followed by content examples.

Results and Discussion

Participants reported three main reasons for using social media: communication, information,

and entertainment. Mainstream social media outlets and gaming sites, accessed via mobile

devices, were cited most frequently (e.g. Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube). Data were

classified into six themes: unique experiences, escape, social connections, challenge, adventure,

and accessibility. The first theme, unique experiences, was reported most frequently and is

supported by research identifying novelty as an important motivation for outdoor participation

(e.g. Carson, 1998). “I like finding a lot of…bugs I didn’t even know existed.” Escape was the

second most common theme. Although going outdoors is recognized as a way to ‘reconnect with

nature,’ these youth used nature as a way to disconnect from their lives and unplug from

technology (Baker, 2005). “I always have this urge to… get away from the city… and just to get

away from it all.” Coupled with the escape theme, youth described nature as a stress reliever. “I

like not having any responsibilities; no homework, no more drama. It's just me, who I'm with,

and the outdoors.” Although seemingly at odds with the escape theme, a social connections

theme emerged as youth reported bonding with family and friends in natural areas. “Bringing my

family to nature just really makes us grow as a family because we get to bond with each other

more than how we would in our homes.” Challenge and adventure were two distinct but related

themes that appeared in all focus groups. Youth recounted either accomplishing something

difficult, or challenging friends to do so, with a resulting sense of achievement and self-

confidence (challenge). They also described the excitement associated with exploration

(adventure). “When you…see like a waterfall or something it feels like it's a reward.” Youth

reported the importance of sharing adventures socially. “…we went to the snow and brought back

pictures and were showing people. And they were like, oh I want to do that next time.” The least

common theme was accessibility; however the magnitude of comments regarding lack of access

merited its inclusion as an aspect of effective messaging. Youth frequently cited “not having a

ride,” parent work schedules, and a lack of finances as barriers.

Implications for Practice

These findings have practical implications for designing effective urban youth messaging.

Youth reported engaging with technology using mainstream social media outlets via mobile

devices. These findings suggest that park and recreation professionals can utilize existing social

media resources to develop effective communication with youth. Although messages

highlighting access issues were the least common, these messages may arguably be the most

critical for urban youth participation. Lack of access can ultimately mitigate the effectiveness of

other messaging. Therefore any strategy should be accompanied by clear access information.

This study suggests that developing integrated social media campaigns across existing platforms

that incorporate the six themes identified herein may be a worthwhile investment for park and

forest professionals. The authors also suggest that park and forest organizations consider

employing urban youth to manage and continually generate new content based around these

themes. The benefits of this approach are twofold: it would diversify the parks’ workforce as

well as better connecting agencies with underserved youth. There are also limitations associated

with these exploratory data. These messages may not resonate with youth outside the LA basin.

Future research by the authors will include monitoring the effectiveness of the themes across

diverse social media platforms. It is anticipated that future findings will provide more detailed

insights into how youth engage with social media and different messages. This study has initially

identified messaging that resonates with urban youth and establishes an important baseline for

initiating social media campaigns targeting urban youth by park and forest organizations.

Susan Houge Mackenzie, Recreation, Parks, and Tourism Administration, Cal Poly San Luis

Obispo, (805) 756-7628, mackenzi@calpoly.edu

Selected References

Baker, M. (2005). Landfullness in adventure-based programming: Promoting reconnection to the

land. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 27(3), 267-276.

Carson, R. L. (1998). The sense of wonder. New York, NY: Harper Collins.

Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., Harris, W. A., Lowry, R.,

McManus, T., Chyen, D., Shanklin, S., Lim, C., Grunbaum, J. A., & Wechsler, H.

(2006). Youth risk behavior surveillance. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report:

Surveillance Summaries, 5(55), 1-108.

Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework.

Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169-182.

Kuo, F. E. (2001). Coping with poverty: Impacts of environment and attention in the inner

city. Environment and Behavior, 33(5), 5-34.

Outdoor Foundation. (2013). Outdoor participation report. The Outdoor Foundation, Boulder,

CO. Accessed online: http://www.outdoorfoundation.org/pdf/

ResearchParticipation2013.pdf

Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd

ed). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Powell, L. M., Slater, S. J., Chaloupka, F. J., & Harper, D. (2006). Availability of Physical

Activity-Related Facilities and Neighborhood Demographic and Socioeconomic

Characteristics: A National Study. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1676-1680.

Pretty, J., Peacock, J., Sellens, M., & Griffin, M. (2005). The mental and physical health

outcomes of green exercise. International Journal of Environmental Health Research,

15(5), 319-337.

Shores, K.A. , Scott, D. & Floyd, M.F. (2007). Constraints to outdoor recreation: A multiple

hierarchy stratification perspective, Leisure Sciences, 29(3), 227-246.

Vyas, A. N., Landry, M., Schnider, M., Rojas, A. M., & Wood, S. F. (2012). Public health

interventions: Reaching Latino adolescents via short message service and social media.

Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14(4), 31-40.

THE MODERATING EFFECT OF SERIOUS LEISURE ON THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN LEISURE SATISFACTION AND HAPPINESS

Sunhwan Hwang, University of Seoul, Korea

Munjin Lee, Seoul Nation University of Education, Korea

Hyodong Woo, University of Seoul, Korea

Hong Suk Choi, Missouri Western State University

Introduction

Because of economic growth and urbanization, more women work and participate in Korean

society and take a larger part in economic activities (Kim, Lee, & Hwang, 2014). Consequently,

more Korean women have to work both in companies and at home. For career women, their

rights to pursue a happy life are restricted due to lack of time for self-development through

participation in leisure activities (Kim, 2008). Therefore, there need to be efficient strategies that

will provide time for leisure involvement promoting happiness for career women.

Leisure satisfaction is a good predictor of happiness. Leisure satisfaction is defined as the

positive perceptions or feelings which an individual forms, elicits, or gains as a result of

engaging in leisure activities and choices. It is the degree to which an individual is presently

content or pleased with his/her general leisure experiences and situations (Beard & Ragheb,

1980, p. 22). Ragheb and Griffith(1982) suggested that a high level of leisure satisfaction

improves the quality of life (QOL). In addition, other researchers demonstrated that leisure

satisfaction was positively related to QOL and happiness (Hills & Argyle, 1998; Huimei, 2014;

Lu & Hu, 2005; Mannel, 1993; Mannel & Kleiber, 1997; Spiers & Walker, 2008).

Stebbins (1982) explained active and passionate leisure activity using the concept of serious

leisure. Serious leisure is defined as “the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer

activity sufficiently substantial and interesting for the participant to find a career there in the

acquisition and expression of a combination of its special skills, knowledge, and experience”

(Stebbins, 1992, p. 3). Stebbins (2001) suggested a theoretical link between serious leisure and

well-being. Other researchers found that benefits from serious leisure were important

contributors to happiness (Cheng & Tsaur, 2012; Heo, Lee, McCormick, Pedersen, 2010; Lu &

Hu, 2005; Stebbins, 2007). Leisure participants were individually able to experience

psychological and physical health, a high quality of life, and happiness. Furthermore, Leisure

participants perceived a high level of health as they invested more time and effort into serious

leisure. (Kim, Dattilo & Heo, 2011).

Based on findings from existing studies, leisure satisfaction and happiness had positive

correlations, and serious leisure was positively associated with both leisure satisfaction and

happiness. It could be argued that serious leisure may influence the relationship between leisure

satisfaction and happiness. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship

between leisure satisfaction and happiness as well as clarify the moderating effect of serious

leisure on their relationship.

Methods

This research targeted the working women in Seoul, South Korea, as a sample group who

were given 440 copies of a questionnaire using cluster quota sampling. More specifically, at first

they were grouped in four different divisions and were given 110 copies in each division. In the

survey, they were asked to mark their answers using the self –administration method. A total of

432 surveys were used to finalize the analysis. Eight survey sheets were excluded because they

lacked information and were not clear. The general characteristics of the sample groups were that

the majority of participants was aged 25 to 30 (45.1%), their income ranged from $2,000 to

$3,000 (32.4%) and 48.7% were single and 51.3% were married.

To measure leisure satisfaction, the Leisure Satisfaction Scale (LSS) instrument developed

by Beard and Ragheb (1980) and revised by Kim, Lee, and Hwang (2010) was used. The scale

includes six sub-factors such as psychological, educational, social, relaxation, physiological, and

aesthetic dimensions. For serious leisure, 18 items were employed from the scale of Kim, Kim,

and Hwang (2010) which were extracted from the original serious leisure inventory developed

by Gould, Moore, McGuire & Stebbins (2008). In order to measure the feeling of happiness, the

measurement device of happiness index created by Suh, Ku, Lee, Chung and Choi (2010) was

used. The measurement of happiness comprises 3 subcategories: the life satisfaction (3

questions), positive feeling (3 questions), and negative feeling (3questions). Each question was

scaled by 5 points (1: never and 5: very).

Results

Prior to the main analyses, the reliability and validity test of the scales were conducted. First,

to explore differences among leisure participants based on serious leisure scores, respondents

were divided into roughly three equal groups consisting of low (n=126, M=2.39), middle (n=158,

M=3.19), and high (n=148, M=4.10). Then, One-way ANOVA and post-hoc tests were

performed in order to reveal participants’ leisure satisfaction and happiness depending on their

degree of seriousness <table 1>.

The results indicated that all differences were significant (p<.001). Career women who

participated in leisure activities more seriously felt more satisfaction (M=4.20) and more

happiness (M=3.95) than the moderately serious group (each M=3.57, M=3.76) and the low

group-which could be called a causal group- (each M=2.96, M=3.45). Moreover, the moderately

serious group felt more satisfaction and happiness than the low serious group.

To determine the moderating effect of serious leisure on the relationship between leisure

satisfaction and happiness, the hierarchical regression analysis was performed (see Table 2). The

first step indicated a significant positive effect of leisure satisfaction on happiness (Adj.

R2=.115, p<.001). The second step also showed significant positive effects of leisure satisfaction

and serious leisure on happiness (Adj. R2=.125, each β=.213, p<.01; β=.169, p<.05). R-square

change was statistically significant (∆R2 =.010, p=.018). In the third step of the regression

analysis, the level of model change was not statistically significant (∆R2 = -.002, p>.05), and an

interaction effect of leisure satisfaction and serious leisure did not have a significant influence on

happiness (β= -.119, p>.05). This result indicated that contrary to the expected interaction effect,

the relationship between leisure satisfaction and happiness did not vary by the degree of

seriousness of leisure participant. Therefore, serious leisure did not moderate the relationship

between leisure satisfaction and happiness.

Conclusion

According to the literature, the degree of serious leisure positively influences leisure

satisfaction, and leisure satisfaction plays an important role by increasing happiness of leisure

activity participants. Moreover, serious leisure also has a positive effect on happiness. However,

the results of this study reveal that serious leisure does not moderate the relationship between

leisure satisfaction and happiness.

Sunhwan Hwang, Department of Sport Science, University of Seoul, Seoul, Korea; (82)-2-6490-

2954; shhwang@uos.ac.kr

Table 1. Leisure satisfaction and happiness based on the degree of seriousness

Degree of seriousness

Low Middle High F P Post-hoc Total means

Leisure

satisfaction 2.96 3.57 4.20 172.18 <.001 H>M>L 3.61

Happiness 3.45 3.76 3.95 24.16 <.001 H>M>L 3.73

Table 2. Moderating effect of serious leisure on the leisure satisfaction-happiness relationship

b SE β ∆R2 Adj. R

2 F p of ∆F

Step1 LS .285 .038 .343***

.115 56.80***

.001

Step2

LS .177 .059 .213**

.010* .125 31.56

*** .018

SL .136 .057 .169*

Step3

LS .223 .136 .268

-.002 .123 21.04***

.707 SL .192 .160 .239

LS x SL -.015 .040 -.119

*p<.05,

**p<.01,

***p<.001, Dependent variable is happiness.

Selected References

Beard, J. G., & Ragheb, M. G. (1980). Measuring leisure satisfaction. Journal of Leisure

Research, 12, 20-33.

Cheng, T., & Tsaur, S. (2012). The relationship between serious leisure characteristics and

recreation involvement: a case study of Taiwan’s surfing activities. Leisure Studies, 31(1),

53-68.

Gould, J., Moore, D., McGuire, F., & Stebbins, R. A. (2008). Development of the Serious

Leisure Inventory and Measure. Journal of Leisure Research, 40, 47-68.

Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (1998). Positive moods derived from leisure and their relationship to

happiness and personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 523–535.

Kim, H., Lee, M., & Hwang, S. (2015 in press). Leisure Constraints and Negotiation based on

the Marital Status in Career Women. The Journal of the Korea Contents Association.

Kim, M., Kim, J., & Hwang, S. (2010). Validity of the single item measure for serious leisure.

Journal of Leisure and Recreation Studies, 34(4), 147-156.

Kim, M., Lee, Y., & Hwang, S. (2010). Cross-cultural validation test and application of LSS-

short form. The Journal of the Korea Contents Association, 10(11), 435-445.

Lu, L., & Hu, C. (2005). Personality, leisure experiences and happiness. Journal of Happiness

Studies, 6(3), 325-342.

Patterson, I., & Pegg, S. (2009). Serious leisure and people with intellectual disabilities: benefits

Shin, D. C., & Johnson, D. M. (1978). Avowed happiness as an overall assessment of the quality

of life. Social Indicators Research, 5, 475–492.

Spiers, A., & Walker, G. J. (2008). The Effects of Ethnicity and Leisure Satisfaction on

Happiness, Peacefulness, and Quality of Life, Leisure Sciences, 31(1), 84-99.

Stebbins, R.A. (1992). Amateurs, professionals, and serious leisure. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s

University.

Stebbins, R.A. (2007). Serious leisure. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

UTILIZING FAMILY-BASED NATURE ACTIVITIES TO PROMOTE RURAL, LOW-

INCOME FAMILIES’ HEALTH

Dina Izenstark, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Ramona Faith Oswald, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Elizabeth Grace Holman, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Shawn N. Mendez, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Kimberly A. Greder, Iowa State University

Time spent in natural environments provides a rich context for promoting health and well-

being. A growing body of research has confirmed that individuals’ engagement with the natural

environment has the potential to impact multiple aspects of health: physical (Humpel, Owen, &

Leslie, 2007; Kaczynski & Henderson, 2007), psychological (e.g., Kaplan, 1995; Ulrich et al.,

1991), and social (Ewert, Mitten, & Overholt, 2014). Although it is clear that involvement in

nature-based recreation can affect health and well-being, there is little empirical evidence

describing the relationship between engagement in family-based nature activities (FBNA) and

health. Furthermore, the majority of research in the last few decades has focused on the benefits

of nature for urban populations (Wells & Evans, 2003). Many nature-based recreational

experiences, however, occur within the context of families. There has been little focus on the

health promoting behaviors of nature-based recreation among rural, low-income families. Rural

populations are more likely than urban residents to experience health disparities, especially in

regards to chronic health conditions (e.g., obesity, diabetes, cancer) (Downey, 2013; Eberhardt &

Pamuk, 2004). Because access to green spaces can play a vital role in reducing health

inequalities (Mitchell & Popham, 2008), it is increasingly important to study rural, low-income

families’ use of natural environments. This study explores how low-income mothers living in

rural areas maintained their health and that of their families by utilizing the natural environment.

Methods

The data for this study is from Rural Families Speak about Health, a multistate, mixed

methods longitudinal research project (http://ruralfamiliesspeak.org/) that is designed to better

understand the health of rural, low-income families with children. Data for this analysis were

collected from a sub-sample of participants (n=85) through in-person interviews. Mothers were

asked open-ended questions regarding “How do you and your child stay healthy?” and “What

resources in your community support your health?” All of the mothers cared for at least one

child aged 13 or younger, lived in a household with an income at or below 185% of the federal

poverty level, and lived in a rural county according to the 2003 rural-urban continuum codes

(Economic Research Service, 2013). Grounded theory methodology (Charmaz, 2006) was used

to construct a theory based on the social processes of using FBNA to promote health. First, each

transcript was coded with words that pertained to the natural environment (e.g., park, outdoors)

in order to stay close to the data and remain open to new ideas (Charmaz, 2006). Next, the first

two authors analyzed emergent concepts in the data by using Corbin and Strauss’ (2008) analytic

tools to identify, “who, what, when, where, why, and how” families utilized nature to promote

health. Constant comparative methods were then used to compare similarities and differences

across the interviews (Glaser & Strauss, 1967); from this we developed new focused codes. We

then Axial coded to relate our categories to subcategories and specify their properties and

dimensions (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), followed by theoretically coding to explain the

relationship between concepts and to use the data as evidence of our proposed theoretical model.

Results

Our analysis depicts the process of how low-income mothers living in rural areas maintain the

health of themselves and their families by utilizing the natural environment in their community

(see table 1). These mothers described a desire to keep their family healthy by engaging in

family-based nature activities that predominately included walking outside, going to the park,

taking the pet canine outside, and ritualized family experiences in nature. Being a good role

model for their children, limiting TV exposure, and the desire to promote healthy development

were three main reasons why moms promoted FBNA. Mothers reflected on how they engage in

family-based nature activities to promote physical, psychological, and social health benefits for

each family member as well as the health of the entire family. However, living in the context of

rural, poverty impacted mothers’ ability to spend time outdoors with their family; specifically,

geographic location, access to free, public recreational opportunities and their own unique family

resources impacted frequency of time spent outdoors.

Discussion and Implications for Practice

The results of this study broaden our understanding of how and why families utilize natural

environments; emphasizing that mothers' motivations to engage in FBNA are often influenced by

the needs of their children. This extends prior research that has unilaterally focused on how

children’s time outdoors is influenced by parents’ attitudes about and time spent outdoors. Our

study also highlights how the benefits of FBNA are multi-faceted and overlapping as they went

beyond the health benefits for individual family members and also impacted family health. These

findings echo previous family leisure studies that show time spent together is important for

family functioning and relationships (Zabriskie & McCormick, 2001). Finally, our results

provide support for Edwards and Matarrita-Cascante’s (2011) argument that rural life is complex

and a universal rural condition does not exist. In this study, the experiences and opportunities to

experience natural environments depended on diverse and varied conditions. The findings

suggest that concerted efforts should be made to increase access to affordable natural

environments in rural communities to promote both individual and family health. These features

are especially important for low-income, rural families who may have limited access to more

expensive health promoting opportunities. The availability of public, natural spaces can

potentially cut across socioeconomic divides (Ewert, Mitten, and Overholt, 2014). For many

families in our study, access to nature was the only community resource that they could use to

stay healthy. The results of our study highlight the important role natural environments serve for

promoting rural, low-income families’ health and the importance of access to and low-cost

nature-based recreation opportunities for these families.

Dina Izenstark, Human and Community Development Program, University of Illinois Urbana-

Champaign, (217) 300-5994, izenstar@illinois.edu

Table 1. How Mothers’ Use FBNA to Promote Health: Results of Analysis & Sample Quotes

Questions Themes Sub-themes Sample Quotes

Reasons for

Participation

Desire to Keep

Family Healthy

-Being a good role model

-Resist TV watching

-Healthy development

I think one of the best ways to keep her

[daughter] healthy is getting her

outside (Iris from MA)

Nature as Part of

Family Identity

-Part of daily life

-Gratitude for rural living

-Outdoor time year round

If we go to the park, we all go to the

park. We try to do things as much as we

can together (Alta from CA).

Health

Outcomes

Individual Health -Physical

-Psychological

-Social

My main incentive [to go to park] was

to be able to play with the girls without

getting tired (Dolly from WA)

Family Health -Togetherness

-Bonding

-Shared memories

We gather our stuff and go to the

beach…it is real family oriented. It’s

just really relaxing (Arabella from TN)

Impact of

Context

Rurality -Geographic region

-Housing location

-Availability of recreation

-Weather

I guess the only thing [that prevents me

and my family from being healthy] is

just not [having] access to being able

to go for walks from our house, having

to drive to go for walks, having to drive

to go to the park (Sophie from MA)

Poverty -Cost

-Family resources

Selected References

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative

analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research (3rd

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.

Downey, L. H. (2013). Rural Populations and Health: Determinants, Disparities, and Solutions.

Preventing Chronic Disease, 10.

Eberhardt, M. S., & Pamuk, E. R. (2004). The importance of place of residence: Examining

health in rural and nonrural areas. American Journal of Public Health, 94(10), 1682-

1686.

Edwards, M. B., & Matarrita-Cascante, D. (2011). Rurality in leisure research: A review of four

major journals. Journal of Leisure Research, 43(4), 447-474.

Ewert, A. W., Mitten, D. S., & Overholt, J. R. (2014). Natural Environments and Human Health.

CABI.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for

qualitative research. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

Humpel, N., Owen, N., & Leslie, E. (2002). Environmental factors associated with adults’

participation in physical activity: A review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine,

22(3), 188-199.

Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal

of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182.

Kaczynski, A. T., & Henderson, K. A. (2007). Environmental correlates of physical activity: A

review of evidence about parks and recreation. Leisure Sciences, 29(4), 315–354.

doi:10.1080/01490400701394865

Mitchell R, & Popham F. (2008). Effect of exposure to natural environment on health

inequalities: An observational population study. Lancet, 372, 1655-1660.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures

and techniques (pp. 96-115). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ulrich, R.S., Simons, R.F., Losito, E., Fiorito, Miles, M.A., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery

during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental

Psychology, 11, 231–248.

Wells, N. M., & Evans, G. W. (2003). Nearby nature a buffer of life stress among rural children.

Environment and behavior, 35(3), 311-330.

Zabriskie, R., & McCormick, B. (2001). The influences of family leisure patterns on perceptions

of family functioning. Family Relations, 50(3), 281–289.

THE POWER OF ONE: PARTNERSHIP APPROACH TO SPORT POLICY

DEVELOPMENT

Amanda J. Johnson, University of Manitoba

Sarah Teetzel, University of Manitoba

Community collaborations and strategic partnerships necessarily involve an inclusive group

of citizens and organizations working together towards a shared vision to meet or address an

identified mutual need. A body of literature supports the idea that partnerships, alliances, and

collaborations are essential in the sport and recreation sectors, and that these relationships require

nurturing and development (Uhlik, 1995). Community collaborations and strategic partnerships

for recreation and sport delivery are often endorsed as a way to use resources more effectively,

reduce inefficiencies and duplication of services, and provide unique opportunities to individuals

and communities. Partnerships have been shown to be useful in “addressing the social and

environmental causes of poor health and can assist in mobilizing more skills, resources, and

approaches to influence an issue beyond which any one organization could achieve alone”

(Casey, Payne & Eime, 2009, p. 168). Child and Faulkner (1998) suggest partnerships are

beneficial because they encourage organizational relationships that are interdependent. As

Vardarajan and Cunningham (1995) note partnerships “incorporate the pooling of skills and

resources by the alliance partners in order to achieve one or more goals linked to the strategic

objectives of the [partners]” (p. 283). Many communities and organizations, as a result, have

identified the value of partnerships and continue to enter into partnership agreements in order to

streamline sport and recreation delivery, programs, and services.

While the values, advantages, and benefits of partnerships have been explored, analyses and

examinations of how partnerships are formed between community, health, and public

organizations for sport and recreation delivery are not well developed. In addition, research

indicates that many community sports groups lack a thorough understanding of both the process

and outcomes of partnership agreements and the resulting alliance (Vail, 2007). Knowledge of

how to use sport and recreation partnerships to meet community needs is often hindered by poor

communication between community sport and recreation groups and their stakeholders. What is

often missing is consensus among stakeholders that the stakes are high, the organizations

involved are interdependent, and all are working toward a common vision (Vail, 1992). A failure

to share these perceptions results in the disinclination of some partners to commit resources and

participate equally in the partnership. The purpose of this research, therefore, is to examine how

a specific partnership was formed to develop and implement a city-wide community sport policy.

Research Design

This case study highlights and examines a group of organizations that came together to create

a city-wide community sport policy in a mid-sized, Western Canadian city. In June 2010, a letter

of intent was signed by six organizations to begin creating a “Community Sport Policy” (CSP) to

guide sport-related programming and resource allocation in the city. The six organizations that

contributed to the partnership include: i) a not-for-profit organization committed to developing

amateur sport at the provincial level, ii) a not-for-profit community sport alliance, iii) the alliance

of community centres, iv) an association of physical education supervisors, v) the regional health

authority, and vi) the city. The initial CSP working group was facilitated by a consultant hired by

the Community Service Department within the City. Together, individuals, as representatives of

their own organization, formalized the partnerships and drafted the CSP.

For this research we examined the partnership members’ perceived struggles and successes in

forming a partnership to work together to create the CSP. All members of the partnership

committee were invited to participate in semi-structured, open-ended, one-on-one interviews.

One individual declined participation in the research, resulting in seven individual interviews.

Interviews lasted between 40 minutes and 75 minutes. The informal nature of the interview

allowed unexpected themes to emerge (Graton & Jones, 2010; Neuman, 2003). Content analysis

was used to analyze, categorize, and code the interview data. A priori coding was adopted to

analyze the responses because it allowed the researchers to draw out the participants’

experiences and perceptions. Emergent coding was used to identify additional themes from the

interview transcripts (Andrews, Mason & Silk, 2005).

Findings

Participants in this research agreed the partnership to create the “Community Sport Policy”

(CSP) was successful in meeting its goals. However, the creation of the CSP was not without its

challenges. Emergent themes indicate individuals, as representatives of their organizations,

played an important role in the creation of the CSP document. Despite this, there was also some

recognition that individuals may not always represent the best interests of the partnership. While

multiple themes emerged, for the purpose of this research we have collapsed the findings into

two overarching themes: 1) Relationship building and 2) Asserting independence

First, the CSP partnership was recognized by participants as challenging and difficult to

manage. Participants spoke about the difficulty related to reaching consensus and frustrations

that occurred between group members. However, participants agreed the success of the CSP was

largely due to individual commitment to the partnership. Participants attributed this to the

amount of time dedicated to relationship building. For example, one participant said “I think the

relationship building is really, really important. You’re not going to progress if the partnership

falls apart. And I think we’ve come a long way. Now we can have a disagreement internally and

it doesn’t burst us apart, it actually strengthens us.” When asked about the dynamics and

relationships between group members, one participant said, “We have respect for each other, so

we have to try and understand where each party is coming from.” The relationships formed

between members of the group were important to the success of the partnership.

Second, participants recognized a significant barrier to completion and implementation of the

CSP originated from outside the need for individuals to assert their independence. This was often

viewed in relation to the requirement to balance individual and group needs within the

partnership. Speaking to this issue, one participant said, “sitting around that group as

representing one of the partners. There is no doubt that there’s individual views.” Participants

recognized that representatives had different views and it was often difficult to simultaneously

represent the partnership, the organization, and individual values and beliefs.

Implications for Practice and Theory

While there is agreement on the value of partnerships as strategically beneficial in delivering

sport and recreation, less is known about how these partnerships are formed and why they do (or

do not) succeed. This research considers the role of individual representatives in the success or

failure of a partnership. There is no doubt successful partnerships depend on the dedication and

commitment of individuals. Findings suggest successful partnerships must dedicate time to

relationship building between organizations and individuals. Organizations must have a strong

mandate that individuals are willing to commit to and represent at the partnership level.

Amanda J. Johnson, Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of

Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (204) 474-8629; amanda.johnson@umanitoba.ca

Selected References

Andrews, D., Mason, D. & Silk, M. (2005). Qualitative Methods in Sport Studies. New York:

Berg.

Casey, M.M., Payne, W.R. & Eime, R.M. (2009). Partnership and capacity-building strategies in

community sports and recreation programs. Managing Leisure, 14, 167-176.

Child, J., & Faulkner, D. (1998). Strategies of cooperation: Managing alliances, networks, and

joint ventures. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Graton, C. & Jones, C. (2010). Research Methods for Sports Studies. 2nd

Edition. Oxon:

Routledge.

Neuman, W.L. (2003). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.

Toronto: Pearson Education.

Uhlik, K.S. (1995). Partnership, step by step: A practical model of partnership formation.

Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 13, 13-24.

Vail, S.E. (1992). Toward improving sport delivery: A community perspective. Journal of

Applied Recreation Research, 17, 217-233.

Vail, S.E. (2007). Community development and sport participation. Journal of Sport

Management, 21, 571-596.

Varadarajan, P. R., & Cunningham, M. H. (1995). Strategic alliances: A synthesis of conceptual

foundations. Journal of the Academy of Marketing, 23(4), 282-296.

LEISURE SKILLS COURSES: PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS ON COLLEGE

STUDENTS Katherine Ann Jordan, Clemson University

Kellie Walters, Clemson University

Brandon Harris, Clemson University

Denise Anderson, Clemson University

Due to the transitional nature of becoming a college student, college represents one of the

most stressful times in a young adult’s life (Kuh, 2003; King, Singh, Bernard, Merianos, &

Vidourek, 2012). Students begin to transition out of adolescence, become more independent and

have increased responsibilities such as maintaining a job while working on a college degree

(Ackerman & Gross, 2003; Arnett, 2000; Newton, Kim, & Newton, 2006; Nonis, Hudson,

Logan, & Ford, 1998). This life change can lead to weight gain (Newton et al., 2006; Nelson,

Story, Larson, Neumark-Sztainer & Lytle, 2008), depression (Kuwabara,Voorhees, Gollan, &

Alexander, 2007), risky behaviors (Arnett, 2005), increased stress (Kuh, 2003; King et al.,

2012), low body-esteem (Kumaraswamy, 2013), and self-esteem issues (Welle & Graf, 2011).

One’s ability to cope with the stressors of college life may have an impact on psychosocial

development.

Leisure has been shown to be recuperative and can assist in stress management (Iwasaki,

2003; Mannell & Reid, 1999). Leisure also provides opportunities for physical (LaMonte &

Chow, 2010), cognitive (Castelli, 2010), emotional (Wiersma & Parry, 2010), and social well-

being (Gill & Bedini, 2010; Keller, Fleury, & Rogers, 2010). Leisure education has been proven

to be effective at increasing self-esteem, improving quality of life, increased longevity of leisure

participation, development of skills, increased self-determination, improved social skills, and

improved ability to structure free time (Datillo, 2008). The purpose of this study was to explore

the interrelatedness of stress, self-esteem, and body-esteem for students participating in a form of

leisure education called a leisure skills course.

Methods

Questionnaires were administered to students in leisure skills classes offered at Clemson

University at the beginning and end of the fall 2014 semester. The questionnaire was taken

electronically using iPads. Classes were selected based on instructor willingness. There were 266

participants (119 males, 147 females) ranging in age from 17 to 35 (mean age of 20). There were

49 freshmen, 72 sophomores, 66 juniors, 73 seniors, and 6 graduate students. The perceived

stress scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), self-esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1979), and

body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults (Mendelson, Mendelson, & White, 2001) made up

the questionnaire used for this study. Descriptive statistics, main effects, and moderating

relationships were examined. Outliers were filtered out based on standardized residuals (Cohen,

Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). Only significant findings are presented.

Results

The main effects between the beginning and end of semester scores across all measurements

were significant. An analysis of variance revealed significant differences between the beginning

and end of the semester measurements of body-esteem subscales: appearance satisfaction, weight

satisfaction, and appearance attribution (Table 1). Appearance satisfaction decreased while

weight satisfaction and appearance attribution increased from beginning to end of semester

measurements. A new variable measuring the change in score between the beginning and end of

semester was created for each scale by subtracting the beginning of semester score from the end

of semester score. The changes in perceived stress, self-esteem, and body-esteem subscales were

tested for moderation (Table 2). The change in perceived stress for those who scored high on

initial self-esteem decreased less than those who scored low on initial self-esteem. The change in

appearance satisfaction for those who scored high on initial self-esteem increased more than

those who scored low on initial self-esteem. The change in appearance satisfaction for those who

scored high on initial weight satisfaction decreased more than those who scored low on initial

weight satisfaction. The change in weight satisfaction for those who scored high on initial

appearance satisfaction increased less than those who scored low on initial appearance

satisfaction.

Discussion

Over the course of one semester, participants experienced significant changes in their body-

esteem. Despite increases in weight satisfaction and appearance attribution, appearance

satisfaction decreased from beginning to end of semester. The inconsistency within the body

image subscales is puzzling and requires further investigation. In regards to the interactions

between measurements, the changes in perceived stress were influenced by initial self-esteem,

appearance satisfaction was influenced by initial self-esteem and weight satisfaction, and weight

satisfaction was influenced by initial appearance satisfaction.

Perceived stress increased more for those who had lower initial self-esteem, which suggests

that higher self-esteem may improve one’s ability to cope with stress. Appearance satisfaction

increased more for those who had higher initial self-esteem, which suggests that higher self-

esteem is related to one’s satisfaction with his or her looks. Appearance satisfaction also

increased more for those who had lower initial weight satisfaction. Since weight satisfaction

increased significantly this finding suggests that those who had lower weight satisfaction at the

beginning of the semester improved their view of self in terms of weight satisfaction and

appearance satisfaction over the course of the semester. Weight satisfaction increased more for

those with lower initial appearance satisfaction, which suggests that those individuals’ weight

satisfaction has room to increase more than someone with a higher initial appearance

satisfaction. These results suggest that initial psychosocial markers, such as self-esteem and

body-esteem, influence one’s personal evaluation of the self later in the semester.

Implications for Practice

While this study provides a first step in understanding the role that university taught leisure

skills classes might have on the health of college students, further research on the correlation

between body-esteem, self-esteem and perceived stress within this context is needed. In regards

to practitioners, there is evidence that a change does occur in one’s psychosocial self across the

span of a leisure skills class. Practitioners may be able to craft a course, such as a leisure skills

course or campus recreation program, to better meet student needs by evaluating initial self-

esteem, body-esteem, and perceived stress. Conversely, practitioners should also recognize that

certain programs might not contribute to an increase in one’s sense of self or ability to cope with

stress. Acknowledging that college students struggle with managing certain aspects of their lives

and intentionally assisting their coping abilities through leisure skills education may help build a

happier, healthier campus.

Katherine Ann Jordan, Park, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson University,

Clemson, SC, (706.614.0731), kjorda5@clemson.edu.

Table 1: Significant beginning to end of semester changes in body esteem subscales

SS df MS F r2 N Change in mean from

beginning to end of

semester

Appearance

Satisfaction

668.53 1 668.53 78.27** .230 263 Decreased 2.25

Weight

Satisfaction

45.50 1 45.50 6.20* .023 264 Increased 0.59

Appearance

Attribution

30.32 1 30.32 12.79** .046 266 Increased 0.48

* Significant at the .05 level

** Significant at the .001 level

Table 2: Significant conditional effects on beginning to end of semester change

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

B Std.

Error

Beta t Predicted

conditional

change

Initial self-esteem (SE)

influence on the change in

perceived stress

-.15 .06 -.15 -2.37* SE High: 2.17

SE Low: 3.65

Initial self-esteem (SE)

influence on the change in

appearance satisfaction

.21 .05 .25 4.16** SE High: -5.27

SE Low: -6.91

Initial weight satisfaction

(WS) influence on the change

in appearance satisfaction

-.16 .04 -.27 -4.57** WS High: 2.12

WS Low: 3.37

Initial appearance satisfaction

(AS) influence on the change

in weight satisfaction

-.16 .04 -.28 -4.60* AS High: 5.87

AS Low: 7.09

* Significant at the .05 level

** Significant at the .001 level

Selected References

Ackerman, D.S. & Gross, B.L. (2003). Is time pressure all bad? Measuring the relationship

between free time availability and student performance and perceptions. Marketing

Education Review, 13(2), 21-32.

Arnett, J.J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the

twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469-480.

Castelli, D. (2010). Physical activity and cognitive health. In L. Payne, B. Ainsworth, & G.

Godbey (Eds.), Leisure, health, and wellness: Making connections (85-97). State College,

P.A.: Venture Publishing.

Gill, D.L. & Bedini, L.A. (2010). Health, wellness, quality of life: Accent the positive. In

L.Payne, B. Ainsworth, & G. Godbey (Eds.), Leisure, health, and wellness: Making the

connections (11-20). State College, P.A.: Venture Publishing.

Dattilo, J. (2008). Leisure education program planning: A systematic approach (3rd

ed). State

College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.

Iwasaki, Y. (2003). The impact of leisure coping beliefs and strategies on adaptive outcomes.

Leisure Studies, 22, 93-108.

King, K. A., Singh, M., Bernard, A., Merianos, A. L., & Vidourek, R. A. (2012). Employing the

health belief model to examine stress management among college students. American

Journal of Health Studies, 27(4), 192-203.

Keller, C., Fleury, J., & Rogers, C. (2010). Leisure and social health. In L. Payne, B. Ainsworth,

& G. Godbey (Eds.), Leisure, health, and wellness: Making connections (100-107).

State College, P.A.: Venture Publishing.

Kuh, G.D. (2003). What we’re learning about student engagement from NSSE. Change, 35(2),

24-32.

Kumaraswamy, N. (2013). Academic stress, anxiety and depression among college students- A

brief review. International Review of Social Sciences & Humanities, 5(1), 135-143.

Kuwabara, S.A., Van Voorhees, B.W., Gollan, J.K., & Alexander, G.C. (2007). A qualitative

exploration of depression in emerging adulthood: Disorder, development, and social

context. General Hospital Psychiatry, 29, 317-324.

LaMonte, M.J. & Chow, H. (2010). Leisure and physical health. In L. Payne, B. Ainsworth, & G.

Godbey (Eds.), Leisure, health, and wellness: Making connections (51-60). State College,

P.A.: Venture Publishing.

Mannell, R. C., & Reid, D. G. (1999). Work and leisure. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.),

Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp. 151-165). State College,

P.A.: Venture Publishing.

Nelson, M.C., Story, M., Larson, N.I., Neumark-Sztainer, D., & Lytle, L.A. (2008). Emerging

adulthood and college-aged youth: An overlooked age for weight-related behavior

change. Obesity, 16(10), 2205-221.

Newton, F.B., Kim, E., & Newton, D.W. (2006). A program to establish healthy lifestyle

behaviors with freshmen students. National Association of Student Personnel

Administrators, 43(3), 497-517.

Nonis, S.A., Hudson, G.I., Logan, L.B., & Ford, C.W. (1998). Influence of perceived control

over time on college students’ stress and stress-related outcomes. Research in Higher

Education, 39(5), 587-605.

YOUTH IN THE VALLEY: DEFINING RURAL

Brandy N. Kelly Pryor, Texas A&M University

Gayle Gabriel, Texas A&M University

Monique Raack, Texas A&M University

In the past decade, the conceptual framework of Social Justice Youth Development (SJYD)

has brought attention to youth as social change agents (Ginwright & Cammarota, 2002).

Building upon fundamental principles of positive youth development, SJYD views young people

as assets to the community and asserts three stages—self, social, and global awareness—are

pertinent to critical consciousness and development of hope in young people. SJYD encourages

social action among youth so they are able to achieve a vision of the future and connect to others.

In-depth understandings of the spaces young people inhabit are pertinent to SJYD (Ginwright

& Cammarota, 2002). Recent studies utilizing SJYD principles have examined marginalized

urban youth in relationship to the larger political communities that affect their lives (Cohen,

2010; Ginwright, 2010) and other studies have broadened the focus to international youth in both

urban and rural spaces (Acharya, 2010; Austin, 2010). Nevertheless, these studies leave

important unanswered questions about how youth in rural areas of the United States perceive

social justice and its connection to the development of their hope for the future.

The purpose of this study is to examine issues and definitions of social justice in a multitude

of rural communities of the U.S., through the eyes of young people between the ages of 12-22

years old. Utilizing semi-structured interviews, for the first phase of the study, this project

examines ideas about social equity, wellness, and community. This particular phase of the study

focuses on data from youth in a small town that sits on the border of Texas and Mexico in the

Rio Grande Valley and explores two of the most critical components of social justice research,

self-definition and critical consciousness. Our approach to understanding the meaning, function,

and implications of the term rural in this community provides new insight into what scholars and

program administrators must consider for critical social justice work and what future phases of

this study should consider in other communities.

Method Utilizing semi-structured interviews with youth either attending school or living in a small,

historically migrant community in south Texas with less than 2,000 residents and an

overwhelming majority (98%) identifying as Hispanic, our central question for analysis of this

paper is the definition and conceptualization of “rural.” A total of 9 youth, 5 females and 4

males, aged 22 and younger were interviewed about their perceptions of social justice and

rurality. Youth were asked questions in the 5 following categories, 1) hope, 2) rural/community,

3) spirituality and coping, 4) empowerment, 5) social justice. During the interviews participants

were asked for clarification of terms and comments and research team checked in with youth to

make sure that what they were saying was transcribed or interpreted correctly. The research

team debriefed interviews together and used two coding methods—In Vivo Coding, quotations

taken directly from the participants, and Value Coding, reflecting the participants’ worldview—

to determine results (Saldana, 2012).

Results According to our findings, youth in South Texas have variant conceptualizations of how

“rural” is defined or they have no notion of the concept at all. For those youth that identified or

had some conceptual knowledge of rural three main themes emerged: 1) the idyllic, 2) the

dangerous, and 3) the distant.

The idyllic

As represented by “Gladys” rural was defined as “a new or a far away place that you might

want to experience what it is.” This ideal or rural place was in contrast to the community in

which she lived. Although she felt her community was peaceful and happy, it was a “sad green”

that did not compare to the rural places in which you wanted to go.

The dangerous

Other youth referred to the rural as a dangerous place. Ricky, a 20 year old community

college student identified rural as "hmm…bad…just the way it sounds, it sounds bad…it sounds,

like a villain." When asked about his own community he recalls a time before there was

violence and before the violence came. Although the community has violence now he still thinks

of it as overall a nice and peaceful community.

The distant

Many of the older youth, unlike the younger youth who did not have a definition for rural,

were able to associate it with their current place or surroundings and described it as distant.

Although those current places or surroundings might have a negative connotation to others, it

was to them just the place that was home. Aldo described rural as a place out in the boonies, but

also as a place that was homogenous and sheltered. As Aldo further describes, "um, I guess it's

good in the sense that people are tight knit, and it's family oriented, and people know each other,

and pretty much everybody is related to everybody, but it's bad in the sense that people don't

know anything other than what goes on there. They don't understand the world."

Discussion and Implications for Practice The result from this study provides insight into the ways in which we label and study

communities. Use of the term “rural,” carried a pejorative connotation for some youth and for

others was a foreign concept. As a result of naming community through this research project

entitled the Rural Youth Project the study failed to engage youth in the main principle of social

equity and wellness, naming and defining self. Instead of youth describing and naming their

community for themselves, scholarly and political definitions of rural associated with the

population density, physical location and locus and economy was automatically coded and

ascribed to them. As Deavers (1992) expressed “defining rural is both simple and complex,” but

all social justice work should begin the work of defining through and by the community

themselves (p.188).

Understanding the responsibility and privilege of scholars, this essay posits that our role

should not be to debate the relative existence or relevance of rural communities, but rather

enhance our understanding of how the notion reflects in the lives of the individuals in which we

study and/or define as of rural spaces. Community has salience in the lived experience of the

youth within the community, and the role of researchers should be to highlight and illuminate the

voices of what youth view as community and the salience it has in and on their lives. Moving

forward this research began to ask new questions: How does geographical and psychological

location challenge and inspire citizenship amongst youth? What are the constraints that the ideas

of community might have on individual agency and power of youth? Finally, we posit there

would be greater transformation and community development by youth if framing of our

concepts started with simply defining our terminology through their voices.

Brandy N. Kelly Pryor, Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University, College

Station, TX, (979) 845-5983, bnkelly@tamu.edu.

Selected References

Acharya, L. (2010). Child reporters as agents of change. In B. Percy-Smith & N. Thomas (Eds.),

A handbook of children and young people's participation: Perspectives from theory and

practice (pp. 204-214). New York, NY: Routledge.

Austin, S. L. (2010) Children’s participation in citizenship and governance. In B. Percy-Smith &

N. Thomas (Eds.), A handbook of children and young people's participation:

Perspectives from theory and practice (pp. 245-253). New York, NY: Routledge.

Cohen, C. (2010). Democracy remixed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Deavers, K. (1992), What is rural? Policy Studies Journal, 20, 184–189.

Ginwright, S. A. (2010). Black youth rising: Activism and radical healing in urban America.

New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Ginwright, S., & Cammarota, J. (2002). New terrain in youth development: The promise of a

social justice approach. Social Justice, 29 (4), 82-95.

Saldana, J. (2012). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE

THE IMPACT OF MEMORABLE TOURISM EXPERIENCES ON SUBJECTIVE

WELLBEING AMONG OLDER ADULTS

Hyangmi Kim, Indiana University Bloomington

Joseph. S. Chen, Indiana University Bloomington

Yaling Chen, Indiana University Bloomington

Introduction

Travelling can be considered a positive and subjective event wherein individuals produce

pleasant moods, sentiments, and feelings as long as the trip satisfies them. People tend to recall

pleasant events or episodes than unpleasant ones because positive occasions promote better

remembrance than those of negative occasions over time (Markus & Zajonc, 1985;Thompson,

1985). Therefore, individuals are more likely to obtain memorable experiences in leisure and

tourism activities. Most of travel experience studies related to positive feelings or affects such as

hedonic level of affect and happiness have sparkly explored general populations’ a single trip

experience. That is, these studies have conducted by either pre-test/post-test design, which found

higher level of happiness (Gilbert & Abdullah, 2004; Lounsbury & Hoopes, 1986; Westman &

Eden, 1997), lower levels of stress and better psychological wellbeing after a trip (Milman, 1998;

Strauss-Blasche, Ekmekcioglu & Marktl, 2000; Westman & Etzion, 2002) or a comparison

between a taking travel group and non-taking travel group, which found that a vacation-taking

group are happier (Nawijin, Marchand, Veenhoven & Vingerhoets, 2010) and have higher sense

of wellbeing (Gilbert & Abdullah, 2004) as well as increased life satisfaction (Sirgy, Kruger, Lee

&Yu, 2011). However, scholars found most of these effects fade out or mostly short-lived

(DeBloom, Geurts, Taris, Sonnentag, Weerth & Kompier, 2010; Nawijin, 2011). These study

outcomes, however, reveals a fallacy, since most of studies focused on general populations’ a

single trip experience. As a result, literature and research on memorable travel experiences in

one’s life and its long-term impact remains sparse since only a few studies available on

memorable travel experiences. Therefore, in order to understand what makes a tourism

experience more memorable across the life span and its long-lived impact on wellbeing, it is

indispensable to target older adults, instead of the general population. The goals of this study are

twofold. Two specific research objectives of the study are;

a) to identify the characteristics of the tourism memorable experience among older adults and;

b) to investigate its long-lived impact on their subjective wellbeing.

Study Methodology

In order to achieve the objectives, in-depth interviews were conducted with 20 seniors aged

65 years and older at a senior living community in Indiana. Each interview required

approximately 30 to 50 minutes in length to complete in a private space (e.g., meeting room or

private room) in the community. It asked for open-ended questions including “Do you have any

memorable tourism experiences among many trips in your life and why they are memorable?”

and “Does recalling back the experiences continually influence your wellbeing until now?

Grounded theory analytic procedures (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) served as a framework to collect,

analyze and interpret data in order to identify the dimensions underlying memorable tourism

experiences and its long-lived impact.

Findings

The following themes emerged from the 20 interview transcriptions. Six dimensions were

identified which connote different facets of experiences that allow them to be predominantly

memorable, and five dimensions were certified which represents aspects of its impact on

subjective wellbeing. In terms of the dimensions of memorable travel experiences, they are

companions, destinations, exoticness, novelty, learning, and host community. With regards to

these dimensions, travel companions (e.g., immediate family), characteristics of destinations

(e.g., nature and culture), positive feelings (e.g., amazed and pleasurable), very different and

unique experiences, knowledge gained (e.g., learning about new culture), and positive

characteristics of local community (e.g., friendliness of locals) were described by the majority of

the interviewers as pivotal component of their memorable experiences. In terms of the

dimensions of subjective wellbeing, they include lesson, socialization, wellbeing, recollection,

and kinships. Those denote that recalling and sharing their travel experiences have played a

significant role in their wellbeing in their whole lives.

Discussion

When individuals engage memorable experience, they are likely to direct their attention to

positive feelings and its outcomes because memorable tourism experience attributes could

improve tourist’s subjective wellbeing. Especially, in the case of older adults, the memorable

experience tends to become more enlightening as older adults’ interest in gathering new

information diminishes. Importantly, these memorable experiences remain in their memory

through their lives as they continue to remember, imagine, share and revive with their family and

friends. They still yearn to relive the moments of these experiences. To better explore memorable

experience mechanism among older adults, future studies should touch on empirical

examinations of autobiographical perspectives that may effectively trace the behavioral paths

explicating what constitutes memorable experience in the mind of older adults.

Implications

The findings of this study provide valuable insights for both tourism and clinical fields. In

terms of the managerial implication for tourism industry, the relationships between the

psychological traits of the memorable experience and the subjective wellbeing of older adults

should also be addressed that could add valuable information for service delivery and product

development in relation to older adult travelers. For example, assuming perceived novelty is the

most influencing trait of memorable experiences among older adult travelers; marketers could

therefore create an image of novelty for particular services and products catering to older adults

to increase the likelihood of staging memorable experiences among older adults. Consequently,

such a service strategy may win support from older adults so as to increase their loyal to the

service and produced purchased. Meanwhile, in terms of therapeutic implication, as claimed by

various authors, the process of reminiscence serves a therapeutic function of older adults, such as

facilitating socialization (Giltinan, 1990), increasing life satisfaction (Cook, 1998), increasing

self-esteem (Sherman, 1987), and decreasing depression (Goldwasser, Auerbach, Harkins, 1987).

Therefore, the findings are able to provide an important first step toward understanding of

reminiscence of memorable leisure and travel experiences as a facilitator to foster wellbeing

across the life span.

Hyangmi Kim, Indiana University- Bloomington. T: 812-345-4433, E: kimhyan@indiana.edu

Selected References

Cook, E. A. (1998). Effects of reminiscence on life satisfaction of elderly female nursing home

residents. Health Care for Women International, 19(2), 109-118.

DeBloom, J., Geurts, S.A. E., Taris, T. W., Sonnentag, S., Weerth. C. D., & Kompier, M. A. J

(2010). Effects of vacation from work on health and well-being: Lots of fun, quickly

gone. Work & Stress: An international Journal of Work, Health & Organisations, 24(2),

196-216.

Gilbert, D., & Abdullah, J. (2004). Holidaytaking and the sense of well-being. Annals of Tourism

Research, 31(1), 103-121.

Giltinan, J. M. (1990). Using life review to facilitate self-actualization in elderly women.

Gerontology and Geriatrics Education, 10, 75-83.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The Discovery Of Grounded Theory. Chicago: Aldine.

Goldwasser, A. N., Auerbach, S. M., & Harkins, S. W. (1987). Cognitive, affective, and

behavioral effects of reminiscence group therapy on demented elderly. International

Journal of Aging and Human Development, 10, 555-557.

Loundbury, J. W., & Hoopes, L. L. (1986). A vacation from work: Changes in work and

nonwork outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 392-401.

Markus, H., & Zajonc, R. (1985). The cognitive perspective in social psychology. In G. Lindzey

& E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 137-230). New

York: Random House.

Milman, A. (1998). The impact of tourism and travel experience on senior travelers’

psychological well-being. Journal of Travel Research, 37(2), 166-170.

Nawjin, J. (2011). Determinats of daily happiness on vacation. Journal of Travel Research,

50(5), 559-566.

Nawijn, J., Marchand, M. A., Veenhoven, R., & Vingerhoets, A. J. (2010). Vacationers happier,

but most not happier after a holiday. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 5(1), 35-47.

Sirgy, M. J., Kruger, P. S., Lee, D., &Yu, G. B. (2011). How does a travel trip affect tourists’ life

satisfaction? Journal of Travel Research, 50(3), 261-275

Strauss-Blasche, G., Ekmekcioglu, C., & Marktl, W. (2000). Does vacation enable recuperation?

Changes in well-being associated with time away from work. Occupational Medicine,

50(3), 167-172.

Thompson, S. C. (1985). Finding positive meaning in a stressful event and coping. Basic and

Applied Social Psychology, 6(4), 279-295

Westman, M., & Eden, D. (1997). Effects of a respite from work on burnout: Vacation relief and

fade-out. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(4), 516-527.

Westman, M., & Etzion, D. (2001). The impact of short overseas business trips on job stress and

burnout. Applied Psychology, 51(4), 582-592.

PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE FOR THE DAILY LIFE ACTIVITY INDEX (DLAI) Kyoung Tae Kim, Southeast Missouri State University

Hong Choi, Missouri Western State University

Heetae Cho, Clemson University

Seung-Jin Han, Eulji University

Soonhwan Lee, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)

It has been widely recognized that regular and sustained engagement in activity is associated

with positive health outcomes and a higher sense of well-being in older adulthood. Based on the

importance of an active lifestyle, we suggest that a better conceptualization of what constitutes

an “active lifestyle” is needed. There are few, if any, empirically-based models in the literature

that delineate the nature of daily life activity as it provides the foundation for an active lifestyle

and is predictive of positive aging outcomes (e.g., active aging, healthy aging, and aging well). Leisure, productive, volunteer activities are the most typically studied sources of daily

activity for older adults (Baker, Cahalin, Gerst, & Burr, 2005; Hawkins et al., 2012; Menec,

2003; Thoits & Hewitt, 2001).

Engagement in leisure activity has long been recognized as a contributor to the health

(Gautam, Saito, & Kai, 2007; Janke, Payne, & Van Puymbroeck, 2008), well-being (Dupuis &

Smale, 1995) and mortality of older adults (Agahi & Parker, 2008).

Engagement in productive activity has been linked to health (Luoh & Herzog, 2002; Thoits

& Hewitt, 2001), well-being (Baker, Cahalin, Gerst, & Burr, 2005), life satisfaction (Aquino,

Russell, Cutrona, Altmaier, 1996: Thoits & Hewitt, 2001), and survival (Glass, de Leon,

Marottoli, Berkman, 1999). Productive activity has been assessed as the number of productive

activities and amount of time commitment, using five categories of productive activity: (a) paid

work, (b) formal volunteering, (c) caregiving, (d) informal helping behavior, and (e) do-it-

oneself activities (e.g., home repair, mowing the lawn).

It is important to note that we distinguish Daily Life Activity (DLA) from other types of

activity that are studied in gerontology and health; specifically, instrumental activities of daily

living (IADLs) and activities of daily living (ADLs). Daily Life Activity (DLA) is a new

construct that can be used along with other activity-based measures such as ADLs and IADLs for

constructing a more complete picture of lifestyle and activity. The primary focus of DLA is on a

person’s activity-based lifestyle as represented by their participation in productive, social,

volunteer, and leisure activities. The level of daily life activity is a key variable to successful

aging and aging well (Menec, 2003; Palmore, 1979). There is a paucity of such activity measures

or indexes for older adults and also a need for a simple self-administrated diagnostic tool for how

active people are in their daily life.

The purpose of this study was to provide a concept of daily life activity (DLA) for older

adults and develop an index for daily life activity (DLA) that could examine the everyday

activities of older people.

Methods

This study used secondary data from Aging Well: A Study of Adult Well-Being by Dr. Barbara

Hawkins (2003), which was part of the Global Aging Initiative. The questionnaire incorporated

established instruments for six core domains: physical and functional health, social resources,

mental effectiveness, life activity, material security, and life satisfaction. The questionnaire also

contained standard demographic questions. The portion of the parent questionnaire that provided

the data used for the present analysis was Section E – Life Activity, which was based on previous

research in this area. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Statistics 18.0, SPSS

Inc.) was used to summarize characteristics of the cases that were used in the study. In addition,

structural equation modeling (SEM) using Linear Structural Relationships (LISREL 8.80,

Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2006) was employed to confirm the model for daily life activity that is used

in the study.

Latent variable scores were calculated to develop an index for daily life activity. Daily life

activity was assessed on a comprehensive basis by soliciting subject participation in activities

and frequency of participation using 9 broad categories. These nine categories include

volunteer/paid activity, home maintenance, community involvement, socializing, caregiving,

entertainment with others, physical activity, cognitive activity, and creative activity.

Results The model for Daily Life Activity was specified and supported as a second- order factor

model with three first order latent variables representing different activity types, which are a)

productive activity, b) social network based activity, and c) leisure activity. An index for daily

life activity along with latent variable scores was generated ranging from -3 to 3. People with a

high index score imply that these individuals are active across all 9 activity types. For cases with

a very low score, values of the measured variables are almost always 0, which indicates no

activity. Older adults responding to these questionnaires had a relatively high index score and

indicate they are active.

Discussion It is well understood in the gerontology and recreation field that leisure activities are

important in older adulthood, especially those activities that provide a continuity and sense of

self across the life course, such as physical activity (e.g., walking, swimming, gardening, etc.),

creative activity (e.g., collecting, playing a musical instrument, art, etc.), and cognitive leisure

activity (e.g., reading, computer use, games, puzzles, etc.). Activities from each of these three

types of activity were found to contribute to the health and well-being of older adults.

Through the model for Daily Life Activity, an index for DLA can discriminate lower levels of

activity from higher, and we can also examine activity levels for first order variables. This

capacity to examine beyond a single activity to a more complex picture of DLA holds promise

for our understanding of the contribution that activity makes to the lifestyles, health, and well-

being of older adults.

In conclusion, we encourage additional conceptual and modeling work that will provide

comparative views of DLA. A sound conceptual and measurement approach for activity

involvement will ultimately provide comparability and consistency across studies that investigate

the role that activity plays in improving the health and well-being of older adults. Kyoung Tae Kim, Department of Health, Human Performance, & Recreation, Southeast

Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau, MO, Tel: 573-651-2470, email: kkim@semo.edu

Selected References

Baker, L. A., Cahalin, L. P., Gerst, K., & Burr, J. A. (2005). Productive activities and subjective

well-being among older adults: The influence of number of activities and time

commitment. Social Indicators Research, 73(3), 431-458. doi: 10.1007/s11205-005-

0805-6

Menec, V. H. (2003). The relation between everyday activities and successful aging: A 6-year

longitudinal study. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 58B, S74-S82.

Palmore, E. (1979). Predictors of successful aging. The Gerontologist, 19(5 Part 1), 427-431.

doi: 10.1093/geront/19.5_Part_1.427

Hawkins, B. A. (2003). Aging well: A cross-cultural study of adult well-being. Unpublished

manuscript, The Global Ageing Initiative, Collaborative Research Project.

Menec, V. H. (2003). The relation between everyday activities and successful aging: A 6-year

longitudinal study. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 58B, S74-S82.

Thoits, P. A., & Hewitt, L. N. (2001). Volunteer work and well-being. Journal of Health and

Social Behavior, 42(2), 115-131.

Gautam, R., Saito, T., & Kai, I. (2007). Leisure and religious activity participation and mental

health: gender analysis of older adults in Nepal. BMC Public Health, 7(1), 299-309.

Janke, M. C., Payne, L. L., & Van Puymbroeck, M. (2008). The role of informal and formal

leisure activities in the disablement process. International Journal of Aging & Human

Development, 67(3), 231-257.

Dupuis, S. L., & Smale, B. J. A. (1995). An examination of relationship between psychological

well-being and depression and leisure activity participation among older adults. Loisir et

Société, 18(1), 67-92.

Agahi, N., & Parker, M. G. (2008). Leisure activities and mortality: Does gender matter?

Journal of Aging and Health, 20(7), 855-871.

Luoh, M.-C., & Herzog, A. R. (2002). Individual Consequences of Volunteer and Paid Work in

Old Age: Health and Mortality. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(4), 490-509.

Aquino, J., Russell, D., Cutrona, C., Altmaier, E. (1996). Employment status, social support, and

life satisfaction among the elderly, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(4), 480-489.

Glass, T. A., de Leon, C. M., Marottoli, R. A., & Berkman, L. F. (1999). Population based study

of social and productive activities as predictors of survival among elderly Americans.

BMJ, 319(7208), 478-483.

Hawkins, B., Miller, T., Kim, K. (2012). Conceptual and measurement model for daily life

activity. International Journal on Disability and Human Development, 11(1), 67-73.

EXPLORING CONSTRAINTS, BENEFITS SOUGHT AND REALIZED BY MUSEUM

VISITORS

Jaehyun Kim, Pennsylvania State University

Holly Donohoe, University of Florida

Benjamin Hickerson, Pennsylvania State University

Lori Pennington-Gray, University of Florida

Rebecca Nagy, Samuel P. Harn Museum of Art

Visitors consume museums as a leisure experience, rather than solely for educational

purposes (Foley & McPherson, 2000). Art museums provide the joy of experiencing works of art

through collections, exhibitions, and social opportunities. According to a 2012 survey conducted

by the National Endowment for the Arts, nearly half of the adults in the United States attended at

least one type of arts activity. However, declining trends in the percentage of adults in the U.S.

who attend art museums and galleries have been reported (i.e., 27% in 2002, 23% in 2008, and

21% in 2012). A high proportion of government financial support places increased pressure on

museums to establish their value by attracting increasing visitor numbers (Gilmore & Rentschler,

2002). In general, there is recognition in the leisure literature base that a visitor’s experience is

affected by benefits sought, benefits realized, and constraints impeding or affecting the

experience (Um & Crompton, 1992). Thus, investigating key constraints, benefits sought and

realized is fundamental for better understanding museum visitors. Examining the gap between

expectations (i.e., benefits sought) and performance (i.e., benefits realized) will provide insights

that will enable museum management to make informed decisions about how to improve

audiences’ satisfaction. The present study applied the benefits-based approach to the gap analysis

method suggested by Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry (1985, 1988). The purpose of this study

was to (1) explore the key constraints, benefits sought and benefits realized by pre-visit group

and post-visit group respectively and (2) examine the gap between pre-visit and post-visit groups

to an art museum based on benefit sought and benefit realized factors.

Methods

The cross-sectional data for this study were collected from a survey of a pre-visit group

(n=247) and post-visit group (n=242) to a museum of art on the campus of a large Southeastern

university. The post-visit group did not consist of the same visitors as the pre-visit group.

Benefits sought and realized were measured with four subscales (Learning, Social Interaction,

Leisure, and Self-esteem) including 18 items adopted from Tian, Crompton, & Witt (1996) and

Beard & Ragheb (1983). For the four benefit domains modified to suit the context of this study,

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from .85 to .89. Respondents were asked to indicate their

agreement with a set of statements using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 =

strongly agree). Constraints were measured with five subscales (Time, Difficulty of Access,

Product Failings, Lack of Interest and Repetition) including 19 items adopted from Tina,

Crompton, & Witt (1996). All subscales had alpha levels ranging from .79 to .90. The items were

assessed on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The gap scores

were calculated from subtractions between mean benefits realized and mean benefits sought.

Results

The majority of visitors to the museum were students pursuing an undergraduate degree

(89.4%). Of the 489 visitors, 305 (62.4%) were females and 184 (37.6%) were males. The

majority of visitors were White/Caucasian (59.9%). Of the 489 visitors, 261 (53.4%) were first-

time visitors (53.4%). A majority of visitors (94%) were not members of the museum. Key

constraints were ‘I do not have enough time’ (M=3.5) and ‘I am too busy’ (M=3.5). The key

benefits sought were ‘to be entertained’ (M = 4.1), ‘to learn about culture’ (M=4.0) and ‘to

discover new things (M=4.0). Among post-visit group, the highest means for benefits realized

were ‘I discovered new things’ (M=4.3), ‘I learned about culture’ (M=4.2), and ‘I enjoyed

leisure time’ (M=4.2). Results from the gap analysis showed that most of the means for benefits

realized were rated higher than benefits sought with the exception of two of items in social

interaction-related factor (see Table 1). The results from independent t-tests indicated a

significant difference between pre- and post-visit groups in three benefit factors (p<.01; Table 2).

Discussion

The benefits sought among the pre-visit group were the most frequently found in Leisure

(e.g., to be entertained) and Learning (e.g., to discover new things). Similarly, benefits realized

among the post-visit group were most commonly found in the Learning (e.g., ‘I discovered new

things’) factors and Leisure factors (e.g., ‘I enjoyed leisure time’). Given this, it was revealed

that the museum had a commitment to satisfy a multifaceted experience (i.e., edutainment) for

their visitors. In terms of constraints to visiting the museum among both groups, product failings

(e.g., ‘The museum is of poor quality’) and repetition-related constraint (e.g., ‘There is no point

in visiting because it will be repetitive’) were rated relatively lower than other constraints; that is,

visitors had overall positive views on visiting the museum and the products of the museum. The

results of the gap analysis indicated college student visitors were satisfied with their overall

experience in the museum. Reviewing each item that composes a factor provides useful insight

into which aspects of a dimension were superior or inferior and thus indicates directions for

improvement (MacKay & Crompton, 1990).

Implications for practice

Given the results indicated that visitors view the museum as a place for ‘edutainment’,

paying attention to an enjoyable museum experience as well as the fulfillment of its educational

purpose is a precondition for developing marketing strategies to improve or maximize visitor

satisfaction (Reussner, 2003). In terms of the benefits realized from visiting the museum, this

study found that the social interaction-related factor was rated the lowest. Given that college

students are one of the largest targeted groups for campus museums, directors may need to take

into consideration the special events aimed mainly at improving social interaction of college

student visitors. For example, museums could strategically offer multiple occasions for college

students (e.g., exhibits including questions, games, and puzzles) or events (e.g., movies or

concerts). Moreover, adjusting opening hours for college students, avoiding overly austere

atmosphere, or securing comfortable placesto wait for others and find their companions could be

considered (Debenedetti, 2003). The findings from the gap analysis have important implications

for management. For most of the benefit items, benefits realized exceeded benefits sought and

thus no management attention may be needed. However, Harrison & Shaw (2004) pointed out

that although a statistically significant positive relationship was found between highly satisfied

visitors and intention to return, it was very weak, which means that satisfaction score does not

guarantee intention to return to the museum. The visitor may not return to a museum in the near

future without substantial changes in museum products. In this regard, the museums should

regularly monitor constraints, benefits sought and benefits realized of their visitors in an effort to

evaluate and cope with changing visitor behaviors in the future.

Jaehyun Kim; Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management; Pennsylvania State University;

University Park, PA; (352)278-3583; juk314@psu.edu.

Table 1. Mean for benefit items and gap scores

Benefit Benefits Sought and Gap Mean Mean

Domain (Benefits Realized) Items Score

Benefit

Sought

Benefit

Realized

Learning To learn (I learned) about culture .24 3.96 4.20

Learning To satisfy (I satisfied) a curiosity .23 3.86 4.09

Learning To explore (I explored) new ideas .36 3.69 4.05

Learning To expand (I expanded) knowledge .06 3.88 3.94

Learning To discover (I discovered) new things

.28 3.99 4.27

Social Interaction To develop (I developed) relationship with

others

.00 3.26 3.26

Social Interaction To meet (I met) new and different people -.01 3.05 3.04

Social Interaction To share (I shared) thoughts, feelings, or skills

with other .31 3.29 3.60

Social Interaction

To improve (I improved) social skills .16 3.10 3.26

Leisure To slow (I slowed) down .39 3.40 3.79

Leisure To have (I had) fun .20 3.90 4.10

Leisure To relieve (I relieved) stress and tension .24 3.76 4.00

Leisure To be (I was) entertained .19 4.00 4.19

Leisure To escape (I escaped) from daily

activities/responsibilities .43 3.75 4.18

Leisure

To enjoy (I enjoyed) leisure time .29 3.89 4.18

Self-Esteem To increase (I increased) my feelings of self-

worth

.47 2.97 3.44

Self-Esteem To help (I helped) me feel like a better person .36 3.00 3.36

Self-Esteem To derive (I derived) a feeling of

accomplishment

.32 3.15 3.57

Note: The positive gap scores (+) show that benefit realized is greater than benefit sought. The negative gap score (-)

indicates that benefit sought is greater than benefit realized.

Table 2.Independent samples t-test of visitors with benefit factors

Pre-visit Post-visit

Mean Mean P-value

Learning 3.89 4.11 .001**

Self-esteem 3.04 3.48 .001**

Leisure 3.80 4.07 .001**

Social Interaction 3.18 3.33 .053

Selected References

Beard, J. G., & Ragheb, M. G. (1983). Measuring leisure motivation. Journal of Leisure

Research, 15(3), 219-228.

Debenedetti, S. (2003). Investigating the role of companions in the art museum experience.

International Journal of Arts Management, 5(3), 52-63.

Foley, M., & McPherson, G. (2000). Museums as leisure. International Journal of Heritage

Studies, 6(2), 161-174.

Gilmore, A., & Rentschler, R. (2002). Changes in museum management: A custodial or

marketing emphasis? Journal of Management Development, 21(10), 745-760.

Harrison, P., & Shaw, R. (2004). Consumer satisfaction and post-purchase intentions: An

exploratory study of museum visitors. International Journal of Arts Management, 6(2), 23-

32.

MacKay, K. J., & Crompton, J. L. (1990). Measuring the quality of recreation services. Journal

of Park and Recreation Administration, 8(3), 47-56.

National Endowment for the Arts. (2013, September). 2012 Survey of Public Participation in the

Arts. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Analysis. Retrieved from

http://arts.gov/sites/default/files/highlights-from-2012-sppa-revised-jan2015.pdf.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). A conceptual model of service quality

and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49(4), 41-50.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A., & Berry, L.L. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for

measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12-40.

Reussner, E. M. (2003). Strategic management for visitor-oriented museums: A change of focus.

The International Journal of Cultural Policy, 9(1), 95-108.

Tian, S., Crompton, J. L., & Witt, P. A. (1996). Integrating constraints and benefits to identify

responsive target markets for museum attractions. Journal of Travel Research, 35(2), 34-45.

Um, S., & Crompton, J. (1992). The role of perceived inhibitors and facilitators on pleasure

travel destination decisions. Journal of Travel Research, 30, 18-25.

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF THE YOUTH OUTDOOR ACTIVITY

PROFILE SCALE

Andrew Lacanienta, Brigham Young University

Mat Duerden, Brigham Young University

Peter Ward, Brigham Young University

Ramon Zabriskie, Brigham Young University

Mike Edwards, North Carolina State University

As the role of and time spent consuming digital media expands in the lives of children and

adolescents (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010), policy makers and researchers are increasingly

interested in how adolescents’ time use patterns impact their development (Brown & Bobkowski,

2011). One common assumption, supported by recent research findings (Edwards, Duerden,

Campbell, & Lizzo, 2014; Larson, Green, & Cordell, 2011), is more time spent on digital media

equals less time spent in other activities especially those that involve time outside. This potential

decrease in time spent outside is significant because more than two decades of research support

the efficacy of youth time outside to promote a variety of positive benefits (e.g., Kuo & Faber

Taylor, 2004; Wells, 2000; Wells & Evans, 2003). While there has been a recent proliferation in

efforts to both measure (Edwards, Duerden, Lizzo, Campbell, & Kamper, 2014; Larson et al.,

2011) and facilitate increases in youth time outside (e.g., The Children and Nature Network

[www.childrenandnature.org], Outdoor Nation [outdoornation.org]), many questions remain

about the connection between certain types of outside activities and their resulting outcomes.

Although some efforts to link specific types of activities “wild” vs. “domestic” in nature have

occurred (Edwards et al., 2014; Wells & Lekies, 2006), the identification of sub-categories

related to time outside activities has been primarily a post hoc effort (e.g., Ewert, Place, &

Sibthorp, 2005). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to design and validate a scale to both

measure and categorize youth involvement in outdoor activities. The scale, the Youth Outdoor

Activity Profile (YOAP), is based upon the structure of the Family Leisure Activity Profile

(FLAP) scale (Zabriskie & McCormick, 2001). The hope is that such scale will help answer

questions related to the relationship between specific outdoor activity involvement and their

associated outcomes like “are environmental attitudes more positively influenced by attending

soccer practice or spending an hour in the local woods?”

Methods

Undergraduate students (N=135) from a large western university participated in the study and

consisted of 79 males (62.7%) and 47 females (37.3%). The average age of the sample was 22

and was predominantly Caucasian (98%). Data were collected from the same group of students

on two different occasions that were separated by four weeks. The questionnaire included the

YOAP, an index of 17 youth outdoor leisure activity categories (e.g., home based outdoor

activities, outdoor spectator activities, and motorized water-based activities) (see Table 1).

Respondents identified leisure activities done within the past year across the 17 different

categories. If the answer was yes, respondents are asked to complete an ordinal scale of

estimated frequency (“how often?”) and duration (“for about how long per time?”) for each

activity category. Participants were then asked if they participated in the activity alone, with

someone, or both. Finally participants were asked to rate their satisfaction on a scale of 1-5 with

their participation or lack of participation in each activity category. Additionally, in order to

assess participants’ environmental attitudes the ecological affinity (EA) subscale from The

Environmental Attitude and Awareness Survey (EAAS; Larson, Green, & Castleberry, 2008)

was included on the second survey. The EA subscale consisted of eight questions on a five-point

Likert scale. The measure produced an acceptable level of internal consistency (α = .88). Due to

the index nature of the YOAP a test for internal consistency (e.g., Cronbach’s Alpha) was

deemed inappropriate. Alternatively, a test-retest approach was employed that involved

analyzing correlations between activity category total scores across both waves of data. In order

to test the concurrent validity of the measures the relationship between total activity categories

and EA scores were assessed.

Results

Significant correlations existed between all time 1 and time 2 activity category total scores

thereby supporting the YOAP’s test-retest reliability. Table 2 and 3 provide results from

correlation and regression analyses respectively, which were used to test the YOAP’s concurrent

validity. The final model produced three statistically significant independent variables, outdoor

adventure activities (β = .37; t = 4.15), home based outdoor nature activities, (β = .18; t = 2.11),

and outdoor chores, (β = .17; t = 2.04) (see Table 3).

Discussion and Implications

The purpose of this study was to design and validate a scale to both measure and categorize

youth involvement in outdoor activities. Results from this study provide initial support for the

test-retest reliability and concurrent validity of the YOAP. The results of the regression analysis

show a positive relationship between a number of the YOAP activity categories (i.e., outdoor

adventure activities, home based outdoor nature activities, and outdoor chores) and EA. The

findings support previous retrospective results linking certain nature based experiences and later

life environmental attitudes (e.g., Wells & Lekies, 2006). The different types of natural

environment interactions each activity category facilitated may explain the significance or lack

thereof across categories. For example, activities such as organized outdoor sports and outdoor

spectator activities may focus attention and effort on the game or activity actively happening,

while activities such as home based outdoor nature activities (i.e., star gazing, wildlife viewing)

and outdoor chores (i.e., mowing the lawn, raking leaves, gardening) facilitate more purposive

contact with nature. Additionally, it was interesting to note that only one variable, motorized

water-based activities, produced a negative correlation with EA. We hypothesize this correlation

exists because of the different ways people use the land. For example, a hiker will use and

appreciate the mountain different than someone riding an ATV. Although findings from this

study offer a contribution towards designing and validating a scale to both measure and

categorize youth time spent outside limitations must be considered. Undergraduate students may

not be the best population to sample for a scale to study youth since they may have a higher

literacy level than most adolescents. Moving beyond simple successive correlation testing as

well as refining the scale by comparing findings to non-recall methods will also help further

establish validity. Therefore, further development and validation of the YOAP with adolescents

is needed to provide a valid instrument to help answer questions related to the relationship

between specific outdoor activities and variables such as grades, EA, and stress levels.

Implications for Practice

Practitioners can use data from the YOAP as a guideline to understand the types of outdoor

activities and activity patterns that influence targeted related outcomes like ecological affinity.

This will allow increased customization of outdoor recreation opportunities to facilitate

intentional outcomes.

Andrew Lacanienta, Brigham Young University, 801.709.8926, ajlacanienta@gmail.com

Table 1YOAP Question Structure

Do you participate in home/neighborhood based outdoor activities (for example, playing with pets, bike

rides, hanging out in the yard, walks)?

YES or NO

If YES how often?

At least daily

At least weekly

At least monthly

At least annually

For about how long per time? (check only one)

< 1 hour 1-2 hours 2-3 hours

3-4 hours 4-5 hours 5-6 hours

6-7 hours 7-8 hours 8-9 hours

9-10 hours > 10 hours < 1 day

Do you primarily participate in this activity by yourself or with someone else?

Alone_______ With Someone_______ Both_______

Table 2: Pearson’s correlations between YOAP variables and EA

Home

based

outdoor

activities

Outdoor

chores

Home

based

outdoor

nature

activities

Time at

public

parks

Community

based

outdoor

events

Camping

activities

Motorized

Water

Sports

Outdoor

adventure

activities

Outdoor

related

tourism

activities

Eco-

affinity .20* .24** .26** .24** .25* .21* -.18* .20* .18*

*p < .05, **p < .01

Table 3

Stepwise regression results

Variable B SE B β

Constant 2.83 .11

Outdoor adventure activities .05 .01 .37*

Home based outdoor nature activities .06 .03 .18**

Outdoor Chores .05 .02 .17**

R2 = .247. *p < .001, **p < .05

Selected References

Brown, J. D., & Bobkowski, P. S. (2011). Older and newer media: Patterns of use and effects on

adolescents' health and well-being. Journal of research on Adolescence, 21(1), 95-113.

Edwards, M., Duerden, M. D., Campbell, K., & Lizzo, R. (2014). Socioecological correlates of

daily unstructured outside play in a sample of Texas youth. Presented at the 14th

Canadian Congress on Leisure Research, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Edwards, M., Duerden, M. D., Lizzo, R., Campbell, K., & Kamper, L. (2014). Youth time

outside: A comparison of time use methodologies. Journal of Leisure Research, 46(5),

635-643.

Ewert, A., Place, G., & Sibthorp, J. (2005). Early-life outdoor experiences and an individual's

environmental attitudes. Leisure Sciences, 27(3), 225-239.

Kuo, F. E., & Faber Taylor, A. (2004). A potential natural treatment for Attention-

Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence from a national study. American Journal of

Public Health, 94(9), 1580-1586.

Larson, L. R., Green, G. T., & Cordell, H. K. (2011). Children’s time outdoors: Results and

implications of the National Kids Survey. Journal of Park and Recreation

Administration, 29(2).

Rideout, V., Foehr, U., & Roberts, D. F. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8- to 18-

year-olds. The Kaiser Family Foundation. http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/8010.pdf

Wells, N. M. (2000). At home with nature: The effects of nearby nature on children's cognitive

functioning. Environment & Behavior, 32(6), 775-795.

Wells, N. M., & Evans, G. (2003). Nearby nature: A buffer of life stress among rural children.

Environment & Behavior, 35(3), 311-330.

Wells, N. M., & Lekies, K. S. (2006). Nature and the life course: Pathways from childhood

nature experiences to adult environmentalism. Children, Youth and Environments, 16(1),

1-24.

Zabriskie, R. B., & McCormick, B. P. (2001). The Influences of Family Leisure Patterns on

Perceptions of Family Functioning. Family Relations, 50(3), 281-289. doi:

10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00281.x

CROSS-CULTURAL INVESTIGATION ON PREGNANCY WOMEN’S BODY IMAGE

AND CLOTHING SHOPPING

KangJae Jerry Lee, University of Missouri-Columbia

MyungHee Sohn, California State University-Long Beach

A woman’s body shape changes dramatically over the period of pregnancy and significantly

impacts every aspect of her daily life. Although pregnancy can lead to negative feelings about

their bodies, today’s pregnant women are more satisfied with their bodies and positively adapt to

body changes than pregnant women did a few decades ago (Clark, Skouteris, Wertheim, Paxton,

& Milgrom, 2009; Fairburn & Welch, 1990; Fox, Heffernan, & Nicolson, 2009). Researchers

have documented that females tend to be more sensitive to their body images than males, and

such sensitivities are a critical determinant of participation in and satisfaction with various

leisure activities (Frederick & Shaw, 1995; Liechty & Yarnal, 2010). Despite these findings, we

know surprisingly little about how pregnant women perceive their bodies and how these

perceptions affect their leisure behavior.

Shopping is used by many women as a way to cope with stress and improve mood

(Hausman, 2000). While Kaiser (1990) noted that body image plays an important role in clothing

selection, we do not know if this is also the case for pregnant women. Moreover, body image is a

socially and culturally constructed idea so the notion of ‘an ideal body image’ varies by

sociocultural context (Fallon, 1990; Pompper & Koenig, 2004). Although pregnant women tend

to be satisfied with their pregnant bodies (Park & Lee, 2006; Sohn & Bye, 2015), comparing

body images of pregnant women in different social contexts is expected to make novel

contributions to the literature. The purpose of this study was to understand the self-perceived

body images and clothing shopping behaviors of pregnant women in the U.S. and Korea. It

attempted to address three research questions; (1) Do pregnant women from the two countries

perceive their pregnant bodies differently? (2) Do they differ in the types of clothes that they

select? and (3) For the two groups, are there any significant relationships between body image

and clothing selection?

Methods

A data collection was performed in the upper Midwest region of the U.S. and the southern

region of Korea. We used Cash’s (2000) Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS) and the

Appearance Orientation Scale (AOS). A high BASS score indicates the respondent feels mostly

positive and satisfied with their body figure. A high AOS score means the respondent places

significant importance on how they look and engages in extensive grooming behaviors. For

clothing shopping, we used Kwon and Parham’s (1994) clothing practice scale and focused on

respondents’ preferences for fashionable clothes and clothes that camouflage their bodies. In

total, 137 American samples and 141 Korean samples were collected.

Three data analyses were performed. First, a two-way independent analysis of variance

(ANOVA) was conducted in order to investigate the differences in body area satisfaction and

appearance orientation between the American and Korean samples. The independent variables

were nationality and Body Mass Index (BMI). Respondents were categorized into four groups

based on BMI score: underweight (under 20), normal (20-24), overweight (25-30), and obese

(above 30). The interaction between nationality and BMI was also examined. The same

statistical model was tested to compare the clothing shopping patterns of the American and

Korean pregnant women. Finally, the correlations among body satisfaction level, appearance

orientation, fashionable clothing selection and camouflaging clothing selection were tested with

Pearson’s correlation analysis. The correlations were estimated separately for the two groups.

Results The American and Korean pregnant women varied by body image and clothing selection.

First, there was a significant interaction effect between nationality and BMI on BASS score, F

(3, 270) = 3.98, p < .001, p2 = .042. Although the Americans’ body image scores were higher

than the Koreans’ throughout the BMI categories, the two groups’ BASS scores were affected

differently by the BMI categories. The American sample had the lowest BASS score from the

obese group (M = 3.04, SD = .50), yet the Korean sample had the lowest score from the

overweight group (M = 2.25, SD = .69). Moreover, there was a significant main effect of

nationality on AOS score, F (1, 270) = 6.20, p < .05, p2 = .022. Unlike BASS score, the

Koreans’ AOS scores were higher (M = .52, SD = .08) than the Americans’ (M = .44, SD = .07).

Second, the two groups displayed significant differences in clothing shopping behavior. There

was a significant main effect of nationality on selecting fashionable clothes, F (1, 265) = 13.76, p

< .001, p2 = .04. Americans’ preference for fashionable clothes was higher (M = 3.73, SD =.89)

than Koreans’ (M = 3.09, SD =.86). The main effect of BMI score was also significant, F (3,

265) = 3.83, p < .05, p2 = .042. For purchasing camouflaging clothes, there was a significant

main effect of nationality, F (1, 266) = 10.32, p < .001, p2

= .057. Korean pregnant women (M

= 3.74, SD =.80) showed a higher preference for camouflaging clothes than American pregnant

women (M = 2.87, SD =.82). Finally, Person’s correlation analysis also displayed differences

between the American and Korean samples. For American pregnant women, their AOS scores

were positively correlated with fashionable clothing selection, r =.42, p <.001. Similarly, the

Korean sample’s AOS scores were positively correlated with fashionable clothing selection, r

=.33, p <.01. However, unlike the American sample, the Korean sample’s AOS scores were also

positively correlated with selection of camouflaging clothing, r =.18, p <.01.

Discussion

This study revealed many differences between American and Korean pregnant women. First,

the American sample had higher BASS scores than the Korean sample regardless of BMI score,

yet their AOS scores were generally lower than those of the Korean sample. This suggests that

pregnant women in the U.S. tend to be more satisfied with their bodies and less concerned and

invested in their appearance than pregnant women in Korea. Similarly, for the Korean pregnant

women, the AOS scores were positively correlated with the selection of camouflaging clothes.

Notably, this finding is not consistent with previous studies on body image that have documented

that BASS and AOS scores are negatively correlated to a selection of camouflaging clothes

(Tiggemann & Lacey, 2009). The Korean pregnant women adorned themselves by selecting not

only fashionable and stylish clothes, but also clothes that hid their bodies. These findings suggest

that Korean pregnant women tended to be less satisfied with their bodies, so they were more

sensitive and concerned about how their bodies were viewed by others. On the one hand, these

findings might stem from the two countries’ different perceptions toward a pregnant body.

Although the social image of a pregnant body has changed for the better (Longhurst, 2005;

Tyler, 2011), Korean society may hold a less favorable view of the pregnant body than U.S.

society. On the other hand, this finding might be ascribed to Korea’s collectivistic culture (Jung

& Lee, 2006; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). Collectivistic society emphasizes

harmony and group solidarity, so Korean pregnant women might avoid distinctive appearances

and try not to stray from the general public by wearing clothes that hide their pregnant bodies.

KangJae Jerry Lee, Parks, Recreation & Tourism, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia,

MO, (573) 882-9516, leekj@missouri.edu.

Selected References

Cash, T. (2000). Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. Norfolk, VA: Old

Dominion University.

Clark, A., Skouteris, H, Wertheim, E. H., Paxton, S., & Milgrom, J. (2009). My baby body: A

qualitative insight into women’s body-related experiences and mood during pregnancy

and the postpartum. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 27, 330-345.

Fairburn, C. G., & Welch, S.L. (1990). The impact of pregnancy on eating habits and attitudes to

shape and weight. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9, 153–160.

Fallon, A. (1990). Culture in the mirror: Sociocultural determinants of body image. In T. F. Cash

& T. Prozinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change. New York:

The Guilford Press.

Frederick, C. J., & Shaw, S. M. (1995). Body image as a leisure constraint: Examining the

experience of aerobic exercise classes for young women. Leisure Sciences, 17, 57–73.

Fox, R., Heffernan, K., & Nicolson, P. (2009). ‘I don’t think it was such an issue back then’:

changing experiences of pregnancy across two generations of women in south-east

England. Gender, Place and Culture, 16, 553-568.

Hausman, A. (2000). A multi-method investigation of consumer motivations in impulse buying

behavior. Journal of consumer marketing, 17, 403-426.

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36). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

ENVIRONMENTAL CORRELATES OF CHILDREN’S SEDENTARY BEHAVIOR AND

PARENTS’ REGULATION STRATEGIES

Sunwoo Lee, Palacký University, Olomouc

Michal Kudláček, Palacký University, Olomouc

The purpose of the current study was to examine how the qualities of neighborhood

environment were related to children’s sedentary behavior and parents’ regulation. Studies have

shown that neighborhood qualities are significantly correlated with children’s sedentary

behaviors and the level of physical activity (PA), which affects health inequalities among

children (e.g., Duke, Borowsky, & Pettingell, 2012; Roemnich, Epstein, Raga, & Yin, 2007). We

note that children in the neighborhoods with the most deprived conditions, such as unsafe

settings, poorly kept housing, and no access to sidewalks, parks, and recreation facilities, are

more likely to be imposed to spend time on sedentary activities than children not dwelling in

such neighborhood conditions (Norman, Schmid, Sallis, Calfas, & Patrick, 2005). In other

words, children within favored neighborhood conditions are more likely to participate in various

activities which, in turn, contribute to their well-being. According to Fan and Chen (2012), the

family function plays an important role as a mediator between neighborhood conditions and

children’s health behaviors. Fustenber (1993) contended that socioeconomic characteristic of the

neighborhoods, in which families reside, may be a predictor of parent’s regulation of children’s

behavioral adjustment. O’Neil, Parke, and McDowell (2001) found that maternal perception of

neighborhood qualities was significantly related to their regulatory strategies of children’s social

interactions and utilization of community resources. All of this suggests that parents’ view of

their neighborhood qualities may inform the way in which they arrange and supervise children’s

sedentary behaviors. The study findings will provide better understanding of how the physical

resources and social conditions of the neighborhood affect children’s sedentary behavior and

parents’ regulation of children’s daily activities.

Methods

This current study employed a secondary data analysis using nationally representative data

released from the National Survey of Children’s Health (NCHS) 2011-2012 in USA. A total

sample of 36,878 children, ages between 6 and 12 years old, were used for the current study. The

final sample comprised 51.0% males and 48.8% females. Caucasians accounted for 73.0%,

10.5% were African Americans, and 10.5% were others. 13.9% were considered themselves

Hispanics.

In order to better understand parents’ perception of the neighborhood qualities, three

different features of neighborhood environments were assessed; neighborhood amenities,

neighborhood condition, and safety. Three indicators were used to measure neighborhood

amenities on a yes-no response basis. Respondents were asked to indicate whether sidewalks or

walking paths, a park or playground area, and a recreation center, or community center exist in

the respondents’ neighborhood and community. Similarly, a total number of three questions were

used to measure neighborhood condition. Respondents were asked to indicate whether there is

litter or garbage on the street or sidewalk, poorly kept or (dilapidated/rundown) housing, or

vandalism in their neighborhood. The neighborhood condition was also measured with a type

of yes-no question. The perception of community safety was measured using a four-item scale

(e.g., “How often do you feel your child is safe in your community or neighborhood?”). Each

item was recoded to a four-point scale ranging from 1 = definitely disagree to 4 = definitely

agree. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale is .839. In order to assess parents’ regulatory

strategies of children’s sedentary behavior, the respondents were asked to indicate yes or no

on whether they limit the amount of time their children spend watching TV, playing on the

computer or video games, or using electronic devices and monitor the content. Children’s

sedentary behavior was assessed according to the amount of time (hours) children usually spend

watching TV programs, playing video games, computers, cell phone on an average weekday.

Results

A series of multiple and logistic regression analyses was performed to examine the

relationships between the study variables. Covariates in the analyses included major predictor

variables and demographic variables such as gender, age, and race. According to the results, a

number of environment perception indicators accounted for additional variance for children’s

sedentary behavior: park or playground area (p < .05); public recreation center or boy’s or girl’s

club (p < .05); litter or garbage on the street or sidewalk (p < .05); poorly kept housing (p = .05);

and feeling of safety (p < .001). According to the results, perceptions of sidewalks or walking

paths (p < .01) and access to recreation facilities (p < .01) were significantly associated with

parents’ decision to limit the amount of time for children’s sedentary behavior. Parental

involvement in children’s sedentary activities affected children’s sedentary behavior, through

limiting the amount of time (p < .001) and monitoring the content (p < .001). That is, when

parents reported that they limited the time for sedentary activities and monitored the content,

children were less likely to spend time doing sedentary activities. This indicates that parents’

regulation plays an important role in decreased sedentary behavior. Additionally, we found that

there were significant group differences according to age, gender, and race across the different

regression models.

Discussion Our findings are consistent with previous literature that neighborhood environment—access

to recreation facilities and safety in a community—is significantly associated with sedentary

behavior among children (Norman et al., 2005; Roemnich et al., 2007). This suggests that we

have to include neighborhood assessment as a means to promote health-related behaviors in child

health intervention and counseling. We also found that parents’ perception of neighborhood

environments was significantly associated with their management for regulation of children’s

sedentary behavior. According to the resources the community provides, recreational

opportunities it affords, and the environmental stressors that are imposed on children, parents

may differ in their regulation strategies (O’Neil et al., 2001). The results also indicated that

parents’ regulation of sedentary behavior contributed to the decreased sedentary time among

children. This finding indicates that parents’ perception of the opportunities and constraints

linked to their neighborhoods may be an important mechanism through the environmental

correlates of children’s sedentary behavior.

Implications for Practice

Urban planners and parks and recreation professionals should be informed and better-

equipped in the development of health-promoting community for children and family to reduce

environmental stressors caused by the lack of safety and resources, and improve useable physical

infrastructure that facilitates child-oriented activities (e.g., screen free programs after school), so

children are less likely to spend time on sedentary activities. It is also suggested that educational

and health professionals should increase their awareness of parents’ role in practice with children

and provide the regulatory strategies that parents may employ to compensate for the lack of

neighborhood resources.

Sunwoo Lee, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Třída Míru 115, 77111

Olomouc, Czech Republic; (+420)777 31 6761; sunwoo.lee@upol.cz

Selected References

Duke, N. N., Borowsky, I. W., & Pettingell, S. L. (2012). Parent perceptions of neighborhood:

Relationships with US youth physical activity and weight status. Maternal and Child

Health Journal, 16(1), 149-157.

Fan, Y., & Chen, Q. (2012). Family functioning as a mediator between neighborhood conditions

and children's health: Evidence from a national survey in the united states. Social Science

& Medicine, 74(12), 1939-1947.

Furstenberg, F. F., Jr. (1993). How families manage risk and opportunity in dangerous

neighborhoods. In W. J. Wilson (Ed.), Sociology and the public agenda (pp. 231-238).

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Norman, G. J., Schmid, B. A., Sallis, J. F., Calfas, K. J., & Patrick, K. (2005). Psychosocial and

environmental correlates of adolescent sedentary behaviors. Pediatrics, 116(4), 908-916.

O’Neil, R., Parke, R. D., & McDowell, D. J. (2001). Objective and subjective features of

children’s neighborhoods: Relations to parental regulatory strategies and children’s social

competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 22, 135–155.

Roemmich, J. N., Epstein, L. H., Raja, S., & Yin, L. (2007). The neighborhood and home

environments: Disparate relationships with physical activity and sedentary behaviors in

youth. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33(1), 29-38.

ENGAGING WITH SERIOUS LEISURE AND SCHOOL ADAPTATION AMONG

KOREAN STUDENTS

Chungsup Lee, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Sohye Kim, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Megan Owens, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Introduction

Among the increase of international students at U.S. colleges, the number of Asian students is

by far the largest group with a significant number arriving from Korea (Institute of International

Education, 2014). Adjusting to college can be one of the most significant life transitions for any

international student attending school in the U.S. (Li & Gasser, 2005). These students must

adjust simultaneously to the school environment and culture, which may include a new language

and social norms (Misra & Castillo, 2004).

Despite the significant number of international students, a relatively small number of studies

have explored the relationship between leisure engagement and international student adjustment

to college. However, leisure engagement could significantly influence this realm of their life in

many ways (e.g., Gomez, Alfredo & Glass, 2014; Toyakawa & Toyakawa, 2002). First, leisure

promotes the management of stress by enhancing a person’s mood (Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000).

Second, leisure provides a foundation to build friendships and active social interaction, which

may lead to strengthening the social support among international students, which influence

academic and psychosocial adaptation in the long run (Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993; Tao, Dong,

Pratt, Hunsberger & Pancer, 2000). Third, leisure has been linked to a positive relationship with

acculturation (Li & Stodolska, 2006; Stodolska & Alexandris, 2004) where language usage (e.g.,

prefer to use native language) and cultural distance are related to academic and social adjustment

(Gallagher, 2013; Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006).

With respect to the vast influence of leisure on adaptation, the purpose of this study is to

explore the role of serious leisure activities of Korean students in the U.S. in order to understand

the relationship between leisure activities and school adaptation. The theoretical framework for

this study is grounded in Stebbin’s (2007) theory of serious leisure. This form of leisure has been

shown to offer additional benefits to the participants: personal (e.g., personal enrichment, self-

actualization and self-gratification) and social (e.g., social attraction and group accomplishment).

Thus, We focused on the benefits of these leisure activities that play a positive role with these

international students who are relatively vulnerable during the college adaptation process.

Method

A total of 13 students participated in the study through a purposive sampling strategy. The

criteria for participation was informants should (1) have Korean nationality, (2) have a clear

personal primary leisure pursuit, (3) identify the primary leisure pursuit as a self-defining activity

and (4) attend the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The participants were separated

into 4 focus groups, which lasted approximately 60 to 90 minutes. Grounded theory was adopted

(Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to identify themes relevant to the role of serious leisure during school

adaptation. Then, constant comparative strategies were applied to improve the validity of the

data. The participants were asked to answer questions related to the changes in their leisure

patterns during their school adjustment, perceptions of school adjustment, and the relationship

with serious leisure engagement and school adjustment.

Findings and Discussion

Three themes emerged from the students’ leisure experiences. First, participants, who enjoyed

specific leisure activities in Korea, tended to seek those same activities or find similar ones at the

university. During the significant transition periods, the identical leisure activities enabled the

participants to enjoy their leisure time quicker in addition to obtain a sense of easement and

stability. In particular, (a) time constraints and (b) the relationship with significant others

encouraged the participants to engage in similar leisure activities, which by extension, led the

participants to become serious leisure participants. The informants mentioned that due to limited

time, they tended to engage in the same activity repeatedly, which they perceived as the most

meaningful. Moreover, significant relationships with the group members provide a chance to

experience leisure on a deeper, more serious level. Second, a mixed cognition of school

adaptation was conspicuous. Generally, most participants perceived their school adaptation

differently from their life adjustment in the U.S.: the former is contingent on academic

achievement while the focus of the latter is on cultural aspects. Nevertheless, when the

participants were asked to identify the difficulties during their school adjustment, most

difficulties were not related to the academic variables such as language, cultural differences, and

loneliness. This challenging relationship between life adaptation and life adjustment suggests

researchers should carefully consider the international student college adaptation process within

a cultural and social realm. Third, serious leisure activities played a significant role in developing

social networks, which contributed to their socio-psychological adaptation. Social benefits of

serious leisure functioned as a significant driving force to continue the activities of the

informants who are struggling with obstacles in adaptation, such as unfamiliarity with American

culture and language, and the limited opportunities to interact with American students or

community members. Indeed, notable comments from the interviews related to the importance of

a sense of kinship among the group members. This was especially true of those who believed the

social networks at UIUC were limited compared to those in Korea. Even with their tight schedule

and significant workload, participants tried to find a considerable amount of time for their leisure

activities due to its potential benefits: (a) obtaining strong senses of connectivity and belonging

to the group and (b) reducing feelings of homesickness and loneliness. These findings are

juxtaposed with Stebbins (1997) arguments of serious leisure in which the rewards are social, in

addition to personal benefits. These rewards exist through socializing with other serious leisure

participants, illuminating group accomplishments, and contributing to the continuance and

development of the group.

Implications for practice and Conclusion

These findings suggest that serious leisure plays an essential role in the school adaptation of

Korean college students, particularly to their socio-psychological adaptation. In particular, social

adjustment is the most vulnerable aspect for international students (Rienties et al., 2012) and this

study provides further evidence toward demonstrating a link between leisure and adaptation.

Moreover, since many international students including Korean students are less likely to use

counseling programs due to a negative stigma (Constantine, Chen & Ceesay, 1997), school

program leaders may want to consider creating more opportunities for international students to

engage in serious leisure activities, as this study suggests leisure can help with their academic

and social transition. Despite the interesting findings, due to a nature of qualitative study, it is

difficult to generalize the results to broader population. Also, since majority of the respondents

are graduate students, they might have unique perspectives on leisure and school adaptation.

Chungsup Lee, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 217-419-2485, lee782@illinois.edu

Selected References

Constantine, M. G., Chen, E. C., & Ceesay, P. (1997). Intake concerns of racial and ethnic

minority students at a university counseling center: Implications for developmental

programming and outreach. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development,

25(2), 210-218.

Coleman, D., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1993). Leisure and health: The role of social support and self-

determination. Journal of Leisure Research, 25, 350-361.

Gómez, E., Alfredo, U., & Glass, C. R. (2014). International student adjustment to college:

Social networks, acculturation, and leisure. Journal of Park and Recreation

Administration, 32(1), 7–25.

Institute of International Education. (2014). Open doors report on international educational

exchange. Retrieved from http://www.iie.org/opendoors

Iwasaki, Y., & Mannell, R. C. (2000). Hierarchical dimensions of leisure stress coping. Leisure

Sciences, 22(August 1999), 163–181.

Kaczmarek, P. G., Matlock, C. G., Merta, R., Ames, M. H., & Ross, M. (1994). An assessment

of international college student adjustment. International Journal for the Advancement of

Counseling, 17(4), 241–247.

Li, A., & Gasser, M. B. (2005). Predicting Asian international students’ sociocultural

adjustment: A test of two mediation models. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 29(5), 561–576. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.06.003

Li, M. Z., & Stodolska, M. (2006). Transnationalism, leisure, and Chinese graduate students in

the United States. Leisure Sciences, 28(1), 39-55.

Misra, R., & Castillo, L. G. (2004). Academic stress among college students: Comparison of

American and international students. International Journal of Stress Management, 11(2),

132–148. doi:10.1037/1072-5245.11.2.132

Poyrazli, S., & Kavanaugh, P. R. (2006). Marital status, ethnicity, academic achievement, and

adjustment strains: The case of graduate international students. College Student Journal,

40(4), 767–780.

Rienties, B., Beausaert, S., Grohnert, T., Niemantsverdriet, S., & Kommers, P. (2012).

Understanding academic performance of international students: The role of ethnicity,

academic and social integration. Higher Education, 63(6), 685–700.

Stebbins, R. A. (2001). Serious leisure. Society, May/June, 53–58.

Stebbins, R. A. (2007). Serious leisure: A perspective for our time. New Brunswick, NJ:

Transaction.

Stodolska, M., & Alexandris, K. (2004). The role of recreational sport in the adaptation of first

generation immigrants in the United States. Journal of Leisure Research, 36(3), 379–413.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for

developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Tao, S., Dong, Q., Pratt, M.W., Hunsberger, B., & Pancer, S. M. (2000). Social support:

Relations to coping and adjustment during the transition to university in the People’s

Republic of China. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15, 123-144.

Toyoda, E. (2012). Acculturation through a leisure activity: The Argentine tango in

Japan. Asian Journal of Latin American Studies, 25(2), 1-26.

A TEST OF SERIOUS LEISURE MODEL IN CLIMBING USING 18–ITEM SLIM

KoFan Lee, University of Mississippi

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to examine a four factor measurement model using 18-item

SLIM data. Serious leisure denotes a continuous pursuit of a leisure activity. People immersed in

such activity are obliged to acquire skills, knowledge, experiences and establish social networks.

However, the obligation is interesting and meaningful and people are willing to take (Stebbins,

2007). In 2011, Gould et al use chess players’ data to examine the measurement model of serious

leisure. In the same study, they propose a short, 18-item version of serious leisure and inventory

measure (SLIM). Each item with the highest values of average variance extracted (AVE) and

loading is selected from the original 18 factors (i.e., 3 items for each factor), respectively. As

Gould et al (2011) suggest, further examinations on the predictability of those measures are

needed.

SLM is developed based upon Stebbins’ serious leisure and its six characteristics,

perseverance, effort, leisure career, durable benefits, unique ethos and identity (Stebbins, 2007).

Those characteristics can be classified into primarily two categories: serious orientation and

outcomes (Gould, Moore, McGuire, & Stebbins, 2008). Outcomes contains both personal (i.e.,

self-actualization, self-expression, self-image, self-gratification, recreation, financial return) and

social benefits (group attraction, group accomplishment, and group maintenance) acquired in the

serious leisure experiences, whereas serious orientation includes other characteristics, which

narrates recreationists’ committed experiences to an activity (i.e., perseverance, effort, leisure

career, unique ethos and identity). Moreover, although financial return is one of the personal

outcome, the way it rewards and motivates serous recreationists can be different from other

personal benefits (Lee, 2013; Stebbins, 2005). Therefore, a four factor model was proposed to

examine the theoretical construct of serious orientations and multiple outcomes. The factors and

corresponding items were shown as Table 1.

Method

A short version SLIM data was collected in Midwest region, in summer, 2012. Data from

418 adult climbers who had consistently climbed in the past year or possessed lead climbing

techniques were used. Majority of the climbers (83%) reported that they climbed sport lead

routes whereas other types of lead climbing were less reported. Approximately 87% of climbers

reported their climbing ability from 5.9 to 5.12, in terms of the Yosemite Difficulty Scale.

Climbers also reported their continuous engagement though self-education (64%), regular

physical training (74%) and climbing trips (79%). A confirmatory factor analysis approach was

used to test the hypothesized model. Overall model fits and parameter estimates were reported. It

should be that financial return is a single-item latent variable, the error variance of the financial

return needs to be specified in the Mplus syntax. Brown’s approach was followed (2006, p. 139)

and generated the error variance based on previous study conducted by Gould et al (2011).

Mplus 7 was used for data analysis.

Results

The Robust Maximum Likelihood estimation was used to address non-normal distribution

(Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2010). The fit indices of the original model was not acceptable (scaled

χ2

= 4770.515, df = 130, p < .001, CFI = .805, TLI = .766, SRMR = .070, RMSEA = .081).

Modifications were made to improve the model fit. The overall fit of the respecified model was

acceptable (scaled χ2

= 242.567, df = 123, p < .001, CFI = .932, TLI = .915, SRMR = .056,

RMSEA = .049). The loadings of the serious orientation indicators ranged from .357 to .618 (R2

= .209-.361), .432 - .725 (R2

= .200-.526) for the personal outcomes indicators and .554 - .652

(R2

= .308-.525) for the social outcomes indicators. All loadings were significant (Table 1).

Discussion

The study is aimed to examine the theoretical construct of serious leisure, which entails

experiences and outcomes obtained in a serious leisure activity. The result indicates that the four-

factor construct is appropriate, given the loading and error variance of financial return is fixed.

However, the measurement residual covariance specified in the final model may imply the

presence of measurement issues, such as overlapping meanings of item contents or omitted factor

(Byrne, 2012). Specifically, three qualities, perseverance, effort and career progress may reflect

the core idea of serious leisure: continuous acquisition and expression of personal capacities to

address challenges in a serious leisure activity (Stebbins, 2007). Residual covariance specified in

this study limit the possibility of generalization.

The relationships between latent variables deserve further attention. Future studies may focus

on the causal paths between serious orientation and multiple outcomes. In addition, the error of

financial return indicator is restricted and the value used is derived from the best performing

loading of financial return in Gould and his colleague’s study (2011). This value of error

variance may not reflect this climbing sample well. Although scarce, some participants whose

engagement in climbing industry (e.g., gym owners) may lead to variations of the responses. To

address this issue, additional items measuring financial return should be developed and tested.

The result of this study supports the four-factor theoretical construct of serious leisure using

data derived from the 18-item SLIM questionnaire. The items also have non-zero loadings on

corresponding factors. 18-item SLIM allows the application to examine causal paths of serious

leisure qualities and models entailed multiple concepts with less concerns to amounts of

parameters to be estimated and sample size required. The result of this study also echoes Gould

and his colleagues’ suggestion to provide a simplistic, yet comprehensive measure of serious

leisure.

KoFan Lee, PhD. Assistant Professor. Department of Health, Exercise Science & Recreation

Management, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS38655, klee18@olemiss.edu

Table 1. 18-Item SLIM and Factor Loadings of the Final Model

Factor/Items Statements Loadings

Serious Orientation

Pesevrance I overcome difficulties in climbing by being persistent 0.408

Effort I try hard to become more competent in climbing 0.485

Career Progress I feel that I have made progress in climbing 0.357

Career Contingency There are defining moments within my climbing experience

that have significantly shaped my involvement in it

0.550

Unique Ethos I share many ideas, values and lifestyles from climbing

communities

0.580

Identity Others who know me also understand that rock climbing is a

part of who I am

0.618

Personal Outcomes

Personal Enrichment Climbing has added richness to my life 0.557

Self-Actualization I make full use of my talent when climbing 0.575

Self-Expression-

Ability

I demonstrate my skills and abilities when climbing 0.672

Self-Expression-

Individual

Climbing for me is an expression of myself 0.718

Self-Image Climbing has improved how I think about myself 0.683

Self-Gratification-

Satisfaction

Climbing provides me with a profound sense of satisfaction 0.725

Self-Gratification-

enjoyment

Climbing is enjoyable to me 0.432

Recreation I feel re-vitalized after climbing time 0.433

Social Outcomes

Social Interaction I enjoy interacting with other climbing enthusiasts 0.652

Group

Accomplishment

I feel important when I am a part of my climbing group's

accomplishment

0.554

Group Maintenance It is important that I perform duties which unify my climbing

group

0.562

Financial Return

Financial Return I have received financial payment as a result of my climbing

efforts

0.903

Selected References

Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford Publications.

Byrne, B. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications,

and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Gould, J., Moore, D., Karlin, N. J., Gaede, D. B., Walker, J., & Dotterweich, A. R. (2011).

Measuring serious leisure in chess: Model confirmation and method bias. Leisure

Sciences, 33(4), 332-340.

Gould, J., Moore, D., McGuire, F., & Stebbins, R. (2008). Development of the serious leisure

inventory and measure. Journal of Leisure Research, 40(1), 47-68.

Stebbins, R. A. (2005). Challenging mountain nature: Risk, motive, and lifestyle in three

hobbyist sports. Calgary, Canada: Detselig.

Stebbins, R. A. (2007). Serious leisure: A perspective of our time. New Brunswick, NJ:

Transactions Publishers.

EXPLORING SENSE OF COMMUNITY IN AN ADULT RECREATIONAL TENNIS

LEAGUE

Eric Legg, Arizona State University

Mary S. Wells, University of Utah

Aubrey Newland, California State University, Chico

Preston J. Tanner, University of Utah

Cait Wilson, University of Utah

Participation in adult recreational sports may lead to a number of positive outcomes

including improved well-being, reduced stress, improved social functioning, higher life

satisfaction, and a sense of community (Eime, et al., 2013; Warner, Dixon, & Chalip, 2012). The

experience of a sense of community (SOC) is one benefit that is particularly worth exploring as

SOC links to a range of other positive benefits including increased self-confidence, emotional

connections, coping skills, and civic participation (Chavis & Wandersman, 1990; Goodwin et al.,

2009; Greenfield & Marks, 2010) Further, given that social benefits are a primary motive for

adult participation in recreational sports, a SOC may be of particular importance for participants

(Youn-Lim, et al, 2011).

SOC may be defined as “a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members

matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met

through their commitment to be together” (McMillan & Chavis, 1986, p. 9). In the original

conceptualization of this theory, SOC consists of four interwoven elements: membership,

integration of and fulfillment of needs, influence, and shared emotional connection (McMillan &

Chavis, 1986). More recently, Warner and Dixon (2011; 2013) developed the Sport and Sense

and Sense of Community Theory (SSCT), in response to the contextual nature of sport. As stated

in this conceptualization, SOC in a sport setting consists of six factors – administrative

consideration, common interest, competition, equity of a decisions, leadership opportunities, and

social spaces. (Warner & Dixon; Warner, Kerwin, & Walker, 2013).

The SSCT represents an important step in increasing our understanding of SOC in sport

settings. Recreational tennis is a unique sports setting where this theory has not been explored.

Individuals who participate in recreational tennis may be part of multiple overlapping tennis

communities including multiple teams, and play outside of formal league matches. These

overlapping communities suggest that studying community may require a more nuanced

approach (Dunlap & Johnson, 2010).

As a second limitation, Warner and colleagues initial explorations specifically asked

respondents to describe what SOC in a sport setting looked like (Warner, Dixon, & Chalip,

2012). While this approach is valuable in describing SOC, the narrow focus of the question risks

pointing participants in a specific direction. It is, therefore, important to attempt to understand

the specific meaning that respondents ascribe to participation by asking more general questions

(Marshall & Rossman, 2011). Given the importance of SOC and previous research supporting a

contextual sport specific nature of a SOC, the purpose of this study was to explore participants’

experience in an adult recreational tennis league and the meaning that those participants ascribe

to that experience with a specific focus related to SOC.

Method

This study used a qualitative interpretive approach to data collection in which a semi-

structured interview format was used to collect data. The questions began with “grand tour”

questions (Marshall & Rossman, 2011) which were followed by additional probing questions as

warranted. Data were collected from 21 intermediate level participants in adult tennis leagues in

the greater Salt Lake City region. Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed manually.

Multiple levels of coding were used to help develop themes. These themes or codes were

regularly compared throughout data analysis. Coding followed both a theory-generated coding

scheme where codes were developed based on elements of theories of SOC and in-vivo codes

where codes emerged through the analysis process (Marshall & Rossman, 2011).

Findings

Researchers were specifically interested in the meaning that participants ascribed to their

experience in recreational tennis. Overwhelmingly, participants discussed the value of the social

relationships that they developed through league participation. To help further understand how

these social relationships are manifested within this setting, we looked for specific themes and

then compared those themes to the factors of a SOC in sport (Warner, Kerwin, & Walker, 2013).

This analysis points to the factors of competition, social spaces, fairness, and voluntary

commitment as components of the social relationships. These themes provide some support for

four of the elements proposed by Warner and colleagues, while also highlighting differences that

may further enhance this theory development.

Discussion

This study makes several contributions that advance our understanding participation in adult

recreational sports. In terms of meaning, participants most frequently emphasized the social

relationships that accrued in participation. Participation in league tennis provided players the

opportunity to develop positive social relationships that they would not have developed

otherwise. Specific elements of the experience also provide partial support for Warner and

colleagues (2011; 2013) conceptualization of SOC in sport; notably, competition and social

spaces. In addition, two elements present slight variations on elements of Warner’s

conceptualization. While Warner, Dixon and Chalip (2012) initially proposed equity of

administrative decisions as an element of SOC, participants in this study emphasized general

fairness of other participants in addition to fairness at the administration level. This finding is

more consistent with recent scale development work suggesting a more general component of

equity in decisions (Warner, Kerwin, & Walker, 2013). Further, participants in this study

emphasized the commitment as an aspect that is missing from previous conceptualizations of

SOC. Finally, leadership opportunities and administrative consideration did not surface in this

study. While some participants mentioned having influence on decisions, many viewed influence

opportunities as more work rather than an important part of their experience. It is not surprising

that administrative consideration did not surface considering that, for most participants,

interactions with administration was limited. This suggests an important difference from studies

in other settings.

Implications for Practice This study offers practical suggestions for enhancing SOC within the sport context. For

example, given the importance of social spaces, managers may wish to ensure that opportunities

exist for participants to socialize outside of match play. This may include having a common

gather area, or serving snacks at a common place. The importance of fairness also suggests that

managers are not only extra diligent about ensuring a fair system, but are also transparent in their

decisions to assist other participants in understanding the decisions.

Eric Legg, SCRD, Arizona State University, 602.496.0550, wlegg@asu.edu

Selected References

Dunlap, R., & Johnson, C. W. (2010). Creating community at the farm: A contested concept.

Journal Of Leisure Research, 42(2), 221-242.

Eime, R., Charity, M., Payne, W., Young, J., & Harvey, J. (2013). A systematic review of the

psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for adults: informing

development of a conceptual model of health through sport. International Journal Of

Behavioral Nutrition And Physical Activity, 10(1), 822.

Chavis, D. M., & Wandersman, A. (1990). Sense of community in the urban environment: A

catalyst for participation and community development. American Journal of Community

Psychology, 18(1), 55-81.

Goodwin, D.L, Johnston, K., Gustafson, P., Elliott, M., Thurmeier, R., & Kuttai, H. (2009). It's

okay to be a quad: Wheelchair rugby players' sense of community. Adapted Physical

Activity Quarterly, 26(2), 102-117.

Greenfield, E. A., & Marks, N. F. (2010). Sense of community as a protective factor against

long-term psychological effects of childhood violence. Social Service Review, 84(1),

129-147.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. (2011). Designing qualitative research, 5th

edition. Thousand

Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory.

Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.

Warner, S., & Dixon, M. A. (2011). Understanding sense of community From the athlete's

perspective. Journal Of Sport Management, 25(3), 257-271.

Warner, S., Dixon, M. A., & Chalip, L. (2012). The impact of formal versus informal sport:

Mapping the differences in sense of community. Journal of Community Psychology,

40(8), 983-1003.

Warner, S., & Dixon, M. A. (2013). Sports and community on campus: constructing a sports

experience that matters. Journal Of College Student Development, 54(3), 283-298.

Warner, S., Kerwin, S., & Walker, M. (2013). Examining cense of community in sport:

Developing the multidimensional SCS' scale. Journal Of Sport Management, 27(5), 349-

Youn-Lim, Warner, S., Dixon, M., Berg, B., Chiyoung, K., & Newhouse-Bailey, M. (2011).

Sport participation across national contexts: A multilevel investigation of individual and

systemic influences on adult sport participation. European Sport Management Quarterly,

11(3), 197-224.

STATE PARK ENTRANCE FEES, VISITATION PATTERNS, AND VISITOR

SATISFACTION

Hung-Ling (Stella) Liu, Oklahoma State University

I-Chun (Nicky) Wu, Oklahoma State University

Lowell Caneday, Oklahoma State University

Oklahoma State Parks has committed to seek public involvement during the process of park

management and development, parallel to federal expectations in compliance with the National

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Among indications of managerial success, Oklahoma

Tourism and Recreation Department (OTRD), the authorized management agency, has particular

interests in state park service quality and visitor satisfaction that reflects the emotional state after

park visitation. Additionally, with recent economic trends and budget short-falls at the state

level, the state park system has been encouraged to consider movement toward self-sufficiency

in its operation. Therefore, visitor perceptions toward additional fees for visiting a state park

have become a subject of interest. Between 2001 and 2011, OTRD operated 31 state parks under

the financial support of park-generated revenues (52%) and general funds (43%). Of those park-

generated revenues, 67% came from overnight visitors who were only 15% of the total park

visitors. Only one state park has collected a true entrance fee and a few others charge fees for

using designated areas. Most day visitors do not contribute to the park-generated revenues for

using the Oklahoma State Park system. The idea of charging a general state park entrance fee is

relatively “new” and “controversial” for Oklahomans, OTRD sought a scientific research effort

to carefully evaluate the option. The purpose of this research is three-fold: First, to obtain public

input on service quality and general satisfaction and to study use patterns of state park visitation;

second, to explore the possibility of charging a state park general entrance fee; and lastly, to

discover factors affecting park visitors’ willingness to pay a general entrance fee.

Methods

An online survey was developed and posted through Qualtrics for gathering research data

regarding visitor satisfaction, service quality, and perceptions toward charging an entrance fee.

From March to October, 2014, the link to the survey was posted monthly on each state park’s

Facebook page. On-site posters/flyers with URL and QR code pointing to the online survey were

also available in park office and bulletin boards. A statement, I am willing to pay a general

entrance fee to support/improve the park operation, maintenance, and management, was

designed to identify park visitors’ attitude toward an entrance fee and applied to divide research

participants into two groups: Pro-Fee and No-Fee. The questionnaire was developed based on

previous studies of visitor experience in park settings (Akama & Kieti, 2003; Fletcher &

Fletcher, 2003; Kozak, 2001; Lee, Graefe & Burns, 2004). The questionnaire was composed of

service quality, visitor overall satisfaction, behavioral intention, socio-demographics, and

visitation pattern to the parks. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was applied to

examine if park visitors’ perceived service quality, satisfaction, and behavioral intention related

to state parks as a factor of the supportiveness of an entrance fee. Additionally, Chi-square

analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if there is any socio- and

visitor characteristic difference between Pro-Fee and No-Fee groups.

Results

Park visitor profile: A total of 423 participants finished the survey with 219 (52%) in Pro-

Fee and 204 (48%) in No-Fee group. The majority of the respondents were white (87%), female

(60%), age 30 to 55 (65%), with at least an associate or Bachelor’s degree (63%) and annual

household income of more than $50,000 (75%). Most of them visited state parks with family and

friends with children (68%), made less than four trips to a park in the past 12 months (52%),

stayed one or two days (56%). Also, the average years since first visit was 15 years, and

generally visitors had spent 35% of their lives visiting parks (ratio of years since 1st visit to age).

Comparison between Pro-Fee and No-Fee: Fifty-two percent of the respondents were Pro-

Fee while 48% were No-Fee. A significant difference between the two groups was found on

service quality, but not on overall satisfaction or behavioral intention. The Pro-Fee perceived a

higher service quality in reasonable pricing, park information availability, adequate parking,

perceived value, security and safety, and restroom cleanliness when compared to No-Fee. No

significant differences were found between the two groups on park being well-maintained,

helpfulness of staff, food and beverage service, and clear directional information. Also, no

statistically significant variance between age, gender, education level, income, or self-described

user type was found in their attitude toward paying a park entrance fee. On the contrary, years

since park visitors’ first visit and the percentage of park visitors’ life in the parks showed a

significant difference between the two groups. The Pro-Fee group spent a smaller percentage of

their lives visiting Oklahoma state parks (29%), while the No-Fee group reported that they have

visited the parks 42% of their lives.

Conclusions and Implication for Practice

Using social media as a platform for obtaining public input: Although using non-random

samples or online surveys might not be the “ideal” approach for conducting research, given the

limited budget, economical online tools, and popularity of social media, this online research has

proven its value in obtaining public input for park management and improvement. More than

80% of the Oklahoma state parks are already on Facebook, with the pages being voluntarily

created and managed by park staffs, state parks has already interacted with park visitors on a

regular basis.

Attitude toward entrance fee: High satisfaction but perceived different service quality: Our

research participants were mostly satisfied with their experience in Oklahoma state parks, loyal

to the parks with high repeat visitation, and long personal relationship with the properties.

However, park visitors showed a polar attitude toward willingness to pay an entrance fee with an

equal split between support visitors and non-support visitors. While age, gender, education level,

income, or user type was not a factor for paying an entrance fee (Winter, Palucki, & Burkhardt,

1999), park visitors who perceived reasonable prices for current services, received accurate

information about the parks, and felt adequate parking space in the parks were more likely to

support entrance fees than other visitors (Park, Ellis, Kim, Ruddel & Agrusa, 2006). Early park

visitation in a person’s life leading to a higher percentage of life in the parks produces a sense of

attachment and ownership (Morgan, 2010), leading to resistance to additional entrance fees for

access to preferred parks.

State parks moving forward: State parks are perceived as public goods and free access to

natural resources (Eagles, 2002). The operation of a state park system under economic shortage

requires management wisdom without compromising quality. Charging entrance fee may be a

potential option in funding park operation (Wall, 2013); however, management agency should

consider introducing a gentle User-Pay Program through education efforts or seeking legislation

support to avoid public controversy. Managers should keep improving state park service quality

that would ensure visitors’ satisfaction, which may lead to the support of additional user fee.

Hung-Ling (Stella) Liu, Oklahoma State University, 415-519-1642, stella.liu@okstate.edu

Selected References

Akama, J. S., & Kieti, D. M. (2003). Measuring tourist satisfaction with Kenya's wildlife safari:

a case study of Tsavo West National Park. Tourism management, 24(1), 73-81.

Burns, R. C., Graefe, A. R., & Absher, J. D. (2003). Alternate measurement approaches to

recreational customer satisfaction: Satisfaction-only versus gap scores. Leisure Sciences,

25(4), 363-380.

Chien, H., Caneday, L., Liu, H., Palacios, C., & Soltani, F. (2013). Self-Sufficiency and Pricing

Analysis for the Oklahoma State Park System. Division of the Oklahoma Tourism and

Recreation Department, Oklahoma City, OK.

Eagles, P. F. (2014). Fiscal implications of moving to tourism finance for parks: Ontario

provincial parks. Managing Leisure, 19(1), 1-17.

Fletcher, D., & Fletcher, H. (2003). Manageable predictors of park visitor satisfaction:

Maintenance and personnel. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 21(1), 21-

37.

Kyle, G. T., Absher, J. D., & Graefe, A. R. (2003). The moderating role of place attachment on

the relationship between attitudes toward fees and spending preferences. Leisure

sciences, 25(1), 33-50.

Lee, J., Graefe, A. R., & Burns, R. C. (2004). Service quality, satisfaction, and behavioral

intention among forest visitors. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 17(1), 73-82.

Morgan, P. (2010). Towards a developmental theory of place attachment. Journal of

Environmental Psychology, 30, 11-22.

Park, J., Ellis, G. D., Kim, S. S., Ruddell, E. J., & Agrusa, J. (2006). Predictors of social equity

and price acceptability judgments of user fees. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing,

21(2/3), 89-103.

Walls, M. (2013). Paying for state parks: Evaluating alternative approaches for the 21st century.

Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.

Winter, P. L., Palucki, L. J. & Burkhardt, R. L. (1999). Anticipated responses to a fee program:

the key is trust. Journal of Leisure Research, 31, 207-226.

ADDRESSING GENDER EQUITY IN SPORTS: RESM STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS

OF INSTRUCTION

John R. Malmo, University of Arkansas

Females are underrepresented in numerous facets of sport including management and

leadership positions (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014; Adriaanse & Schofield, 2014; Spoor & Hoye,

2014), officiating (Tingle, Warner, & Sartore-Baldwin, 2014), participation (Comrie &

McMillan, 2013; Ferguson, 2014; Sabo, 2009), and media coverage (Hallmark & Armstrong,

1999; Huffman, Tuggle, & Rosengard, 2004). The purpose of this study was to (a) identify if

Recreation and Sport Management (RESM) students view gender equity as an important topic in

their field and (b) to examine students’ perceptions of how this topic is addressed in their major.

Methods

Questionnaires were distributed via email to current students majoring in Recreation and

Sport Management (N = 349) at the University of Arkansas. The questionnaire consisted of four

sections. The first section was designed to assess the level of importance students attributed to

gender equity in sports. The second section assessed students’ perceptions of instructional

practices. The third section determined if professors or instructors (graduate assistants) were

perceived to better educate and prepare students to address issues of gender inequity in sports.

The final section gathered general demographic information.

A total of 71 questionnaires, male (n = 39) and female (n = 32), were completed and utilized

for data analysis. Data analysis focused on statistically significant differences, if any, that

existed between male and female students as well as graduate and undergraduate students.

Results

A Mann-Whitney U was run to determine if there were differences in the overall level of

importance attributed to gender equity in sports between males and females. There were

numerous statistically significant findings. Four of these findings are provided. Distributions of

the level of importance score for males and females were similar, as assessed by visual

inspection. Median level of importance scores were statistically significantly different between

males (Mdn = 42.00) and females (Mdn = 49.50), U = 981.500, z = 4.137, p < .0005. Females

placed statistically significantly higher importance on the issue of gender equity in sport (mean

rank = 45.91) than males (mean rank = 27.87), U = 941.00, z = 3.801, p < .0005. Female scores

rating whether it was realistic for female athletes and male athletes to have the same resources

were statistically significantly higher (mean rank = 44.20) than male scores (mean rank = 29.27),

U = 886.500, z = 3.082, p = .002. As assessed by visual inspection, the distributions of scores

for whether students perceived males to have greater opportunities in sport were similar. Males

(Mdn = 4.00) had statistically significant lower scores than females (Mdn = 5.00) assessing

whether they perceived males to have greater opportunities in sport than females, U = 802.500, z

= 2.102, p = .036.

A Mann-Whitney U test was run to determine if there were differences between male and

female students’ perceptions regarding how gender equity in sports is addressed in the

Recreation and Sport Management program. Distributions were similar, as assessed by visual

inspection. Median levels were not statistically significantly different between males (Mdn = 44)

and females (Mdn = 43), U = 643.000, z = .220, p = .826. However, males (Mdn = 4.00) had

statistically significantly lower scores than females (Mdn = 6.00) rating if more emphasis should

be placed on gender equity in sports in the RESM program, U = 864.500, z = 2.875, p = .004.

A Mann-Whitney U was also run to determine if there were differences between

undergraduate students (n = 54) and graduate students (n = 17) in their perceptions regarding

how gender equity in sports is addressed in the Recreation and Sport Management program.

Undergraduate students (mean rank = 39.52) were statistically significantly more likely than

graduate students (mean rank = 24.82) to believe that all RESM classes should address gender

equity in sports, U = 269.000, z = -2.608, p = .009.

Independent t-test results did not reveal any statistically significant differences of

instructional practices between professors and graduate assistants. Scores rating the coverage of

the topic of gender equity in sport between professors (M = 5.9492, SD = 3.1809) and graduate

assistants (M = 5.2647, SD = 3.0779) were not statistically significantly different, t(91) = 1.011,

p = .315. There was also not a statistically significant difference for student preparedness to

handle issues of gender inequity in sport between professors (M = 4.5106, SD = 2.7416) and

graduate assistants (M = 4.2857, SD = 2.6227); t(73) = .349, p = .728.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to determine if recreation and sport management students view

gender equity as an important topic in their field and to examine students’ perceptions of how

this topic is addressed in the RESM program. Perhaps not surprisingly, female students viewed

gender equity in sports (GEIS) as a more important topic to be addressed than their male

counterparts. It could be argued that the fact that female students were more likely than male

students to indicate that they were had personally experienced issues related to GEIS is a strong

contributor to this difference in perspective. Male students need to be made aware that female

students are having these experiences, and need to be educated to help eliminate or confront

potential discriminatory practices.

Because gender inequity is evident in sports, it is imperative that all Recreation and Sport

Management students are taught and prepared to address this topic. Sixty-nine percent of

participants in this study felt that GEIS was addressed in the RESM program. Slightly more than

half (52%) of participants indicated that the RESM program provided possible solutions to

instances of gender inequity in sports. However, slightly less than half (46.76%) of participants

indicated that the RESM program prepared them to confront issues related to GEIS. It could be

argued that the results of this study indicate that students are hearing about gender equity issues,

but they may not be receiving adequate instruction in how to handle potential issues that arise. It

could also be argued that they are receiving proper instruction, but do not have the real life

experience to feel confident in applying what they have been taught.

Implications for Practice Results of this study indicate that GEIS is being addressed in the RESM program. However,

improvements can still be made to increase student preparedness. It is vital that professors not

only inform students on the topic of GEIS, but they equip them with possible solutions to

confront potential issues. These students will be entering the field and need to not only

recognize inequity when it exists, but also to be able to properly address the issue. Employers,

managers, program providers, and other stakeholders need to understand that students coming

into the field may not have the experience or the confidence needed to implement the strategies

or solutions that are needed to address GEIS. Addressing these deficiencies will help develop

recreation and sport management students into future leaders of the industry that have the skills

and abilities to provide everyone with opportunities to participate and succeed in sport.

John R. Malmo, University of Arkansas, (479) 575-2976, jmalmo@uark.edu

Selected References

Acosta, R. V., & Carpter, L. J. (2014). Women in intercollegiate sport: A longitudinal, national

study, thirty seven year update 1997-2014.

Adriaanse, J., & Schofield, T. (2014). The impact of gender quotas on gender equality in sport

governance. Journal of Sport Management , 485-497.

Comrie, M., & McMillan, K. (2013). Running on the spot: NZ's record in news media gender

equity. Pacific Journalism Review , 19 (2), 196-214.

Ferguson, K. D. (2014). Achieving gender equity under Title IX for girls from minority, urban,

rural, and economically disadvantaged communities. Marquette Sports Law Review , 24

(2), 353-418.

Hallmark, J. R., & Armstrong, R. N. (1999). Gender equity in televised sports: a comparative

analysis of men's and women's NCAA Division I basketball championship broadcasts,

1991-1995. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 43 (2), 222-235.

Huffman, S., Tuggle, C. A., & Rosengard, D. S. (2004). How campus media cover sports: the

gender--equity issue, one generation later. Mass Communication & Society , 7 (4), 475-

489.

Sabo, D. (2009). The gender gap in youth sports: too many urban girls are being left behind.

Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance (JOPERD) , 80 (8), 35-37.

Spoor, J. R., & Hoye, R. (2014). Perceived support and women's intentions to stay at a sport

organization. British Journal of Management , 25 (3), 407-424.

Tingle, J., Warner, S., & Sartore-Baldwin, M. (2014). The experience of former women officials

and the impact on the sporting community. Sex Roles , 71 (1/2), 7-20.

LOOKING4LOVEONLINE: WOMEN’S CONSUMPTION OF ONLINE DATING

WEBSITES

Janet K. L. McKeown, PhD Candidate, University of Waterloo

Most recently, recreation and leisure researchers and practitioners have placed a strengthened

focus towards exploring social equity issues relating to gender, sexuality, race, class, and age (to

name a few) in leisure practices and spaces (cf. Mowatt & Schmalz, 2014; Parry, Johnson,

Stewart, 2013; Stewart, 2014). However, to date, limited attention has been paid to examining

the ways leisure practices and spaces are experienced for people who are romantically single.

With that said, research has shown single people often face stigmatization and marginalization in

their everyday lives, including their leisure, for not being part of a romantic couple (Cobb, 2011;

DePaulo, 2006). The stigma associated with singlehood stems from the social privileging of

couple status (Cobb, 2011) rooted in the ideology of couplehood that centres couplehood as the

normative relationship status, wherein every person should want to be and strive to be in a

couple. Yet, not all single people are stigmatized in the same way. In particular, single, adult

women often face greater scrutiny about their single status than men of the same age (DePaulo,

2006). Hence, it comes as no surprise that many single, adult women are eager to move from

singlehood into couplehood and are consuming digital leisure technologies (e.g., online dating

websites, social networking sites, mobile phone applications, etc.) as a means to do so (Barraket

& Henry-Waring, 2008; Engelhart, 2013, February 4).

Online dating websites, in particular, continue to expand their presence in the digital world

(Barraket & Henry-Waring, 2008), providing single adults with convenient and accessible ways

to meet and connect with others (Bogle, 2008; Bredow, Cate, & Huston, 2008). Despite the

popularity of online dating websites as a way to make romantic connections, little is known

about how adult women consume online dating websites as part of their leisure lives. Moreover,

previous research has suggested online dating websites continue to reinforce gendered

expectations (Barraket & Henry-Waring, 2008). In line with this idea, Parry and Penny Light

(2013) noted that although leisure technologies influence how we share information and connect

with one another, gendered norms and expectations continue to influence how these technologies

are taken up and used by women. Indeed, there is a need to consider more closely the ways

gendered expectations constrain women’s consumption of online dating websites. With these

ideas in mind, drawing on third wave feminism, the purpose of this paper is to examine the ways

single women consume online dating websites to make romantic connections in adulthood.

Methods

This paper draws on data from a larger study exploring experiences of singlehood and dating

for adult women. Guided by narrative methodology (cf. Chase, 2005), participants included 12

single, adult women between the ages of 26-37 (none of whom had children). All of the women

were well-educated, having completed (at minimum) undergraduate university degrees. Nine of

the women who participated lived alone. All of the women who participated were Caucasian.

One of the women identified as bisexual (although in her interview spoke predominantly about

her recent experiences connecting with men). One woman identified as Christian. In total, 12

one-to-one reflexive, dyadic interviews and two interactive, small group interviews (see Ellis,

2004 for a description of these types of interviews) were completed. Each of the interviews

lasted between one and two and a half hours. All of the interviews were digitally recorded and

transcribed into verbatim transcripts for analysis and interpretation.

Findings and Discussion

Online dating websites have been shown to play an increasingly larger role in mediating how

single adults establish romantic relationships (Barraket & Henry-Waring, 2008). The findings

highlighted in this paper support this notion. Almost all of the women talked about the

importance of consuming online dating websites as a necessity of dating in adulthood (e.g., I

think more and more online is just, it’s the most reasonable way to do things), given that dating

in adulthood often comes with a number of challenges (e.g., you are busier; there are less people

who are single; etc.) (cf. Bogle, 2008; Kravertz, 2005). As such, many women consumed online

dating websites as a way to negotiate the challenges of dating in adulthood, because these sites

offer convenient and accessible avenues to meet and connect with romantic others.

In addition, the findings illustrate the ways many women resisted traditional gendered

expectations tied to dating (e.g., women as passive, reactive when dating) (Eaton & Rose, 2011),

choosing to consume online dating websites in more active and assertive ways. For instance,

women talked about using a number of online dating websites simultaneously (e.g., I am on a

few right now; I have tried almost every site out there), choosing certain websites where they had

the power and freedom to browse profiles (e.g., there is a whole list of people where you can

read their profile and start a conversation), and taking breaks from online dating (e.g., I need to

step back and decide…what it is that I really want). Resisting gendered expectations provided

women with more control and power over their consumption of online dating websites as a

means to date.

However, the findings also highlight the ways women’s consumption of online dating

websites can limit women’s power and control over dating. Several women talked about

receiving unsolicited and sexually explicit photos, messages, and propositions from men through

online dating websites (e.g., I have gotten a lot of propositions for threesomes online; I went on a

date once with this guy from online and now he’ll occasionally send me nude photos trying to get

me to see him). This finding is reflected in a study by Barraket and Henry-Waring (2008) who

found participants felt uncomfortable with how the transparency of using an online dating

website opened them up to becoming the subject of another online dater’s control. This finding

shows how women’s consumption of online dating websites continues to be constrained by

gendered power relations that can impact women’s safety and comfort in these digital spaces.

Conclusion and Implications for Practice

This paper highlights the ways single, adult women can consume online dating websites as

part of their leisure lives, including how women can consume leisure technologies such as online

dating websites in ways to gain control and power over these digital contexts. However, this

paper also illustrates how women’s consumption of these technologies continues to be

constrained by gendered power relations. Given the increasingly important role digital leisure

technologies play in women’s leisure lives (Parry & Penny Light, 2013), this paper makes visible

the need for leisure researchers and practitioners alike to consider more closely how to mitigate

gendered power disparities in digital leisure contexts. Moreover, considered more broadly, the

experiences of single, adult women negotiating the gendered world of dating have been largely

ignored by leisure scholars. This study provides important insights into the marginalization and

stigmatization single, adult women can face as part of their leisure lives and the need for leisure

researchers and practitioners to pay closer attention to identifying and addressing this

marginalization and stigmatization in leisure and recreation practices and spaces.

Janet K. L. McKeown, PhD Candidate, Department of Recreation & Leisure Studies, University

of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, j2mckeow@uwaterloo.ca

Selected References

Barraket, J., & Henry-Waring, M. S. (2008). Getting it on(line): Sociological perspectives on e-

dating. Journal of Sociology, 44(2), 149-165.

Bogle, K. A. (2008). Hooking up: Sex, dating, and relationships on campus. New York: New

York University Press.

Bredow, C. A., Cate, R. M., & Huston, T. L. (2008). Have we met before? A conceptual model

of first romantic encounters. In S. Sprecher, A. Wenzel, & A. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of

relationship initiation (pp. 3-28). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Chase, S. E. (2011). Narrative inquiry: Still a field in the making.” In N. K. Denzin & Y. S.

Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed., pp. 421-434). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Cobb, M. (2011). Single: Arguments for the uncoupled. New York: New York University Press.

DePaulo, B. (2006). Singled out: How singles are stereotyped, stigmatized, and ignored, and still

live happily ever after. St. Martin’s Press: New York.

Eaton, A. A., & Rose, S. (2011). Has dating become more egalitarian? A 35 year review using

sex roles. Sex Roles, 64, 843-862.

Ellis, C. (2004). The ethnographic I: A methodological novel about autoethnography. Walnut

Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

Engelhart, K. (2013, February 4). True loves: The search will soon be mobile, transparent – and

constant, Macleans, pp. 46-50.

Kravertz, S. (2005). The dating race. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin.

Mowatt, R., & Schmalz, D. L. (2014). The conspicuous nature of power. Journal of Leisure

Research, 46(3), 353-358.

Parry, D.C, Johnson, C. W., & Stewart, W. (2013). Leisure research for social justice: A

response to Henderson. Leisure Sciences, 35(1), 81-87.

Parry, D. C., & Penny Light, T. (2013). Fifty shades of complexity: Exploring technologically

mediated leisure and women’s sexuality. Journal of Leisure Research, 46(1), 38-57.

Stewart, W. (2014). Introduction to the special issue: Leisure research to enhance social justice.

Leisure Sciences, 36(4), 325-339.

CHILDREN’S PARTICIPATION IN ORGANIZED SPORT: IMPACTS ON FAMILY-

LIFE

Mona Mirehie, University of Florida

Heather Gibson, University of Florida

Sung Jin Kang, National Academy of Agricultural Science

Heather L. Bell, Central Washington University

There is a growing conversation in leisure studies about children’s participation in organized

sport and the effects on family life. Coakley (2006) suggested that the parental commitment to

children’s sport participation over the past decade has been intensified by a belief among middle

and upper middle class families that organized sports enhance their child’s physical and social

development. Trussell and Shaw (2012) found that parents viewed having their children involved

in youth sport identified them as “good parents.” Indeed, there is a growing recognition that

family influences, and also is influenced by, children’s participation in organized sport (Coakley

& Donnelly, 2009). Children’s sport participation consumes a family’s financial, temporal and

emotional resources. For instance, the time commitment associated with sport can leave little

opportunity for other family activities such as eating dinner together (Kay, 2000), or attending

church (Trussell, 2005). There are also concerns over the demands on the children themselves of

over specialization in sport (Strachen et al., 2009). Thus, as youth sport has become an

increasingly important part of family life, and youth sport provision is an integral part of

recreation departments, this exploratory study examined participation in organized youth sport

for athletes, parental values associated with participation, and the impact on family life across

three different sports: track and field (TF), swimming (S), and synchronized swimming (SS).

These sports were selected by the local sports commission for a larger project and these data

were ancillary to that purpose. The purpose of this study was: a) to examine the youth’s

participation patterns in sport; b) to examine the values attached to participation by parents and

investigate the influence of social class, age and race/ethnicity; c) to examine parents’

perceptions about the influence of youth sport on family life.

Method Data were collected at two state level (S n=212, TF n=135) and one national (SS n=185)

youth events. Adult spectators at each event completed a self-administered questionnaire

measuring: 1) sport participation patterns (hours per week); 2) influence of sport on other family

activities (5 point Likert scale); 3) parental values associated with youth sport (rank 4 items).

Data were analyzed through Cross-tabulations, ANOVA, and multiple regressions. Respondents

were demographically homogenous across sports on gender (65.2%-78.9% female; 63.2% to

66.9% were athlete’s mothers); age (M=40-49.9 years); and marital status (70-80% married).

Primary differences were in race, as 71% of TF respondents were black and 80% from the other

sports were white; and income with 21.5% (TF) of parents reporting $80,000 or more compared

to 57.6% (S) and 58% (SS). Athletes ranged in age from M=11.68 years (TF); M=12.53 years

(S) and M=14.28 years (SS).

Results

Sport participation patterns: Athletes had been involved in their sport from M=3.21 years

(TF) to M=5.95 years (SS). ANOVA revealed that SS had been involved in their sport the

longest [F=30.57, df (2,421), P=.000]. Time spent per week on practice varied from M=9.24

hours (TF) to M=13.00 hours (SS). Time spent in competition per week ranged from M=5.42

hours (S) to M=13.60 (SS). ANOVA revealed SS spent the most time per week on practice and

competition [F=4.32, df (2,133), P=.015]. Athlete’s unstructured play time per week was not

significantly different across the sports. Unstructured play ranged from M=5.91 hours (S) to

M=7.39 (SS). Parental Values: Parents ranked fun as the most important reason for their child’s

participation at 38.7% (S), compared to 18.4% (TF). Health was rated most important by 31.1%

(S) compared to 17.9% (TF). Self-discipline was rated most important by 30.2% (S) compared to

15.1% (SS). Competition was rated most important by 19.3% (SS) compared to 27.4% (S).

Multiple regression was used to examine the influence of demographics on these values. Type of

sport participated in, and race/ethnicity were treated as dummy variables. Track and field was a

reference variable for the rest of the youth sports and African American was a reference variable

for the rest of racial/ethnic groups. Parents of younger children put more weight on the fun

associated with participating (β=-.23, p=.002) [F=1.71, df (12.326), p=.043]. There were no

significant differences in physical health. Parents of older athletes gave significantly higher value

to self-discipline (β=.17, p=.007), African-American parents stressed self-discipline more than

Hispanic parents (β=-.30, p=.026), and parents of older children gave more importance to self-

discipline (β=-.16, p=.030) [F=4.09, df (4.380), p=.003]. Parents of older athletes (β=.20,

p=.004), rated competition as more important. Parents with higher levels of education attached

less importance to competition (β=-.16, p=.004). Influence on Family-Life: Parents of athletes

in SS (M=4.08) and S (M=4.13) reported that sports affect the time for other family activities

significantly more than TF (M=3.9) [F=4.99, df (2,421), P=.007]. To investigate family

involvement further, open-ended questions were content analyzed. Parents across all sports noted

the need to plan family activities around children’s sport schedules, and that other family

activities were interrupted by youth sport. Parents of swimmers noted the sport had become the

first priority in life and required dedication of money and time.

Discussion

Young athletes, often with the involvement of their parents, spend a significant portion of

their week in practice or competition. Interestingly, athletes with the highest time commitment

spent more time in unstructured play per week. We did not interrogate unstructured play further

as our goal was to attain a description of the family’s weekly time commitment to youth sport.

However, there are growing concerns over a lack of leisure-time for young athletes (Strachen et

al., 2009), as well as parental zealousness towards their child’s sport behavior (Kanters, 2002).

Encouragingly, parents of younger athletes emphasized fun, and across all sports health benefits

rated highly. Predictably, as sport becomes “more serious,” parents of older children rated self-

discipline and competition as more important, interestingly more highly educated parents as one

indicator of social class de-emphasized competition (Coakley, 2006). Another growing concern

is the impact of youth sport on family life (Clarke & Harwood, 2014). Parents across all sports

indicated that their child’s participation did impact time available for other family activities

(Kay, 2000), and also family financial resources (Coakley & Donnelly, 2009).

Implications for practice

There is a need for recreational professionals to join the conversation about the state of youth

sport. While recreation has been involved in encouraging physical activity among youth, now it

appears that the programming of youth sport should also take into consideration a balance

between over specialization in sport vs. time for unstructured play; the time commitments of

participation for families; cost of participation; and the role of competition in these sports among

other emerging issues.

Mona Mirehie, Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management Department, University of Florida,

Gainesville, FL, USA. (352) 294-1678. Email: monamirehie@ufl.edu

Selected References

Clarke, N. J., & Harwood, C. G. (2014). Parenting experiences in elite youth football: A

phenomenological study. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(5), 528-537.

Coakley, J. (2006). The good father: Parental expectations and youth sports. Leisure Studies,

25(2), 153-163.

Coakley, J., & Donnelly, P. (2009). Sports in society: Issues and controversies. Toronto, ON:

McGraw-Hill Ryerson.

Kanters, M. (2002). Parents and youth sports. Parks and Recreation, 37 (12),20-28.

Kay, T. (2000). Sporting excellence: A family affair? European Physical Education Review,

6(2), 151-169.

Strachan, L., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2009). "Specializers" versus "samplers" in youth sport:

Comparing experiences and outcomes. Sport Psychologist, 23(1), 77-92.

Trussell, D. (2005). Family leisure in the rural context: Women’s experiences of life on the

family farm. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario.

Trussell, D. E., & Shaw, S. M. (2012). Organized youth sport and parenting in public and private

spaces. Leisure Sciences, 34(5), 377-394.

PREDICTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL CAMPING BEHAVIOR IN ALBERTA

PARKS, CANADA

Farhad Moghimehfar, University of Alberta

Elizabeth A. Halpenny, University of Alberta

In Alberta 77% of residents have visited a provincial park and 32% visited a provincial park

in 2011. Among 8.5 million overnight and day visits to Alberta’s parks, 1.5 million individuals

stayed in campgrounds for at least one night (“Alberta Parks,” n.d). These figures demonstrate

the high demand for camping among visitors to Alberta’s protected areas. The consumptive

behavior of campers is an important determinant of human impact on nature during their stay.

The use of campground green spaces, energy consumption, disposal of garbage, recyclables,

recreational vehicle waste, and campfire use are all examples of camper behaviors that have the

potential for negative environmental impact (Gračan & Birin, 2013). Campers’ presence in parks

can also disrupt and displace wildlife (Buckley, 2004). These behaviors, when engaged in

irresponsibly, can result in cumulative damage to the environment (Cole, 2004; Leung & Marion,

1999; Pickering & Hill, 2007). Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to explore human

behavior to provide a better understanding of people’s pro-environmental behavior during

outdoor recreation, specifically camping in Alberta, Canada.

This study combined significant social psychological theories to identify major predictors of

pro-environmental behavior in outdoor recreation context. The theory of planned behavior (TPB)

(Ajzen, 1991) was used as the central framework to this study. The TPB suggests that intention,

as the immediate antecedent of behavior, can be predicted through attitude, subjective norms

(SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC). As an extension to this theory we proposed that

past behavior and awareness of environmental issues can be predictors of behavior through

attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Two other major predictors of pro-

environmental behavior in this study were perceived constraints to pro-environmental behavior

and negotiation through these constraints. Based on constraint negotiation theory (Jackson,

Crawford, & Godbey, 1993), it was proposed that people do not necessarily quit an action due to

constraints but they employ various strategies to negotiate through these constraints. In this study

we proposed that negotiation mediates that influence of constraints on intention and behaviour. It

was also proposed that individuals’ motivation to participation in environmentally-friendly

activities positively influenced people’s perception of constraints as well as the negotiation

strategies people adopted to overcome constraints. Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci &

Ryan, 1985), as one of the most cited theories in social psychology, was also used in this

research to explore individuals’ motivation for pro-environmental behavior. Figure 1 illustrates

associations between the study’s variables.

Methods and Results

Data for this study were obtained through a self-reported paper-based questionnaire during

July, August, and September 2014. The target population of the study was campers staying in

front-country campgrounds in Alberta, Canada’s provincial parks (i.e., Cypress Hills,

Kananaskis Country, Long Lake, Cross Lake, and Gregoire Lake Provincial Parks). Of 1,049

collected questionnaires, 1,009 fully completed questionnaires were analyzed. The questionnaire

included items suggested by Ajzen (2011) to measure attitude (affective and cognitive), SN

(injunctive and descriptive), PBC (self-efficacy and controllability), and intention (intentions and

willingness). Different types of motivations (i.e., intrinsic, integrated, identified, introjected, and

external) were measured by 12 statements based on the SDT literature. Interpersonal,

intrapersonal, and structural constraints and negotiation measures were developed based on

leisure studies literature and modified for an environmental study context. Self-rated questions

were used to measure participants’ awareness of environmental issues. Face validity of the

constructs was confirmed through experts’ check and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient confirmed

internal consistency of the items (αintention = .88; αattitude = .86; αSN = .60; αPBC = .70; αconstraints =

.66; αnegotiation = .79).

Results of structural equation modeling (model fit indexes: χ2 = 2656.748, df = 392, CFI =

.95, IFI = .95, RMSEA = .056) revealed that attitude (β = .11), subjective norms (β = .68,

highest), and constraints (β = – .29) directly influenced people’s intention to engage in pro-

environmental behavior. Perceived behavioral control (β = – .38), awareness of environmental

issues (β = – .20), motivation (β = – .18), and negotiation (β = – .25) all negatively influenced

constraints, and thus, mitigated the negative impact of constraints on intention. Awareness of

environmental issues positively influenced motivation (β = .27), negotiation (β = .46), attitude (β

= .18), and perceived behavioral control (β = .38). Past behavior also positively influenced

awareness (β = .26). All these associations were statistically significant (p < .001). Overall, the

model explained 75% of the variance in intention.

Discussion and Implications for Practice

Results of the present study revealed that constraints to pro-environmental behavior

negatively influenced respondents’ intention to practice environmentally responsible camping.

Reducing perceived constraints (e.g., supplying more waste recycling) would facilitate their pro-

environmental behavior. If park agencies expose visitors to accurate information about

environmental issues and environmentally friendly actions, this may result in increased

environmentally responsible behavior.

The association of past behavior and awareness of environmental issues with the TPB

predictors have been previously examined in several pro-environmental behavior studies.

Motivation, constraints, and negotiation, however, have not been extensively studied before.

Employing a self-determination theory approach to examine motivation to engage in pro-

environmental camping practices revealed that motivation played an important role in mitigating

people’s perceived constraints (e.g., reward and punishment, making pro-environmental

activities enjoyable through internalization process).

A review of the literature of pro-environmental studies reveals that individual, social, and

structural aspects of constraints to pro-environmental behavior have not been systematically

studied (Steg & Vlek, 2009). This study considered different dimensions of constraints to pro-

environmental behavior (i.e., intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural) to obtain a better

understanding of these variables. Also, this research is among the first studies to include

negotiation in the study of pro-environmental behaviour. Our results revealed that negotiation

mitigates the negative influence of constraints on intention. Facilitating people’s negotiation

through their constraints may help campers participate in pro-environmental activities. This

factor should be considered in future outdoor recreation environmental behavior research.

The significantly high association between subjective norms and intention in this study

emphasized the influence of others’ opinions on people’s pro-environmental behavior during

outdoor recreation. This is in line with the influence of interpersonal constraints on individuals’

perception of constraints.

Farhad Moghimehfar, Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, University of Alberta,

Canada, Tel: (780) 807-3040, Email: moghimeh@ualberta.ca

Figure 1. Proposed model of predicting pro-environmental behavior

.68

.46

.27

.26

-.20 -.38

-.18

-.25

-.29

.11 .18

.38

Intention

Pro-

environmental

Behavior

Attitude

Negotiation

Past

Behavior Awareness

Motivation (SDT)

Constraint

TPB

Subjective Norms

PBC

Selected References

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision

Processes, 50, 179-211.

Ajzen, I. (2011). Constructing a theory of planned behavior questionnaire. Unpublished

manuscript. Retrieved April 7, 2014, from

http://people.umass.edu/~aizen/pdf/tpb.measurement.pdf

Alberta Parks. (n.d.). Our Visitors. Retrieved May 9, 2014, from

http://www.albertaparks.ca/albertaparksca/about-us/our-visitors.aspx

Buckley, R. (2004). Impacts of ecotourism on birds. In Buckley, R. (Ed.), Environmental

impacts of ecotourism (pp. 187–209). New York: CABI Publishing.

Cole, D. N. (2004). Impacts of hiking and camping on soils and vegetation: a review. In Buckley,

R. (Ed.), Environmental impacts of ecotourism (pp. 41–60). New York: CABI Publishing.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human

behavior. New York: Plenum.

Gračan, D., & Birin, A. (2013). The implementation of ecological standards in sustainable

development offer of Croatian camps. In 2nd International Scientific Conference"

Tourism in Southern and Eastern Europe 2013", Volume 2: Crisis-a challenge of

sustainable tourism development? Opatija, Croatia, 15-18 May 2013. (pp. 131-143).

Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Rijeka.

Jackson, E., Crawford, D., & Godbey, G. (1993). Negotiation of leisure constraints. Leisure

Sciences, 15, 1-12.

Leung, Y. F., & Marion, J. L. (1999). Characterizing backcountry camping impacts in Great

Smoky Mountains National Park, USA. Journal of Environmental Management, 57, 193-

203.

Pickering, C. M., & Hill, W. (2007). Impacts of recreation and tourism on plant biodiversity and

vegetation in protected areas in Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 85,

791-800.

Steg, L., & Vlek, C. (2009). Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review

and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29, 309-317.

LEISURE FOR OLDER ADULTS WHO DO NOT USE SENIOR CENTERS

Jacqueline Mogle, Penn State University

Amy Lorek, Penn State University

John Dattilo, Penn State University

Remaining physically, mentally, and socially active through leisure is an important predictor

of successful aging; that is, maintained quality of life in the face of age-related changes (Menec,

2003). Understanding how older adults continue engagement without accessing traditional social

centers targeted at their age group (i.e., senior centers) is important for supporting activity in

coming cohorts. Although senior centers offer social and leisure engagement resources as well as

health and nutritional services (Turner, 2004), members of the baby boomer cohort are seeking

alternatives to the senior center, particularly to meet their social and leisure needs (Hostetler,

2011). Previously, a model was developed that describes pathways a select group of senior center

users employ to remain self-determined as aging-related challenges are encountered (Dattilo et

al., in press). Themes included: a need for self-determination, specific age-related challenges,

adaptations to age-related changes, leisure experiences, and the process for meeting self-

determination needs. The current study used a similar approach (i.e., focus groups) to determine

whether the initial model was consistent with the experiences of individuals who opted not to use

this community resource. The original model was modified to reflect perceptions of the sample.

Methods

An exploratory qualitative design with focus groups was used to understand leisure

experiences of community-dwelling older adults. Constant comparative analysis uncovered

relevant overarching themes and categories of comments. These themes and categories were

further examined for links to the theoretical constructs identified in the introduction.

Participants and setting. Study fliers were circulated using listservs in several northeastern

U.S. communities. Twenty-one adults (ages 65–85, M = 71.3, SD = 5.4) participated in two

groups. Consistent with recruitment area demographics, the sample was primarily Caucasian (n =

20, 96%) and female (n = 16, 76%). The research team detected data saturation following the

two groups. Recruitment targeted individuals who were not currently accessing senior centers to

examine perspectives of older adults who choose other methods for reaching leisure goals.

Data Collection. After providing consent participants completed a brief demographics survey.

Two researchers followed an interview protocol for both groups. Each group lasted

approximately 90-100 minutes. The protocol included questions about participants’ interest in:

becoming more involved in research, resources for disseminating health and wellness

information, and topics that were relevant to their daily experiences. Both groups were audio-

recorded and transcribed using Transcriber 1.5; transcriptions were checked for reliability and

accuracy. Twenty-five percent of transcripts were verified for accuracy. Text was exported into

Excel and divided by speaker. Two member check focus groups consisting of previous

participants and demographically similar older adults were used to verify the representativeness

of identified themes. The same procedure was followed for transcription. A total of 4 focus

groups were conducted (2 original, 2 member check focus groups) with 111 transcribed pages.

Data analysis. Patterns and relationships among themes were uncovered using constant

comparative analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Data were first coded to identify patterns and then

focused coding refined these patterns as well as broader themes. All transcripts were initially

read by two trained research assistants and codes were discussed with the two interviewers to

obtain agreement. Lastly, another researcher reviewed all codes and categories to achieve

consensus. The team then identified all themes and illustrative quotes. Data from member check

groups were reviewed separately to refine codes and themes. Original transcripts were examined

as necessary to determine consistency with member check data. Self-determination theory (Deci

& Ryan, 1985) was employed for understanding quotes and their interconnections.

Findings

Consistent with the previously developed model, an important motivational need for older

adults not using senior centers was to be self-determined. Challenges associated with aging-

related life changes presented barriers to meeting these needs. In addition to challenges (e.g., loss

of social connections, physical limitations) identified by those who use the senior centers, the

model was expanded to include challenges around ageism. Members discussed specific

experiences in the work place as well as in social settings as evidence of the impact of this

cultural phenomenon. To cope with challenges of aging, several adaptations were identified in

the first model including maintaining a healthy lifestyle and using technology. A major extension

to this theme in the current study was identification of a general acceptance of the aging process.

Members indicated that accepting changes associated with aging was valuable when making

decisions about specific actions to adapt to age-related challenges. An additional theme of

maintaining relationships was identified. Participants described specific strategies they used to

develop new friendships such as joining community groups with common interests. Social

networks were viewed as important for support and protection. Members also expressed a desire

to share what they had learned about the aging experience with others. Consistent with the

previous model, these older adults discussed their leisure engagement with themes clustering into

three categories: learning, social interactions, and recreation activities. A prominent subtheme of

the category of recreation activities was volunteering. Also, social interaction represented an

important intersection among the categories. Members discussed a desire to get involved in

activities that provided opportunities for them to connect with others.

Implications for Practice

The current study provided additional support for the model that can be used to help

understand leisure experiences for older adults. Older adults who do not use senior centers

helped to clarify the need for remaining self-determined in the face of challenges presented by

aging. There were considerable similarities between perceptions reported by study participants

and those from the previous study (senior center users) associated with their motivations and

strategies used to meet these needs. Also, several important extensions to the model occurred as

a result of the new data that accommodated the breadth of experiences of older adults. First,

participants described challenges they encountered related to ageism. Compared with senior

center users, this group may be more susceptible to ageism since they engaged in recreation

activities with community organizations offering programs to a range of ages (North & Fiske,

2012). With respect to adaptations, this group identified the importance of accepting aging-

related changes as a necessary precursor to developing specific adaptations (Knight &

Ricciardelli, 2003; Reichstadt, Sengupta, Depp, Palinkas, & Jeste, 2010). This finding suggests

that these individuals may be closer to the initial process of acceptance of their aging-related

changes when compared to older adults using community centers and that this continues to have

a role in their decisions about adaptations. Overall, the revised model of leisure engagement

provides a useable framework for understanding experiences of community dwelling older adults

as they attempt to adapt to age-related changes in order to experience self-determined leisure.

Jacqueline Mogle, Penn State University, 814.863.9327, jam935@psu.edu

Selected References

Dattilo, J., Lorek, A., Mogle, J., Sliwinski, M., Freed, S., Frysinger, M., & Schuckers, S. (in

press). Perceptions of leisure by older adults who attend senior centers. Leisure Sciences.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.

New York: Plenum.

Hostetler, A. J. (2011). Senior centers in the era of the “Third Age:” Country clubs, community

centers, or something else? Journal of Aging Studies, 25(2), 166–176.

Knight, T., & Ricciardelli, L. (2003), Successful ageing: perceptions of adults aged between 70

and 101 years, International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 56(3) 223-245.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

North, M. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2012). An inconvenienced youth? Ageism and its potential

intergenerational roots. Psychological Bulletin, 138(5), 982-987.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027843

Reichstadt, J., Sengupta, G., Depp, C., Palinkas, L., & Jeste, D. (2010). Older Adults’

Perspectives on Successful Aging: Qualitative Interviews. American Journal of Geriatric

Psychiatry, 18(7) 567-575.

Turner, K. W. (2004). Senior citizens centers: What they offer, who participates, and what they

gain. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 43(1), 37-47.

EXTENDING THE MOTIVATION-INVOLVEMENT RELATIONSHIP AND GENDER

IN ADVENTURE RECREATION

Erin Morris, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Carena J. van Riper, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Gerard T. Kyle, Texas A&M University

Kenneth E. Wallen, Texas A&M University

James Absher, USDA Forest Service

Introduction

The psychological, social, and physiological outcomes (i.e., “motivations”) of recreational

experiences are instrumental for understanding involvement in nature-based activities (Kyle et

al., 2004). Using social judgment theory as a conceptual frame (Sherif & Hovland, 1961), past

work has provided an understanding of how involvement can be predicted by the perceived

benefits of an experience that push or pull people into recreation. For example, Iwasaki & Havitz

(2004) found that skill, motivation, social support, and norms directly affected enduring leisure

involvement, while behavioral loyalty was indirectly influenced by this construct. Kyle et al.

(2006) also investigated the motivation – involvement relationship and observed that motivation

positively affected enduring involvement among campers in a southeastern national forest. Our

paper aims to extend these previous studies by determining how other factors such as socio-

demographics shape motivation’s influence on enduring involvement.

The role of gender in shaping the motivation-involvement relationship has been largely

overlooked in the leisure literature, despite mounting evidence that involvement is a product of

the learned interactions between people and leisure experiences. Specifically, past work has

shown that the meanings of activities vary between different genders owing to the diverse social

worlds of these two subgroups (Henderson et al., 1996). For example, Wood & Danylchuk

(2012) reported that women faced more constraints to participation including perceived skill

level, physical ability, and time. Indeed, what individuals consider important in leisure varies by

gender because men and women ascribe different meanings to their leisure experience. Yet, the

gendered aspects of involvement and its antecedent processes have received scant attention in the

literature. This is a particularly important knowledge gap to consider for those engaged in

adventure recreation, because risk taking pursuits are stereotypically male-dominated (Wiley et

al., 2000). For example, Little (2002) found that costs, perceived technical knowledge, self-

doubt, and family commitments all hindered women’s participation in adventure recreation, and

these individuals struggled to find identity affirmation and expression in activities historically

typed as male. Accordingly, this study examined how gender influenced the motivation-

involvement relationship reported by adventure recreationists engaged in white water rafting on

the Kern River, CA.

Methods

Building from past conceptual and empirical work, we hypothesized that motivation would

positively predict enduring involvement and that this relationship would be moderated by gender

(see Figure 1). Specifically, we believed that females would tend to develop less enduring

relationships with the activity of white water rafting and would therefore be compelled by

different motivations than male respondents. To test our hypotheses, we used data collected

from adventure recreationists that rafted the Kern River from April-June, 2014. A total of 584

people were contacted on-site and asked to participate in the study, and 520 people agreed which

resulted in an on-site response rate of 89%. Using Dillman’s (2009) total design method, all

respondents were sent follow-up survey questionnaires by mail and/or email depending on their

reported preferences. A total of 242 people completed the follow-up survey yielding an overall

response rate of 48%.

Motivation was measured using 14 items falling within six dimensions of the Recreation

Experience Preference scales (Driver, 1983): achievement/stimulation, risk, similar people,

learning, enjoying nature, escape personal/social pressures. Involvement was measured using

Kyle et al.’s (2007) Modified Involvement Scale (MIS), including 10 items. The four dimensions

measured in this scale were attraction, identity affirmation, identity expression, and bonding.

Gender was used as a moderating variable to explore its effect on motivation and involvement

among male and female survey respondents.

Findings / Discussion Analyses revealed that motivations positively influenced respondents’ involvement in rafting

activities along the Kern River. Respondents were motivated to engage in rafting activities for a

variety of reasons. The highest rated motivators were enjoying nature (M = 3.94, SD = 0.95) and

escaping personal / social pressure (M = 3.76, SD = 1.07). Conversely, achievement /

stimulation (M = 2.42, SD = 1.10) and risk (M = 2.46, SD = 1.13) were the least important

desired benefits. The most highly rated involvement dimensions reflected attraction to the

activity (M = 3.24, SD = 0.87) and the least important was social bonding (M = 2.48, SD = 0.88).

Respondents were also involved in adventure recreation for the purposes of identity affirmation

(M = 2.92, SD = 0.97) and identity expression (M = 3.68, SD = 2.77).

For the pooled sample, we first examined the measurement model which illustrated the

suitability of our hypothesized factor structure (2=349.33, df=185, RMSEA=.06,

NNFI=.95, SRMR=.04). We then tested the structural model and found satisfactory model

fit (2=364.22, df=204, RMSEA=.06, NNFI=.95, SRMR=.05). Last, we tested the model across

the two gender groups and observed partial support for our hypotheses (see Table 1). The

performance of the scaled items resulted in some variation between subgroups, though the

structural paths were largely equal. Therefore, we concluded that gender did not moderate the

relationship between motivation and involvement. Learning was associated with Attraction

(β=.38, t-value=5.08), Social Bonding (β=.49, t-value=6.00), and Identity Affirmation (β=.47, t-

value=6.47); Escape was related to Attraction (β=.15, t-value=2.22); and Achievement predicted

Identity Expression (β=.42, t-value=6.51). Our results indicated that particular motives led

adventure recreationists to become involved in white water rafting activities. We also

incorporated the idea of gender into our motivation-involvement model to explore new

understandings of how males and females experienced leisure differently. Our results assist in

the process of explaining leisure behavior in the context of adventure recreation activities.

Erin Morris, Recreation, Sport, and Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,

Champaign, IL, (952) 594-9068, elmorri2@illinois.edu

Figure 1. Hypothesized Model

Table 1. Structural Model Results Dependent Variable Predictor t R

2

Attraction Learning .38 5.08* .22

Escape .15 2.22*

Social Bonding Learning .49 6.00* .24

Identity Affirmation Learning .47 6.47* .22

Identity Expression Achievement .42 6.51* .18

* p < .01

Selected References

Driver, B. L. (1983). Master list of items for recreation experience preference scales and

domains. USDA For. Serv. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ft.

Collins, Colo. Unpubl. doc.

Henderson, K. A., Bialeschki, M. D., Shaw, S. M., & Freysinger, V. J. (1996).Both gains and

gaps: Feminist perspectives on women's leisure. Venture Publishing Inc.

Kyle, G. T., Absher, J. D., Hammitt, W. E., & Cavin, J. (2006). An examination of the

motivation—involvement relationship. Leisure Sciences, 28(5), 467-485.

Kyle, G., Mowen, A. J., & Tarrant, M. (2004). Linking place preferences with place meaning:

An examination of the relationship between place motivation and place attachment.

Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(4), 439-454.

Little, D. E. (2002). Women and adventure recreation: Reconstructing leisure constraints and

adventure experiences to negotiate continuing participation. Journal of Leisure Research,

34(2), 157–177.

Sherif, M., & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social judgment: Assimilation and contrast effects in

reaction to communication and attitude change. New Haven, CT: Greenwood.

Wiley, C. G., Shaw, S. M., & Havitz, M. E. (2000). Men's and women's involvement in sports:

An examination of the gendered aspects of leisure involvement. Leisure Sciences, 22(1),

19-31.

Iwasaki, Y., & Havitz, M. E. (2004). Examining relationships between leisure involvement,

psychological commitment and loyalty to a recreation agency. Journal of Leisure

Research, 36, 45-72.

Wood, L., & Danylchuk, K. (2012). Constraints and negotiation processes in a women's

recreational sport group. Journal of Leisure Research, 44(4), 463-485.

DERBY-LIFE BALANCE: NEGOTIATING EVERYDAY LIFE AS A ROLLER DERBY

GIRL

Erin Morris, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Jacqueline McDowell, George Mason University

Introduction

Roller derby is a fast growing sport in the US and around the world. It is a sport

predominantly played by adult women, a demographic that is often missing from organized

sport, both competitive and recreational. Organized by the Women’s Flat Track Derby

Association (WFTDA), member leagues are skater run “by the skaters, for the skaters”

(Women’s Flat Track Derby Association, 2015), meaning that league boards are at least two-

thirds women. Due to this, and the commitment it takes to be a competitive athlete in a fast

paced, hard hitting sport such as roller derby, there is a significant time commitment by the sport

which the women must negotiate along with their time at work or school and with partners and

families. Limited research on roller derby has looked at types of femininity performed in the

sport (Breeze, 2010; Carlson, 2010), the inclusiveness of the sport, and the enjoyment and

meaning of the physicality and pain involved in the sport (Pavlidis & Fullagar, 2012). Time, is

often cited as a significant constraint to women’s participation in sport (Little, 2002; Wood &

Danylchuck, 2012), however roller derby athletes regularly spend 10-15 hours a week on their

sport. Despite the plethora of literature on constraints to women’s participation in recreation,

there is an absence of research that examines how the roller derby athletes negotiate their

participation and significant time investment with the other aspects of their lives. The state of

derby as a women’s sport organized by women creates an unique opportunity to look at adult

women’s participation in organized activity. Using the leisure constraints model (Jackson,

Crawford, & Godbey, 1993; Jackson & Henderson, 1995) and leisure facilitators (Raymore,

2002), this project sought to discover how participants negotiate constraints to participation and

balance their sport participation with their professional and personal. The findings can help

recreation programmers’ market adult activities to women based on themes of how these women

prioritize and justify participation themselves.

Methods

This study was a case study of the Twin City Derby Girls. It was mixed methods in nature,

comprised of 20 qualitative interviews, participant observation, and 32 surveys. Interviews lasted

one hour on average. Field notes were taken while observing league practices and bouts. The

surveys and interviews covered topics regarding socialization into the sport, health and

wellbeing, feminist attributes of the participants, and derby-life balance. This presentation

focuses on the topic of derby-life balance which examined how the women negotiated

constraints, and how they balanced derby with their professional and personal lives. The survey

questions on this topic were open ended, and were coded for common themes. The interviews

were transcribed and analyzed based on the tenets of grounded theory. Member checks were

conducted with key stakeholders.

Results/Discussion

The participants all acknowledged that derby was a huge time commitment that was often a

challenge to balance with their professional and personal lives. They spend 10-15 hours per week

on derby related activities on average and most had full time jobs. Many also had partners and

some had children. Three main themes emerged from the data in terms of how the women

viewed balancing derby with the rest of their life; the importance of prioritizing personal time,

the community and support derby provides, and family involvement in derby. All three themes

can be categorized and intrapersonal or interpersonal facilitators to leisure (Raymore, 2002).

The women discussed the importance of prioritizing time for themselves. They talked about

having time to do what they enjoy served as a stress reliever and outlet. It also gave them time to

recharge and thus be better partners and mothers; it had a rejuvenating aspect to it. They talked

about how important it is for women to set aside time for themselves. For many of these women,

time was not framed so much as a constraint as it was a matter of prioritizing. They were all

busy, but the language was regarding the importance of prioritizing physical fitness and personal

time for their own health and happiness which they believed translated into being happier in the

rest of their lives.

Sense of community and support of other women was another key reason why they devoted

so much time and energy to derby. Their teammates were also their friends. Several women

stated that for the first time they had female friends with similar interests that they could relate

to. This community helped them get through challenging life events. Community support kept

them participating even when the time commitment was difficult for them to negotiate.

For many of the women, derby was a family event which made balancing derby and personal

life easier. While family often serves as an interpersonal constraint to women (Jackson &

Henderson, 1995; Little, 2002; Wood & Danylchuck, 2012), the participants in this study

stressed the importance of understanding partners their participation. In fact, many had partners

involved in the sport. While a couple players were dating each other, other’s partners helped in

other ways including coaching, officiating, announcing, and running the scoreboard at bouts. It

was a family friendly atmosphere where some players would bring young kids to practice and

others would share childcare duties and resources to allow each other to attend practices and

events. As previous research has discussed (Little, 2002; Migliaccio & Berg, 2007), family can

be a major constraint for women, but the family friendly and communal atmosphere of the sport

facilitated the women’s negotiation of this common constraint.

Implications for Practice

The implications for this study relate not only to the further growth of roller derby, but can

also help to inform recreation programmers in programming for and recruiting adult women.

Women often cite lack of time as a constraint to participating in adult organized sports.

However, these sports, predominantly played by men, take up considerably less time in the week

than the 10-15 hours spend by derby girls at derby related activities. The participants in this

study repeatedly cited comradery with other women and social support as benefits and

motivating factors for participating. As such, recreation agencies should focus on interpersonal

relationships. They might consider actually adding time to their adult sport schedules. Rather

than leagues consisting of only a once a week game, an additional practice might actually entice

rather than reduce the women interested as it would allow them more time to create friendship

and community with their teammates. Based on the finding that making time for oneself was

important to individual and family well-being, agencies could recruit women by stressing the

importance of a woman taking time for herself to do something she loves on a regular basis to

improve overall well-being. By looking at how women who do participate in adult recreation and

sport, and how they prioritize their time and create time for the activities they love, agencies and

programmers can better program for and recruit more women to leisure activities.

Erin Morris, Recreation, Sport, and Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,

Champaign, IL, (952) 594-9068, elmorri2@illinois.edu

Selected References

Breeze, M. (2010). There’s no balls in derby: Roller derby as a unique gendered sports context.

International Journal of Sport and Society, 1(3), 121–133.

Carlson, J. (2010). The Female Signifiant in All-Women ’ s Amateur Roller Derby Emphasized

Femininity in Sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27, 428–440.

Jackson, E. L., Crawford, D. W., & Godbey, G. (1993). Negotiation of leisure constraints.

Leisure Sciences, 17(1), 31–51.

Jackson, E. L., & Henderson, K. A. (1995). Gender-Based Analysis of Leisure. Leisure Sciences,

17(1), 37–51.

Little, D. E. (2002). Women and adventure recreation: Reconstructing lesure constraints and

adventure expereinces to negotiate continuing particiaption. Journal of Leisure Research,

34(2), 157–177.

Migliaccio, T. a., & Berg, E. C. (2007). Women’s Participation in Tackle Football: An

Exploration of Benefits and Constraints. International Review for the Sociology of Sport,

42(3), 271–287. doi:10.1177/1012690207088111

Pavlidis, A., & Fullagar, S. (2012). Becoming roller derby grrrls: Exploring the gendered play of

affect in mediated sport cultures. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 0, 1–16.

doi:10.1177/1012690212446451

Raymore, L. A. (2002). Facilitators to Leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(1), 37–51.

Women’s Flat Track Derby Association. (2015). The Rules of Flat Track Roller Derby. Austin.

Wood, L., & Danylchuck, K. (2012). Contraints and neogtiation process in a women’s

recreational sport group. Journal of Leisure Research, 44(4), 463–485.

EXPLORING RECREATION MANAGERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF LEADERSHIP AND

MANAGEMENT

Rachael Oprondek, Western Illinois University

Tracy Mainieri, Illinois State University

Taylor Witter, Illinois State University

Background and Purpose Kotterman (2006) offered a useful discussion regarding the similarities and differences

between the concepts of leadership and management, highlighting the differences between the

processes leaders and managers employ in the workplace. Kotterman’s (2006) work focused on

the concepts of leadership and management in business and industry, as do other notable scholars

on the subject (e.g. Collins, 2001; & Kouzes & Posner, 2007). While budding professionals in

the field of leisure and recreation services can benefit from the knowledge found in industry,

field-specific knowledge regarding the relationship between leadership and management would

seem to be the most beneficial. While leading management textbooks in the field of leisure and

recreation services briefly examine the relationship between leadership and management in

recreation (Hurd, Barcelona, & Meldrum, 2008; van der Smissen, Moiseichik, & Hartenburg,

2005), few published empirical studies exist to investigate the issue in our field. A database

search for articles containing the terms ‘management’ and ‘leadership’ in their titles, abstracts, or

keywords appearing in journals containing either ‘recreation,’ ‘leisure,’ or ‘sport’ in their titles

returned only three research articles whose purpose focused on perceptions of management and

leadership in the field of recreation (Ibrahim & Cordes, 1996; Mitchelson, 1993; Quarterman,

1998). Consequently, the purpose of this study was to explore recreation managers’ concepts of

leadership and management.

Methodology

Participants for this research project were managers currently working in the field of leisure

and recreation services in Central Illinois and the surrounding area. A total of 15 managers

participated in this study. Each participant took part in an in-depth, semi-structured interview

with the researcher. The qualitative interview data was analyzed following Hycner’s (1985)

guidelines for the analysis of interview data.

Findings

When asked to define and compare leadership and management, participants reported that

leadership and management were distinct, yet overlapping concepts. Table 1 displays the

various ways participants differentiated between the two concepts. Though participants

expressed what they saw as clear differences between the definitions of the two concepts, they

also emphasized that the concepts needed to be balanced both within an individual and within an

organization. For example, Grace stated, “I think really management and leadership are closely

intertwined. Some of your best managers are going to have great leadership qualities, and even

the best leaders know how to manage people really well.”

Beyond defining the concepts of leadership and management, participants also discussed

what effective leaders and managers do (Figure 1). As with defining the concepts, participants

identified distinct tasks of an effective leader and manager as well as tasks shared by both. The

distinct tasks for effective managers related to getting things done on a daily basis while the

distinct tasks for effective leaders related to establishing the vision for the organization. For

example, Juan said, “I think…managers, they handle day to day type operations. They focus on

keeping things running smoothly” whereas Patty stated “I think leadership is setting the vision

for your organization, looking down the road…” The tasks where effective managers and

effective leaders overlapped, in the eyes of the participants, related to effectively working with

others. Lindsey expressed, “I would say [the skills of a leader are the] same type of thing I said

for manager, just again being there when staff needs support…knowing kind of when to step in

and when to let your staff just kind of do their own thing.”

Discussion and Implications. The purpose of this study was to explore recreation managers’ concepts of leadership and

management. Overall, participants reported leadership and management to be distinct, yet

overlapping concepts. This finding aligns with previous commentary that has found leadership

and management to serve complementary but different functions within organizations (e.g.

Kotterman, 2006). Further, the participants identified leadership as related to big picture and

visionary tasks while management was related to day-to-day, operational tasks. Again, these

findings align with other commentaries about the relationship between the two concepts (Hurd,

Barcelona, & Meldrum, 2008; Kotterman, 2006). Few studies exist that address the relationship

of leadership and management in the field of recreation. Kotterman (2006) argued,

“Understanding the differences between leadership and management can ensure that employees

know when and how to apply each set of characteristics for given processes” (p. 17). Similarly,

Quarterman (1998) discussed the importance of understanding the relationship between the two

concepts in order to successfully prepare students in university recreation and sport programs.

Consequently, the authors of the current study believe that further exploration of this topic within

the specific context of recreation could help to shape training and curriculum development

within university programs and organizations.

Tracy Mainieri, Illinois State University, (309) 438-2337, tmainie@ilstu.edu

Table 1. Participants’ perceptions of the concepts of leadership and management

Leadership Management

Big picture

Qualitative

Comfortable with risks

Two-way street

Developed over time

Face-to-face

Day-to-day operations

Quantitative

Cautious with risks

One-way street

Arises from given position

Behind the scenes

Figure 2. Participants' description of what leaders and managers do

Selected References

Collins, J. (2001). Good to great: Why some companies make the leap and others don’t. New

York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.

Hurd, A. R., Barcelona, R. J., & Meldrum, J. T. (2008). Leisure services management.

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Hycner, R. (1985). Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data.

Human Studies, 8, 279-303.

Ibrahim, H., & Cordes, K. (1996). Leader or manager? Journal of Physical Education,

Recreation & Dance, 41-42.

Kotterman, J. (2006). Leadership versus management: What’s the difference? Journal for

Quality & Participation, 29(2), 13-17.

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th

ed.). San Francisco, CA:

John Wiley & Sons.

Mitchelson, B. (1993). Learning to lead: The art of transforming managers into leaders. Journal

of Sport Management, 7(2), 171-172.

Quarterman, J. (1998). An assessment of the perception of management and leadership skills by

intercollegiate athletics conference commissioners. Journal of Sport Management, 12(2),

146-164.

van der Smissen, B., Moiseichik, M., & Hartenburg, V. J. (Eds.). (2005). Management of park

and recreation agencies. Ashburn, VA: National Recreation and Park Association.

ACCREDITED AND AWARD-WINNING PARKS & RECREATION AGENCIES:

STILL A PRIVILEGE

Matt Ostermeyer, University of Arizona

The National Parks and Recreation Association (NRPA) is the leading body that connects the

most parks and recreation professionals, guides policy, provides recognition through awards, and

develops accreditation standards for individual employees, agencies, and college/university

departments. Inconsistent nationwide buy-in remains an issue, particularly related to the agency

certification offered by the Council on Accreditation for Parks and Recreation Agencies

(CAPRA). In fact, only 115 agencies are currently certified. Perhaps a lack of research available

on the impact and benefits of the CAPRA certification has failed to provide the evidence needed

to motivate more municipal parks and recreation agencies to become accredited.

Benefits of personal certifications in the recreation industry like Certified Park and

Recreational Professional (CPRP), Aquatic Facility Operator (AFO), and Certified Playground

Safety Inspector (CPSI) offered through NRPA have been proven to be valuable. Xie et al.

(2013) found that a personal sense of achievement, increased knowledge of the field, career

advancement, and networking opportunities were all perceived benefits of these accreditations.

Research also has shown that institutions and academic programs certified by the Council on

Accreditation Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT) are enhancing the

quality of higher education and verify that student learning outcomes are being met (Ross,

Young, & Sturts, 2012). Cole and Cole (2008) also found that students in accredited programs

reported higher levels of engagement in academically challenging activities, active and

collaborative learning techniques, interactions with faculty, and activities that indicate a

supportive campus environment. Additionally, students in accredited programs reported higher

gains in practical competence and satisfaction.

Even without foundational research to prove the benefits of agency certification specifically,

the CAPRA standards provide the most salient institutionalized norms and expectations available

for public parks and recreation agencies. NRPA’s website states, “Accreditation is a

distinguished mark of excellence that affords external recognition of an organization's

commitment to quality and improvement. Accreditation has two fundamental purposes; to assure

quality and to assure improvement.” So, for the purposes of this paper, CAPRA certification,

along with NRPA’s annual Gold Medal Awards which very selectively recognize “excellence in

long-range planning, resource management, and agency recognition”, will be used to identify

exemplary public parks and recreation agencies in the United States. The research questions then

are as follows:

1. Where are the model, accredited and nationally award winning, parks and recreation

agencies in the United States?

2. Who has access to these exemplary public parks and recreation departments and the

presumed benefits associated with the high quality facilities and services?

Methods

The parks and recreation agencies who are currently CAPRA certified (115 total) and those

which have won Gold Medal Awards in the last 10 years (47 total – excluding state and military

winners) were identified via the NRPA website. Then, 2010 United States Census Data was

compiled for all the corresponding municipalities and counties. This included (1) geographic

region, (2) population size, (3) median household income, (4) percentage of residents with at

least a bachelor’s degree, and (5) the percent of population that is white, non-Hispanic.

Descriptive statistics were applied in Microsoft Excel.

Results

The average median household income for all locations served by either a CAPRA certified

and/or Gold Medal Award winning parks and recreation agency is $63,047. This is $10,001 more

than the national average of $53,046. The mean percentage of residents in locations served by

either a CAPRA certified and/or Gold Medal Award winning parks and recreation agency with at

least a bachelor’s degree level education is 39%. This is 10% higher than the national average of

29%. The mean percentage of white, non-Hispanic residents living in locations served by either a

CAPRA certified and/or Gold Medal Award winning parks and recreation agency is 63%. This is

near the national average of 62%.

Discussion

There are some obvious disparities when looking at the regional and state breakdown of

where the accredited and award winning parks and recreation agencies in the United States are

located. Interestingly, 20% of the CAPRA certified departments are located in the state of

Florida. The question has to be asked, what is going on that is causing such a high number of

agencies to pursue accreditation in the state? And what can other states learn about promoting

the value of CAPRA certification on a statewide level? Similarly, 32% of all Gold Medal Award

winners in the past 10 years have come from the state of Illinois. It might be worth noting the

popular, park district, funding structure in this state that perhaps provides an edge in affording

the highest quality facilities and services. Representation from the northeast region of the U.S. is

virtually non-existent, with zero Gold Medal Awards and only five accredited parks and

recreation departments. While the demographic data reveals that racial minorities appear to be

appropriately represented in the areas served by flagship agencies, the median household

incomes (+19%) and education levels (+34%) are significantly higher in these areas than national

averages.

Implications for Practice

If the field of parks and recreation believes in the power of accreditation, and the benefits of

the highest quality parks and recreation facilities and services, NRPA must explore how to

promote accreditation and award winning standards more equitably and motivate agency buy-in

at a national level. The field should also be concerned that the parks and recreation departments

who do seek accreditation and national awards are more likely to be located in affluent and well

educated areas, perpetuating recreation privilege. While CAPRA does have sliding scales related

to review and annual fees, the questions must continue to be asked about how departments with

fewer resources can be supported to provide the highest quality services possible and be

motivated to apply for accreditation and national awards.

Matt Ostermeyer, Teaching, Learning & Sociocultural Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson,

AZ, (260)438-2059, matthew.ostermeyer@gmail.com

CAPRA Certification (as of fall 2014)

Region Top States

Midwest 33 Florida 23

West 17 North Carolina 8

South 60 Texas 8

Northeast 5 Ohio 8

Gold Medal Award Winners (2004-2013)

Region Top States

Midwest 22 Illinois 15

West 14 Colorado 9

South 11 Virginia 5

Northeast 0

Selected References

Cole, J. S., & Cole, S. T. (2008). Accreditation and Educational Quality: Are Students in

Accredited Programs More Academically Engaged? Schole: A Journal of Leisure Studies

and Recreation Education, 23, 75-90.

Ross, C. M., Young, S. J., & Sturts, J. R. (2012). Evaluating the Student Learning Outcomes

Assessment Process in Undergraduate Parks and Recreation Academic Programs. Schole:

A Journal of Leisure Studies and Recreation Education, 27(1), 25-38.

Xie, P. F., Yeatts, E., & Lee, B. (2013). Perceived Benefits of National Recreation and Park

Association Certifications: A Case Study of Certification Holders in Ohio. Schole: A

Journal Of Leisure Studies & Recreation Education, 28(2), 28-34.

EXPLORING DESTINATION ATTRIBUTES AND VISITOR SATISFACTION AT A

NATURE-BASED RESORT

Catalina Palacios, Oklahoma State University

Tannaz Soltani, Oklahoma State University

Lowell Caneday, Oklahoma State University

Introduction

Destination attribute plays an important role in visitors’ satisfaction with a particular

destination. Therefore, it is worthwhile for destination managers to make greater investments in

their resources to enhance visitor experiences and increase visitor satisfaction. Visitors’ profile

and characteristics of their visit are important variables in explaining recreation activity patterns

at nature recreation settings (Hughes & Morrison-Saunders, 2003; Togridou, Hovardas, & Pantis,

2006; Roovers et al., 2002). In the competitive tourism market, visitor satisfaction is an

important factor to gain better destination image and develop destination loyalty and repeat

visits. In order to increase competitiveness and market share, nature tourism destinations should

take into account the characteristics of their target markets and shape their image and positioning

efforts to particular demographic segments (Wong, 2011). A nature-based destination has been

defined in terms of providing a range of experiences that are primarily dependent on nature

(Holden & Sparrowhawk, 2002; Meng & Uysal, 2008). High quality services and customer

satisfaction are important determinants of destination competitiveness (Caber, Albayrak,

& Matzler, 2012). The purpose of this study is to investigate destination attributes, visitors’

demographics, visit characteristics, and overall satisfaction with a nature-based resort to provide

insights for management and marketing implications to building loyalty of current and potential

market segments.

Methods A nature-based resort in Southwest Oklahoma, serving as a destination for leisure, family

reunions, destination weddings, and corporate events was used as the study site. A diverse range

of both natural and developed recreational opportunities are provided in this site. In-state and

out-of state visitors were invited to participate in the study through different means, i.e. email

list, social media, and on-site cards with URL or QR code to access an online survey. Data

collection was conducted from October, 2014 to January 2015. The survey included three

sections: standard demographic questions to identify the profile of the respondents,

characteristics of the visit, and questions related to visitor satisfaction. A list of 16 resort

destination attribute items, based on a previous study (Meng, Tepanon, & Uysal, 2008), were

modified to apply to the specific characteristics of the research site. A five-point Likert scale was

used to rate destination attribute importance ranging from 1 “not important at all” to 5 “very

important” for each statement provided. Visitor satisfaction was measured by two questions

“willingness to recommend” and “level of satisfaction with most recent visit”. The data were

analyzed using descriptive statistics and factor analysis. Factor analysis was employed to identify

the dimensions of the destination attributes. Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient was

calculated. The data were analyzed using statistical SPSS software.

Results From the total of the 461 respondents, 56.83% were females and 43.17% were males. The

mean age of the respondents was 53.6 years, with 79.17% being older than 45 years old. The

majority of respondents reported having at least some college degree or higher level of

education. Over 73.10% of the respondents were repeat visitors and 85.25% were staying

overnight. Family vacation and leisure were reported as the main purpose of visit to the

destination (43.40%). Less than 10% of the visitors were somewhat or very dissatisfied with their

visit and 5% would not recommend the destination to family and friends. Factor analysis was

conducted to identify the importance of destination attributes. The results revealed that quality of

lodging and types of amenities offered, followed by friendliness of personnel, and the natural

scenery/activities were the most important destination attributes for visitors of a nature-based

resort (Table 1).

Discussion

The findings showed that almost 80% of the current market were people over 45 years old.

This indicates that a 20% of the younger market might be attracted to other destinations offering

different types of services. Therefore, destination managers should provide additional offerings

to target the younger market segment. Factors such as quality of lodging facilities, friendliness of

personnel, and natural scenery and recreation opportunities were the key indicators of visitors’

overall satisfaction. The most important destination attribute was quality of lodging which might

influence the level of satisfaction of visitors staying overnight. These results implied that visitor

satisfaction at a nature-based resort might not only depend on the natural scenery, but is more

dependent on other factors such as quality of lodging facilities and friendly service. Overall, the

potential destination competitiveness in this study was influenced by high quality of lodging

services and customer satisfaction, which is consistent with the study of Caber, Albayrak, and

Matzler (2012). In addition, the findings of this research showed a certain level of visitor

dissatisfaction which might be related to certain destination attributes and should be of concern

for management. Therefore, it is important for management to address the potential negative

impact of dissatisfied visitors who might spread negative word-of-mouth and, in turn, affect

loyalty in repeat visitation and referrals for increasing the market.

Implications for practice

The findings of this study aim to assist recreation managers and practitioners to identify the

importance of evaluation of destination attributes and different market segments for nature-based

tourism. Measuring visitor satisfaction plays a significant role in marketing tourism products and

services. The examination of destination attributes may have different weights for different

market segments. Findings of this study suggest that destination managers at nature-based resorts

should monitor visitors’ satisfaction in regards to the quality of service and lodging facilities in

addition to the natural resources in order to maintain a sustained and expanding business.

Recreation managers need to pay more attention on the property components of the destination

as well as services, plus attractive recreation activities. Therefore it is important to evaluate

attribute importance to make informed decisions for management and potential investment in

maintenance, renovations, and/or incorporation of additional facilities and types of services and

amenities offered to retain and attract a desired new market segment with potential to generate

more revenue. This indicates the relative importance of satisfaction factors and will help

destination marketers in developing appropriate marketing strategies. Tourism scholars and

industry practitioners should be aware of the important role of visitor satisfaction in generating

repeat visits.

Catalina Palacios, Leisure Studies Department, Oklahoma State University; Stillwater, OK

74078; (615)724-8592; catalip@okstate.edu

Table 1. Factor analysis on destination attribute importance. Factors’ Eigenvalue;

Explained Variance and Cronbach's alpha are shown in parentheses. Total variance

explained 62.25%.

Factor 1: Quality of lodging (6.0785; 19.13%; 0.8531) Factor loading

Quality of the lodge rooms 0.8440

Quality of the main lodge 0.8144

Types of amenities in rooms or cabins 0.6364

Cleanliness of the facility and park 0.5116

Quality of the cabins 0.3835

Factor 2: Friendliness of personnel (0.9826; 14.65%; 0.8784)

Friendliness of office personnel 0.8807

Friendliness of reservations personnel 0.7914

Friendliness of housekeeping personnel 0.6246

Factor 3: Natural scenery & activity (1.9057; 14.47%;

Water-based recreation opportunities 0.8277

Water level in the lake 0.7829

Outdoor activities in general 0.6874

Scenery around Quartz Mountain 0.4571

Factor 4:Quality of food and service (0.4246; 7.48%; 0.8832)

Friendliness of dining/restaurant personnel 0.6980

Quality of food 0.6590

Factor 5:Location & accessibility (0.5692; 6.53%; 0.4978)

Facilities are accessible to and usable by individuals in need 0.8071

Convenience of and driving access to location 0.2833

Selected References

Caber M., Albayrak T., & Matzler K. (2012). Classification of the destination attributes in the

content of competitiveness (by revised importance-performance analysis). Journal of

Vacation Marketing 18(1), 43–56.

Holden, A. & Sparrowhawk, J. (2002) Understanding the motivations of ecotourists: The case of

trekkers in Annapurna, Nepal. International Journal of Tourism Research 4, 435–446.

Hughes, M., & Morrison-Saunders, A. (2003). Visitor attitudes toward a modified natural

attraction. Society and Natural Resources 16, 191–203.

Meng, F., Tepanon, Y., & Uysal, M. (2008). Destination attributes importance, performance, and

motivation in measuring visitor satisfaction for a nature-based resort. Journal of Vacation

Marketing, 14(1), 41-56.

Meng, F. & Uysal, M. (2008) Effects of Gender Differences on Perceptions of Destination

Attributes, Motivations, and Travel Values: An Examination of a Nature-Based Resort

Destination, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(4), 445-466.

Roovers, P., Hermy, M., & Gulinck, H. (2002). Visitor profile, perceptions and expectations in

forests from a gradient of increasing urbanization in central Belgium. Landscape and

Urban Planning 59, 129–145.

Togridou, A., Hovardas, T., & Pantis, J. D. (2006). Determinants of visitors’ willingness to pay

for the National Marine Park of Zakynthos, Greece. Ecological Economics, 60(1), 308-

319.

Wong, A. (2011) Using Destination Attributes to Promote Event Travel: The Case of Macau,

Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 12(4), 241-252.

EROTIC CAPTIAL ON THE FLAT TRACK: CONTEMPORARY WOMEN’S ROLLER

DERBY

Diana C. Parry, University of Waterloo

DIY (do-it-yourself) is becoming increasingly popular. As a result, agencies in Parks and

Recreation have much to learn from successful DIY initiatives like roller derby. Roller derby is

an immensely popular sport amongst women (Pavlidis, 2012). Revitalized from past iterations,

contemporary roller derby is a full contact sport played on a flat track (Beaver, 2012). Created by

and for women, the sport is grounded in a DIY ethos. Skater owned and operated, today’s roller

girls live by the motto “by the skaters, for the skaters”. Derby is played fast, hard, and

aggressively, making injuries common and earning it the title of the “most violent sport

organized and owned by women” (Finley, 2010, p. 369). Uniquely, derby splices athleticism,

aggression, and toughness with femininity and overt sexualization (Carlson, 2010). Placing

women’s bodies at the centre of the sport, sexual appeal and assertiveness are key elements of

what constitutes roller derby culture (Pavlidis, 2012). These elements of derby combine for an

erotized performance that features a “sexualized bad girl” on skates (Finley, 2010, p. 383). Derby

thus creates an alternative sexual subjectivity for women that provides an opportunity to explore

erotic capital on the flat track. Erotic capital is the combination of beauty, sex appeal, liveliness,

charm, social skills, and sexual competence used for personal gain (Hakim, 2011). Alongside

other forms of capital (economic, cultural, and social), erotic capital can be used for personal

empowerment and leveraged to advance one’s interests. Despite the overt sexuality in derby,

scant research has explored how the alternative sexual subjectivities developed affect the game

and/or players. Finley (2010) argues, “the contradictions in derby invite questions about how

sexuality is used as a power resource, a complicated issue…that is important to the literature on

gender” (p. 383). The purpose of this study, therefore, was to investigate women’s erotic capital

within the context of roller derby. The findings have implications for understanding the

underlying intentions that influence DIY initiatives.

Theory and Methods

Roller derby “is the third-wave feminist sport” (Kearney, 2011, p. 286). Thus, I adopted the

tenets of third wave feminism as the theoretical framework for this study. Although third wave

feminism is dynamic and multifaceted, there are several dominant tendencies within its lexicon

including: (1) plurality and inclusivity, (2) personal narrative, (3) self-determination, (4) gender

equality and sexual freedom and (5) popular culture (Dean, 2009). These tendencies are reflected

in the third wave “pro-sex stance that includes an emphasis on women’s agency within the

domains of sexual life and cultural representation” (Green, 2013, p. 140). Indeed, a hallmark of

third wave feminism is the adoption of an unapologetic, overt sexuality. Third wavers use their

sexuality as a pathway to liberation by “anchoring women’s agency in the erotic domain”

(Green, 2013, p. 140). Individually and collectively the tendencies of third wave feminism reflect

a deep commitment to addressing the complex relationship between patriarchal social relations,

structures, and cultural representations (Kinser, 2004) that was the focus of this study. Consistent

with third wave feminism, I conducted 13 in-depth conversational interviews with members of a

WFTDA roller derby league from Southwestern Ontario. In addition, over the course of a year, I

attended numerous bouts and a few practices to observe the people, activities, and context of

roller derby. The data were analyzed using narrative inquiry, which puts the participant in the

center of the research process as the 'expert' of their own life story (Riessman, 2008).

Findings

Women’s sexuality is key to the popularity and success of roller derby. Through their

involvement with the sport, derby girls celebrate their sexual appeal and assertiveness along with

other players and fans. Ella stated, “we’re out there wearing those outfits and we know people

are looking at us. That’s our prerogative. We like it and we understand that is part of the draw in

roller derby.” Many players reported feeling empowered by their sexual appeal and assertiveness

in derby. Betty explained, “It’s totally self-empowering. ‘Cause women all shapes and sizes

come in proud of what they got. And they can flaunt it, and their athleticism, on the track. So

they can be completely feminine and sexy and completely athletic at the same time.” Aware of

their erotic capital, derby girls use their sexuality intentionally to attract fans, who are crucial to

the long-term success of the sport. Kelsey said, “Fans are very important. ‘Cause to put on a

game, you need the fans, so you have to kind of cater in little ways.” Lily summed up the role of

erotic capital in derby best when she said “sex sells. A lot of the girls will play up the sexiness

because they know it sells.” The general sentiment was women’s erotic capital brought fans to

the game, but “once they realized the excitement and they’ve learned the game they keep

following it.” Recognizing “the bouts are few and far between” the players in this study

appreciated that the sexual side of derby was “not just for a male audience. And we’re not all

heterosexual either, so we’re not all dressing to sexually attract men. The sport is very

celebratory of women’s sexuality in general.” The players themselves appreciated the

opportunity to feel and develop their sexuality, which makes derby a unique context in women’s

lives. Jenna explained, “I don’t have many places in my life where I can be really sexual... Derby

has brought that out of me where I can be sexy and I can be strong at the same time.” For some

players, the sexual self-confidence developed in derby carried over into other aspects of the lives

giving them more self-confidence and improved sexual interactions with their partners. The

individual returns of erotic capital in derby had implications for women as a social group. That

is, some players felt the portrayal of women’s sexuality in derby – strong, athletic, assertive –

served to challenge gendered stereotypes of women’s sexuality more broadly. Other players were

uncomfortable with the overt sexualization of the game. These players perceived the

sexualization of derby as contradictory. Emma said, “sometimes it feels a little contradictory

when we’re out there in our fishnets, and in our skimpy clothes and things that would be seen as

eye candy, or really stereotypical of not your most professional person.”

Discussion and Implications

This study reveals ways “derby girls” perform their sexuality and use it to advance their

collective and individual interests. This analysis introduces erotic capital to the leisure literature

and demonstrates the intentionality of women’s resistance to, and reproduction of, gendered

stereotypes, particularly with respect to sexuality. The research provides additional support for

women’s leisure as an arena where power is gained, maintained, reinforced, diminished or lost.

The findings have implications for Parks and Recreation professionals who aim to offer

successful DIY initiatives. In particular, the findings reveal how it is important to understand the

complex motivations that underlie DIY initiatives. Programming decisions are often made on

surface level benefits (such as the physical health benefits associated with a sport like derby)

when an inner intent, like developing one’s erotic capital, might serve as the real motivator for

participants and a key aspect of what makes a program successful. All told, programmers need to

appreciate the intent of participants in DIY.

Diana C. Parry, University of Waterloo, (519) 888-4567, dcparry@uwaterloo.ca

Selected References

Beaver, T. D. (2014). Roller derby uniforms: The pleasures and dilemmas of sexualized attire.

International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 1012690214549060.

Carlson, J. (2010). The female significant in all-women’s amateur roller derby. Sociology of

sport Journal, 27, 428-440.

Dean, J. (2009). Who’s afraid of third wave feminism? On the uses of the ‘third wave’ in British

feminist politics. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 11(3), 334-352.

Finley, N. J. (2010). Skating femininity: Gender maneuvering in women’s roller derby. Journal

of contemporary ethnography, 39(4), p. 359-387.

Green, A. I. (2013). ‘Erotic capital’ and the power of desirability: Why ‘honey money’ is a bad

collective strategy for remedying gender inequality. Sexualities, 16(1/2), p. 137-158.

Hakim, C. (2011). Erotic capital: The power of attraction in the boardroom and the bedroom.

Basic Books: NY.

Kearney, M.C. (2011). Tough girls in a rough game. Feminist media studies, 11(3), 283-301.

Kinser, A. E. (2004). Negotiating spaces for/through third-wave feminism. NWSA Journal,

16(3), 124-153.

Pavlidis, A. (2012). From riot grrrls to roller derby? Exploring the relations between gender,

music and sport. Leisure Studies, 31(2), 165-176.

Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE

Publications.

THE APPLICABILITY OF SOCIAL JUSTICE TO RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

Diana C. Parry, University of Waterloo

Corey W. Johnson, University of Waterloo

Unquestionably, social justice is an aim of many academics and parks and recreation

professionals. As a field, we are committed to the break down, challenge, and change of social

structures and ideologies that perpetuate marginalization, discrimination, and marginalization.

Consequently, a vast and ever-growing group of scholars and practitioners are embracing a social

justice paradigm in their work. The result is a multitude of strategies for adopting a social justice

paradigm as scholars and practitioners engage with people from across the world – thinking,

feeling, living human beings –who encounter constraint, discrimination, marginalization,

oppression and violence in their everyday lives and creatively reposition themselves. Such

changes in society will simultaneously bring about parallel changes in our research and

professional practices. The purpose of this abstract is to outline three strategies we think are

critical to the future of a social justice paradigm for researchers, evaluators and practitioners:

deep interinterdisciplinarity, evocative research and reports, and communities of critical

participants.

Deep Interdisciplinarity

It is increasingly apparent that to get at the complicated, messy affairs that create and are

created by social inequities, research and professional practice also need to be complex affairs.

Deep interdisciplinarity facilitates complex interactions with others (either in research or

programs) by creating new levels of awareness among individuals. It seeks to facilitate

interactions where there is the opportunity to modify the views “each person brings to the table;

everyone leaves the table informed by the dialogue in a way that idiosyncratically influences the

research methods [or the professional practices] they subsequently employ” (Kincheloe,

McLaren & Steinberg, 2011, p.170). The point of interaction is not standardized agreement, but

awareness of the diverse opinions and approaches among the groups that will inform the path

forward. The goal in deep interdisciplinarity is to gain a more rich and nuanced appreciation for

the pain of the oppressed, but also the strategies that could be used by marginalized groups so

that we might learn from one another, develop new models of research and practice, and work

together to advance a more just society for all groups. The desired outcome of deep

interdisciplinarity is recognizing the conditions operating in society that continue to exploit and

dehumanize people, disrupt hegemonic systemic inequalities, and generate meaningful change.

Evocative Research and Reports

Social justice researchers and evaluators want to bring experiences to life and avoid

representational strategies where the voices of participants are “buried beneath layers of

analysis” (Denison, 1996, p. 352) or co-opted for the sole purposes of knowledge generation or

program sustainability. Instead, social justice researchers, evaluators, and practitioners want to

represent research and reports in a manner that honors people. Evocative research and evaluation

reports are those that “move from the personal to the political, from the local to the historical and

the cultural. These are dialogic texts and presume an active audience, which create spaces for

give-and-take between reader and writer” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 5). Creative analytic

practice (CAP) is one effective way to represent research findings and professional reports in an

engaging and accessible manner that are more easily translatable to a wide audience, including

those outside of academia (Richardson, 2000). CAP is a process that involves expressing what

one has learned through evocative and creative writing techniques including artistic and literary

genres such as stories, poems, plays, vignettes, and other performance pieces (Parry & Johnson,

2007). The turn toward non-traditional and creative forms of representation enables researchers

and practitioners to think broadly about the audience of their research/reports and write in a

manner that is accessible to a large group of people (Parry & Johnson, 2007). CAP resists

esoteric language or a specialized lexicon that serves as barriers for non-experts to understand.

Reid (2004) explained, esotericism keeps the knowledge out of the hands of participants,

activists and practitioners. In its process and representation, CAP facilitates a higher propensity

for social justice placing participant stories in the public domain to influence change. Thus, CAP

is critical to the future of a social justice research, grassroots activism, and systemic change.

Communities of Critical Participants

Research and evaluation reports that create and enact moral meaning require researchers and

practitioners to work with, rather than for, a community or group (Denzin, 1997). Working for a

community or group implies a philosophically distant stance between the researcher/professional

and the community group (Lincoln, Lynham & Guba, 2011). Working with a community or

group dictates that the researcher/professional has a deep kinship (political and emotional) with

participants based upon membership or social ties (Angrosino & Rosenberg, 2011). Within a

social justice approach, participants are neighbors, lovers, friends, family members and/or allies

in the goals of emancipation. Such transparency in relationships creates a community of critical

informants (Dupuis, 1999) where knowledge can be built from the lived experiences of people.

Understanding the lived experience of people is essential because social justice researchers and

professionals frequently become spokespersons or advocates for causes and issues and can help

people articulate enduring and emergent problems and bring together key stakeholders for

community discussions/actions (Angrosino & Rosenberg, 2011). Social justice approaches

reflect an emancipatory vision that involves the researcher and professional who is part of and

working with the community to create a different world (Charmaz, 2011) for that community.

Implications and Conclusions

For agencies and scholars aimed at advancing social justice, the approaches outlined are

relevant to program evaluation, program implementation, and larger research endeavours. In

particular, these approaches give additional strategies for those interested in empowerment

evaluation, which is an approach designed to help communities set, achieve and then monitor

their own performance. For example, Fetterman (2001) explained empowerment evaluation

provides program stakeholders with the tools to assess the plan, implementation, and self-

evaluation of their program through a democratic process. Indeed, one of the principles of

empowerment evaluation is social justice. Outlined here are three approaches we think will shape

the future of a social justice paradigm for researchers, evaluators and practitioners. For those

starting out on the journey of becoming a social justice advocate, it is important to remember the

process includes the discovery of a new set of lenses and approaches while maintaining a critical

perspective rooted in anti-oppressive praxis (Lorenzetti, 2013). We hope the approaches covered

here inspire researchers and practitioners to take on the “thorny issues” (Rossman & Rallis,

2010, p. 381) of society to transform the world by championing dignity for all people, reducing

suffering and promoting well-being (Plummer, 2011). Such research and professional practice

advance are what Denzin and Lincoln (2011) have called a “civic social [practice]…. committed

up front to issues of social justice, equity, nonviolence, equity, nonviolence, peace, and universal

human rights” (p. 613).

Diana C. Parry, University of Waterloo, (519) 888-4567, dcparry@uwaterloo.ca

Selected References

Angrosino, M., & Rosenberg, J. (2011). Observations on observation: Continuities and

challenges. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative

research (4th

ed.), (pp. 467-478). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Charmaz, K. (2011). Grounded theory methods in social justice research. In N. K. Denzin, & Y.

E. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.), (pp. 359-380).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Denison, J. (1996). Sport narratives. Qualitative inquiry, 2(3), 351-362.

Denzin, N. K. (1997). Reading the crisis: Interpretive ethnography. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fetterman, D.M. (2001). Foundations of Empowerment Evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kincheloe, J. L., McLaren, P., & Steinberg, S. R. (2011). Critical pedagogy, and qualitative

research: Moving to the bricolage. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage

handbook of qualitative research (4th

ed.), (pp. 163-178). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lincoln, Y. S., Lynham, S. A., & Guba, E. G. (2011). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions,

and emerging confluences, revisited. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage

handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.) (pp. 97-128). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Parry, D. C., & Johnson, C. W. (2007). Contextualizing leisure research and encompassing

complexity in lived leisure experience: The need for creative analytic practice. Leisure

Sciences, 29(2), 119-130.

Plummer, K. (2011). Critical humanism and queer theory: Living with the tensions. In N. K.

Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th

ed.), (pp.

195-212). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Reid, C. (2004). Advancing women’s social justice agenda: A feminist action research

framework. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(3), 1-15.

Richardson, L. (2000). Writing: A method of inquiry. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.),

Handbook of qualitative research (2nd

ed.), (pp. 923-948). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Rossman, G. B., & Rallis, S. F. (2010). Everyday ethics: Reflections on practice. International

Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 23(4), 379-391.

HEALTHY EATING AND LEISURE AMONG MEXICAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE U.S.

Maggie Phan, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Monika Stodolska, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Juan Carlos Acevedo, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The relationship between food and leisure is a considerably under-explored topic of research

(Mair et al., 2008). Food is not only necessary for human subsistence, but is the center of

numerous leisure activities. How people grow, purchase, prepare, consume and value food is

influenced by their beliefs, which can change with immigration and time. Food preparation and

consumption are cultural leisure activities abundant with social meaning (Harris, 2005). In recent

decades, the U.S. population has undergone an evolution to the consumption of more calorically

dense foods and diets (Astrup et al., 2008; Popkin, 2006). Food preparation and consumption

have transformed from basic necessary activities to flexible, sporadic, and unstructured activities.

Changes in diet, along with food acculturation that leads to unhealthier eating habits among

immigrants (Ayala et al., 2008; Gray et al., 2005), have contributed to high obesity rates and

increasing prevalence of chronic diseases among the growing population of Latino Americans

(National Center for Health Statistics, 2013). A prime goal of public health professionals has

thus been to promote the preservation of healthy traditional dietary patterns and simultaneous

incorporation of healthy eating practices in the U.S. among the Latino population. This study has

focused on 1st-generation Mexican immigrants residing in Midwestern U.S. Its objectives were

to: 1) examine changes in food practices and diets related to immigration that affect the ability to

eat healthy; 2) examine the importance of healthy diet to Mexican immigrants; 3) explore their

level of understanding of healthy and unhealthy foods; 4) explore their self-efficacy for dietary

change; and 5) uncover strategies immigrants use to maintain healthy diet.

Methods

Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted in two Midwestern cities with 20

Mexican immigrants who had emigrated to the U.S. as adults. Key informants in the community

and snowball sampling were used to identify the study participants. The interviewees comprised

of 16 women and 4 men between 25-71 years of age. They represented a variety of occupations

including restaurant workers, stay-at-home mothers, day care workers, teachers, sales associates,

and factory workers. All were responsible for decisions related to food and diet in their home

prior to emigration. The interviews (5 in English, 15 in Spanish) lasted 45-75 minutes and

followed a semi-structured format in which the main questions remained the same, but additional

probes were used to elucidate more detailed responses. The questions focused on issues of food

environment, psychosocial factors and taste preferences, food purchasing behaviors, food

preparation methods and food consumption patterns in Mexico and the U.S. The analysis of the

collected data was performed by constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Results

Changes in food practices and dietary patterns related to immigration: Interviewees reported

eating more processed foods, fast foods, and take-out foods due to lifestyle changes in the U.S.,

time constraints, and lesser availability of fresh produce in the U.S. compared to Mexico. Others

tried to prepare meals cooked in Mexico, but were compelled to alter recipes based on the

availability of specific ingredients. Despite time constraints, most participants made conscious

attempts to eat meals at home with their family members. Close family interactions during meal

times were the norm. Weakly dining out at restaurants was common, with Mexican restaurants

offering traditional cuisine being the preferred choice. As Grace commented, “Every week, after

church on Sunday we go as a family to eat. The majority of the times it’s a Mexican restaurant.

Sometimes we eat at the mall so we can have more variety of food for my kids.”

The importance of healthy diet and the understanding of healthy and unhealthy foods: All of

the immigrants believed that eating healthy was very important and demonstrated a good

understanding of which foods are healthy and unhealthy. Fruits, vegetables, and grains were

considered healthy and fast foods, fried foods, and processed foods were considered unhealthy.

As Rodrigo said, “I try to avoid eating pork, it’s harmful. It’s not as natural as in Mexico.”

Self-efficacy related to dietary change: The majority of interviewees believed eating healthy

was a relatively easy task, whereas others mentioned constraints such as lack of time or

knowledge of healthy Mexican food choices, preventing them from positive dietary changes.

Strategies immigrants use to maintain healthy diet: Most interviewees indicated that they

tried to avoid fast food, processed food, or red meat, but did not necessarily consume healthy

meals regularly. Also, the realization of increasing weight and negative health consequences

obliged many of them to revert to their traditional Mexican diet after a few years in the U.S. As

Andres described, “I got here [to the U.S.] skinny and then I gained a lot of weight. That is why I

decided not to eat the American food. The problem is that the new arrivals to the U.S. start eating

pizza and hamburgers. I would suggest to them to keep cooking like they did in Mexico.”

Discussion

Our study is consistent with past research that found that immigrants may prepare foods of

their culture in both traditional and new ways, exclude other foods of their culture that may be

unavailable in the host country’s environment, and consume new foods they became familiar

with after arrival to their new country (Ayala et al., 2008; Gilbert & Khokhar, 2008; Kim et al.,

2007). We attempted to capture the complex process of change in food practices and dietary

patterns related to immigration. Furthermore, our study offers insights into factors that may

facilitate or hinder changes in healthy food practices and dietary patterns, such as the changes in

attitudes and norms about diet, lifestyle modifications that affect meal schedules, nutritional

quality of foods eaten in the host country, and dietary customs either preserved from Mexico or

acquired in the U.S. It also provides important insights into the literature on leisure behaviors

among immigrant populations and, in particular, on leisure of immigrants, by examining their

dietary patterns and activities related to food preparation and consumption (cooking as leisure,

eating out, social interactions during meals) absent in previous literature (Stodolska et al., 2014).

Implications for Practice

As mounting evidence suggests that risks for obesity and diet-related chronic diseases are

particularly prevalent among ethnic minorities, it is important to investigate the eating behaviors,

food choices, and food customs of such high-risk populations. Based on the results of our study,

we recommend that recreation centers provide cooking classes on preparing healthy traditional

meals with locally available ingredients as well as teach Mexican Americans how to make food

substitutions and utilize healthier cooking techniques. Such classes should be taught by culturally

sensitive dietitians and public health practitioners whom Mexican Americans would trust and

seek help from. Public health practitioners should also offer information on how to cook low-

cost healthy meals that can be quickly prepared using traditional ingredients. Recreation

programs in areas with high concentrations of Mexican immigrants should offer healthy food

choices tailored to Mexican Americans’ preferences and tastes.

Maggie Phan, Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign, Champaign, IL, (217) 344-6698, mphan2@illinois.edu

Selected References

Astrup, A., Dyerberg, J., Selleck, M., & Stender, S. (2008). Nutrition transition and its

relationship to the development of obesity and related chronic diseases. Obesity Reviews,

9(Suppl.1), 48–52.

Ayala, G. X., Baquero, B., & Klinger, S. (2008). A systematic review of the relationship between

acculturation and diet among Latinos in the United States: implications for future research.

Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(8), 1330–1344.

Gilbert, P. A., & Khokhar, S. (2008). Changing dietary habits of ethnic groups in Europe and

implications for health. Nutrition reviews, 66(4), 203-215.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). Applying grounded theory. The discovery of grounded theory:

strategies of qualitative research. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine Publishing Company, 237-51.

Gray, V. B., Cossman, J. S., Dodson, W. L., & Byrd, S. H. (2005). Dietary acculturation of

Hispanic immigrants in Mississippi. Salud Pública de México, 47(5), 351–360.

Harris, D. (2005). Food. Key concepts in leisure studies, (pp. 108-113). London: Sage.

Kim, M. J., Lee, S. J., Ahn, Y. H., Bowen, P., & Lee, H. (2007). Dietary acculturation and diet

quality of hypertensive Korean Americans. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 58(5), 436–445.

Mair, H., Summer, J., & Rotteau, L. (2008). The politics of eating: food practices as critically

reflexive leisure. Leisure, 32 (2), 379-405.

National Center for Health Statistics. (2013). Health, United States, 2012: With Special Feature

on Emergency Care. Hyattsville, MD. Retrieved from

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus12.pdf

Popkin, B. M. (2006). Global nutrition dynamics: the world is shifting rapidly toward a diet

linked with noncommunicable diseases. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84(2), 289–

298.

Stodolska, M., Shinew, K. J., Floyd, M. F., & Walker, G. (2014). Race, ethnicity, and leisure.

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

PREVALENCE OF INADEQUATE HYDRATION LEVELS IN AQUATIC SAFETY

PERSONNEL

William D. Ramos, Indiana University

Austin R. Anderson, University of Southern Indiana

Introduction

It is estimated that trained lifeguards execute approximately 100,000 rescues per year

nationwide (Branche & Stewart, 2001) and perform more than 6.5 million preventative actions at

beaches alone that assist in helping patrons avoid potential aquatic injuries (USLA, 2013). If

lifeguards are thus considered to be among a class of safety and accident prevention personnel, it

would make sense that physical and mental condition would be key to performing required

actions efficiently.

This investigation was performed as a pilot study to discern if trained lifeguards were

performing their primary duties in a state of dehydration, which could cause them to exhibit

negative physiological and psychological reactions making them less effective (Armstrong,

2005). Dehydration occurs when an individual experiences a loss of water and salts necessary to

maintain efficient bodily function (Medical Dictionary, 2014). Side effects and symptoms of

dehydration can include both physiological and psychological deficiencies including: (a)

increased risk of heat illness, (b) fatigue, and (c) cognitive impairment (Wilson & Morley, 2003).

Lifeguards, while performing their main duty of patron surveillance, may exhibit these negative

reactions if performing in a state of dehydration, making them less effective.

When examining the environments in which lifeguards carry out their duties, both indoor and

outdoor aquatic facilities can include high heat, humidity levels, inadequate ventilation (indoor),

and direct heat from sun exposure (outdoor). It is clear that these environments could create

favorable conditions for water loss in workers.

Methods

Subjects were chosen using convenience volunteer sampling from public, semi-public and

private aquatic facilities in southern Indiana. Subjects were individually recruited through

promotion of the study by management personnel, posted announcements, email announcements,

and researcher presentations. Neither management nor potential subjects were aware of the

actual date or time that testing would take place within the study timeframe. The study was

sanctioned through the principal investigator’s Institutional Review Board.

A urine specific gravity test strip was administered by researchers on-site to determine the

study participants’ hydration level while performing their primary duties (Shih-Bin Sun, 2006).

Samples were tested immediately upon receipt from subjects, with dual confirmation by

researchers on interpretation of results from the urine reagent test strip. The urine reagent test

strips had the capability of measuring a seven point specific gravity reading between 1.000 and

1.030, with 1.015 recognized as the “point of neutrality” over which subject were considered in a

state of dehydration for this study. Although the test strip utilized was capable of measuring

other bio-medical markers, subjects were assured that only the urine specific gravity reading was

measured and recorded. Each subject was also asked to complete a brief demographic

questionnaire to indicate years of lifeguarding experience, certification agency, age, and sex.

Results

55 subjects participated in the study across 7 sites. Overall, 52.7% of tested subjects were

identified as experiencing some level of dehydration while on duty, utilizing standard urine

specific gravity readings (Armstrong, 2005). The study sample demographics consisted of 28

females and 27 males, 32 subjects reported having four years of less experience lifeguarding, 44

subjects from outdoor facilities, and a split of 14 subjects from public facilities, 18 from semi-

public facilities, and 23 from private facilities. Subsequent ANOVA analysis provided no

significant statistical differences were found based upon gender, age, years of experience,

certification type, facility type, or facility classification.

Discussion

The study did indicate that dehydration of staff is a potentially important issue in aquatic

facility management, with just over 50% of lifeguards in the sample indicating some level of

dehydration. Research indicates that improper level of hydration can impact one’s ability to

function cognitively and physically (Wilson & Morley, 2003). Lifeguards, in their role as

aquatic safety and emergency managers, must be able to react to potentially physically

challenging and mentally taxing situations quickly and efficiently. This study indicates that

those interested in, and charged with, the safety of aquatic facilities and improving lifeguard

performance would be well served by increasing attention and education given to ensuring

adequate levels of staff hydration. An issue also arises related to management’s responsibility to

protect their employees overall health.

Implications for practice

This area of study could produce key management policies aimed at decreasing the incidents

of staff dehydration thus mitigating possible consequences. Potential areas include: shift/rotation

length, employee awareness and education, and hydration policies. Future studies are

recommended using a larger and more diverse sample, a more precise measure of dehydration

levels, a greater stratification from lifeguard certification agencies, as well as an investigation

into certain behavioral factors which may impact hydration levels.

Further information is necessary to better describe possible issues around dehydration and

aquatic safety personnel as a whole. Future studies should build upon this research to utilize a

larger sample and wider range of aquatic facilities to better determine the scope of this potential

hazard. Future studies may also examine hypotheses surrounding behavioral factors that may

impact hydration levels of staff prior to, during and after their scheduled shifts. A more

complete understanding of this issue can assist facility and safety managers in controlling for

impairment among this class of personnel.

William D. Ramos, Indiana University, (812) 856-7161, wramos@indiana.edu

Selected References

Acosta, R. V., & Carpter, L. J. (2014). Women in intercollegiate sport: A longitudinal, national

study, thirty seven year update 1997-2014.

Adriaanse, J., & Schofield, T. (2014). The impact of gender quotas on gender equality in sport

governance. Journal of Sport Management , 485-497.

Armstrong, L. (2005). Hydration Assessment Techniques. Nutrition Reviews , 63, S40-S54.

Branch, C., & Stweart, S. (2001). Lifeguard Effectiveness: A Report of the Working Group.

Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury

Prevention.

Comrie, M., & McMillan, K. (2013). Running on the spot: NZ's record in news media gender

equity. Pacific Journalism Review , 19 (2), 196-214.

Ferguson, K. D. (2014). Achieving gender equity under Title IX for girls from minority, urban,

rural, and economically disadvantaged communities. Marquette Sports Law Review , 24

(2), 353-418.

Hallmark, J. R., & Armstrong, R. N. (1999). Gender equity in televised sports: a comparative

analysis of men's and women's NCAA Division I basketball championship broadcasts,

1991-1995. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 43 (2), 222-235.

Huffman, S., Tuggle, C. A., & Rosengard, D. S. (2004). How campus media cover sports: the

gender--equity issue, one generation later. Mass Communication & Society , 7 (4), 475-

489.

Medical Dictionary. (2014). Retrieved from http://medical-

dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/dehydration

Sabo, D. (2009). The gender gap in youth sports: too many urban girls are being left behind.

Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance (JOPERD) , 80 (8), 35-37.

Shih-Bin, S. (2006). Using urine specific gravity to evaluation the hydration status of workers

working in an ultra-low humidity environment. Journal of Occupational Health , 48,

284-289.

Spoor, J. R., & Hoye, R. (2014). Perceived support and women's intentions to stay at a sport

organization. British Journal of Management , 25 (3), 407-424.

Tingle, J., Warner, S., & Sartore-Baldwin, M. (2014). The experience of former women officials

and the impact on the sporting community. Sex Roles , 71 (1/2), 7-20.

United States Lifeguarding Association (USLA). (2013). National lifesaving statistics.

Wilson, M.-M., & Morley, J. (2003). Imapired cognitive funciton and mental performance in

mild dehydratoin. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 57 (Suppl 2), S24-S29.

RE-EXAMINING ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

AND COMMUNITY QUALITY OF LIFE

William Ramos, Indiana University Bloomington

Ya-Ling Chen, Indiana University Bloomington

Charles Chancellor, Clemson University

Introduction

In the last two decades, the concept of quality of life has been drawing more attention in

leisure research, and being used as an overarching mediator to connect leisure, health and well-

being (Sallis et al., 2006). This is not only at an individual level, but leisure and recreation also

have been trying to impact health promotion and disease prevention at a community level in the

last decade. The trend has focused the provision of recreational opportunities and facilities within

communities to accomplish health goals in both urban and rural areas (Payne & Orsega-Smith,

2010). However, there is limited literature that provides the direct evidence of the perception of a

community’s quality of life via recreational opportunities. In the current study, community trails

were used as the avenue for recreational opportunity to investigate the multiple facets of a

community’s quality of life. Although current literature provides insights into multiple aspects of

trail use, the examination of recreational opportunities contributes to a community’s quality of

life as a whole is still deficient.

Methods

This study was aimed to target trail users of the “People Trail” located in City of Columbus,

Indiana. Mobile interviewers were stationed at specified trail access points to intercept trail users

for participation in the study. Data were collected using electronic devices (Mini iPads) along

with the software application - iSURVEY. Data collection occurred between May and July of

2013.

The instrument included 32 questions related to use patterns and satisfaction, and 15

regarding Community Quality of Life (CQL). CQL items were designed to acquire information

about respondents’ perceptions regarding contribution of the trail to their sense of community

adapted from Shafer, Lee and Turner (2000). Items included the contribution of open space,

decrease the pollution, new business development, transportation alternative, increase access to

shopping areas, social interaction, health, fitness, safe route to school, residents’ pride, business

diversity, recreational opportunities, preserving wildlife habitat, economic growth, and positive

community identity.

Results

There were a total of 329 respondents in the trail survey (N=329). The scale for CQL was

based on the contribution of this specific community trail (1= strongly disagree, 5= strongly

agree), and all items scored ranged from 3.41 to 4.56. Furthermore, the following report shows

items associated with CQL contribute to open space (M= 4.33, SD=.71), a decrease the pollution

(M= 3.88, SD= .92), to new business development (M=3.73, SD= .91), transportation

alternatives (M= 4.07, SD= .86), increase access to shopping areas (M=3.41, SD= .95), social

interaction among residents (M=4.20, SD= .79), health (M=4.5, SD= .67), fitness (M=4.56,

SD=.65), safe route to school (M=3.75, SD .95), a residents’ pride (M=4.29, SD= .69), business

diversity (M=3.70, SD= .86), recreational opportunities (M=4.40, SD= .72), preserving wildlife

habitat (M=4.03, SD= .84), economic growth (M=3.87, SD= .83), and positive community

identity (M=4.4, SD= .72).

Among all items in CQL survey, a principal factor analysis was conducted to identify the

underlying dimensions of the CQL perceived by the trail users. Results generate two factors

among fourteen CQL items. The eigenvalues suggested the two-factor solution explained 53.4

percent of the overall variance. Two major factors are recognized as micro and macro domain.

Micro domain includes items regarding individual social, physical, and psychological benefits

(e.g. contribute to personal health, fitness, social interaction, community pride). On the other

hand, macro domain encompasses items involved larger scales of community life, such as

economic and better surroundings.

Discussion and Implications

This research project has conceptual and empirical contributions in leisure and recreation

research. Conceptually, the current project extended our understanding of physical and social

benefits of local trails as an asset of recreational opportunities in the community. Furthermore,

results show the existence that trails could have psychological benefits for residents as the source

of internal pride within the community. Beyond the individual level, economic growth and

environmental conversation were also recognized by the participants. Results indicated that two

distinct domains were generated from the CQL items with trails users including micro and macro

level of community’s quality of life. The contribution of community’s quality of life mostly

comes through the interaction between individual and the environment. This finding is in line

with current literature regarding ecological perspectives on creating an active living community

(Sallis et al, 2006). Thus, recreational opportunities within the community contribute the quality

of life as an entity and create a healthier living environment.

Empirically, specific issues regarding maintenance and infrastructure were noted as

considerations to enhance a trail’s ability to facilitate strengthened social interaction. In addition,

users who value the trail as a safe route to school tended to visit the trail on a more regular basis.

Those same people then may have the potential to use it more for active transportation. Further

in-depth investigation will be needed for future study.

With results indicating that trails contribute positively to aspects of CQL, municipal park

departments should capitalize on marketing and promotion opportunities to encourage increased

use. Overall, the concept of CQL is reflecting the broader picture of recreational opportunities

within the community because any factor that draws participants to engage actively ultimately

encourages physical activity and healthy life styles.

William D. Ramos, Indiana University, (812) 856-7161, wramos@indiana.edu

Selected References

Sallis, J. F., Cervero, R. B., Ascher, W., Henderson, K. A., Kraft, M. K., & Kerr, J. (2006). An

ecological approach to creating active living communities. Annual Review of Public

Health, 27, 297-322.

Shafer, C. S., Lee, B. K., & Turner, S. (2000). A tale of three greenway trails: user perceptions

related to quality of life. Landscape and Urban Planning,49(3), 163-178.

Payne, L., & Orsega-Smith, E. (2010). Relations between leisure, health and wellness. Leisure,

Health and Wellness: Making the Connection, 21-29.

CULTURALLY-APPROPRIATE RECREATION PROGRAMS AMONG INDIGENOUS

YOUTH: EVIDENCE TOWARDS HEALTH RESILIENCY

Nuno F. Ribeiro, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Introduction

The health status of indigenous peoples is significantly lower than that of the remaining

population. Among the former, indigenous youth are at considerably higher risk for health

concerns such as tobacco, alcohol, and drug consumption, risky sexual intercourse, physical

inactivity, depression, and suicide (Elton-Marshall, Leatherdale, & Burkhalter, 2011; Shields,

Wong, Mann, Jolly, Haase, et al., 2004; Smith, Findlay, & Crompton, 2010). Most studies on

cultural determinants of health among indigenous youth have used traditional approaches which,

while providing rich insights into the health plight of indigenous youth, are insufficient to

provide substantive and generalizable evidence that will allow for effective health policy

formulation, intervention, and ultimately mitigation of indigenous youth health inequalities. To

complicate matters further, indigenous health research poses unique methodological challenges.

Given the cultural specificities of indigenous peoples, and the traumatic effects of the colonizing

practices, indigenous peoples are understandably reticent to engage in health research that

employs conventional epidemiological models (Kirmeyer, Simpson, & Cargo, 2003). There is,

thus, dire need for culturally-relevant, indigenous youth health research that incorporates

indigenous knowledge so that future health interventions are successful.

One of the ways such research can be accomplished is through the delivery of health-based

recreational programs, where the ultimate goal is to educate and motivate positive health

behaviors via the provision and inculcation of recreational practices (Shediac-Rizkallah & Bone,

1998). A vast literature exists which shows that recreational settings are ideal vehicles through

which to encourage positive health behaviors and address public health issues among youth

(Bedimo-Rung, Mowen, & Cohen, 2005; Caldwell, 2000; Spangler & Caldwell, 2007). While

literature on the effectiveness of such programs is scarcer (Cunningham & Beneforti, 2005;

Lavallee, 2007), there is solid evidence that health-based recreational programs are effective

among disenfranchised and minority youth (Caldwell & Smith, 1995; Green, Kleiber, & Tarrant,

2000).

However, the delivery of relevant, culturally-sensitive recreational programs to indigenous

youth populations presents unique challenges for practitioners, both indigenous and non-

indigenous. Often lacking adequate material and human resources, many recreational

opportunities delivered to indigenous peoples are simply a replication of programs delivered

elsewhere, without regard given to the cultural specificities of the indigenous cultures where they

are to be implemented (Perez-Verdin, Lee, & Chavez, 2004). To add insult to injury, many

recreational activities take place in land ancestrally belonging to indigenous peoples that

colonialist practices have displaced (Butler & Hinch, 2007; Colchester, 2004). Little wonder,

then, that most recreational programs targeting indigenous peoples, when delivered without input

and/or supervision from the local communities, are poised for failure (Nelson, Abbott, &

Macdonald, 2010).

Purpose and Methods

This paper discusses the outcomes and implications of an ongoing (2012-present)

recreational and educational program conducted with the youth (n=140) of eleven indigenous

communities in Southern Canada. The goal of this study was to investigate the impacts of a

recreation program delivered to indigenous youth that was designed and delivered with the help

of the youth themselves, with the supervision of trained youth and medical personnel and local

Elders. The program consisted in the delivery of daylong bi-monthly, arts-based, interactive

workshops that focused on several health topics chosen by the youth. The main goal of the

study was to elicit indigenous knowledge concerning cultural health beliefs and practices and

contrast it with behavioral accounts of indigenous youth’s health outcomes. Specific objectives

were to allow the youth to define their culture(s) in their own terms (i.e., their cultural beliefs),

their knowledge of the same (i.e., cultural competence), as well as measure its impact on their

health behaviors, both prescriptive and proscriptive. We hypothesized that a) the youth’s level of

cultural knowledge had a significant impact on the youth’s health behaviors and b) that higher

levels of cultural competence would predict lower incidences of negative health behaviors.

This study was conducted in three separate stages, using multi-modal methods of data

collection and analysis (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010). In an initial stage, ethnographic fieldwork

and interviews with key informants by youth workers elicited a list of over 100 items that were

of concern to the youth living in the eleven communities under study. Of those, twenty health-

related items were selected by the researchers. Subsequent interviews with the youth added four

more items to the list (Abuse, Food Safety, Gangs, and Suicide). In a second stage, use of critical

incident technique (Butterfield, Borgen, Amundson, & Maglio, 2005) and pile sorting allowed

the researchers to emically solicit the communal ranking of these items according to their

importance in the youth’s lives. In a third stage, the youth were asked to respond individually to

cultural behavior questionnaires, evaluating each of the twenty-four items using a six-point

Likert scale constructed after the cultural consensus and consonance models described in

Dressler & Bindon (2000) and Weller (2007). Data were analyzed following procedures detailed

in Weller (2007) and Dressler (2012).

Results, Discussion, & Directions for Future Research

The findings of this study point towards the increasing necessity and validity of adopting

emic, culturally-appropriate approaches to the delivery of recreation programs to indigenous

peoples, on one hand; and the impact of such programs on health resiliency, which validates and

extends the work that previous scholars have done linking cultural knowledge with health

resiliency (e.g., Bals, Turi, Skre, & Kvernmo, 2011; Wexler, DiFluvio, & Burke, 2009). Indeed,

results indicate a strong association between individual levels of cultural knowledge, and self-

reported health behaviors (both prescriptive and proscriptive). Moreover, we found that youth

who exhibited greater degrees of cultural competency self-reported lower instances of negative

health behaviors (e.g., Alcohol, Drugs, Unprotected Sex), and higher instances of positive health

behaviors (e.g., Gun Safety, Healthy Food Consumption). Lastly, the youth consistently ranked

recreational and cultural opportunities for spending their leisure time as important over the

course of several years, and recognized the value of the workshops wherein the research was

conducted as valuable; the youth’s continuous support of the research objectives and the

researchers themselves led to Elder and community buy-in. For practitioners, these findings

should spur renewed interest in working more closely with the communities they serve, and

adopt an emic, culturally-sensitive approach to the planning, design, and implementation of

programs aimed at indigenous youth. These findings also add to the growing literature devoted to

cross-cultural understanding of youth behavior within the context of the parks and recreation

profession (e.g., Stodolska, Shinew, & Floyd, 2013; Stodolska & Walker, 2007; Walker, 2009).

Nuno F. Ribeiro, Department of Recreation, Sport & Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign, Champaign, IL, (217) 300-0336, nuno@illinois.edu

Selected References

Bals, M., Turi, A. L., Skre, I., & Kvernmo, S. (2011). The relationship between internalizing and

externalizing symptoms and cultural resilience factors in Indigenous Sami youth from

Arctic Norway. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 70(1).

Bedimo-Rung, A. L., Mowen, A. J., & Cohen, D. A. (2005). The significance of parks to

physical activity and public health: a conceptual model. American Journal of Preventive

Medicine, 28(2), 159-168.

Caldwell, L. L., & Smith, E. A. (1995). Health behaviors of leisure alienated youth. Loisir et

Société/Society and Leisure, 18(1), 143-156.

Colchester, M. (2004). Conservation policy and indigenous peoples. Environmental Science &

Policy, 7(3), 145-153.

Cunningham, J., & Beneforti, M. (2005). Investigating indicators for measuring the health and

social impact of sport and recreation programs in Australian indigenous communities.

International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 40(1), 89-98.

Dressler, W. W. & Bindon, J. R. (2000). The health consequences of cultural consonance.

American Anthropologist, 102(2), 244-260.

Elton-Marshall, T., Leatherdale, S. T., & Burkhalter, R. (2011). Tobacco, alcohol and illicit drug

use among Aboriginal youth living off-reserve: Results from the Youth Smoking Survey.

Canadian Medical Association Journal, 183(8), 480-486.

Green, G. T., Kleiber, D. A., & Tarrant, M. A. (2000). The effect of an adventure-based

recreation program on development of resiliency in low income minority youth. Journal

of Park and Recreation Administration, 18(3).

Kirmeyer, L. J., Simpson, C., & Cargo, M. (2003). Healing traditions: Culture, community and

mental health promotion with Canadian Aboriginal Peoples. Australasian Psychiatry, 11,

S15-S23.

Nelson, A., Abbott, R., & Macdonald, D. (2010). Indigenous Austalians and physical activity:

Using a social–ecological model to review the literature. Health Education Research,

25(3), 498-509.

Payne, L., Orsega-Smith, B., Godbey, G., & Roy, M. (1998). Local parks and the health of older

adults: Results from an exploratory study. Parks & Recreation, 33(10), 64-71.

Shediac-Rizkallah, M. C., & Bone, L. R. (1998). Planning for the sustainability of community-

based health programs: Conceptual frameworks and future directions for research,

practice and policy. Health Education Research, 13(1), 87-108.

Spangler, K. J., & Caldwell, L. L. (2007). The implications of public policy related to parks,

recreation, and public health: A focus on physical activity. Journal of Physical Activity &

Health, 4, S64.

Smith, D., Varcoe, C., & Edwards, N. (2005). Turning around the intergenerational impact of

residential schools on Aboriginal People: Implications for health policy and practice.

Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 37(4), 38-60.

Weller, S. C. (2007). Cultural consensus theory: Applications and frequently asked questions.

Field Methods, 19(4), 339-368.

Wexler, L. M., DiFluvio, G., & Burke, T. K. (2009). Resilience and marginalized youth: Making

a case for personal and collective meaning-making as part of resilience research in public

health. Social Science & Medicine, 69(4), 565-570.

PROMOTING NON-COGNITIVE FACTORS THROUGH SCHOOL/RECREATION

PROGRAM PARTNERSHIPS

Dan Richmond, University of Utah

Jim Sibthorp, University of Utah

Sarah Annarella, National Outdoor Leadership School

Stephanie Ferri, The Archer School for Girls

Research from the last few years underscores the importance of the intrapersonal and

interpersonal factors that support achievement in the classroom and beyond (Dweck, Walton, &

Cohen, 2011; Farrington et al., 2012; Yeager & Walton, 2011). This set of beliefs, mindsets, and

behaviors (e.g., perseverance, tenacity, grit, social skills, self-regulation) are often referred to as

non-cognitive factors, as they are not measured directly by traditional academic assessments

(Shechtman, DeBarger, Dornsife, Rosier, & Yarnall, 2013). There is a growing body of evidence

that programs that promote non-cognitive factors may help students overcome challenges in

school and other contexts (Shechtman et al., 2013). Participation in these programs has been

linked to improved academic motivation, increased confidence and self-efficacy, a sense of

belonging, and improved academic performance (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, &

Schellinger, 2011; Farb & Matjasko, 2012). The majority of the research on non-cognitive

factors has focused on classroom-based interventions, extra-curricular activities, and out-of-

school-time (OST) programs (Farrington et al., 2012). Despite the merits of this research,

programmers and educators know very little about how schools can and should effectively

design and use recreation programs as venues for fostering non-cognitive factors.

Outdoor recreation programs seem well-positioned to promote this contemporary collection

of non-cognitive factors, particularly those related to self-systems and interpersonal

competencies (Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997; Sibthorp, Furman, Paisley, & Gookin,

2008). Yet there is need for more research on the lasting impact of outdoor recreation program

participation on intact groups of students (Sibthorp & Jostad, 2014). Therefore, the primary aim

of this study was to better understand the form, function, and delivery of an effective outdoor

recreation program/school partnership targeting factors that support student success. Specifically,

we wanted to investigate how shared outdoor recreation experiences among adolescent girls

attending the same school may contribute to student development and school culture and

examine how a common transfer environment influences long-term outcomes.

Methods

This study included interviews with 31 students and eight faculty from an all-girls private

school in Los Angeles. Students had participated in a multi-night backpacking experience

designed and run by the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) within the previous year.

The composition of the participants roughly matched the school-wide makeup, with

approximately 37.5% of the interviewees representing minority populations (compared to 39%

school-wide) and 25% receiving financial assistance (24% school-wide). Faculty participants had

served as chaperones or were closely involved in the program’s design. This school sends nearly

all of their 7th

, 9th

, and 11th

grade students on five night backpacking courses with the objectives

of fostering a sense of school community and developing leadership skills.

Using a grounded theory approach, data were collected via semi-structured interviews using

open-ended questions designed to gain a deeper understanding of the outdoor recreation

experiences and outcomes, with follow up questions used to clarify responses and elicit

additional thought. Upon completion of the interviews, the PI transcribed the data which then

went through three stages of analysis including open, focused, and axial coding techniques that

helped identify themes and connections within the data (Miles et al., 2014; Saldana, 2013).

Results

Students and faculty members described a complex process where the challenges and peak

experiences of the outdoor recreation experience led to individual and group outcomes. What

emerged through the process of data analysis was that these experiences have profound impacts

on three broad thematic areas: social connectedness, student sense of self (i.e., identity and

related self-systems), and the development of important leadership and communication

competencies. Key mechanisms for program outcomes included personal and shared challenges,

being away from technology and other distractions, a novel environment, opportunities for

interpersonal connection, practicing leadership and communication in a dynamic context,

mentoring and coaching, and peak experiences. In addition, the common transfer environment

contributed to a common school identity, provided opportunities to reinforce lessons from the

experience, and allowed for continuing new and transformed relationships among peers and

between students and faculty. Findings provided a foundation for a theoretical concept model for

promoting non-cognitive factors through school/recreation program partnerships (Figure 1).

While this model is illustrative of the findings, generalizability is limited by both the study

design and the distinct nature of both NOLS and this specific private school.

Implications for Practice

This study revealed that the outdoor recreation program participants acquired valuable skills,

made lasting social connections with peers and faculty, and reflected upon and reevaluated

personal values, beliefs, attitudes and overall self-concept. This type of partnership between a

school and a recreation program provider allows for the development and cultivation of critical

non-cognitive factors. Though ambitious and resource intensive, this approach may serve as a

model that supports the educational needs of adolescent girls as they pass through important

transitions in their educational pathways. Indeed many of the reported outcomes align with key

non-cognitive factors identified in educational literature (see Farrington et al., 2012).

Recreation programs looking to foster non-cognitive factors might intentionally incorporate

specific elements and opportunities. Several elements warrant consideration: a) personal and

shared challenges, b) opportunities to unplug from day-to-day life, c) a sense of novelty, d)

opportunities for social connections, e) opportunities to practice essential non-cognitive skills

such as self-discipline, f) mentoring via both staff and other participants, and g) an enjoyable and

challenging environment. These elements are common in outdoor and adventure program models

(cf. McKenzie, 2003; Walsh & Golins, 1976). However, when outdoor recreation programs work

with school partners, programs can increase their impact as a shared school environment

provides additional consistency and reinforcement. Schools also possess awareness of

predictable transitions in adolescents’ educational trajectories that many stand-alone recreation

programs lack. In addition, in many recreation programs the social group dissipates at program

conclusion. This dissolution of the social group and lack of continuity inevitably erodes some of

the value as the social structures and application contexts change. For recreation programmers,

effective partnerships with schools provide an intriguing route leading to lasting impacts that

address specific educational needs.

Dan Richmond, Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism, University of Utah, Salt Lake

City, UT (612) 296-9849, dan.richmond@utah.edu.

Figure 1 Promoting non-cognitive factors through school/recreation program partnerships

Selected References

Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The

impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-

based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–32.

Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). Academic tenacity: Mindsets and skills

that promote long-term learning. Seattle, WA.

Farb, A. F., & Matjasko, J. L. (2012). Recent advances in research on school-based

extracurricular activities and adolescent development. Developmental Review, 32(1), 1–48.

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not magic. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 267–301.

INTERSECTING MEN’S FRIENDSHIPS AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

Jeremy Robinett, Western Illinois University

Pervasive expectations about masculinities that permeate experiences so thoroughly as to

appear natural are often collectively theorized as hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 2005). A

central tenant of hegemonic masculinity is that certain enactments of masculinities are more or

less rewarded in given contexts and that through lived experiences men learn to recognize to

what degree they are able and willing to meet perceived expectations. Social practices privilege

some bodies based on their enactments of masculinities more than others and hierarchically

position men in relation to other men and women (Connell, 2005). This social positioning often

occurs at the intersections between understandings of gender, friendship and leisure activities.

Empirical studies have demonstrated that leisure activities and friendships impact men’s identity

formation, as well as mental and physical health. While women’s leisure and interpersonal

relationships have been examined as negotiation sites for gendered expectations, there have been

few recent empirical studies exploring how men’s friendships may play a role in negotiating

them.

Physical bodies, social connections and ways of thinking are developed and changed through

leisure activities and friendships. Friendships cannot form if interactions do not occur. Who gets

to play, what they get to play, who they get to play with, and where they get to play are

important questions given the salience of leisure activities and friendship in the physical, mental

and emotional development and life-long health of men (Addis, 2011; Caldwell & Tibbits, 2010;

Kleiber, 1999; Pollack, 1998). Questioning the institutional and social practices of power that

mediate leisure activities and friendships sheds light on their importance in meaning-making, as

well as personal and social development. Rather than positioning them as freely chosen

individual patterns of behavior, the purpose of this study was to contribute to a more socially just

world by critically describing and explaining patterns of understanding and behaviors that exist

at the intersections of men’s understandings about masculinities, leisure activities, and friendship

practices.

Methods

Over the course of a year, I systematically observed six White, college-educated men

between the ages of 21-35 as they engaged with their friends in public leisure activities. I took

field notes and then conducted follow up interviews with the informants to explore and

interrogate ways men experience and negotiate social expectations related to masculinities,

leisure activities and friendship practices. I used participant observations to situate the men

within their friend groups and to observe common behaviors engaged in by the men and their

friends in public leisure activities. I used structured and semi-structured interviews to learn what

meanings the informants attached to behaviors I observed. On average, I observed and

interviewed each informant twice a month. Data collection and constant comparative analysis

was done through the use of NVivo. I purposively recruited and selected men based on their

categorical belonging to groups previous empirical research has demonstrated as uniquely

situated by hegemonic masculinity. All informants were selected based on their embodiments of

different gender expressions, sexual orientations and levels of physical ability. Among the

informants were men who identified as masculine, feminine, heterosexual, gay, queer, able-

bodied, and disabled.

Results

Clear patterns of understandings and behaviors emerged that intersected all of the

informants’ lived experiences. Lifelong sex and gender-based segregation in leisure activities

moderated the formation and maintenance of their friendships. Leisure activities were spaces

where shared knowledge was created that increased the informants’ perceived levels of certainty

in interactions that allowed them to negotiate masculinity expectations through a wider range of

inclusive behaviors. Perceived uncertainties about themselves, others, and the importance of a

given relationship were the most often identified reasons that the informants and their friends

chose to not interact with others. Perceptions of possible sexual attraction influenced the

informants’ interactions with women, but not with other men. Perceptions about shared interests

and ability-levels were the most salient mediators of the informant’s willingness to interact with

women and other men. This often contributed to marginalization of those perceived as

embodying different sexes, gender expressions and levels of ability, but not always sexual

orientations. Adaptive sport and emancipatory research emerged as spaces where interactions

could be facilitated in ways that challenged hegemonic masculinity expectations and contributed

to more inclusive embodiments of masculinities.

Discussion

The informants’ understandings of masculinities, abilities and sexual orientations were based

on perceptions that changed contextually as they learned more about the people with whom they

were engaging. Some identities were assumed more often than questioned. For example, men in

this study rarely asked others about their sexual orientations and/or ability levels. Instead these

were often assumed based on perceptions of gender expression and/or involvement in leisure

activities. This suggests that scholars should be mindful that different identities may be more or

less salient in specific contexts. No one identity was consistently the most salient for the

informants in this study; instead, the level of perceived certainty the informants had about given

contexts shaped the degree to which they engaged in a variety of behaviors. These perceptions

mediated with whom and how they interacted in specific contexts. Most often the men in this

study chose to engage with others they perceived as sharing abilities and interests. A desire to

avoid uncertainty contributed to some of the men in this study interacting less with women and

men perceived as different. Leisure activities served as important spaces for not only reifying,

but also challenging, hegemonic understandings of masculinity. They were also important spaces

for the formation and maintenance of the informants’ friendships across perceived similarities

and differences. In these ways, men’s friendships intersected with social justice.

Implications for Practice

At a practitioner level, leisure spaces were both positive and negative sites for personal,

mental and social development in the lives of the informants. Rather than viewing all leisure

activities as egalitarian and positive, they should be recognized as potentially negative spaces

where involvement can reify normative ideologies and practices of marginalization. Adaptive

sport may provide more just opportunities for individuals to negotiate sex, gender and ability in

ways less dependent on the privileging of certain bodies more than others. Adaptive sport may

offer opportunities for challenging hegemonic expectations and understandings of masculinities

that contribute to marginalization.

Jeremy Robinett, Recreation, Park and Tourism Administration, Western Illinois University,

Macomb, IL, (309) 298-2817, jl-robinett@wiu.edu

Selected References

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Connell, R.W. (2005). Masculinities 2nd

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Kivel, B. D., & Kleiber, D. A. (2000). Leisure in the Identity Formation of Lesbian/Gay Youth:

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Kleiber, D.A. (1999). Leisure Experience and Human Development: A Dialectical

Interpretation. New York, NY: Basic Books.

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Leisure Studies. (pp. 459-474). New York, NY: Macmillan Publishers, Ltd.

LEISURE ACTIVITIES, OPTIMISM, AND PERSONAL GROWTH OF OLDER

ADULTS

Jungsu Ryu, Texas A&M University

Jinmoo Heo, Texas A&M University

Sanghee Chun, Brock University

Youngkill Lee, Calvin College

Byung-Gook Kim, Daegu University

The benefits of active participation in leisure activities have received growing attention as

more studies conclude that such involvement in activities increases the well-being of older

adults. For example, Chang, Wray, and Lin’s study (2014) using a national sample of older

adults in the U.S. suggested that an increase in the frequency of participation in leisure activities

is associated with decreased level of depression. Optimism, the innate tendency to expect

positive outcomes in various life domains, has been identified as one of the important indicators

for predicting well-being (e.g., Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). Research has shown that

optimistic older adults are more likely to experience lower levels of depression and higher levels

of life satisfaction, happiness, physical health, and mental health (Olson, Fanning, Awick,

Chung, & McAuley, 2014). Furthermore, Ryff (1989) developed a theoretical framework for

well-being and suggested that personal growth is one of the core components of positive

psychological functioning. Personal growth is the extent to which individuals develop potential

by growing and expanding as a person (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002). Previous studies have

documented that personal growth tends to decline with age (e.g., Ryff, Keyes, & Hughes, 2003).

The impact of participation across various age groups is yet to be determined considering the

divergent findings in regard to the relationship between age differences and well-being in late

adulthood. This study examined the contribution of leisure activities to optimism and personal

growth. As a secondary aim, we sought to explore age group differences in older adults’

optimism and personal growth.

Method

We employed the data from the Alameda County Health and Ways of Living Study. This

study design was based on a stratified random sample of non-institutionalized residents of

Alameda County, California. The final sample consisted of 1,600 individuals. The participants’

ages ranged from 60 to 99 years (M = 71.66, SD = 8.11). For the present study, the total sample

was divided into three age groups; the young-old (60-69), old-old (70-79), and oldest-old (80+).

We used the variables of type of leisure activities, optimism, and personal growth. Leisure

activities were: working in the garden, going out to plays, movies, or other entertainment, going

to sports events, visiting family or friends, and volunteer activities. The optimism items were

assessed using six questionnaire items from Scheier, Carver, and Bridges’s (1994) study.

Personal growth was assessed using three items taken from Ryff’s (1989) study.

Results

The MANOVA results revealed significant differences among the age groups on the outcome

variables. [Wilks’ λ = .968, F (4, 3044) = 12.50, p < .001, multivariate η2 = .016]. Group

differences were significant for optimism [F (2, 1523) = 18.74, p < .001, η2 = .024], and

personal growth [F (2, 1523) = 17.96, p < .001, η2 = .023]. Tukey post hoc tests showed that the

young-old group reported significantly higher levels of optimism and personal growth than other

groups whereas oldest-old group had the lowest levels of outcome variables. The ability of the

leisure activity variables to predict optimism was the highest for the old-old group. In the young-

old group, demographic variables explained 8.9% of the variance in optimism. The addition of

leisure activity variables added an additional 10% of variance in optimism. In this model,

physical exercise and visiting family or friends added significantly to the prediction of optimism.

In the old-old group, demographic variables explained 8.1% of the variance in optimism. Going

out to plays, movies, or other entertainment, physical exercise, visiting family or friends, and

volunteer activities emerged as predictors for old-old group (R2= .203). In the oldest-old group,

demographic variables did not contribute any variance to optimism. Only going out to plays,

movies, or other entertainment predicted optimism in the oldest-old group (R2= .082). The old-

old group demonstrated the highest predicting ability of the leisure activity variables regarding

personal growth. In the young-old age group, the demographic variables entered in step 1

explained 2.7% of personal growth variance. When personal growth was regressed on leisure

activity variables, going out to plays, movies, or other entertainment, physical exercise, visiting

family or friends, and volunteer activities were significant predictors (R2= .140). In the old-old

age group, age and income were each independently predictive of personal growth (R2= .041).

Those who participated in physical exercise, visited family or friends, and volunteered more

frequently had higher levels of personal growth (R2= .165). For the oldest-old group, the

contribution of demographic variables on variance of personal growth was not observed. In step

2, going out to plays, movies, or other entertainment was identified as statistically significant

predictor of personal growth (R2= .082).

Discussion

The findings of this study support the results of the previous studies in that positive aspects

of well-being decrease as people age (e.g., Cho, Martin, & Poon, 2013). The young-old group

demonstrated the highest scores on both optimism and personal growth, whereas the oldest-old

group showed the lowest scores on the outcome measures. Volunteer activity was one of the

most significant factors contributing to personal growth. Consistent with Warburton and Stirling

(2007), the young-old and old-old groups, who tended to demonstrate higher physical and

functional abilities than the oldest-old group, were more likely to volunteer regularly, which

significantly contributed to personal growth. The positive impact of doing physical exercise and

visiting family and friends on the outcome variables of this study appears to be consistent among

the young-old and old-old group. This study showed that spending time with one’s own family

and close friends is an important contributor to personal growth (Bishop, 2006). Older adults

tend to have smaller social networks and experience loneliness as a result of a feeling of social

isolation (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, & Brashears, 2006). Therefore, social interaction with

supportive others becomes a vital recourse for experiencing a sense of acceptance, affirming

social value in life, and eventually experiencing personal growth (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004).

Going out for plays, movies, or other entertainment becomes a more prevalent activity as

individuals transition to the oldest-old group. The results of this study are consistent with

findings of Nilsson et al. (2006) who reported that the oldest-olds are likely to experience well-

being from social activities, cultural activities, and watching TV or movies.

Implications for Practice

Senior service coordinators can organize and provide more appropriate programs or

recommendation in consideration of age differences in late adulthood to experience personal

growth and optimism. Young-old and old-old groups should be encouraged to engage in

volunteer activities in order to experience personal growth and healthy aging.

Jungsu Ryu, Texas A&M University, 979-739-6925, jryu@tamu.edu

Table 1 Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Optimism

Young old (60-69) Old old (70-79) Oldest old (80+)

Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Age .015 (.041) .003 (.039) -.107* (.044) -.078 (.042) .053 (.056) .101 (.057)

Income .298*** (.035) .216*** (.035) .257*** (.038) .172*** (.037) .105 (.066) .084 (.067)

Going out to plays, movies, or other entertainment

.078 (.210) .107* (.203) .212** (.360)

Doing physical exercise .114** (.177) .191*** (.175) -.034 (.328)

Going to sports events .003 (.193) .029 (.198) .061 (.410)

Visiting family or friends .191*** (.235) .171*** (.240) .069 (.420)

volunteer activities .076 (.167) .110* (.177) .025 (.329)

Working in the garden .053 (.158) .034 (.158) .055 (.280)

F 30.700*** 17.853*** 23.299*** 16.588*** 1.656 2.484*

R2 .088 .185 .081 .203 .014 .082

Note. Standardized regression coefficients reported, standard errors in parentheses *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Table 2

Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Personal Growth

Young old (60-69) Old old (70-79) Oldest old (80+)

Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Age -.061 (.022) -.070 (.021) -.140** (.025) -.124** (.024) -.092 (.030) -.037 (.029)

Income .147*** (.018) .056 (.018) .139** (.021) .056 (.021) .008 (.034) -.040 (.034)

Going out to plays, movies, or other entertainment

.112** (.112) -.080 (.115) .199** (.187)

Doing physical exercise .126** (.094) .115** (.099) .083 (.168)

Going to sports events .036 (.103) .055 (.112) .056 (.212)

Visiting family or friends .145*** (.125) .160 *** (.135) .078 (.217)

volunteer activities .150*** (.089) .187*** (.100) .011 (.172)

Working in the garden .019 (.084) .058 (.089) .094 (.144)

F 9.057*** 12.975*** 11.498*** 13.124*** .995 3.505**

R2 .027 .140 .041 .165 .008 .110

Note. Standardized regression coefficients reported, standard errors in parentheses *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Selected References

Bishop, A. J. (2006). Age and gender differences in adaptation and subjective well-being of older

adults residing in monastic religious communities. Pastoral Psychology, 55, 131-143.

Carstensen, L. L., Turan, B., Scheibe, S., Ram, N., Ersner-Hershfield, H., Samanez-Larkin, G.

R., Brooks K. P., & Nesselroade, J. R. (2011). Emotional experience improves with age:

evidence based on over 10 years of experience sampling. Psychology and Aging, 26(1),

21-33.

Chang, P.-J., Wray, L., & Lin, Y. (2014). Social relationships, leisure activity, and health in

older adults. Health Psychology, 33(6), 516-523.

Chen, K.-Y. (2014). The relationship between serious leisure characteristics and subjective well-

being of older adult volunteers: The moderating effect of spousal support. Social

Indicators Research, 119(1), 197-210.

Cho, J., Martin, P., & Poon, L. W. (2013). Age group differences in positive and negative affect

among oldest-old Adults: Findings from the Georgia Centenarian Study. International

Journal of Aging & Human Development, 77(4), 261-288.

Clarke, P. J., Marshall, V. W., Ryff, C. D., & Rosenthal, C. J. (2000). Well-being in Canadian

seniors: Findings from the Canadian study of health and aging. Canadian Journal on

Aging/La Revue canadienne du vieillissement, 19(2), 139-159.

Ho, H. C. Y., Yeung, D. Y., & Kwok, S. Y. C. L. (2014). Development and evaluation of the

positive psychology intervention for older adults. Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(3),

187-197.

Jopp, D., Rott, C., & Oswald, F. (2008). Valuation of life in old and very old age: the role of

sociodemographic, social, and health resources for positive adaptation. The

Gerontologist, 48(5), 646-658.

Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: the empirical

encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 1007.

Ku, P.-W., Fox, K., Chang, C.-Y., Sun, W.-J., & Chen, L.-J. (2014). Cross-sectional and

longitudinal associations of categories of physical activities with dimensions of

subjective well-being in Taiwanese older adults. Social Indicators Research, 117(3), 705-

718.

McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Brashears, M. E. (2006). Social isolation in America:

Changes in core discussion networks over two decades. American Sociological Review,

71, 353–375.

Nilsson, I., Löfgren, B., Fisher, A. G., & Bernspång, B. (2006). Focus on leisure repertoire in the

oldest old: the umeå 85+ study. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 25(5), 391-405.

Ryff, C. D., Keyes, C. L., & Hughes, D. L. (2003). Status inequalities, perceived discrimination,

and eudaimonic well-being: do the challenges of minority life hone purpose and

growth? Journal of health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 275-291.

Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological inquiry,

9(1), 1-28.

Simone, P. M., & Haas, A. L. (2013). Frailty, leisure activity and functional status in older

adults: Relationship with subjective well being. Clinical Gerontologist, 36(4), 275-293.

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and

empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1-18.

Warburton, J., & Stirling, C. (2007). Factors affecting volunteering among older rural and city

dwelling adults in Australia. Educational Gerontology, 33, 23-43.

TYPES OF LEISURE ACTIVITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS AMONG

KOREAN OLDER ADULTS

Jungsu Ryu, Texas A&M University

Jinmoo Heo, Texas A&M University

Studies have revealed that participation in leisure activities plays a key role in people’s

physical and mental health (Newman, Tay, & Diener, 2014; Rueggeberg, Wrosch, & Miller,

2012). The impact of leisure activities in the daily life of older adults has been documented, and

empirical researches have demonstrated that participating in leisure activities have contributed to

older adults’ overall well-being and health (Chang, Wray, & Lin, 2014; Thompson, Zack, Krahn,

Andersen, & Barile, 2012). Kahneman, Krueger, Schkade, Schwarz and Stone (2006) argued that

how people spend their free time is associated with subjective satisfaction, rather than how much

free time they have. In other words, engaging in meaningful activities is a crucial element in

obtaining well-being. The concept of flow explains how and why certain activities become

meaningful (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975), and scholars have demonstrated some contextual and

personal factors that are conducive to experiencing flow among older adults (e.g., Payne,

Jackson, Noh, & Stine-Morrow, 2011). Happiness refers to experiencing joy or positive well-

being as well as the sense that life is meaningful (Lyubomirsky, 2007). In recent years, there has

been a growing body of literature that examined various environmental predictors (e.g., time

spent in outdoors, social interaction) of happiness. Furthermore, scholars have reported on the

contributing role of leisure activities to happiness (Newman, Tay, & Diener, 2014). It is

generally agreed that participating in leisure activities is instrumental in pursuing a meaningful

life (Godbey, 2007). This role becomes salient when individuals intensively concentrate on the

activities and feel exhilarated (Pitt, 2014), and participating in diverse leisure activities gives

them greater satisfaction (Greenfield & Marks, 2004; Wang & Wong, 2014). While general

findings suggest that engaging in leisure activities is likely to promote well-being of older adults

(Lampinen, Heikkinen, Kauppinen, & Heikkinen, 2006), most studies have mainly focused on

physical activities. Since cultural activities, hobbies and indoor activities, and volunteer activities

are also significant factors in promoting well-being among older adults, further investigation is

needed to explore the impact of specific leisure activities. The present study addresses gaps in

the body of literature and contributes to positive psychology and leisure studies to identify

specific types of leisure activities that are associated with enhancing flow and happiness among

older adults.

Methods

A convenience sample of 188 participants was recruited from senior centers in Korea. The

sample included 67 males (35.6%) and 121 (64.3%) females with ages ranging from 60 to 90

years (M = 74.99, SD = 5.49). Flow was measured using the Flow Short Scale (Rheinberg,

Vollmeyer, & Engeser, 2003) which consists of ten items (7-point Likert-type scale). Cronbach’s

alpha in this study was .914. To determine happiness, each participant answered the question

“Do you feel happy in general?” This question was adapted from Abdel-Khalek’s (2006) study

(10-point Likert-type scale). Participation in leisure activity was assessed using a modified

version of Ragheb’s (1980) leisure participation scale. This was computed based on the reported

frequency of participation in the following activities: outdoor activity, physical activity, hobbies

and indoor activity, cultural activity, home-centered and social activity, and volunteering (4-

point Likert-type scale).

Results

The results from Pearson correlation analysis show that there were a number of significant

correlations among types of leisure activities, flow, and happiness. Flow was positively related to

three leisure activities: physical activity (r= .363), cultural activity (r= .351), and home-centered

and social activity (r= .420). Happiness was significantly associated with most leisure activities,

excluding outdoor activities, and correlation coefficient ranged from .153 to .367. Separate

multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine predictive relationships between

leisure activities and outcome variables (i.e., flow and happiness). The results presented home-

centered and social activities (β =.264, p<.001), physical activities (β =.216, p<.01) and cultural

activities (β =.223, p<.01) were strong predictors of flow. Overall, 27 percent of the variance in

flow was explained (F= 11.16, p<.001). For happiness, cultural activities (β =.161, p<.05),

home-centered and social activities (β =.257, p<.01) and volunteer activities (β =.143, p<.01)

were positively associated with happiness, which accounted for 20.6 percent of the variance in

predicting happiness (F = 7.82, p<.001).

Discussion

This study extended the understanding of the associations between specific types of leisure

activities, flow experience, and happiness among older adults. Participants in this study reported

higher levels of flow when they participated in physical, cultural, and home-centered and social

activities. Ample research has provided evidence in regards to experiencing flow in physical

activities including sports, exercise, and dance (Jackson & Eklund, 2002). A closer examination

of data showed that older adults in this study participate in physical activities more often than

any other leisure activity. Our findings corresponds to Pitt’s (2014) study, which suggested

participating in garden activities led to experiencing flow state. Relating to cultural activity,

cultural and educational displays may provide individuals opportunities to experience flow

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; McIntyre, 2011). Visiting museums and galleries place the individual

in an experiential space where they can find a meaningful sense of self and personal

development. As Graef (2000) reported, experiencing flow is not limited to structured activities.

In other words, engaging in trivial activities in daily life fits the flow model to some extent. It

could be inferred from the results that participants are likely to experience at least some

components of flow in cultural activities, and home-centered and social activities. Our finding is

also consistent with Dieser, Christenson, and Davis-Gage’s (2014) claim that engaging in

quilting and uploading projects onto a blog can engender experiencing flow.

As for happiness, older adults who are involved in cultural, home-centered and social, and

volunteer activities were more likely to feel happy. According to Onishi et al (2006), the amount

of pleasure in conversing with family and friends is positively related to happiness among

community-dwelling older adults. Additionally, literatures reveal that participation in cultural

events and having a social relationship is significantly associated with happiness (e.g., Wang &

Wong, 2014), while engaging in social groups for older adults and activities related to art,

theatre, and music had a positive association with happiness (Menec, 2003). Our findings also

coincided with the study of Krueger, Hicks, and Mcgue (2001) that suggested engaging in

volunteer activities enhances happiness and well-being.

Implications for Practice

Welfare practitioners or recreational agents can advise older adults or encourage them to be

involved in cultural and social activities for obtaining psychological benefits (i.e., flow and

happiness) based on this study.

Jungsu Ryu, Texas A&M University, 979-739-6925, jryu@tamu.edu

Table 1

Zero-Order Correlation Coefficients of Study Variables

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1.Outdoor Activities 1 .168* .229* .178* -.018 .188** .028 .128

2.Physical Activities 1 -.085 .247** .380** .147* .363** .261**

3.Hobbies and Indoor Activities 1 .250** .216** .211** .107 .153*

4.Cultural Activities and

Entertainment 1 .296** .032 .351** .281**

5.Home-centered and Social

Activities 1 .158* .420** .367**

6.Volunteer Activities 1 .096 .218**

7.Flow 1 .438**

8.Happiness 1

Note. *p<.05, **p<.01

Table 2

Multiple Regression of Flow and Happiness

Flow Happiness

Variables β (S.E) t β (S.E) t

Outdoor Activities -.051(.066) -.750 .055(.127) .776

Physical Activities .216(.078) 2.932** .096(.151) 1.246

Hobbies and Indoor Activities .020(.074) .277 .023(.142) .305

Cultural Activities and

Entertainment .223(.085) 3.193** .161(.163) 2.206*

Home-centered and Social

Activities .264(.092) 3.576*** .257(.178) 3.336**

Volunteer Activities .021(.073) .307 .143(.141) 2.044*

F 11.166*** 7.825***

R2 .270 .206

Note. *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Selected References

Chang, P. J., Wray, L., & Lin, Y. (2014). Social relationships, leisure activity, and health in older

adults. Health Psychology, 33, 516-523.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life.

New York, NY: Basic Books.

Godbey, G. (2007). The Benefits of Leisure. Academy of Leisure Sciences White Papers on

Leisure, Recreation.

Greenfield, E. A., & Marks, N. F. (2004). Formal volunteering as a protective factor for older

adults' psychological well-being. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological

Sciences and Social Sciences, 59(5), S258-S264.

Jackson, S. A. and Eklund, R. C. (2002). Assessing flow in physical activity: The flow state

scale–2 and dispositional flow scale–2. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24, 133-

150.

Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2006). Would you be

happier if you were richer? A focusing illusion. Science, 312(5782), 1908-1910.

Lampinen, P., Heikkinen, R. L., Kauppinen, M., & Heikkinen, E. (2006). Activity as a predictor

of mental well-being among older adults. Aging and Mental Health, 10(5), 454-466.

Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). The how of happiness: A practical approach to getting the life you

want. Sphere.

McIntyre, J. G. (2011). The Benjamin Franklin Randolph Monument: A symbol of remembrance

and defiance in the age of Reconstruction (Doctoral dissertation, University of South

Carolina).

Menec, V. H. (2003). The relation between everyday activities and successful aging: A 6-year

longitudinal study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and

Social Sciences, 58(2), S74-S82.

Newman, D. B., Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2014). Leisure and subjective well-being: A model of

psychological mechanisms as mediating factors. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(3),

555-578.

Onishi, J., Masuda, Y., Suzuki, Y., Gotoh, T., Kawamura, T., & Iguchi, A. (2006). The

pleasurable recreational activities among community-dwelling older adults. Archives of

Gerontology and Geriatrics, 43(2), 147-155.

Payne, B. R., Jackson, J. J., Noh, S. R., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. (2011). In the zone: Flow state

and cognition in older adults. Psychology and aging, 26(3), 738.

Ragheb, M. G. (1980). Interrelationships among leisure participation, leisure satisfaction and

leisure attitudes. Journal of leisure research, 12(2), 138-149.

Rueggeberg, R., Wrosch, C. & Miller, G. E. (2012). The different roles of perceived stress in the

association between older adults' physical activity and physical health. Health

psychology, 31(2), 164.

Pitt, H. (2014). Therapeutic experiences of community gardens: Putting flow in its place. Health

& place, 27, 84-91.

Thompson, W. W., Zack, M. M., Krahn, G. L., Andresen, E. M., & Barile, J. P. (2012). Health-

related quality of life among older adults with and without functional limitations.

American journal of public health, 102(3), 496-502.

Wang, M., & Wong, M. S. (2014). Happiness and leisure across countries: Evidence from

international survey data. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(1), 85-118.

PARK USE AMONG COMMUNITIES OF COLOR: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL

EQUITY

Raintry J. Salk, PhD, Metropolitan Council

The U.S. population will continue to be increasingly more diverse. In 2012, people of color

comprised 37% of the population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014). The percentage of people of color

is expected to grow to 57% by the year 2060. This pattern of change is important for leisure

scholars and practitioners.

Over the past forty years, leisure scholars have paid growing consideration to leisure behavior

of racial and ethnic groups (Stodolska, Shinew, Floyd, & Walker, 2014a). Prior research has

explored leisure motivations, activity participation, and leisure constraints among various racial

and ethnic groups (e.g., Bustam, Thapa, & Buta, 2011; Wilhelm, Stanis, Chavez, & Shinew,

2009). Additionally, research has increasingly demonstrated widespread disparities in park

access and use exist. For example, people of color do not utilize parks at the same rate or in the

same manner as that of Caucasians (Byrne, Wolch, & Zhang, 2009). At the national level, studies

indicate people of color are far less likely to visit national forests or parks as compared to

Caucasians (see Scott, 2014). State and local sources also point to similar disparities. For

instance, in Minnesota, 98% of state park visitors were Caucasian (Kelly, 2008), while

comprising 89% of overall state’s population during the study timeframe. Similarly, nine out of

ten metropolitan area regional park visitors in Minnesota were Caucasian, although the urban

population reflected greater racial and ethnic diversity (Metropolitan Council, 2008).

The demographic shifts, coupled with existing disparities, poses an impact to park planning,

policy, and service provision, as well as ongoing public support. In an effort to enhance

responsiveness and address existing disparities, the purpose of the current study was to explore

regional park use among select communities of color within a metropolitan region with known

underutilization among target populations. Specifically, the study sought to explore outdoor

recreation preferences, barriers to park regional park and trail visitation, and suggestions to

enhance visits among select communities of color, most notably among those who do not

currently use regional parks or trails.

Methods

A qualitative approach was utilized. The primary source of data collection consisted of focus

groups. Working with community-based organizational partners, focus groups were held at

various locations within an urban, seven-county region in Minnesota. Focus groups were semi-

structured in format and typically lasted 1.25 hours. Participant incentives and interpreters were

used, where appropriate. Participant’s demographic information was collected in writing and

included participant’s age, gender, race, ethnicity, primary language spoken in the home, and zip

code. Focus group sessions were digitally recorded. Digital recordings were transcribed. Where

appropriate, transcripts were translated and back-translated for check for accuracy. Transcripts

were content analyzed to produce major themes. Follow-up discussions with focus group

participants were conducted, where possible, to confirm generated themes.

Results

A total of 16 focus group sessions were conducted, with an average of 16 participants per

session. In sum, a total of 263 individuals participated, residing in five of the seven metropolitan

counties. Participants were predominately female (74.6%), middle aged (M=39.6 years old;

range 14-79), and represented various racial, ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Approximately

one third self-identified themselves as African, that is, African Immigrant. An additional third

indicated they were a recent Asian Immigrant or Asian American. A quarter indicated they were

Hispanic or Latino/Latina. About 10% identified themselves as African American, while the

remainder self-identified other racial or ethnic backgrounds. A total of 23 different languages

were reported as being the primary language spoken in the home. The most frequently noted

languages were Spanish, English, and Somali. Less than half of participants indicated visiting a

regional park or trail in the last year.

In terms of outdoor recreation preferences, the most frequently noted activities were walking,

followed by picnicking and/or barbequing. The third most preferred activity was playground use.

Swimming or going to the lake and spending time with friends or family rounded out the top five

preferred activities. Less frequently noted activities included biking, fishing, viewing nature, rest

or relaxation, and celebrations. Differences did emerge based upon racial and ethnic composition

of the various focus groups.

The top theme identified as barrier to regional park and trail use was awareness. Lack of

awareness was characterized in various ways. For instance, one participant stated “the thing is

that us Hispanics don’t know how to use the parks. We always go there to sit down and eat. We

don’t know what activities can be done. Walking, for example” (female Hispanic focus group

member). Lack of time, fear and safety concerns, lack of transportation options, and language

barriers rounded out the top five most frequently noted themes. Other barriers noted included

map and directional challenges and cultural or religious insensitivity. Nuances and differences

did manifest across the various focus groups, notably related to the types of fears expressed.

Common themes to enhance visitation included increasing awareness and addressing safety,

as well as enhancing the capacity of gathering spaces and diversifying programming. Most

notably, participants spoke to the desire for spaces that accommodate large group gatherings,

amenities that cater to preferred recreational activities, and family-based, non-environmental

programming.

Discussion

Several findings confirmed previous research (see Stodolska, Shinew, Floyd, & Walker,

2014b), while additional insights were generated. For instance, several barriers identified by

research participants, such as awareness and religious or cultural insensitivity are not

incorporated into existing leisure constraints measures. This study, therefore, provides insight

into specific barriers prevent different racial, ethnic, and cultural groups from utilizing parks and

trails.

Implications for Practice The suggestions participants generated to enhance visitation to parks and trails provide key

insights for park planning, policy, and service provision. Findings notably provide insight to park

planners as it relates to the development of park and trail amenities. Findings also have

implications for park programming. The participants of the current study had little interest in

environmental programming and preferred programming geared for the entire family.

Overall, this study provides key insights to inform park policy. The study findings informed

policy changes for the agency that initiated the work. Policies were across three domains:

planning and design, funding and investment, and information and convening. Policies include

community engagement requirements, the use of an equity analysis toolkit, among others.

Raintry J. Salk, PhD, Metropolitan Council, (651) 602-1669, Raintry.salk@metc.state.mn.us

Selected References

Bustham, T. D., Thapa, B., & Buta, N. (2011). Demographic differences within race/ethnicity

group constraints to outdoor recreation participation. Journal of Park and Recreation

Administration, 29(4), 53-71.

Byrne, J., Wolch, J., & Zhang, J. (2009). Planning for environmental justice in an urban park.

Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 52(3), 365-392.

Kelly, T. (2008). 2007 Minnesota state parks research summary report. Unpublished

manuscript.

Metropolitan Council. (2008). Metropolitan Council Regional Parks and Trails Survey 2008.

Unpublished manuscript.

Scott, D. (2014). Race, ethnicity, and leisure services: Can we hope to escape our past? In M.

Stodolska, K.J. Shinew, M. F. Floyd, & G. J. Walker (Eds.), Race, Ethnicity, and Leisure

(pp. 37-50). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Stodolska, M., Shinew, K. J., Floyd, M.F., & Walker, G. J. (2014). Introduction: Treatment of

race and ethnicity in leisure research. In M. Stodolska, K.J. Shinew, M. F. Floyd, & G. J.

Walker (Eds.), Race, Ethnicity, and Leisure (pp. 1-7). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Stodolska, M., Shinew, K. J., Floyd, M.F., & Walker, G. J. (Eds.) (2014a). Race, Ethnicity, and

Leisure. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Stodolska, M., Shinew, K. J., Floyd, M.F., & Walker, G. J. (2014b). Introduction: Treatment of

race and ethnicity in leisure research. In M. Stodolska, K.J. Shinew, M. F. Floyd, & G. J.

Walker (Eds.), Race, Ethnicity, and Leisure (pp. 1-7). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wilhelm-Stanis, S. A., Schneider, I. E., Chavez, D. J., & Shinew, K. J. (2009). Visitor

constraints to physical activity in park and recreation areas: Differences by race and

ethnicity. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 27(3), 78-95.

BEYOND PERSONALITY: THE ROLE OF INVOLVEMENT IN LIFE SATISFACTION Mikihiro Sato, James Madison University

Jeremy Jordan, Temple University

Daniel Funk, Temple University

Life satisfaction, a cognitive assessment of satisfaction with overall life conditions (Diener et

al., 1999), has been used in several research initiatives that assess people’s daily life. For

instance, Healthy People 2020, which sets the national health agenda for the coming years, uses

life satisfaction as a key indicator of well-being (U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services, 2010). Among various correlates of life satisfaction, researchers have identified that

physically active leisure (e.g., sport event participation, running with friends) plays an integral

role in enhancing people’s life evaluation (Sato et al., 2014). The investigation of the

contribution of physically active leisure to life satisfaction is particularly relevant to participants

of distance-running events, as these events have experienced significant increases in the number

of participants (Running USA, 2014). As one type of community-based physical activity

opportunity, a distance-running event can serve as an environmental resource that promotes

physically active leisure, which in turn contributes to participants’ life satisfaction (Sato et al.,

2014). However, given that personality has been a consistent predictor of people’s physical

activity behaviors (Wilson & Dishman, 2015) and life satisfaction (Oishi, 2012), it is unclear to

what extent a distance-running event contributes to people’s involvement in the activity and

subsequently influences life satisfaction. Along with distance-running events, an organized

running club, which represents a social club that organizes activities related to recreational

running, can serve as a catalyst for individuals’ participation in running activities (Running USA,

2013); however, little research has focused on the relationship between running club

membership, involvement in physical activity, and life satisfaction.

Using an ecological approach (Sallis et al., 2006), the present study sought to explore how

behavioral involvement, psychological involvement, and two environmental resources related to

running (a distance-running event and an organized running club) contribute to life satisfaction

beyond personality traits. Behavioral involvement refers to the frequency of effort expended in

pursuing physically active leisure (Sato et al., 2014). In contrast, psychological involvement

represents a multifaceted construct that comprises pleasure (the enjoyment derived from an

activity), centrality (how central the activity is to the individual’s lifestyle), and sign (the level of

symbolism of the activity; Beaton et al., 2011). We first expect that behavioral involvement,

pleasure, centrality, and sign will mediate the relationship between personality and life

satisfaction (H1a–d). We also expect that a distance-running event and an organized running club

will moderate the relationships between personality and behavioral involvement, pleasure,

centrality, and sign such that the relationship between personality and behavioral involvement,

pleasure, centrality, and sign will be stronger for individuals who participated in an event (H2a–

d) or a club (H3a–d). The research model is presented in Figure 1.

Participants were recruited through a survey panel from a 10-mile running event held in the

US. The panel was generated from members who participated in the 2011 event and indicated a

willingness to take part in future research on running. One day after the 2013 event, the online

survey was distributed by email to 4,175 panel members. A total of 742 respondents completed

the survey. The questionnaire included (a) the Ten Item Personality Inventory (Gosling et al.,

2003) that measures the Big-Five personality dimensions; (b) two items of behavioral

involvement (the average numbers of miles and days run per week; Sato et al., 2014); (c) nine

items of psychological involvement in running as a leisure activity (Beaton et al., 2011); and (d)

the 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985). The moderated mediation analysis

by Hayes’ (2012) PROCESS macro for SPSS was conducted to test the hypotheses.

In addition to a significant direct effect of personality on life satisfaction, our results revealed

significant indirect effects of personality on life satisfaction through pleasure (Effect = .02; 95%

CI = [.01, .04]) and sign (Effect = .01; 95% CI = [.00, .03]), supporting H1b and H1d. Behavioral

involvement (Effect = .00; 95% CI = [−.00, .02]) and centrality (Effect = −.00; 95% CI = [−.02,

.01]) did not mediate the effects of personality on life satisfaction, indicating that H1a and H1c

were not supported. Both event participation and running club membership had significant direct

effects on behavioral involvement, pleasure, centrality, and sign. However, no interactions were

significant, indicating that H2a–d and H3a–d were not supported.

Discussion and Implications for Practice

The most important finding from this study was that pleasure and sign mediated the

relationships between personality and life satisfaction. Personality traits can influence an

individual’s behavior and attitude that influences life satisfaction (Magnus et al., 1993);

however, little research has evaluated the effect of multiple personal determinants (e.g.,

personalities, behavioral and psychological factors) and environmental resources on life

satisfaction in the context of physically active leisure. Our findings provide initial empirical

evidence that the pleasure derived from running activities as well as symbolic meaning of

running is likely to enhance people’s life satisfaction beyond personality traits.

Behavioral involvement did not mediate the relationship between personality and life

satisfaction. Although the positive impacts of physical activity on life satisfaction have been

found (Maher et al., 2014), measurements of behavioral involvement do not include the relative

meaning of the activity that may impact evaluation of their lives (Sato et al., 2014). Our findings

support that behavioral involvement in terms of time and effort spent on a specific activity seems

insufficient in explaining participants’ life satisfaction (Rodríguez et al., 2008) beyond

personality traits. Our results also revealed that centrality did not mediate the relationship

between personality and life satisfaction. Given that respondents were experienced runners, each

individual would already have established a strong running network and have achieved balance

between running and other aspects of their lives. Individuals whose life is dominated by running

activities might experience lower life satisfaction given excessive focus on running compared to

other aspects of daily life (Berger & Tobar, 2011). Our results indicate that centrality may not

always capture the positive attitudinal connection toward the activity, resulting that centrality is

less likely to contribute to life satisfaction than pleasure or sign.

No moderation effects of event participation and running club membership were found. Our

findings suggest that event participation and running club membership can serve as

environmental resources to directly influence behavioral and psychological involvement in the

activity as indicated by Sallis et al. (2006). Nevertheless, these two environmental resources are

likely to contribute to life satisfaction through the development of an attitudinal connection

toward running, such as pleasure and sign in the activity. Our findings indicate that event

organizers or running clubs should consider how they can leverage distance-running events or

running clubs to promote participants life satisfaction by stimulating pleasant and symbolic

aspects of the activity through event participation and recreational running activities.

Mikihiro Sato, School of Hospitality, Sport and Recreation Management, James Madison

University, Harrisonburg, VA, (540) 568-7667, satomx@jmu.edu

Figure 1. Research Model

Selected References

Beaton, A. A., Funk, D. C., Ridinger, L., & Jordan, J. S. (2011). Sport involvement: A

conceptual and empirical analysis. Sport Management Review, 14, 126–140.

Berger, B. G., & Tobar, D. A. (2011). Exercise and quality of life. In T. Morris & P. C. Terry

(Eds.), The New Sport and Exercise Psychology Companion (pp. 483–505). Morgantown,

WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale.

Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three

decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302.

Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., & Swann, W. B. (2003). A very brief measure of the Big-Five

personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 504–528.

Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation,

moderation, and conditional process modeling. [White Paper]. Retrieved from

http://www.personal.psu.edu/jxb14/M554/articles/process2012.pdf

Magnus, K., Diener, E., Fujita, F., & Pavot, W. (1993). Extraversion and neuroticism as

predictors of objective life events: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 65, 1046–1053.

Maher, J. P., Doerksen, S. E., Elavsky, S., & Conroy, D. E. (2014). Daily satisfaction with life is

regulated by both physical activity and sedentary behavior. Journal of Sport & Exercise

Psychology, 36, 166–178.

Oishi, S. (2012). The psychological wealth of nations: Do happy people make a happy society.

Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Rodríguez, A., Látková, P., & Sun, Y.-Y. (2008). The relationship between leisure and life

satisfaction: Application of activity and need theory. Social Indicators Research, 86,

163–175.

Running USA. (2013). 2013 national runner survey. Colorado Springs, CO: Running USA.

Running USA. (2014). 2014 state of the sport. Retrieved from

http://www.runningusa.org/statistics

Sallis, J. F., Cervero, R. B., Ascher, W., Henderson, K. A., Kraft, M. K., & Kerr, J. (2006). An

ecological approach to creating active living communities. Annual Review of Public

Health, 27, 297–322.

Sato, M., Jordan, J. S., & Funk, D. C. (2014). The role of physically active leisure for enhancing

quality of life. Leisure Sciences, 36, 293–313.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2010). Healthy People 2020. Retrieved from

http://www.healthypeople.gov/

Wilson, K. E., & Dishman, R. K. (2015). Personality and physical activity: A systematic review

and meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 230–242.

ONLINE/OFFLINE SUPPORT: MOTHERS OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES

AND THEIR LEISURE

Iryna Sharaievska, PhD, Appalachian State University

Brooke Burk, PhD, Minnesota State University

Family leisure often defines what it means to be a family, offers opportunities to strengthen

bonds, increases happiness of family members, builds shared memories, and encourages the

development of children (Johnson, Zabriskie, & Hill, 2006; Shaw & Dawson, 2001; Trussell &

Shaw, 2009). Not every family, however, has equal chances to benefit from shared leisure.

Families that have members with a disability often have limited access to leisure. Research

shows that leisure options for caregivers in general, especially caregivers of children with

disabilities, are often limited due to a variety of unique constraints, including ethic of care

(Henderson & Allen, 1991); stress and health problems (Marks, 1996); lack of time and energy

due to caregiving duties (King et.al., 2000); lack of knowledge (Buettner & Langrish, 2001); and

social isolation (Valtchanov, Parry, Glover, & Mulcahy, 2013). Families of children with

disabilities are also constrained by community programs emphasizing competitive sports, the

lack of friendship-building programs, children's limited behavioral and social skills, lack of

awareness about disabilities among staff, and negative attitudes of the community (Jones, 2010).

One of the potential solutions to this issue of limited leisure opportunities might be online and

offline community groups that help families whose life circumstances are more constraining.

Seeking support and leisure ideas from other community members who struggle with similar

challenges was shown to be beneficial by previous research. For example, cancer survivors in

the study by Parry and Glover (2010) found dignity, hope and transcendence in their community-

based recreational center. Young mothers using the online community sites developed care,

camaraderie, and connection with other mothers who felt isolated in their roles as new mothers

(Parry, Glover, & Mulcahy, 2013). Since engagement in online and offline leisure with others

facing similar situations seems to play an important role in the lives of those people, the current

study aimed to explore what role online and offline support groups play in the lives of families

with children who have a disability. More specifically, the objectives of this study were to

explore: a) the perception of family leisure opportunities by caregivers in families who have a

child with developmental disability; b) the role that online and offline support groups play in the

lives of caregivers in families with a child who has a developmental disability.

Methods

The Grounded theory approach was used in this study (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The project

was conducted during 2014 in two rural areas in North Carolina and New Jersey. Potential

participants were approached through several online and local support groups for families with

children who have a developmental disability (primarily Down’s syndrome), and personal

contacts by the researchers. Only the primary caregiver to the child who has a disability

participated in the semi-structured interviews. Eight primary caregivers took part in the study

and all were married mothers with one to five children. The individual interviews lasted around

30-40 minutes and were conducted at convenient locations for the participants or over the phone.

The interviews included a series of questions related to leisure experiences as a family and the

caregiver’s use of online and offline support groups. The interviews were recorded with the

participants’ agreement and later transcribed. The participants were thanked for their time and

participation with a $10 gift card. All the transcripts were analyzed using grounded theory

coding (Charmaz, 2010).

Results

Three distinctive categories arose from the data collected during this study, including a)

leisure opportunities for families who have a child with developmental disability – communities’

versus parents’ responsibility; b) informational support of online groups and emotional support

of offline groups; c) ways to improve offline and online support groups for families with children

who have developmental disability.

While caregivers who took part in this study varied in the way they saw leisure opportunities

offered in the community for their families, a majority of them believed there were few of these

opportunities. However, there were also mothers who felt their leisure experiences were not

significantly different from families who did not have a child with a disability due to the young

age or high functionality of their children. Lastly, some mothers put the responsibility for

creating leisure opportunities for their families on parents rather than community, indicating that

parents needed to seek out these leisure opportunities on their own.

Both online and offline groups were found to play equally beneficial but different roles in

lives of caregivers of children with developmental disabilities. The participants reported that

online groups were especially important during overwhelming and isolating experience after

learning their child had a disability. Online groups were very helpful with providing a wealth of

information on disability, useful parenting techniques, and auxiliary resources such as healthcare

information. Online support groups were also praised for offering an opportunity to network and

the convenience of fast access. The participants had predominantly positive views of offline

support groups considering them especially important for creating sense of normalcy and

developing strong “intimate and meaningful connections” with other families in the community.

Mothers appreciated the opportunity to see other children with a disability and their siblings

grow and develop, as well as to offer their support and knowledge to other caregivers in the

community. They also believed that offline support groups were a great way to help their

children (both with and without disabilities) to build friendships, provide opportunities for the

family to participate in leisure, and learn information about resources relevant to their

community. Lastly, an opportunity to take a break from a role of caregiver was named as one of

the benefits of the offline support groups.

Mothers who took part in the study provided ideas on how online and offline groups could be

more beneficial for families with children who have developmental disabilities. They suggested

that administrators of online resources should encourage more positive communication and

provide a sense of community, ensure positive representation of families, and focus on making

connections with local resources. Offline support groups were recommended to ensure more

organized distribution of information and more locations for participation.

Implications for Practice

Practical implications of this study are multiple. The administrators of local recreation

organizations could ensure access to recreational opportunities for families with children who

have developmental disabilities by offering hybrid, locally based online communities. Those

hybrid spaces could offer opportunities for positive communication and the representation of

families, as well as connections to local resources and other families with children with or

without disabilities. Such online spaces could offer easily accessible and local, yet

professionally facilitated and organized, environments where parents could build connections,

plan and organize leisure for their families, as well as request the support of local organizations.

Iryna Sharaievska, PhD, Appalachian State University, 828-2626327, sharaievskai@appstste.edu

Selected References

Buettner, L. L., & Langrish, S. (2001). Rural vs. urban caregivers of older adults with probable

Alzheimer’s disease. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 24(2).

Charmaz, K. (2010). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative

analysis. London: Sage Publication Inc.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine

Publishing Company.

Henderson, K.A., & Allen, K.R. (1991). The ethic of care: Leisure possibilities and constraints

for women. Loisir & Societe, 14(1), 97-113.

Johnson, H. A., Zabriskie, R. B., & Hill, B. (2006). The contribution of couple leisure

involvement, leisure time, and leisure satisfaction to marital satisfaction. Marriage &

Family Review, 40(1), 69-91.

Jones, D. B. (2010). “Denied from a lot of places” Barriers to participation in community

recreation programs encountered by children with disabilities in Maine: Perspectives of

parents. Leisure/Loisir, 28(1-2), 49-69.

King, G., Law, M., Hanna, S., King, S., Hurley, P., Rosenbaum, P., Kertoy, M., & Petrenchik, T.

(2000). Predictors of the leisure and recreation participation of children with physical

disabilities: A structural equation modeling analysis. Children’s Health Care, 35(3), 209-

234.

Marks, N. F. (1998). Does it hurt to care? Caregiving, work-family conflict, and midlife well-

being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 60(4), 951-966.

Parry, D. C., & Glover, T. D. (2010). Dignity, hope, and transcendence: Gilda’s Club as

complementary care for cancer survivors. Journal of Leisure Research, 42(3), 347-364.

Parry, D. C., Glover, T. D., & Mulcahy, C. M. (2013). From “stroller stalker” to “momancer”:

Courting friends through a social networking site for mothers. Journal of Leisure

Research, 45(1), 22–45.

Shaw, S. M. & Dawson, D. (2001). Purposive leisure: Examining parental discourses on family

activities. Leisure Sciences, 23, 217 – 231.

Trussell, D. E., & Shaw, S. M. (2009). Changing family life in rural context: Women's

perspectives of family leisure on the farm. Leisure Sciences, 31(5), 344-449.

Valtchanov, B. L., Parry, D. C., Glover, T. D., & Mulcahy, C. M. (2013). Neighborhood at your

fingertips: Transforming community online through a Canadian social networking site for

mothers. Gender Technology and Development, 18(2), 187-217.

A METHODOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

SURVEY

Ryan L Sharp, Kansas State University

Michael J. Bradley, Eastern Kentucky University

Introduction

Children in the 21st century often achieve their connection to the outdoors through school and

the media, which are insufficient substitutes for direct encounters with the natural world (Pegams

& Zaradic 2006). A reduction in genuine outdoor experiences modifies how a child perceives

and interacts with the natural world (Kellert 2005), potentially changing their relationship with

the natural environment forever. Environmental education (EE) represents a conceivable way to

counter the effects of our youth’s lack of exposure to the natural environment. Currently, limited

information is available related to environmental awareness for children in rural areas (Smith-

Sebasto & Cavern 2006). While this study sought to identify how children in a rural environment

perceived an environmental education program, and what effects this program may have had on

their pro-environmental behaviors, this paper will examine environmental education program

assessment methods. Without proper reliable methods of data collection, the results may be

inaccurate and lead to false claims.

On site survey (e.g. intercept) research has traditionally relied on paper and pencil surveys to

gather information about research participants. With the advent of new tablet computer

technology (e.g. i-Pads), many researchers are making a switch from more traditional methods.

The usual rationale for doing so is that tablets save time (reduced data entry burden), money

(lower cost per survey) and may encourage more participation because of the novelty of taking a

survey on a tablet (Wilcox 2012). As the use of tablets increase, there is a need to understand

how this may impact data collection methods and study results. Recent studies in the health

profession (Hohwu et al. 2013) have shown little difference in response between paper and tablet

surveys, but several studies have also shown that when asked, respondents have said they

enjoyed taking the survey on a tablet, thus potentially influencing their answers. There have,

however, been few studies that have investigated the difference in an environmental education

setting and even fewer when dealing with children (who have a different relationship with

technology than adults). Therefore, this study examined potential differences in how middle

school students answered identical questions on a paper survey when compared to a survey taken

on a tablet computer.

Methods

This study took place during the fall 2013 and spring 2014 semesters, and participants were

7th

grade middle schools students from schools districts in central Kentucky. The surveys were

administered in the science classes of each middle school by a student from Eastern Kentucky

University who was trained in survey administration to remove any administration bias. A

convenience sample approach was used to acquire a total of 304 student participants, with 175

students taking the survey through the traditional paper and pencil technique and 129 students

taking the same survey on a tablet computer (the difference in the number of students is a

reflection of the limited number of tablets available to the researchers). The survey used was a

slightly altered version of the validated Environmental Attitude Awareness Survey, which used a

5-point scale (1 =strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) to measure interest in nature,

importance of nature, endangered ecosystems, and environmental stewardship (Larson 2010).

Researchers ran basic descriptive statistics and independent t-test to determine the difference

between responses based on survey type.

Results

Of the 304 students who participated in the study, 54% were boys with an average age of

12.97 years. Several of the questions had a statistically significant difference in means between

the paper survey and the survey taken on a tablet. In the cases where there was a difference, in

every case, the student who took the survey on a tablet strongly agreed with the statements,

significantly more so, than those that took the survey on paper. Students who took the tablet

survey more strongly agreed that; plants and animals are important to people (M = 4.48 vs. M =

4.26; t =2.60, p = .01), that they like to spend time in places that have plants and animals (M =

4.33 vs. M = 3.94; t =3.91, p = .000), nature is easily harmed or hurt by people (M = 4.41 vs. M

= 4.23; t =2.00, p = .046), and we need to take better care of plants and animals (M = 4.48 vs. M

= 3.03; t =25.59, p = .000).

Discussion

The results of this study highlight that a difference in how surveys are taken, based on

delivery method, may impact results. Previous studies have focused on adult survey takers,

which have shown little difference between tablet surveys and traditional pencil and paper

surveys. As noted by these study results, children may respond to these methods in different

ways. The students that took the survey through electronic means had a stronger agreement for

the statements about nature, and specifically plants and animals. This may suggest that students

interacted differently (Nagel 2013), thus giving different survey responses with digital surveying

than they would with traditional paper surveying methods. It is possible that children, who may

be digital natives, are more willing to provide more truthful responses through digital means and

may associate paper surveys with exams or other less desirable activities.

Implications

While this study finds that mixing methodologies between tablet and paper surveying is

troublesome, further research with youth is necessary to confirm the finding for environmental

education. With the proliferation of technology and continued online presence younger

populations, understanding and identifying ways to solicit feedback digitally, in a way consistent

with other methodologies, is important. The more accurate information that can be gathered

about the effectiveness of environmental education programs for children, the more practitioners

can show the worthiness of these programs in an era of decline budgets for environmental related

educational programs.

Ryan L. Sharp, Kansas State University, 785-532-1665, ryansharp@ksu.edu

Selected References

Hohwu, L., Lyshol, H., Jonsson, S.H., Petzold, M. & Obel, C. (2013). Web-based versus

traditional paper questionariies: A mixed-mode survey with a nordic perspective.

Journal of Medical Internet Research, 15(8).

Kellert, S. R. (2005). Building for life: Designing and understanding the human-nature

connection. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Larson, L.R., Castleberry, S.B., & Green, G.T. (2010). Effects of an environmental education

program on the environmental orientations of children from different gender, age, and

ethic groups. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 28(3), 95-113.

Pergams, O. R. W., & Zaradic, P. A. (2006). Is love of nature in the US becoming love of

electronic media? 16-year downtrend in national park visits explained by watching

movies, playing video games, internet use, and oil prices. Journal of Environmental

Management, 80, 387-393.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6.

Smith-Sebasto, N. J., & Cavern, L. (2006). Effects of pre- and post-trip activities associated with

a residential environmental education experience on students' attitudes toward the

environment. Journal of Environmental Education, 37(4), 3- 17.

Wilcox, A.B., Gallagher, K.D., Boden-Albala, & B. Bakken, S.R. (2012). Research data

collection methods: From paper to tablet computers. Medical Care, 50.

EXPLORING FACTORS RELATED TO GEOCACHING PARTICIPATION

Julie Son, University of Idaho

Stephanie West, Appalachian State University

Rebecca Battista, Appalachian State University

Susan Houge Mackenzie, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Despite the evidence suggesting participation in regular physical activity (PA) has a positive

influence on health and wellness (Flegal, Carroll, Kit, & Ogden, 2012), the majority of youth and

adults do not engage in sufficient levels of leisure-time PA (LTPA). Of particular concern are the

declining levels of LTPA during adolescence. A novel activity that has the potential to engage

youth in LTPA is geocaching. Geocaching involves using a GPS device to locate hidden

treasures or “caches.” Geocaching includes features that may be attractive to youth such as using

technology, participating with friends, and solving problems. Although these features are

expected to result in positive psychological and physical activity outcomes, a more complete

understanding of the psychosocial aspects that may promote participation is paramount. One of

the few empirical studies examining participants’ PA levels during geocaching demonstrated that

walking and geocaching have similar exercise demands (Minutolo, 2010). Geocaching also

provides opportunities to be outdoors and develop interpersonal connections (O’Hara, 2008),

both of which have been shown to influence participation in and maintenance of PA levels

(Sallis et al., 1993). The current study was undertaken to determine which aspects of geocaching

appeal most to youth and whether or not psychosocial factors of LTPA relate to and/or predict

interests and abilities in geocaching. Given the utility of constructs from the theory of planned

behavior and social cognitive theory in the prediction of PA (e.g., self-efficacy, social support,

decisional balance; Conner & Sparks, 2005; Ferreira et al., 2007; Hagger et al., 2001), these

constructs were expected to relate to geocaching interests and perceived ability levels.

Methods and Analysis Plan

Youth 14-18 years old from a high school in rural western North Carolina were selected to

participate in the study. Students were recruited through an adventure and service program and

an after-school athletic team. A total of 89 teenagers were recruited for this study and 82

completed the survey instruments. This study received IRB approval and informed consents and

assents were gathered prior to data collection. The questionnaires were administered to students

in a classroom setting used by the after school adventure and service program. The survey

instrument consisted of measures to assess: 1) LTPA self-efficacy, motivations and social

support of friends and family (social cognitive factors; Adolescent Psychosocial Scale on PA,

PACE, 2001), 2) LTPA attitudes and behaviors (planned behavior factors; PA Decisional

Balance Scale, PACE, 2001), 3) geocaching interest and ability (as no scales existed, this scale

was developed by the researchers), and 4) LTPA participation (Centers for Disease Control

[CDC], 2008). All scales were on a 5-point scale except for LTPA participation, which asked

participants to list the number of days in the week he/she participated in five categories of LTPA

(muscle-strengthening, moderate intensity aerobic activity). Analyses included descriptive

statistics, reliability and validity of the scales used, and correlation-regression analysis.

Psychosocial factors of LTPA were hypothesized to predict geocaching interest/ability.

Results

Forty-nine participants were female and 37 were male. Twenty-seven percent of females and

39% of males achieved PA recommended levels of 60 min 5 dys/wk. Mean values for geocache

items ranged from 3.11 to 4.42 (5-point scale), with highest mean values for “enjoy being

physically active” (M = 4.42, SD = .86), “looking for hidden treasure using GPS will be fun” (M

= 4.41, SD = .79), and “I think geocaching will be more fun than walking” (M = 4.39, SD = .77).

The validity of the geocaching scale was examined, indicating a three-factor solution explaining

76% of the variance. Four variables loaded on Factor 1: technological ability and enjoyment

(40.5% variance); two variables loaded on Factor 2: enjoy being outdoors and physically active

(22.5% variance); and two variables loaded on Factor 3: geocaching and hidden treasure as fun

(13% variance). The geocaching scale indicated acceptable reliability with a coefficient alpha of

.73. All other unidimensional scales demonstrated acceptable reliability values ranging from .71

to .85. There were modest but significant correlations amongst some geocaching variables:

perceived fun searching for hidden treasure was positively related to PA enjoyment (r = 0.23; p =

0.05), geocaching as more fun than walking (r = 0.44; p < 0.05), and an interest in technology (r

= 0.44; p < 0.05). Perception of geocaching as more fun than walking also was related to

enjoying using technology (r = 0.28; p < 0.05), and demonstrated a trend with youth’s reported

levels of PA enjoyment (r = 0.20; p = 0.072). Correlation analysis revealed significant

relationships between psychosocial PA variables and respondents’ level of PA but, counter to

expectations, there was little to no relationship or predictive utility between psychosocial

variables and geocaching.

Discussion and Implications

We sought to: a) identify components of geocaching that may promote youth participation in

PA, and b) better understand potential psychosocial factors related to youth’s Geocaching

Interests/Abilities. Our evaluation suggests that geocaching may be an effective and novel way

to encourage physical activity amongst youth (Minutolo, 2010), particularly youth who enjoy

technology and like being outdoors. Participants reported relatively high levels of interest in

geocaching attributes, such as using technology and being outside, despite their relatively low

overall activity levels. Not only did youth endorse geocaching as interesting and fun, they also

thought looking for a hidden treasure would be more fun than walking. These findings suggest

that geocaching has the potential to increase LTPA amongst underactive youth because it may be

perceived as fun and engaging even by youth who do not enjoy other physical activities and/or

sports (Schneider, Silverberg, & Chavez, 2011). The results also indicate psychosocial measures

commonly used to predict LTPA behavior in youth (Conner & Sparks, 2005; Ferreira et al.,

2007; Hagger et al., 2001) had little or no influence on participants’ Geocaching

Interest/Abilities. This finding was surprising as geocaching is a form of LTPA. Perhaps the

novelty of geocaching accounts for these findings. Youth may have lacked preconceived notions

of geocaching such as whether it would be physically demanding. Another plausible explanation

is that the scale used to measure psychosocial variables was too general. Modifying the PACE

psychosocial PA scales in reference to geocaching might have yielded different results. Also, the

Geocaching Interests/Abilities Scale created by the authors may not reflect all aspects of

geocaching participation, with additional items providing a more robust scale. For example,

items focused more heavily on technology use versus other sub-domains such as being outdoors

or participating in an adventure. Based on the relatively high levels of enjoyment outdoors,

future geocache scales should consider incorporating more items related to the outdoors and

interest in nature (Schneider et al., 2011). Limitations include a small, purposefully sampled

group of rural youth within one school. We will discuss implications for municipal parks and

recreation programming and research on geocaching, PA, health and wellness.

Julie Son, University of Idaho, (208) 885-7155, jstaffordson@uidaho.edu.

Selected References

Conner, M., & Sparks, P. (2005). The theory of planned behavior and health behavior. In M.

Conner & P. Norman (Eds.), Predicting health behavior: Research and practice with

social cognitive models (pp. 170-222). Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

Ferreira, I., van der Horst, K., Wendel-Vos, W., Kremers, S., van Lenthe, F., & Brug, J. (2007).

Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth: A review and update. Obesity

Reviews, 8(2), 129-154.

Flegal, K., Carroll, M., Kit, B., & Ogden, C. (2012). Prevalence of obesity and trends in the

distribution of body mass index among US adults, 1999-2012. Journal of the American

Medical Association, 307(5), 491-497.

Hagger, M., Chatzisarantis, N., Biddle, S.J., & Orbell, S. (2001). Antecedents of children’s

physical activity intentions and behavior: Predictive validity and longitudinal effects.

Psychology & Health, 16, 391–407.

Minutolo, S. (2010). The effects of geocaching on heart rates of elementary students.

(Unpublished Master’s Thesis). University of Wisconsin, La Crosse.

O’Hara, K. (2008). Understanding geocaching practices and motivations. Proceedings of CHI

2008. Florence, Italy.

PACE. (2001). Adolescent Psychosocial and Stage-of-Change Measures Related to Physical

Activity and Sedentary Behavior. San Diego State University.

Patrick, K., Sallis, J. F., Lydston D., Prochaska J.J., Calfas K.J., Zabinski M, Wilfley, D.,

Saelens, B. (2001). Preliminary evaluation of a multi-component program for nutrition

and physical activity change in primary care: PACE+ for Adolescents. Archives of

Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 155(8), 940-946.

Sallis, J., Nader, P., Broyles, S., Berry, C., Elder, J., McKenzie, T., & Nelson, J. (1993).

Correlates of physical activity at home in Mexican-American and Anglo-American

preschool children. Health Psychology, 12(5), 390-398.

Schneider, I., Silverberg, K., & Chavez, D. (2011). Geocachers: Benefits sought and

environmental attitudes. LARNet - The Cyber Journal of Applied Leisure and Recreation

Research, 14(1).

PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES AS PREDICTORS OF RECREATION DECISION

MAKING Garrett A. Stone, Clemson University

Ryan J. Gagnon, Clemson University

Barry A. Garst, Clemson University

In the 1970's a political movement arose aimed at "reinventing government" (Terry, 2005).

This emergent institutional philosophy, dubbed the New Public Management (NPM), promoted

the adoption of private sector attitudes, policies, and practices in public administration settings

(Fixler & Poole, 1987; Hood, 1995). Public recreation departments were not exempt from NPM

trends and moved towards fee-based recreation models and the privatization of recreation

services (Martin, 1999; Van Slyke & Hammonds, 2003). As a result, the scope and nature of

recreation services and economic decision making have become increasingly more variable and

complex (McDaniels et al., 1999). Now, public recreation administrators find themselves making

decisions regarding whether or not to outsource programs, increase fees, reduce staff, or in some

cases close centers or services (Esprit & Smith, 2011; Shinkle, 2012).

Understanding how public recreation servants make and defend their fiscal decisions is

critical, particularly as they continue to fight for financial stability and vie for limited public

resources (King, 2014; Zimmerman & Payne, 2012). Recent research recommends public service

values (PSVs) as predictors of public servant decision making (Witesman & Walters, 2013).

Values, in recreation scholarship, have been used to investigate participant motivations,

behaviors, and decision preferences (Carothers et al., 2001; Tanner et al., 2008). Few studies,

however, have explored how values impact administrative decision making (Zimmerman &

Payne, 2012). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether PSVs correlate

with or predict a specific recreation administration decision. The PSV approach may elucidate

recreation administrators' decision making processes and equip administrators with explanatory

tools to influence public discourse and justify high stakes decisions to relevant stakeholders.

Methods

Data were collected September 2012 from individuals living in the U.S. (n =1,608) using

Qualtrics panel services. A non-probability, quota-based recruitment strategy was employed to

ensure a sample was drawn that matched the U.S. population distribution on demographic

characteristics such as age, gender, race and income status. Respondents were presented with a

hypothetical scenario modeled after the work of Tetlock (1986), and asked to indicate, with a yes

or no response, whether or not they would close a recreation center in the given context (see

Table 1). They were then asked to indicate how confident they were in their decision using a 7-

point Likert scale. Values were elicited using the Public Servant Values Questionnaire (PSVQ)

which frames 40 identified public servant values, such as Regime Loyalty or Advocacy, in a

public administration context and asks respondents to indicate how closely the statement

resembles them on a 7-point Likert scale. Using Advocacy as an example, these statements read

as follows: "He/she [referring to the respondent] believes that Advocacy is important. He/she

believes that public servants should seek justice for everybody, even for people they don't

know." Additionally, the binary decision responses were multiplied by the confidence scale to

create a fourteen point, interval level dependent variable (see Witesman & Walters, 2013). After

screening the data, hierarchal linear regression was conducted to determine the effect of PSVs on

the decision to close a recreation center, when controlling for other variables (See Table 2).

Results

Initial analysis indicated that 5 of the 40 identified PSVs (Witesman & Walters, 2013)

including Regime Loyalty, Rule of Law, Advocacy, Public Interest, and Social Justice

significantly contributed to the decision to close a recreation center. Linear regression of the five

PSVs and respondent demographic information on the dependent variable indicated that the

PSVs uniquely account for 7.3% of the total explained variance (12.4%) of the model (F(11,

1534) = 19.760, p ≤ .001). This result indicates that PSVs were statistically significant predictors

of the decision to close a recreation center when controlling for other variables. Additional

descriptive analysis revealed that 58% of respondents indicated they would not close a recreation

center given the contextual factors of limited funding and no alternative recreation facility.

Discussion

Approximately 58% of the sample chose not to close a recreation center in the fictionalized

scenario, which seems to contradict common perceptions that when budgets are tight (see King,

2014), recreation services are among the first to go. This finding is elucidated to some extent by

the results of the regression analysis, which identified five PSVs that individuals draw upon

when making decisions about recreation funding or access to recreation services. These five

values were grouped as "anti" closure valuesvalues that correlated with the decision not to

close the center; e.g. Regime Loyalty, Social Justice, Advocacy, Public Interest, and "pro" closure

valuesvalues that correlated with the decision to close; e.g. Rule of Law.

The "Anti" closure" values were derived from broader value sets such as Universalism.

Universalism places the well-being of individuals and society above the well-being of the

governing institution and emphasizes equitable access for all. Thus, individuals who were "anti"

closure likely perceived recreation as a contributor to individual well-being, one that superseded

the economic well-being of the city, and may have rejected the recreation center closure in as a

reflection of their valuation of equitable distribution of resources. This finding is interesting

when framed within the National Recreation and Park Association’s (NRPA) pillars, two of

which are specifically concerned with social equity, ensuring all people have equitable access to

recreation services, and health and wellness, improving the overall health and wellbeing of

society (NRPA, 2014). Our findings suggest that in the context of this study, NRPA values are at

best being imparted to, or at least being mirrored by members of the U.S. population. More

importantly, these pillar-esque values are used when people make complex decisions regarding

recreation related interests. "Pro" closure respondents pulled from more Traditional value sets,

suggesting that when fiscal dilemmas arise, the financial security of the governing body and its

"essential" services should be given higher priority than the recreational needs of the community.

Implications

While our findings suggest that PSVs were a small predictor of a specific recreation related

decision, we believe that the preliminary evidence supports the future use of the PSV approach

by administrators. First, when recreation administrators are called upon to defend what they do,

they can use empirically elicited PSVs alongside other measures of value such as programmatic

success stories, gap analysis results, or evidence based programming to do so. Second, if public

servants are more aware of their own values and values held by their constituency, they can use

those values as a guide to respond to the community's needs and/or moderate future public

discourse on controversial issues.

Garrett Stone, Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC

(530) 302-7314, gastone@clemson.edu

Tables

Table 1

Decision Scenario

Decision scenario Percent

responding

'yes'

Model 'R2' Values

Positively

associated with

a 'yes' decision

Values Positively

associated with a

'no' decision

Should a financially strapped

city close its recreation center

to save money even if many

citizens cannot afford the

private fitness facilities in the

area?

42% .126 Rule of Law Advocacy

Public Interest

Regime Loyalty

Social Justice

Note. All values are significant at the p <.01 level or better.

Table 2

Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis

Variable B SEB β

LCPRC (N = 1608)

Block 1 R2

= .073, p <.001

Intercept -6.708 .670

Age .014 .010 .036

Education .278 .097 .077*

Personal Income .2227 .087 .070*

Gender 1.148 .276 .104**

Political Stance 1.006 .162 .104*

Race 1.263 .375 .085**

Block 2 R2

= .124, p <.001

Intercept -.991 1.104

Age .010 .010 .025

Education .261 .095 .072*

Personal Income .152 .085 .047

Gender .703 .276 .063*

Political Stance .495 .168 .078*

Race 1.201 .366 .081*

Regime Loyalty -.155 .078 -.051*

Advocacy -.420 .102 -.122**

Social Justice -.364 .122 -.088*

Rule of Law .541 .122 .117**

Public Interest -.356 .130 -.083*

Note. * p < .05, ** p <.001; B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SEB

= Standard Error of the coefficient; β = standardized coefficient.

Selected References

Carothers, P., Vaske, J. J., & Donnelly, M. P. (2001). Social values versus interpersonal conflict

among hikers and mountain bikers. Leisure Sciences, 23(1), 47-61.

Esprit, C. S., & Smith, L. (2011). The green state parks initiative: Utilizing Pennsylvania state

parks as a case study. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 29(3) 86-100.

Fixler, P., & Poole, R. (1987). Status of state and local privatization. Proceedings of the

Academy of Political Science, 164-178.

Fulton, W. (2012). Financing the Future: The Critical Role of Parks in Urban and Metropolitan

Infrastructure. Proceedings of the National Recreation and Parks Association and Urban

Institute Economic Roundtable. Washington, DC.

Harris, C. C., Driver, B. L., Binkley, C. S., & Mendelsohn, R. O. (1987). Recreation user fees. I.

Pros and cons; II. An economic analysis. Journal of Forestry, 85(5), 25-40.

Hood, C. (1995). The "New Public Management" in the 1980s: Variations on a theme.

Accounting Organizations and Society, 20(2), 93-109.

King, N. (2014). Making the case for sport and recreation services: The utility of social return on

investment (SROI) analysis. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 27(2)

152-164.

Martin, S. (1999). A policy implementation analysis of the recreation fee demonstration

program: Convergence of public sentiment, agency programs, and policy principles?.

Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 17(3), 15-34.

McDaniels, T. L., Gregory, R. S., & Fields, D. (1999). Democratizing risk management:

Successful public involvement in local water management decisions. Risk analysis, 19(3),

497-510.

McLean, D. J., & Johnson, R. C. (1997). Techniques for rationing public recreation services.

Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 15(3), 76-92.

National Recreation and Parks Association (NRPA) (2014). Advertising Opportunities.

Retrieved from http://www.parksandrecreation.org/advertising/.

Shinkle, D. (2012). Parks in peril: Across the country, recreation areas are being hit hard by state

budget cuts. State Legislatures, 38(1), 31-33.

Tanner, R. J., Freimund, W. A., Borrie, W. T., & Moisey, R. N. (2008). A meta-study of the

values of visitors to four protected areas in the Western United States. Leisure Sciences,

30(5), 377-390.

Terry, L. (2005). The thinning of administrative institutions in the hollow state. Administration

& Society, 37(4), 426-444.

Tetlock, P. E. (1986). A value pluralism model of ideological reasoning. Journal of personality

and social psychology, 50(4), 819-827.

Van Slyke, D., & Hammonds, C. (2003). The privatization decision: Do public managers make a

difference?. The American Review of Public Administration, 33(2), 146-163.

Witesman, E., & Walters, L. (2013). Public service values: A new approach to the study of

motivation in the public sphere. Public Administration, 95(2), 375-406.

Zimmermann, J. A. M., & Payne, E. M. (2012). A proposed model of administrative roles in

recreation management. World Leisure Journal, 54(2), 160-179.

IMPORTANCE-PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS IN PARKS AND RECREATION:

IMPLEMENTATION AND ISSUES

Jill R. Sturts, Indiana University

Sarah J. Young, Indiana University

Craig M. Ross, Indiana University

This paper will explore the utility of the Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) offering a

worthwhile method for practitioners within parks and recreation to assess patron satisfaction and

make recommendations for improvement. The researcher will also address methodological and

conceptual concerns as practitioners and researchers consider its implementation within a variety

of settings. The rationale for providing a critical overview of this method is to offer practitioners

an easy-to-implement way to assess a variety of attributes related to importance and performance

resulting in recommendations for improvement of services.

Background

The IPA was first used in the field of marketing when research revealed consumer satisfaction

was a product of perceived importance and performance related to a list of attributes (Martilla &

James, 1977). It has most commonly been used as a way to measure consumer or user

satisfaction with a product or service. Martilla and James (1977) were the first to implement the

process when they examined satisfaction related to automobiles. In the 38 years since this first

use of the IPA, it has been applied and modified in a variety of settings including, but not limited

to banking, dental care services, education, healthcare, hotel services, public administration,

restaurant services, and leisure and recreation.

Implementation

The IPA is easy to implement, understand, and apply, which makes the technique attractive in

a variety of settings (Oh, 2001). The ease of application is cited as its major contribution and it

has been a popular technique for management to administer and interpret the results. The

technique provides a simple, easy to understand depiction of the most relevant areas as they

relate to multiple areas of focus.

Martilla and James (1977) suggested four steps in conducting an IPA which is a two-

dimensional scale or plot interpreting importance and performance data. In the first step, the

researcher generates a list of attributes. The list of attributes is an important part of the process

since management decisions are made based on the responses to the identified attributes. It is

recommended that the researcher involves management and panels of consumers in creating the

list of attributes (Oh, 2001). The second step consists of developing a measurement tool that

assesses the importance and performance of the identified attributes. Martilla and James (1977)

recommended the use of a 5 or 7-point Likert scale in the development of the measurement tool

assessing the importance and performance of each attribute. During the third step, the researcher

plots the grand mean scores of the combined importance and performance of each attribute

provided by the respondents. Finally the researcher establishes four quadrants on a grid that

suggest ‘actions’ for the reader.

Each of the four quadrants indicates different strategies to assist managers and administrators

in identifying areas of respondent satisfaction or lack of satisfaction with various attribute

importance and performance measures. The first quadrant is labeled ‘concentrate here’. Scores

within this quadrant represent attributes that are highly important, but the performance is low. It

is suggested that the attributes in this quadrant should be focused upon in an effort to elevate

performance of those attributes. The attributes that fall within the second quadrant are labeled

‘keep up the good work’. The attributes in this quadrant are both important and are performing

well. In summary, the goals are being met with the most efficiency within this quadrant. The

third quadrant is labeled as ‘low priority’. The scores in this quadrant represent low importance

and low performance. Because the scores in this quadrant were low in both areas, it is not

necessary to prioritize the attributes that fall in this quadrant. The scores that are plotted in the

fourth quadrant are labeled as ‘possible overkill’. The area represents low importance and high

performance. Since the attributes are low in importance, it is not necessary to focus attention in

this area. Furthermore, it is possible that too much emphasis has been placed on these attributes

since the performance is high.

Conceptual, Methodological, and Practical Concerns

The placement or positioning of the quadrant cross-hairs dividing the four quadrants is

fundamental and paramount in the IPA method in that it establishes the quadrants or categories

in which individual attributes will be placed. This threshold determines the intersection between

horizontal and vertical lines of the grids. Misplacing the threshold could have serious effects on

the results of the analysis and produce incorrect or misleading satisfaction ratings (Coghlan,

2012; Sever, 2015). Many researchers have prescribed to the notion that placement of the

crosshairs is left to the discretion of the researcher based upon research goals (Martilla & James,

1977), and others have expressed concern and provided alternate approaches. Bacon (2003) even

suggested the positioning of the thresholds leading to the division of quadrants is the biggest

issue in IPA, while Lai and Hitchcock (2015) made a call for a comprehensive framework due to

the traditional IPA being compromised by validity and reliability issues.

In his review of the IPA, Oh (2001) raised conceptual issues related to the placement of the

crosshairs. Specifically, he stated that “building additional cross-hairs into each quadrant of the

standard IPA grid may improve accuracy in classifying attributes and deriving strategic

suggestions” (p. 626). In response to conceptual and measurement issues, Azzopardi and Nash

(2013) synthesized IPA literature and also discussed alternative approaches. Through their

literature review, the authors concluded that the “IPA framework has not changed and many

researchers address validity issues in a limited manner” (p. 222). Based on the IPA literature, the

three options for alternative crosshair placement are scale-centered, data-centered, and diagonal.

Summary

The scale-centered, data-centered, and diagonal method approaches have been widely used in

multiple studies. Each is unique in how attributes are prioritized and reported and all have

strengths and weaknesses. The position of the axis is critical in increasing the accurateness and

utility of the results. While current literature still lacks a ‘one size fits all’ solution to validity and

conceptual concerns, the researcher must consider strengths and weaknesses of each approach

and make a choice best suited for the purposes of the research. While there lacks a consensus on

best approach to establish crosshairs, a consensus does exist regarding the position of the axis as

a critical issue for increasing the accurateness and utility of the results. In conclusion, the IPA

has proven to be an effective method for practitioners as they utilize participant or consumer

feedback to inform decision-making, but it doesn’t come without methodological concerns.

Jill R. Sturts, Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies, Indiana University,

Bloomington, IN, (812) 856-1982, jsturts@indiana.edu.

Selected References

Azzopardi, E., & Nash, R. (2013). A critical evaluation of importance-performance analysis.

Tourism Management, 35, 222-233.

Bacon, D. R. (2003). A comparison of approaches to importance-performance analysis.

International Journal of Market Research, 45(1), 55-72.

Coghlan, A. (2012). Facilitating reef tourism management through an innovative importance-

performance analysis method. Tourism Management, 33(4), 767-775.

Lai, I. K. W., & Hitchcock, M. (2015). Importance-performance analysis in tourism: A

framework for researchers. Tourism Management, 48, 242-267.

Martilla, J. A., & James, J. C. (1977). Importance-performance analysis. The Journal of

Marketing, 77-79.

Oh, H. (2001). Revisiting importance–performance analysis. Tourism Management, 22(6), 617-

627.

Sever, I., (2015). Importance-performance analysis: A valid management tool? Tourism

Management, 48, 43-53.

THE BENEFITS OF SPECTATING LEISURE ACTIVITIES ON ACADEMIC SUCCESS

Junmo Sung, University of Arkansas

Win (Gi-Yong) Koo, Troy University

Introduction

College enrollment has been increased by 32 percent since 2001 (U.S. Department of

Education). Although there is a growth of students’ enrollment, numerous students have failed to

complete college degrees due to lack of social relationships and academic difficulties in complex

nature of college life (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Several studies have

argued that non-academic environments such as positive social circumstances in college life play

a significant role in academic success in higher education (Murnane & Levy, 1996; Murray-

Harvey & Slee, 2007).

In the field of leisure and recreation, leisure participation is significantly associated with

social affiliation with other students while positive social connections improve a sense of

belonging in a certain association (Lemon, Bengtson & Peterson 1972; Longino & Kart 1982).

Particularly, a number of researchers have indicated that a sense of belonging by positive social

environment has a significant power to promote students’ well-being as well as finally lead to

students’ academic success (Murray-Harvey & Slee, 2007; Sung, Koo, Kim, & Dittmore, 2015).

In particular, intercollegiate athletic programs have a function to integrate students as well as

improve a sense of belonging to a university while college sport teams create campus traditions,

symbols and colors (Clopton, 2009; Sung, Koo, Kim, & Dittmore, 2015). Koo, Sung, and

Martinez (in press) also revealed that student’ spectating intercollegiate sporting games influence

social and emotional adjustment in complex nature of college life. Moreover, Sung, Koo, Kim,

and Dittmore (2015) resulted that spectating college sporting events are significantly associated

with not only promoting sense of belonging to the university, but also improving students’

academic performance in higher education.

However, there is a lack of research on the impact of spectating intercollegiate sporting event

as an informal leisure activity on sense of belonging to a university, students’ physical and

psychological college adjustment, as well as academic success. Therefore the purpose of the

study is to examine the direct and indirect relationships between intercollegiate sporting events

and students’ academic success through mediating role of a sense of belonging to the university,

and physical and psychological adjustments constructs.

Method

A convenient sample of 310 undergraduate students enrolled in a major public university in

the southeastern region of the United States was recruited for this study. Of the total 310 students,

120 (38.7%) were male and 190 (61.3%) were female including 28 freshmen (9.0%), 67

sophomores (21.6%), 112 juniors (36.1%), and 102 seniors (32.9%). The majority of students

(65.7%) were between the ages of 20 and 22 while the mean age of participants was 21.04 years

(SD = 3.40).

Spectator Sport Identification Scale developed by Wann and Branscombe’s (1993) was used

to measure students’ involvement of intercollegiate sporting events by Likert scale items ranging

from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The SSIS scale has been reported shown to be

highly reliable; Wann and Branscombe (1993) reported an internal consistency of 0.91. Student

Adaption to College Questionnaire (Backer & Siryk, 1989) was adapted to measure a sense of

belonging, physical adjustment, and psychological adjustment in college life, anchored by (1)

strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. According to Dahmus, Bernardin, & Bernardin (1992),

internal consistency of academic performance subscale ranged from .81 to .90.

Results

An examination of construct validity using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported

that the further use of the final measurement model as part of Structure Equation Model

hypothesizing causal links among latent variables: χ2

(382) = 835.512, p < .001; Standardized

Root Mean Squared Residual (SRMR) =. 073; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation

(RMSEA) = .062; Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .904. The overall structural model indicated

good fit to the data (χ2 = 853.281, p < .001, χ2/df = 389, CFI = .901, RMSEA = .062, and SRMR

= .079).

The structural equations modeling revealed that team identification influence a sense of

belonging to the university (β = .28, p < .001). A sense of belonging derived from team

identification has direct impact on psychological adjustment (β = .32, p < .001) and academic

motivation (β = .47, p < .001). In addition, psychological adjustment derived from a sense of

belonging to the university has a direct impact on physical adjustment (β = .568, p < .001), and

academic motivation (β = .15, p < .001). Finally, physical adjustment directly influences

academic performance (β = .371, p < .001), which positively led to academic motivation (β =

.24, p < .001).

Discussion

Many scholars have suggested that the non-academic environment including sense of

belonging to the university, physical and psychological health (Well-being) have significant

relationship with academic success in higher education (Astin, 1984; Bettencourt, Charlton,

Eubanks, Kernahan, & Fuller 1999; Murray-Harvey & Slee, 2007; Walton & Cohen, 2011). The

most significant results of this study was that students’ informal leisure activities participating

intercollegiate sporting events directly improve students’ a sense of belonging to a university

while physical and psychological adjustments influenced by the sense of belonging directly and

indirectly promote students’ academic motivation and performance.

This current study implies prominent suggestions that college administrators need to special

attention to the development of college circumstance that students enable to participate informal

leisure activities such as interactions with other friends while intercollegiate athletic programs

promote campus tradition and ritual including tailgate party, team logo, and unique color

representing a certain university. For example, a lack of social activities and academic setting is

one of the major issues for students who failed to complete their college degree. (National Center

for Education Statistics, 2011). The phenomenon has become a critical issue because the

academic success is the major goal of higher education, which is related to students’ future

employment, level of wage, and skilled labors (Murnane & Levy, 1996). Meanwhile, this study

may also suggest to sport marketers to pay special attention to building more attractive tool for

students to easily participate and watch sporting events such as fireworks show or game

promotions while spectating sporting events are highly associated with students’ overall

adjustment in complex college setting.

Junmo Sung, Recreation & Sport Management Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville,

AR, USA, (479) 575-2976, jsung@uark.edu

Selected References

Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal

of college student personnel, 25(4), 297-308.

Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1989). Student adaptation to college questionnaire (SACQ). Los

Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

Folkman, L. F., Glass, T., Brissette, I., & Seeman, T. E. (2000). From social integration to

health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Social science & medicine, 51(6), 843-857.

Bettencourt, B. A., Charlton, K., Eubanks, J., Kernahan, C., & Fuller, B. (1999). Development of

collective self-esteem among students: Predicting adjustment to college. Basic and

Applied Social Psychology, 21(3), 213-222.

Clopton, A. (2009). Students as spectators: Their academic and social integration. New

Directions for Higher Education, 2009(148), 83-89.

Dahmus, S., Bernardin, H. J., & Bernardin, K. (1992). Student Adaptation to College

Questionnaire. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development.

Koo, G.Y., Sung, J., & Martinez, J. M. (in press). Effects of Team Identification on Social and

Emotional Adjustment in Higher Education. Accepted to the Journal of Intercollegiate

Sport.

Lemon, B. W., Bengtson, V. L., & Peterson, J. A. (1972). An exploration of the activity theory

of aging: activity types and life satisfaction among in-movers to a retirement community.

Journal of gerontology, (27), 511-23.

Longino, C. F., & Kart, C. S. (1982). Explicating activity theory: A formal replication. Journal

of Gerontology, 37(6), 713-722.

Murnane, R. J., & Levy, F. (1996). Teaching the New Basic Skills. Principles for Educating

Children To Thrive in a Changing Economy. Free Press, 1230 Avenue of the Americas,

New York, NY 10020..

Murray-Harvey, R., & Slee, P. T. (2007). Supportive and Stressful Relationships With Teachers,

Peers and Family and Their Influence on Students' Social/Emotional and Academic

Experience of School. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 17(02), 126-147.

Sung, J., Koo, G. Y., Kim, S., & Dittmore, D. W. (2015). Enhancement of non-academic

environment by intercollegiate athletics and its intangible benefit in higher education.

Submitted to Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 15(1), 47 - 52

U.S. Department of Education. (2011). Digest of Education Statistics, 2011. No. NCES 2006-

005). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

Statistics.

Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic

and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331(6023), 1447-1451.

Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1993). Sports fans: Measuring degree of identification with

their team. International Journal of Sport Psychology.

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF PREGNANCY: A LEISURE PERSPECTIVE

Kellie Walters, Clemson University

Kate Evans, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse

Toni Liechty, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Kelsey LeFevour, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Introduction

Current literature has identified the ways in which motherhood can affect women’s leisure (A.

G. Cramp & Bray, 2011; Kimmel, 2007) and how finding time for leisure can affect mothers’

health and well-being (Condon, 2005; Currie, 2004). Research suggests that the experience of the

gendered body plays a role in experiences of leisure for new mothers. Furthermore, for mothers

of young children socially constructed expectations and prescriptions shape leisure behaviors and

experiences, particularly in relation to physically active leisure (Brown, Brown, Miller, &

Hansen, 2001; Clark, 2014; Miller & Brown, 2005). Despite the growing body of literature into

the role of motherhood in leisure, what is absent from the leisure literature is the role of the

physical experience of pregnancy. In a rare study of leisure and pregnancy, Clark and Anderson

(2014) found that pregnant adolescents changed leisure behaviors to protect the health of the

baby, due to societal pressures, and in preparation for the baby. The leisure literature, however,

has yet to address pregnancy among adult women and its role in the transition to motherhood.

Methods

The purpose of the study was to explore the lived experience of women as they transitioned

through pregnancy and into motherhood. Participants included twelve pregnant women in a mid-

sized city in Western Canada between the ages of 24 and 36. Participants completed two (n = 6)

or three (n = 6) individual interviews during the following approximate time periods: second

trimester, third trimester, and four to six months postpartum. Participants were asked to describe

their experiences of pregnancy, their changing bodies, and their experiences of leisure since

becoming pregnant or since the previous interview. Also, because some research has suggested

that physical activity declines during pregnancy (A. G. Cramp, & Bray, S. R, 2009). We

specifically asked participants to describe their experiences of physically active leisure. The first

three authors independently analyzed the interviews of the first three participants following van

Manen’s (1997) detailed line-by-line analysis process highlighting key statements that were

relevant to the phenomenon being studied. Following this independent process, the first three

authors met to compare themes and to identify commonalities and differences across

participants. The authors analyzed the data in an iterative process until the overarching themes

were identified.

Results and Discussion

Two themes central to the experience of these women revealed a complex, socially

constructed experience of pregnancy and early motherhood that impacted the women’s leisure.

First was the loss of control that women experienced during pregnancy marked by three

subthemes: a loss of control over their pregnant bodies, their actions, and their time. The second

theme was lack of knowledge/misinformation regarding the safety of physical activity. The

participants experienced lacking knowledge of or being misinformed about the capabilities of

their bodies during pregnancy related to physically active leisure.

Lack of control. In seeking to understand the role that motherhood may play in women’s

leisure, it is important to take into account not only the period after the child joins the family, but

also the transition from pregnancy into motherhood. First, and maybe most central to this

experience, is the loss of control experienced during pregnancy (Earle, 2003; Rudolfsdottir,

2000; Warren, 2004; Young, Peppard, & Taheri, 2005). When women are unable to secure

freedom and autonomy, it may follow that they will lack this same sense within their leisure. The

participants’ experience of lacking control over their bodies played a role in constraining their

leisure. For example, participants’ described physical limitations such as physical fatigue,

shortness of breath and soreness as limiting their ability to participate in leisure. In some cases,

the perceived lack of control over their own body led them to cease participate in leisure at all,

which in turn increased their sense of lack of control. For example, Emma (36) commented “I

can’t go out and have a drink on a Friday night like, that’s the type of things I look forward to

too [after giving birth], is having that body be mine.”

The women in this study described negative feedback from others regarding such activities as

playing sports, weightlifting, and spending time at a family farm. Camille (28) remarked, “I was

telling people at work…that I was in the hot tub, and…that opened a can of worms!” When this

occurred, women began self-regulating their actions by avoiding such activities in order to avoid

further social sanctions. Participants also described being actively left out of social situations

when others assumed they would not want to participate. A final consideration regarding the

influence of the transition to motherhood on women’s leisure is the way it redefines women’s

time. Time that the women in this study were able to devote to leisure became, at best,

fragmented, or at worst, nearly non-existent. Participants described feelings of guilt for taking

time away from their parental responsibilities to participate in leisure. Additionally, when

participants did describe setting time aside for themselves, they would quickly justify that doing

so would make them a better mom to their child(ren). This indicates that women recognize that

they are expected to put their child above themselves and do not want to be viewed as a selfish

mom for taking time away from this primary responsibility.

Lacking knowledge. Compounding the problems that the social nature of pregnancy brings

about is a clear lack of knowledge and/or education about what types of physically active leisure

are appropriate which aligns with current literature (Clarke, 2004). Physical activity is not only

acceptable, but recommended during pregnancies that lack complications (Davies, 2003;

Dempsey, 2005; Haskell, 2009). However, doctors themselves may be misinformed, providing

women with shaky advice (Bauer, Broman, & Pivarnik, 2010). In the face of uncertainty about

how much or what types of physical activity are appropriate and the potential for negative social

sanctions, women may simply withdrawal from physically active leisure altogether during

pregnancy. For instance, Jessica (34) explained that she “really stopped doing any leisure

activities” due to concern that she might miscarry.

Implications

The current study sought to begin to fill the gap in leisure research that has yet to focus on the

implications the transition to motherhood may have on leisure. By better understanding the

complex social experience of pregnancy, we can gain a fuller understanding of leisure,

particularly as it relates to women’s role within the family. The findings suggest that women

experience an acute loss of control, face stiff social expectations, and must renegotiate the

meaning of time. Each may impact the leisure of pregnant women and provides insight into the

varying forces reshaping women’s leisure. The findings have important health implications for

women and, ultimately, implications for families.

Kellie Amanda Walters, Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson University,

Clemson, SC, (916)-300-0307, kawalte@clemson.edu

Selected References

Bauer, P. W., Broman, C. L., & Pivarnik, J. M. (2010). Exercise and pregnancy knowledge

among healthcare providers. J Womens Health (Larchmt), 19(2), 335-341. doi:

10.1089/jwh.2008.1295

Brown, P. R., Brown, W. J., Miller, Y. D., & Hansen, V. (2001). Perceived constraints and social

support for active leisure among mothers with young children. Leisure Sciences, 23(3),

131-144. doi: 10.1080/014904001316896837

Clark, B. S., & Anderson, D. M. (2014). Not yet a woman, not yet a mom. Journal of Leisure

Research, 46(5), 509-524.

Clarke, P. E., & Gross, H. (2004). Women's behavior, beliefs, and information sources about

physical exercise in pregnancy. Midwifery, 20(2), 133-141.

Condon, S. (2005). Sole Mothers...Sleep, Control and Leisure. Annals of Leisure Research, 8(2-

3), 91-104.

Cramp, A. G., & Bray, S. R. (2009). A prospective examination of exercise and barrier self-

efficacy to engage in leisure-time physical activity during pregnancy. Annals of

Behavioral Medicine, 37(3), 325-334.

Cramp, A. G., & Bray, S. R. (2011). Understanding exercise self-efficacy and barriers to leisure-

time physical activity among postnatal women. Matern Child Health J, 15(5), 642-651.

doi: 10.1007/S10995-010-0617-4

Currie, J. (2004). Motherhood, stress and the exercise experience: freedom or constraint? Leisure

Studies, 23(3), 225-242.

Davies, G. A., Wolfe, L. A., Mottola, M. F., & MacKinnon, C. (2003). Joint SOGC/CSEP

clinical practice guidelines: Exercise in pregnancy and the postpartum period. Canadian

Journal of Applied Physiology, 28(3), 329-341.

Dempsey, F. C., Butler, F. L., & Williams, F. A. (2005). No need for a pregnant pause: Physical

activity may reduce the occurance of gestational diabetes mellitus and preeclampsia.

Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 33(3), 141-149.

Earle, S. (2003). Bumps and boobs: Fatness and women's experiences of pregnancy. Women's

Studies International Forum, 26(3), 245-252.

Haskell, W. L., Blair, S. N., & Hill, J. O. (2009). Physical activity: Health outcomes and

importance for public health policy. Preventive Medicine, 49(4), 280-282.

Kimmel, J., & Connelly, R. (2007). Mothers' time choices caregiving, leisure, home production,

and paid work. Journal of Human Resources, 42(3), 643-681.

Miller, Y. D., & Brown, W. J. (2005). Determinants of active leisure for women with young

children - an " ethic of care" prevails. Leisure Sciences, 27(5), 405-420. doi:

10.1080/01490400500227308

Rudolfsdottir, A. G. (2000). "I am not a patient, and I am not a child": The institutionalization

and experience of pregnancy. Feminisim & Psychology, 10(3), 337-350.

Warren, S., & Brewis, J. (2004). Matter over mind? Examining the experience of pregnancy.

Sociology, 38(2), 219-236.

Young, T., Peppard, P. E., & Taheri, S. (2005). Excess weight and sleep-disordered breathing. J

Appl Physiol, 99(4), 1592-1599.

CREATING A RUNNER: BLACK GIRLS RUN! AND A COLLECTIVE IDENTITY

Christine E. Wegner, Temple University

Brianna S. Clark, Temple University

Jeremy S. Jordan, Temple University

As obesity rates near crisis levels in the United States, especially for marginalized groups,

policymakers struggle to understand how to help communities become more physically active.

African American women in particular have been the subject of numerous studies have been

conducted in an effort to understand the extent to which policies and programs can help address

the Center for Disease Control’s most recent statistic that four out of five of this population are

overweight or obese (Banks-Wallace & Conn, 2002). Mixed results of these interventions

suggest that efforts to bolster levels of physical activity must do more than simply direct

individuals to do the activity, they must help facilitate a psychological connection to the activity

(Henderson & Ainsworth, 2000).

Black Girls Run! (BGR!), a national organization of Black women runners, is attempting to

do just that. However, the difficulty of developing a connection to physical activity is amplified

when the activity is not one that individuals feel is congruent with their other identities.

Interviews from an initial study revealed that the perceptions of a long distance runners included

being “white,” “male,” and having “zero body fat,” which severely contradicted the Black

cultural norms they had been brought up with. Many expressed that a Black female runner was

often identified as a “Flo Jo or a Kenyan.” Despite these constraints, many of these women also

felt that BGR! provided them a valuable space to explore their desire to become a runner with

women similar to themselves. BGR! allowed for the opportunity to participate in an activity that

promotes greater health within this population; thus allowing for members to construct their own

running identity (Clark et al., 2014). Building on these findings, the purpose of this study is to

understand the extent to which members’ connection with the organization helps them to develop

a running identity over time.

Relevant Literature

Salient social categories, such as race and gender, create a stronger sense of in-group and

out-group. Members of an in-group that are also part of a marginalized group, i.e. groups where

membership confers negative esteem, may feel their collective identity more strongly (Tajfel,

1982). Group members can then collectively change those dimensions that create the negative

esteem or create new, more positive dimensions together. As “entrepreneurs of identity,” these

groups have the power to resist established norms through the process of identity creation

(Reicher, 2004). In other words, it may be possible for Black women in the United States to

reshape the extent to which recreational running is normatively associated with predominantly

white, thin, females.

This power of collective identity has been a focal point for those interested in political

collective action, recognizing the role identification plays in social change for under-represented

groups. Collective identification within a movement, along with personal and social motivations,

are key predictors of an individual’s willingness to participate in a social movement (Simon et

al., 1998). Furthermore, this sense of collective identification, which facilitates change, does not

have to emerge through an entity whose primary purpose it was to create social movements

(Pelak, 2002). This final point emphasizes the ways in which organizations might use

identification processes for greater social progress. BGR!, founded in 2009 as an online blog

where Black women runners could come together for support, has essentially become a social

movement. It has distinct colors, slogans, and events that allow its members to run while feeling

unconstrained by the activity’s supposed barrier to their race and gender identities. This study

measures the extent to which the collective identity of BGR! as an organization facilitates the

promotion of physical activity through the creation of a running identity for Black women.

Method

A panel of 1,200 members of BGR! self-selected into this study as part of a larger survey

conducted for the organization in 2014. Members were surveyed online in April of 2014, and

again six months later, in October of 2014. A total of 346 women completed both surveys. This

sample was not significantly different from the overall panel: both their mean and median age

was 42, 88% were in full-time employment, 82% had at least a four year-degree, 47% were

living with a spouse or partner, and 50% had at least one child. The Psychological involvement

scale measured members’ connection to the organization (Beaton et al., 2009). This scale

combines three facets of an individual’s involvement with an entity: pleasure, centrality, and

self-expression. Identity as a runner was measured using the Athletic Identity Scale, a multi-

dimensional measure of an individual’s sense of identity within a particular activity (Jun & Kyle,

2011).

Results and Discussion

The results of a repeated measured ANOVA found no significant change in members’

identification as runners (F = .37, p =.545). However, there was a significant, positive interaction

between members’ change in their connection to the organization and their change in a running

identity (F = 18.60, p <.001). The stronger their connection to the organization became over the

course of six months (i.e. the more pleasure they felt as members, the more central the

organization became, and the more they felt the organization was a reflection of themselves), the

stronger their identity as runners became. Furthermore, a pairwise T-test confirmed that this

positive change in running identity was significantly greater for members who did not consider

themselves runners before joining BGR! (t = 2.29, p < .05). In other words, for those members

who were not connected to running before they joined, their growing connection to the

organization was more strongly linked to their growth as self-identified runners during this time

frame. This supported previous literature suggesting that connection with a collective (in this

case, BGR!), can foster social change such as the creation of a running identity for Black women

(Simon et al., 1998).

Implications for Practice

This study provides initial evidence that BGR!, as an “intravention” by Black women for

Black women, is facilitating a connection to the activity of running through an identity it offers

its members. In creating this new identity, it offers change for the community of Black women in

the U.S., providing them with an identification that promotes greater amounts of activity both

within and outside of the organization, encouraging more African American women to engage in

physical activity (as evidenced by its growing numbers). More broadly, it also contributes to

changing the social norms surrounding what it means to be a runner. As organizations in general

have the power to enact social change through collective action (Chikoto & Halicki, 2012),

marginalized groups, through the creation of self-defined sport and physical activity

organizations, may be able to use this power to create congruency between individuals’ other

salient identities and their connection with sport and physical activity.

Christine E. Wegner, Temple University, 860-882-3595, christine.wegner@temple.edu

Selected References

Banks‐Wallace, J., & Conn, V. (2002). Interventions to promote physical activity among African

American women. Public Health Nursing, 19(5), 321-335.

Beaton, A. A., Funk, D. C., & Alexandris, K. (2009). Operationalizing a theory of participation

in physically active leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 41(2), 177-203.

Chikoto, G. L., & Halicki, M. (2013). Contextual Factors and Negotiating Spaces: Exploring the

Emergence of Nonprofit and Hybrid Voluntary Organizations. Nonprofit Management

and Leadership, 23(3), 347-365.

Clark, B. S., Blair, D., Olushola, J., & Wegner, C.E. (2014). Black Girls Run!: Black women’s

running experiences. Presented at the Leisure Research Symposium. Arlington, VA:

National Recreation and Park Association.

Henderson, K. A., & Ainsworth, B. E. (2000). Sociocultural perspectives on physical activity in

the lives of older African American and American Indian women: a cross cultural activity

participation study. Women & Health, 31(1), 1-20.

Jun, J., & Kyle, G. T. (2011). Understanding the role of identity in the constraint negotiation

process. Leisure Sciences, 33(4), 309-331.

Minkoff, D. C. (2002). The emergence of hybrid organizational forms: Combining identity-based

service provision and political action. Nonprofit and voluntary sector quarterly, 31(3),

377-401.

Pelak, C. F. (2002). Women's Collective Identity Formation in Sports: A Case Study from

Women's Ice Hockey. Gender & Society, 16(1), 93-114.

Rao, H., Morrill, C., & Zald, M. N. (2000). Power plays: How social movements and collective

action create new organizational forms. Research in organizational behavior, 22, 237-

281.

Reicher, S. (2004). The context of social identity: Domination, resistance, and change. Political

psychology, 25(6), 921-945.

Simon, B., Loewy, M., Stürmer, S., Weber, U., Freytag, P., Habig, C., Kampmeier, C., &

Spahlinger, P. (1998). Collective identification and social movement

participation. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(3), 646.

Tajfel, H. (1982). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. CUP

Archive.

SHAPING SPACES WITHIN A LONG-TERM CARE HOME TO BUILD COMMUNITY

Colleen Whyte, Brock University

Darla Fortune, Concordia University

Immediately after a move to a long-term care (LTC) home, an individual’s range of social

networks narrows from the broader, geographical community-at-large to more limited,

segregated interactions within the home and may represent a permanent loss of long-standing

social roles, relationships and identity (Ice, 2002). Older adults who are able to maintain their

family and social relationships cope better in LTC homes (Uhlenberg, 2003) and experience

positive self-concept and high levels of self-esteem (Antonelli Rubini, & Fassone, 2000). Yet, in

reality, many LTC homes do not support individuals in developing and/or maintaining valued

relationships with community members outside of the facility, including life-long friends and

acquaintances (Gubrium, 1993; Ice, 2002). In fact, most LTC homes are highly age segregated,

providing few opportunities for residents to connect with members from the community-at-large.

Not only are LTC homes largely detached from the external community, they also often lack

a sense of internal community (Ice, 2002; Mor et al., 1995). In fact, literature suggests a lack of

meaningful stimulation and interaction within most LTC homes imbues the culture with an

overwhelming sense of monotony. Bradshaw, Playford and Riazi (2012) concluded that many

homes are sterile and devoid of meaningful experiences. The authors described how residents in

LTC homes voiced significant concerns about lack of autonomy and negative implications to

quality of life. A lack of privacy and dignity, regimented routines and a feeling of emptiness

were all linked to a decreased sense of control and threats to sense of community. Buckley and

McCarthy (2009) explored the relationships residents have with family, friends, other residents,

and staff. Findings revealed that residents described their relationships with other residents as

shallow, with few residents indicating they had a true friend in the home. A consequence of these

characteristics has led Bill Thomas, founder of the Eden Alterative, to declare boredom,

loneliness and helplessness as the three plagues of long-term care (Thomas, 2004).

A sudden disconnect from the geographical community, coupled with the consequences of

institutional living, including decreased levels of self-esteem (Antonelli, et al., 2000) and a lack

of autonomy (Rash, 2007) contribute to feelings of isolation by individuals living in a LTC home

(Clare et al., 2008; Slama & Bergman-Evans, 2000). Recognizing that the communities to which

we belong have a significant impact on our personal lives and contribute to our sense of identity,

the purpose of this paper is to explore how community can be created in a LTC home.

Methods

As part of a larger study that sought to explore the experiences of community for residents,

family and staff, the focus of this paper is on data collected through one-on-one interviews with

11 staff members working in a LTC home in Ontario, Canada. Interviews were between 40 and

70 minutes, digitally recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed using van Manen’s

(1997) process of interpretive phenomenological analysis, layering holistic, selective and

detailed readings of the text. Cross-checking of coding and data interpretation regularly took

place between the first and second author during the analysis phase.

Findings

Analysis revealed how efforts at grounding daily life in community enabled residents, family

and staff to cultivate feelings of valued relationships within the LTC home. For instance, as

described by a member of the nursing staff: “We have a solid group of people who sit out in the

coffee area every afternoon and it’s not just residents. It’s residents and their spouse, residents

and friends, residents and their grandchildren—they come and chat and have an afternoon

cookie or coffee and it’s neat because they do it every day and it’s just habit and it feels great,

like having your friends over for coffee”.

Promoting opportunities for residents to engage in relationships with other residents, staff

and family members, the LTC home recognized the importance of continued reciprocity. Here a

staff member speaks to a resident’s perception of a Saturday market: “She’s a gardener and she

loves cut flowers and seeing all the produce and she said, “I just love the idea of spending a

couple dollars.” She would always come down and buy a plant for her daughter, whether it’s a

perennial or some cut flowers or a couple peppers, it’s always for her daughter. She’s buying a

gift herself to give to her daughter”.

Additionally, staff acted as natural community builders, both within the LTC home and as

key links between residents and citizens in the surrounding geographical community. Not only

did staff reassure family members of the well-being of residents, they were also champions of the

LTC home, assuring family in their decision to move a relative into the home: “I’m born and

raised here. I know people in town that, they’ll bring their mother here and after a few weeks I’ll

see them downtown or something and they’ll say, “How’s my mom doing?” And I’ll say, “Oh,

she’s doing fine.” And I always say, “You brought her to the right place. The care at this place is

just enormous. It’s just perfect”.

Discussion and Implications

In order to achieve an environment within LTC homes where “elders feel at home, family

members enjoy visiting, staff are respected, listened to and appreciated, the care is good, [and]

life is worth living” (Thomas, 2003, p. 142) approaches to care are moving beyond an emphasis

on biomedical concerns to a growing recognition of the humanity of individuals living in LTC

homes. At their core, these approaches describe simple ways in which people interact and relate

to other human beings living in LTC homes. In direct contrast to Bill Thomas’ (2004) three

plagues of LTC living, we found examples of interdependence, meaningful engagement, and

self-expression which fostered a greater recognition of the person living in the LTC home,

family, friends and staff members and their combined contributions to experiences of daily living

for someone living in a LTC home.

As we have written elsewhere (Fortune & Whyte, 2011) leisure could provide community

members and those residing in LTC homes with opportunities to build community in ways that

are mutually enhancing; however, these opportunities have yet to be fully realized. We argue that

a re-imagining of these spaces as sites for inclusive leisure experiences can not only foster much

needed social support for individuals living in LTC homes, but equally so for individuals within

the geographical community. As the findings from this study demonstrate, formal and informal

community-based initiatives provide the possibility for people to come together and engage.

Genuine public spaces can bring residents together with other residents, staff, family, and

members of the (larger) community. These spaces, such as a coffee shop or community market,

not only function as in-house community spaces, but also imbed LTC homes within the larger

community context. We draw on these findings to suggest ways for recreation managers and

practitioners working in LTC to re-consider the spaces within the homes in which they work.

Specifically, we will discuss ways such spaces could be open to more reciprocal exchanges and

opportunities for social engagement.

Colleen Whyte, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock University, St.Catharines,

ON, CANADA (905) 688-5550, cwhyte@brocku.ca

Selected References

Antonelli, E., Rubini, V., & Fassone, C. (2000). The self-concept in institutionalized and non-

institutionalized elderly people. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 20, 151-164.

Bradshaw, S.A., Playford, E.D., & Riazi, A. (2012). Living well in care homes: A systematic

review of qualitative studies. Age and Ageing, 41, 429-440.

Buckley, C., & McCarthy, G. (2009). An exploration of social connectedness as perceived by

older adults in a long-term care setting in Ireland. Geriatric Nursing, 30, 390-396.

Clare, L., Rowlands, J., Bruce, E., Surr, C., & Downs, M. (2008). The experience of living with

dementia in residential care: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. The

Gerontologist, 6, 711-720.

Gubrium, J.F. (1993). Speaking of life: Horizons of meaning for nursing home residents.

Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter.

Hicks, Jr., T.J. (2000). What is your life like now? Loneliness and elderly individuals residing in

nursing homes. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 26, 15-19.

Holstein, J.A., & Gubrium, J.F. (1995). The active interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ice, G.H. (2002). Daily life in a nursing home: Has it changed in 25 years? Journal of Aging

Studies, 16, 345-359.

Rash, E.M. (2007). Social support in elderly nursing home populations: Manifestations and

influences. The Qualitative Report, 12, 375-396.

Slama, C.A., & Bergman-Evans, B. (2000). A troubling triangle: An exploration of loneliness,

helplessness, and boredom of residents of a veteran’s home. Journal of Psychosocial

Nursing and Mental Health Services, 38, 36-43.

Thomas, W.H. (2003). Evolution of Eden. In A.S. Weiner & J.L. Ronch (Eds.), Culture change

in long-term care (pp.141-158). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Social Work Practice Press.

Thomas, W.H. (2004). What are old people for? How elders will save the world. St. Louis, MO:

Vanderwyk & Burnham.

Uhlenberg, P. (2003). Age integration. In K. Christensen & D. Levinson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of

community (pp. 15-17). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

van Manen, M. (1997). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive

pedagogy. London, ON: The Althouse Press.

RECREATION PARTICIPATION IN OUT-OF-SCHOOL TIME PROGRAMS RELATED

TO ENHANCED SCHOOL PERFORMANCE

Heng-Chieh Jamie Wu, University Outreach and Engagement, Michigan State University

Laurie Van Egeren, University Outreach and Engagement, Michigan State University

Introduction. The 21st Century Community Learning Centers (CCLC) is the only federal

funding source dedicated exclusively to out-of-school time (OST) programs to date.

Administered through state education departments, funded programs receive five-year grants to

provide academic enrichment opportunities to underserved youth. Although all types of youth-

serving organizations are eligible for the grant competition, across the nation, the majority of the

grantees are schools. In fact, the 2011 annual report conducted by the federal evaluator indicated

that only one third of the funded programs are non-school-based youth-serving organizations,

which includes but is not limited to: park and recreation departments, community-based

organizations, nationally affiliated nonprofits such as Boys and Girls Clubs of America and

YMCAs (Learning Point Associates, 2011). Limited involvement from leisure service providers

means park and recreation programs receive fewer funds to support organizational stability and

capacity in providing quality leisure services. Furthermore, unlike other types of OST programs

that often offer limited types of programming (i.e., tutoring, sports clubs, drug prevention

programs, etc.), 21st CCLC programs are known for its comprehensive curriculum that not only

emphasizes academic learning, but delivers a wide range of non-academic enrichment

opportunities such as arts, sports, media, and youth development activities. Because of the

demand for non-academic programming, park and recreation professionals have the potential to

play a key role in OST settings like 21st CCLC programs in delivering a wide range of quality

leisure experiences to underserved youth. However, Witt (2001) found that many park and

recreation professionals did not seek to be part of school-based after-school programs because

they did not see how their practices and profession related to the educational gains of youth.

Literature review. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory emphasizes the importance of

process, person, context and time, and the interactions among these four elements, to successful

human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1995). In addition to childcare, OST programs have the

potential to provide youth with meaningful relationships and activity engagement opportunities

(process), meet the needs of individuals (person), immerse youth in structured learning

environments (context) and encourage sustained participation (time) for positive youth

development. Recreational activities, defined in its broadest term as any non-academic activities,

including sports, arts, games, and youth development, are commonly used as the fun “hooks” to

bring youth into an OST program (Lauver, Little, & Weiss, 2004). Although there are numerous

evaluation reports and studies around OST impacts in the current literature, most present OST

participation as a black box full of fun recreational activities (Fiester, Simpkins, & Bouffard,

2005). Even among the few studies that have compared differential effects of the types of

activity participation (e.g., community service, sports, performing arts, academic clubs), most

studies simply compared youth who participated vs. not participated without being able to

illustrate how greater or fewer participation in certain types of activities could be related to

different outcomes (e.g., Barber, Stone, Hunt, & Eccles, 2005). As one of the very few

exceptions, Larson, Hansen, and Moneta (2006) found that participation in arts allowed youth to

experience more positive relationships, and sports participation provided a context for youth to

develop a greater sense of initiative, emotional regulation and teamwork. However, sport

participation was also related to higher stress. On the other hand, participation in academic clubs

showed fewer personal and interpersonal growth opportunities. Although such a study provides

insights on how different types of activity participation may affect youth differently, the

comparison did not address contextual factors such as organizational cultures or program

missions that may mediate the effects. Using a park and recreation lens, this study examines

whether participation hours in four types of recreational activities, (a) youth development,

(b) sports, (c) recess/social time and (d) arts, relates to better teacher ratings on students’

school behaviors and homework completion, and whether such relations vary depending on

whether programs operated through school systems or leisure service providers. Samples. Using data from the Michigan 21

st CCLC state evaluation, the sample for the analyses

was drawn from 26,032 K-12 students during the 2012-13 regular school year. The population

was evenly distributed between males and females; most were racial minorities (61%), low-

income (82%) and academically low performing (81%). About 64% of the grantees were school-

based, but 60% were actually operated by non-school-based organizations. The final sample

includes 5,521 teacher surveys from 188 programs reporting on students with sufficient

demographic data, attending 30+ days and having opportunities to participate in all four types of

recreational activities (71% return rate). Youth’s participating hours in each type of the activities

were recorded in an online data tracking system, EZReports, as part of the grant requirement.

The teacher survey asked teachers to rate individual student’s performance on a 7-point scale (1

significant decline ~ 7 significant improvement), with an additional option to indicate if a student

did not need to improve. The questions formed two measures: school behaviors (10 items,

Cronbach’s alpha=.97) and homework completion (3 items, Cronbach’s alpha=.92).

Methods. Because of the multi-level nature of the data, HLM 6.02 was employed. The first step

was to identify the contribution of the differences among programs to differences in youth

outcomes. Results of the ICC scores indicated about 10% of the differences among teacher

ratings were associated with program-level characteristics warranting the use of multi-level

modeling. The second step was to get a baseline understanding of differences in average teacher

ratings for students from different demographics or program operations regardless of the

activities they participated in. At the last step, participating hours among different activity types

were introduced in the model, with hours in academic activities used as a control variable while

examining the relations between recreational activities in relation to teacher ratings.

Results. Data showed female students and students with limited English proficiency had better

teacher ratings in general than their counterparts. Whether the program was operated by schools

vs leisure service providers was not directly related to the outcomes. As expected, greater

academic participation was related to improved homework completion. After controlling for

significant demographic and academic participation factors, sports participation related to better

teacher ratings; however, such small but significant effects were only found for programs

operated by leisure service providers (See Table 1 for effect size and Figure 1 for illustration).

No significant effects were found for other recreational activities.

Implications for practice. Results suggested sport participation in Michigan 21st CCLC

programs run by a leisure service provider were positively associated with students’ school

performance compared to those operated by schools. This may be attributed to the different

processes and expertise of leisure service providers compared to school personnel, and highlights

the benefits of participating in non-school based recreation for enhanced learning experiences.

Heng-Chieh Jamie Wu, Ph.D., University Outreach and Engagement, Michigan State University

can be reached at 517-884-1412 or wuhengch@mus.edu.

Table 1. Effect Sizes for Recreation Participating Hours Related to Teacher Ratings

TEACHER REPORTS

Effect Size (r) Homework Completion School Behaviors

Academic 0.04**

0.04

Free play & social events 0.01 0.00

Sports 0.05(**)

0.05(**)

Arts 0.00 0.00

Youth development 0.00 0.00

Health and nutrition 0.00 0.01

Technology 0.02 0.02 NOTE. Controlling for student demographic characteristics such as gender, grade level, race/ethnicity,

low-income (free/reduced lunch status), limited English proficiency, academically low-performing and

special education status. *p < .05, **p < .01. ( )

Interaction effect with program type.

Figure 1. Effects of Sports Participating Hours Varied by Program Type

Selected References

Barber, B. L., Stone, M. R., Hunt, J. E., & Eccles, J. S. (2005). Benefits of activity participation:

The roles of identity affirmation and peer group norm sharing. In J. L. Mahoney, R. W.

Larson, & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts of development:

Extracurricular activities, after-school and commun ity programs. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associate, Inc.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). Developmental ecology through space and time: A future

perspectiveitle. In P. Moen, G. Elder, & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context:

Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 619–647). Washington, DC:

American Psychological Association.

Fiester, L. M., Simpkins, S. D., & Bouffard, S. M. (2005). Present and accounted for: Measuring

attendance in out-of-school-time programs. New Directions for Youth Development, 105,

91–107.

Larson, R. W., Hansen, D. M., & Moneta, G. (2006). Differing profiles of developmental

experiences across types of organized youth activities. Developmental Psychology, 42(5),

849–863.

Lauver, S., Little, P. D. M., & Weiss, H. (2004). Moving beyond the barriers: Attracting and

sustaining youth participation in out-of-school time programs (Harvard Fa.). Cambridge,

MA.

Learning Point Associates. (2011). 21 st Century Community Learning Centers (21 st CCLC)

analytic support for evaluation and program monitoring: An overview of the 21 st CCLC

Performance Data: 2009-10.

Lerner, R. D. (2002). (2002). Concepts and theories of human development (3rd ed.). Mahwah,

NJ: Erlbaum.

Witt, P. (2001). Re-examining the role of recreation and parks in after-school programs. Parks

and Recreation, 36(7), 20–28.

CULTURAL IMMERSION CAMP AND SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS AMONG ASIAN

AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS Yi-Ju Wu, Texas A&M University

Corliss Outley, Texas A&M University

Introduction Social connectedness plays an essential role in the everyday lives of adolescents, and is a key

to positive personal development, lifestyle, and general health (Uchino et. al., 1996; Barber &

Schluterman, 2008; Stoddard, McMorris & Sieving, 2011). The concept of social connectedness

for adolescents was originally derived from attachment theory and Hirschi’s theory of deviant

behavior (Karcher, 2011). Attachment endows children with a sense of safety and subsequently

drives them to bravely explore their environment. Extending attachment theory from childhood

to adolescence, Hirschi’s theory of deviant behavior states that bonding (i.e. connecting) within a

socialization unit will likely affect adolescent’s future behaviors positively (Hirschi, 1969). The

degree of social connectedness to broad domains (e.g. family, school, friends & community) in

adolescence is not only a factor for better health outcomes but also serves as protection against

an array of risk behaviors, including mental health outcomes (Jose & Pryor, 2010; Jose, Ryan, &

Pryor, 2012). From a Positive Youth Development perspective, social connection is a key factor

in enabling young people to become fully functional adults (Lerner, et. al., 2005). However, for

many youth of color the lack of social connection with family, friends and the community can

lead to risky behaviors and severe mental health issues. The social environment of Asian

American Adolescents (AAA) in particular, is a complex context due to internalized conflicts

between Eastern (heritage) and Western (host) cultures. This conflict inhibits AAA maturation

processes and is a significant source of stress (De Luca, Wyman, & Warren, 2012). Numerous

studies have concluded that feelings of alienation and isolation among AAA arise when they

become more acclimated to American culture and their connection with the value system of their

parents diminishes or is in conflict (Rick & Forward, 1992; Lorenzo, Frost, & Reinherz, 2000;

Umemoto & Ong, 2006; De Luca, Wyman, & Warren, 2012). The unique educational experience

of camp serves as a facilitator to adolescent attachment (Catalano & Hawkins, 1996). As such,

cultural immersion camps have been specifically designed to encourage cultural heritage

awareness and connection among AAA. It was predicted that a cultural immersion camp might

significantly reduce Asian American adolescents’ mental health issues by increasing their level

of ethnic identity, and thereby their social connectedness. Only a few studies have explored the

relationship between ethnic identity and social connectedness. The predicted positive impact of

the cultural immersion camp program on AAA would imply that an environment that positively

reinforces their ethnic identity will in turn assist them in developing their sense of social

connectedness.

Methods A total of 84 AAA from three cultural immersion camps participated in this study. Subjects

were asked to fill out a pre-camp survey on the first day of camp, and then completed a post-

camp survey on the last day. The survey assessed camp outcomes (64 response items). SPSS

statistics 20 was used for data analysis. The dataset satisfies the requirements for paired t-test and

regression statistics, thus permitting the valid inference of relationships. A paired t-test was used

to examine the effects of camp experiences on adolescents’ senses of ethnic identity and social

connectedness. A linear regression model was applied to analyze the relationship between ethnic

identity and social connectedness.

Results AAA’s positive perceptions of both ethnic identity and social connectedness were increased

through the cultural immersion camp experiences as demonstrated by a paired t-test analysis.

Positive and significant beta coefficients between ethnic identity and social connectedness either

in pre- or post-camp were also identified. Significant changes were found in both ethnic identity

(p<. 05) and social connectedness (p<. 05). The gain scores were identified from mean

difference scores (Ethnic identity μ=5.50 and Social Connectedness μ=13.28). The linear

regression model (Y=Bo+X1B1e; Y=Social Connectedness, X= Ethnic Identity) was applied to

both stages (i.e., pre- and post-camp) to explore the relationship between ethnic identity and

social connectedness. The results indicate that the perception of ethnic identity will contribute to

the level of social connectedness among AAA. Specifically, the slope change of two linear

regression models indicates that ethnic identity has even stronger effects on levels of social

connectedness after AAA have concluded the cultural immersion camp experiences.

Discussion

The significant growth of ethnic identity and social connectedness among AAA is consistent

with previous studies which showed that minority adolescents who gain cultural knowledge and

ethnic pride for their ethnic group tend to have positive attitudes about themselves and their

social environment. In comparing pre- and post camp experiences, the increasingly positive

relationship between ethnic identity and social connectedness among AAA demonstrated that the

level of social connectedness was significantly influenced by the perception of ethnic identity

and ethnic group support. The intervention of cultural immersion camp experiences makes the

relationship between ethnic identity and social connectedness even stronger. This suggests that

the intervention focusing on ethnic identity construction and ethnic camp community support

was important. Thus the findings of this study help to identify specific kinds of supportive

resources that can promote AAA’s levels of social connectedness.

Implications for Practice These findings highlight the significance of cultural immersion camp experiences as an

important opportunity to significantly increase perceived levels of social connectedness among

AAA. It also suggests that the potential importance of cultural immersion camps for minority

adolescent social connectedness should be explored in more detail. One important step would be

disaggregating the concepts of heritage, cultural knowledge, language, and ethnic identity to

determine more specifically what elements have the greatest impact on perceptions of social

connectedness. Researchers and youth practitioners might further explore other, perhaps latent,

facilitators for the perception of social connectedness, and how these are related to the impacts of

the immersion camp experience. Given the importance of family in Asian cultures, actively

linking the family to the immersion camp could be important. Other demographic factors and

additional community support might also serve as important elements enhancing AAA’s social

connectedness. Researchers also may wish to explore further how best to sustain the effects of

the cultural immersion camp outcomes over time. Enduring long-term relationships among

cultural immersion camp community members can be expected for minority adolescents who

have a natural desire to stay engaged with people who hold similar values. There is a need to

develop strategies to make it easier for minority adolescents to stay connected with their cultural

immersion camp community members. This suggests a social ecological system perspective on

promoting minority adolescents’ social connectedness.

Yi-Ju Wu, Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University,

College Station, TX, (832)877-6226, yiju_wu@tamu.edu

Table 1 Camp outcomes growth descriptive statistics

Table 2 Camp outcomes growth Pair Samples t-test

*p<.05

Table 3 Linear Regression Model of Ethnic Identity and Social Connectedness

*p<.05

Variable Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error

Mean

Pair

1

Ethnic Identity (post) 62.7619 84 7.86424 .79912

Ethnicity Identity (pre) 57.2619 84 7.32403 .85806

Pair

2

Social Connectedness (post) 126.8452 84 18.89380 1.63960

Social Connectedness (pre) 113.5595 84 15.02717 2.06148

PAIR Paired Differences

M SD Std.

Error

Mean

95% Confidence

Interval of the Differ.

t df Sig.

(2-

tailed) Lower Upper

1 Ethnicity

Identity (post) -

(pre)

5.5

00

.94.35 .94.35 3.62969 7.3703 5.84 83 .000*

2 Social

Connectedness

(post)- (pre)

13.

28

2.1870

1

2.1870

1

8.93584 17.635 6.07 83 .000*

Variable B SE B R Sig

(Constant) 87.095 12. 743 .000

Ethnicity Identity (pre) .462 .221 .225 *.039

(Constant)

Ethnicity Identity (post)

25.782

1.610

12.453

.197

.670

.042

*.000

Selected References

Barber, B. K., & Schluterman, J. M. (2008). Connectedness in the lives of children and

adolescents: A call for greater conceptual clarity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43, 209-

216.

De Luca, S. M., Wyman, P., & Warren, K. (2012). Latina adolescent suicide ideations and

attempts: Associations with connectedness to parents, peers, and teachers. Suicide and

Life-Threatening Behavior, 42(6), 672-683.

Jose, P., & Pryor, J. (2010). Does social connectedness lead to a greater sense of well-being in

new zealand adolescents? Findings from the youth connectedness project. Psychology

Aotearoa, 2(2), 94-97.

Jose, P. E., Ryan, N., & Pryor, J. (2012). Does social connectedness promote a greater sense of

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251.

Karcher, M. J. (2011). The Hemingway: Measure of adolescent connectedness. Retrieved from

http://adolescentconnectedness.com/.

Lorenzo, M. K., Frost, A. K., & Reinherz, H. Z. (2000). Social and emotional functioning of

older Asian American adolescents. Social Work Journal, 17(4), 289-304.

Olsson, C. A., McGee, R., Nada-Raja, S., & Williams, S. M. (2013). 32-year longitudinal study

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Pinckney, H. P. I., Outley, C., Blake, J. J., & Kelly, B. (2011). Promoting positive youth

development of black youth: A rites of passage framework. Journal of Park and

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Stoddard, S. A., McMorris, B., & Sieving, R. E. (2011). Do social contexts and hope matter in

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Umemoto, K., & Ong, P. (2006). Asian American and Pacific Islander youth: Risks, challenges,

and opportunities. APPI Nexus, 4(2), 5-6.

SERIOUS LEISURE PROFILES AND WELL-BEING OF OLDER ADULTS

Hyunmin Yang, Texas A&M University

Jinmoo Heo, Texas A&M University

The contribution of participating in leisure activities on promoting the well-being of older

adults has been documented in numerous studies(e.g., Brown, McGuire, Voelkl, 2008; Everard,

1999; Kleiber, 2001; Nimrod, 2007; Siegenthaler& O’Dell, 2003). In contemporary society, the

age of the world population is increasing at a rapid rate, as people are living longer. As such,

examining the behavior of older adults warrantsempirical attention. While there exists various

forms of leisure participation, serious leisure is one form that characterizes the extent to which

individuals are involved or committed to the activity (Stebbins, 1992). Earlier works of serious

leisure examined a wide range of the population such as people with disabilities (Patterson,

2000), runners (Major, 2001), and football fans (Gibson, Willming, &Holdnak, 2002).

Investigating the behavior of older adults using the serious leisure framework has been given

attention in recent years. In studying older adults’ serious leisure, a variety of activities have

been investigated, including volunteering (Misener, Dotherty, & Hamm-Kerwin, 2010), shag

dancing (Brown, McGuire, &Voelkl, 2008), and information seeking behavior (O’Conner,

2013).

While the aforementioned studies offer explorations of older adults’ serious leisure

experiences, the body of knowledge has been built by scholars in Western cultures. Perhaps

exploring serious leisure using the population from non-Western cultures might provide insight

to understanding the value of serious leisure. Furthermore, in spite of an increase in researches

conducted using the serious leisure framework, few studies have addressed the well-being

outcomes of serious leisure. The aim of the present study was to explore the association between

involvement in serious leisure and well-being indicators (life satisfaction, happiness, and health

perception) of older adults.

Methodology

This study was based on a paper-and pencil survey of 192 older adults, age 61 and over, who

were recruited at a local senior center in Korea. In order to collect samples, Goyang Senior Well-

Being Center (GSWC) was chosen. GSWC provides not only activity classes, but also

recreational facilities for free time such as line dance, table tennis, yoga, gate ball, weight

training, and golf. This site consisted of over 20000 seniors who registered and attendance was

1500, more per day than usual. The survey was answered between the activity classes. Survey

was processed voluntarily with the exception of presbyopia. The sample was collected in 2014

and was comprised of 67 (34.9%) males and 125 (65.1%) females. The mean of age was 73.3

(SD=6.35) and the majority of the participants (95.3%) were married.

The outcome variables in this study were life satisfaction, happiness, and health perception.

Life satisfaction was measured by the 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons,

Larson, & Griffin, 1985). Items were rated on Likert-type scales of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7

(strongly agree). The 4-item Subjective Happiness Scale developed by Lyubomirsky and Lepper

(1999) was used to measure happiness. This instrument contains four items on a 7-point Likert-

type scale. Health perception was assessed using one question: “How would you rate your own

health at present?” Responses ranged from 1=poor to 5=excellent. Serious leisure was assessed

using Gould et al.’s (2011, 338p) 18-item Serious Leisure Inventory and Measure (SLIM). This

instrument measures central qualities of serious leisure that was classified by Stebbins (1992). It

was rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale.

From the beginning the survey questionnaire, the demographic items were included: age,

gender, and marital status. Additionally, leisure type and frequency, hour, and career were

employed.

The hierarchical cluster analysis with Ward’s method was used to identify subgroups of on

older adults based their scores on SLIM. The results of hierarchical cluster analysis provided

two-cluster solution as best fit. The first cluster was labeled core devotees (n=98; 51.3%) as

members of this group reported higher scores on characteristics of serious leisure. The second

cluster was named moderate devotees (n=93; 48.6%). This classification was derived from

Stebbins’ (2007) theoretical scale of intensity of involvement. Hotelling’s T square test was used

to test for differences in outcome variables between the two clusters.

Results

Hierarchical cluster analysis reported that participants could be grouped into core devotees (n

= 98; 51.3%) and moderate devotees (n = 93; 48.7%). The gender ratio in two groups was 31

males (31.6%) and 67 females (68.4%) in core devotee. The moderate devotees were consisted

of 36 males (38.7%) and 57 females (61.3%). It was identified that Labeled core devotees were

reported higher score in the intensity of the serious leisure involvement regarding perseverance,

significant effort, career progress, career contingencies, Identification with pursuit, and unique

ethos in table 1. This theoretical scale of intensity of the leisure involvement was provided from

Stebbins (2007, pp.20-21) in addition to the study of serious golfer by Siegenthaler & O’Dell

(2003). Detailed demographic characteristics and participation pattern between the two groups

were presented in Table 2. Age and gender were relatively consistent between the groups. Core

devotees scored slightly higher on the frequency of participation in activity per week and average

time spent on activity differed than the moderate devotees. As shown in Table 3, the results of

the Hotelling’s T-square test demonstrated that clusters made significant differences in this

multivariate model (F = 10.04, p< .001). With a Bonferroni adjustment to the alpha value, the

univariate test of the outcome variables indicated that core devotees had significantly higher

scores on life satisfaction (F = 23.43, p< .001), happiness (F = 6.80, p< .005), and health

perception (F = 13.42, p< .001). The core devotees had higher scores in terms of the level of

SLIM in Table 4. This result sheds light on that consequent level of the seriousness accordance

with leisure involvement wields great influence upon social and personal benefits in older adults.

Discussion

Our findings contribute to an understanding in regard to how involvement in serious leisure

is related to the indicators of well-being among older adults. The results revealed that core

devotees of serious leisure have higher levels of life satisfaction, happiness, and health

perception. In Siegenthaler and O’Dell’s study of older adults, core devotees viewed serious

leisure activity as a central focus of their life, and such involvement contributed to successful

aging. The core devotees in our study reported higher scores on serious leisure characteristics

than moderate devotees. It can be inferred that core devotees gained personal and social benefits

(e.g., self-actualization, enjoyment, personal enrichment) from serious leisure activities, and such

participation would lead to experiencing life satisfaction, happiness, and a better health. These

results are consistent with Chen’s (2014) study which suggested that serious leisure

characteristics lead to higher levels of subjective well-being. A direction for future study might

be to test the association between serious leisure and objective measures of well-being.

Hyunmin Yang, Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University, College

Station, TX, (979)676-9377, uh563@tamu.edu

TABLE 1. Summary Statistics of Clusters

Core

Devotee

Moderate

Devotee

Overall

M SD M SD M SD F

Perseverance 5.81 1.25 3.59 1.70 4.73 1.85 105.88*

Effort 5.42 1.61 2.56 1.40 4.03 2.08 171.95*

Career progress 5.79 1.34 2.98 1.53 4.42 2.01 182.02*

Career contingency 5.23 1.51 3.56 2.09 4.42 2.00 40.67*

Identity 5.60 1.62 3.44 1.54 4.55 1.91 89.17*

Ethos 6.04 1.21 4.14 1.67 5.12 1.73 82.09*

TABLE 2. Demographic characteristics and participation patterns between the clusters

Core devotees Moderate devotees

N (%) N (%)

Gender

Males

31 (31.6%)

36 (38.7%)

Females 67 (68.4%) 57 (61.3%)

Mean and SD

Mean and SD

Age

72.40 (6.29)

74.26 (6.30) 1Frequency of participation in activity (per week)

4.46 (1.92)

4.14 (2.08)

2Average time spent on activity 2.19 (1.02) 1.99 (.92)

TABLE 3. Means, standard deviations, and Hotelling’s T-square test results

Core

Moderate Overall

Variable M SD M SD M SD F

Life

satisfaction

5.09 1.38

4.84 1.39 4.97 1.39 22.43**

Happiness 5.91 1.25

5.41 1.53 5.67 1.41 6.80*

Health

perception

4.13 1.06

3.53 1.22 3.84 1.18 13.42**

TABLE 4. Summary of Cluster Analysis in the Variables

Variables

Core

Devotee

Moderate

Devotee

Overall

M SD M SD M SD F

Self-enrichment 6.10 1.28 4.51 1.78 5.33 1.73 50.608*

Self-actualization 5.22 1.88 3.18 1.87 4.23 2.13 56.878*

Self-expression of abilities 5.27 1.94 3.01 1.59 4.17 2.10 76.903*

Self-expression of individuals 5.37 1.55 3.41 1.72 4.41 1.90 68.756*

Self-image 5.56 1.53 3.56 1.75 4.59 1.92 71.013*

Self-gratification-satisfaction 6.37 .999 4.98 1.77 5.69 1.58 45.216*

Self-gratification-enjoyment 6.56 .886 5.35 1.60 5.97 1.42 42.146*

Recreation 6.22 1.32 4.45 1.79 5.36 1.79 61.343*

Group attraction 5.92 1.50 4.69 1.87 5.32 1.80 25.121*

Group accomplishment 6.06 1.34 4.72 1.89 5.41 1.76 32.273*

Group maintenance 5.49 1.51 4.25 1.57 4.88 1.65 31.230*

Note. *p < .01, **p<.05

Selected References

Brown, C. A., McGuire, F. A., & Voelkl, J. (2008). The link between successful aging and

serious leisure, International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 66(1), 73-95.

Everard. K. M., (1999). The relationship between reasons for activity and older adult well-

being, The Journal of Applied Gerontology, 18(3), 325-340.

Gibson, H., Willming, C., & Holdnak, A. (2002). 'We're Gators...Not Just Gator Fans": Serious

Leisure and University of Florida Football. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(4), 397-425.

Kleiber, D. (2001). Developmental intervention and leisure education: A lifespan perspective,

World leisure journal, 43, 4 -10.

Major, W. F. (2001). The Benefits and Costs of Serious Running, World Leisure Journal, 43(2),

12-25.

Misener, K., Dotherty, A., & Hamm-Kerwin, S. (2010). Learning from the experiences of older

adult volunteers in sport: A serious leisure perspective. Journal of Leisure Research, 42

(2), 267-289.

Nimrod, G. (2007). Expanding, reducing, concentrating and diffusing: Postretirement leisure

behavior and life satisfaction. Leisure Sciences, 29(1), 91–111.

Siegenthaler, K. L. & O’Dell, I. (2003). Older golfers: Serious leisure and successful aging.

World Leisure Journal, 45(1), 47–54.

Stebbins, R. A. (1992). Amateurs, professionals, and serious leisure. Montreal, Canada: McGill

Queen’s University.

Stebbins, R. A. (2007). Serious leisure. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

Patterson, I. (2000). Serious leisure as a positive contributor to social inclusion for people with

intellectual disabilities. World Leisure Journal, 43(3), 16-24.

COLLAGE: AN ARTS-BASED METHOD FOR ANALYSIS AND REPRESENTATION

Felice Yuen, Concordia University

Introduction

This paper is embedded within the fourth wave of race research in leisure studies, which

places emphasis on broadening our discussions of race and racism to include issues of structural

inequities, ideology, power, and white hegemony (Arai & Kivel, 2009). This wave also includes

a call for the use of more diverse methodologies for examining race and racism (Arai & Kivel).

This paper is founded, in part, on a decolonizing methodology, which recognizes the colonial,

western influence in how we know things and what is privileged in research (Kovach, 2009). Art

as a method of inquiry and representation enables “the fluidity of metaphor, symbolism, and

interpretive communication (both verbal and non-verbal)”, ultimately privileging Indigenous

ways of knowing (Kovach, p. 60). The presentation will discuss an arts-based process used in a

participatory action research (PAR) project which explored and promoted healing with

Aboriginal1 women. The discussion will focus on the use of collage and the process involved in

this arts-based analysis and representation.

Context

The process presented stems from a study whose purpose was to examine Aboriginal

women’s healing and the impact culturally meaningful supports, such as leisure, have on their

healing. This project was done in collaboration with Minwaashin Lodge, an Aboriginal women’s

support center in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Collaborators included an art-therapist from

Minwaashin Lodge and eight Aboriginal women who participated in a three-day workshop to

create a body-map (a life-sized canvas), which represented their experiences of healing. Data

included these body-maps, along with a semi-structured interview with each woman about their

body map. The project also incorporated artist talks and a variety of art exhibits in two Canadian

provinces, Ontario and Quebec. Two of the exhibits were held in conjunction with Women

Abuse Awareness Month at an art gallery, and then at a community center the subsequent year.

Other exhibits occurred at Algoma University in Sault St. Marie, Ontario, a theater production

titled, Where the Blood Mixes, and the 11th International Women’s World Congress.

The Arts-Based Process of Analysis

Given that PAR endeavors to create opportunities for citizens to play a significant role in all

aspects of the research (Van Vlaenderen, 2004), data analysis was incorporated into the last day

of the three-day workshop. This process involved the collective witnessing of each body-map

(see Lu & Yuen, 2012). Witnessing involves seeing with presence and suspended judgment

(Learmouth, 1994) while supporting and acknowledging the artist and her story. As the group

walked around each canvas, words and phrases that described the body-map were said aloud. At

the end of the viewing, each woman filled out a short form based on Solomon’s (2007) work

with body-mapping. The form consisted of one fill-in-the-blank sentence. The example below

contain the words of one woman as she reflected upon the body-map of another:

When I see Roberta’s body map and I hear her story, I see a person living with

transformation and hope.

1 The term Aboriginal is an all-encompassing term to include people who identify themselves as status-Indians,

Metis, non-status Indians, or Inuit. In Canada, Native and more recently First Nations are the official terms that have replaced Indian. Throughout my research, I generally use the term Aboriginal, though the people I have met referred to themselves using all four terms.

The process of witnessing served as a form of data analysis with the women. Transformation

and hope, along with other words on the forms were then used to inform the author`s creation of

a collage using Adobe Photoshop. Collage “refers to a genre of art …and refers to the process of

cutting and sticking…materials on a flat surface” (Butler-Kisber, 2010, p. 102). The ‘materials’

in this instance were photos of the body-maps. As suggested by Butler-Kisber, collage was used

to synthesis a process− in this case, the process of healing.

Using the women’s analysis to inform the creation of the collage was inspired by Butler-

Kisber’s (2010) use of collage in conceptualization. She states, “after a research question has

been articulated, a series, or a cluster of collages, are created to respond to the question” (p. 116).

For this study, the questions were 1) What is healing for Aboriginal women? and 2) What is the

impact of culturally meaningful supports on the process of healing? In accordance with Butler-

Kisber's process, the collages were created from feeling, or a sense of experience. Some of the

women’s words from their fill-in-the-blank statements (e.g., transformation) were used for the

collage titles which “represent the essence of what is being portrayed” (Butler-Kisber, p. 116).

Implications for Practice

PAR began as part of an activist approach designed to empower marginalized populations and

to encourage social action. While the intent is straightforward, the process is not. In order

empower and encourage, researchers must work with collaborators to find approaches that are

engaging and interesting. During the discussions related to analysis, the women were not

interested in participating in more traditional forms of analysis (i.e., thematic coding).

Conversely, witnessing each other’s art offered a meaningful way to engage in the analysis.

While witnessing provided a meaningful way for collaborators to take part in the research

process, collage provided a meaningful method of representation. Collage helped alleviate the

crisis of representation (Swandt, 2001) I experienced as I tried to find alternative ways to capture

the lived experiences of healing. Collage elicits a sensory response that enables viewers to

respond concretely and emotionally (Butler-Kisber, 2010). Such a response sets the foundation

for engaging with others. In addition creating opportunities for collaborators to engage in aspects

of the research, PAR also strives to create social change (Van Vlaenderen, 2004). Using an arts-

based method such as collage for representation can be associated with resisting oppression and

moving beyond the margins. Notably, a public forum, such as an art exhibit, needs to be

incorporated into the process for this social change to occur. The forum will ensure the

involvement of both Aboriginal people and greater society. Aboriginal traditions and knowledge

in North American’s urban communities have been denigrated in virtual non-existence. As

Spears (2006) highlights “the possibility of finding accurate information about Aboriginal

culture…is beyond the reach of the average [person] because this information is suppressed

within dominant communication systems” (p. 82). Using art as a form of representation makes

the knowledge accessible and provides a platform for advocacy, education, and public discourse.

Felice Yuen, Concordia University, (514)848-2424, x. 2267, felice.yuen@concordia.ca

Selected References

Arai, S., & Kivel, B. D. (2009). Critical race theory and social justice perspectives on whiteness,

difference(s) and (anti)racism: A fourth wave of race research in leisure studies. Journal

of Leisure Research, 41(4), p. 459-470.

Butler-Kisber, L. (2010). Qualitative inquiry − Thematic, narrative and arts-informed

perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Kovach, M. (2009). Indigenous methodologies - Characters, conversations, and contexts.

Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press

Learmouth, M. (1994). Witness and witnessing in art therapy. Inscape, 1,19–22.

Lu, L., & Yuen, F. (2012). Journey Women: Art Therapy in a Decolonizing Framework of

Practice. Arts in Psychotherapy: Special issue on Social Justice, 39(2), 192-200.

Spears, S. (2006). Strong spirit, fractured identity: An Ojibway adoptee’s journey to wholeness.

In K. Anderson & B. Lawrence, (Eds.), Strong women stories, Native vision and

community survival (3rd edition) (pp. 81-94). Toronto, ON: Sumach Press.

Schwandt, T. (2001). Dictionary of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Solomon, J. (2007). Living with X – A body mapping journey in the time of HIV and AIDS – A

facilitators guide. Retrieved December 22, 2011 from http://www.repssi.net/

Van Vlaenderen, H. (2004). Community development research: Merging communities of

practice. Community Development Journal, 39(2), 135-143.

ACCULTURATIVE STRESS AND SPECTATORSHIP OF SPORTS EVENTS AMONG

INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS

Yilun Zhou, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Hongping Zhang, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Monika Stodolska, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The last few decades have witnessed a considerable increase in international students’

enrollment in U.S. colleges and universities. Within the field of leisure studies, a significant body

of literature has focused on examining the role of participation in leisure and physical activity in

international students’ adjustment process, which is oftentimes characterized by feelings of

isolation, confusion and stress (deAraujo, 2011). There has been limited research, however, that

examines the effectiveness of watching live sports events in reducing international students’

acculturative stress. The objectives of this exploratory investigation that focused on first-year

Chinese students at a large Midwestern university were two-fold: 1) To identify students’

expected acculturative stress during the pre-immigration stage and the actual causes of the

acculturative stress during the transition phase; 2) To explore the role of leisure participation,

and watching American football in particular, in lowering international students’ acculturative

stress and in their adjustment process.

Methods

The qualitative approach that utilized semi-structured in-depth interviews was adopted in this

study. Purposeful criteria-based sampling was used to identify participants (Strauss & Corbin,

1998). The interviewees included 15 first-year Chinese graduate students attending a large

Midwestern university who had never studied in the United States before. The participants

ranged in age from 21 to 25. Nine were female, and six were male. In order to participate in the

study, participants had to attend three intercollegiate football games during the Fall semester,

2014. As incentives, the tickets for the football games were provided free of charge. The first

round of in-depth interviews was conducted right after the beginning of the Fall semester. In

order to investigate the change in international students’ acculturative stress and the role of

watching live football games in reducing acculturative stress, the second round of in-depth

interviews was conducted at the end of the Fall 2014 semester. The semi-structured interview

questions included, among others: “What stressful situations have you encountered after coming

to the U.S.?” “How did watching live American football affect your feeling of acculturative

stress?” Pseudonyms were used to protect participants’ privacy and confidentiality. The

interviews were transcribed and translated, and the analysis of the collected data was performed

using constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Results

Perceived acculturative stress at the pre-immigration stage and the actual causes of the

acculturative stress during the transition stage. In the pre-immigration stage, participants

believed that language barrier would be the major stressor after arrival. However, the actual

causes of acculturative stress turned out to be quite varied and included limited knowledge of

American social norms, lack of socialization opportunities and perceived discrimination.

Participants also revealed a feeling of being “in the middle,” since maintaining contacts with

other members of their ethnic group provided them a feeling of comfort but also visibly slowed

down their adaptation process. Moreover, participants reported a number of instrumental as well

as societal factors (Caplan, 2007) leading to acculturative stress, including high academic

expectations, cultural differences, and language barrier. Dimensions of acculturative stress were

found to be interrelated rather than separate. For example, interviewees revealed a desire to build

bridges to the mainstream culture and community but faced stressors related to language barrier,

lack of cultural familiarity, and cold reception from the mainstream students.

The influence of watching live sports events on acculturative stress and adaptation.

Participants mentioned a number of leisure activities they were actively involved in and

discussed the roles of leisure participation (both positive and negative) in dealing with

acculturative stress. Interviewees believed that watching football was partially effective in

alleviating acculturative stress in the short term. They reported that watching live football games

not only provided them with opportunities to bridge out to different ethnic groups and to build

social networks, but also created a liminal space that allowed them to forget about daily

pressures and to release stresses. The effectiveness of watching football games in alleviating

acculturative stress was limited however, as the students’ knowledge of the sport was quite

rudimentary and they were unable to have in-depth conversations with American football fans.

Moreover, due to time constraints, mainstream graduate students could devote little time to

leisure activities, including watching football. Additionally, most of the Chinese students were

accustomed to home-based leisure activities. They also discussed the potential negative effects of

watching live football games, including increased stress due to loss of potential study time.

Discussion

The findings helped to increase our understanding of the acculturative stress experienced by

Chinese international students and the roles of leisure participation and watching live football

games in lowering the stress. In line with previous research (Hwang, Wood, & Fujimoto, 2010),

acculturative stress was found to be mainly triggered by the lack of language skills and

understanding of the new social norms. The viewership of football games assisted international

students in lowering acculturative stresses through promoting opportunities for socialization and

communication with mainstream students, by helping to build bridges to the broader community,

developing new interests, and helping to learn about the American culture.

Implications for practice

Numerous organizations such as recreation and athletic departments, university career centers,

student unions, and campus churches assist with the adaptation of an increasing number of

international students attending American universities. They provide international students-

orientated services and events that include activities focused mainly on language acquisition and

introducing American culture to the newcomers. Based on the findings of this study, a number of

recommendations can be made to maximize these organizations’ ability to assist incoming

foreign students. First, campus services and organizations should coordinate their efforts, work

on seamless exchange of information regarding the needs and barriers experienced by the foreign

students, and develop a portfolio of events, such as watching live sports event, which would

allow for the development of social networks. Second, leisure activities need to be organized in

such a way that any potential negative effects such as stress can be minimized. Third, campus

administrators should provide foreign students with detailed information regarding adaptation

challenges they may encounter and the ways to lower acculturative stress before they arrive on

campus when students have the time and desire to prepare themselves for the new experience.

Lastly, both the students and the faculty advisors and administrators should be provided with

information and training to help them understand the complexity of the adaptation process.

Yilun Zhou, The Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign, Champaign, IL, (217)778-7834, yzhou44@illinois.edu.

Selected References

Ameli, S. R., & Motahari, Z. (2010). Analyzing the relationship between baseball and social

capital in the United States: Professional sport as a medium of Americanization. Global

Media Journal, 10.

Caplan, S. (2007). Latinos, acculturation, and acculturative stress: A dimensional concept

analysis. Policy, Politics, and Nursing Practice, 8(2), 93-106.

de Araujo, A. A. (2011). Adjustment issues of international students enrolled in American

colleges and universities: A review of the literature. Higher Education Studies, 1(1), 2-8.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative

inquiry. London, England: Wiedenfeld and Nicholson.

Hwang, W. C., Wood, J. J., & Fujimoto, K. (2010). Acculturative family distancing and

depression in Chinese American families. Journal of Consulting and Clinical

Psychology, 78(5), 655-667.

Mori, S. C. (2000). Addressing the mental health concerns of international students. Journal of

Counseling & Development, 78(2), 137-144.

Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures

for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.