A Theory of Planned Behaviour

In Consideration of Use in The Field of Low Salary Jobs Recruitment

Term paper at the Institute of Sociology

Professorship: Economic-Sociology

Supervising Tutors: Prof. Dr. Eldad Davidov

And Vanita Matta

Summer Semester 2010

Date: 17 of August 2010

Author: Sven Bisquolm

Address: Langgasse 112, 8400 Winterthur

Email: sven.j.g@gmx.ch

Phone: 078 885 38 33

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Contents:

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Theory of Reasoned Action

3. Theory of Planned Behaviour

3.1. General Overview

3.2. Perceived Behavioural Control

3.3. The Informational Foundation of Behaviour

3.4. Background Factors

3.5. Critics

4. Applications Areas of the Theory of Planned Behaviour

5. Human Resources/Recruiting and the Theory of Planned Behaviour

5.1. Previous Research

5.2. Problems and Risks

6. Conclusions and Outlook

7. Bibliography

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Abstract

This paper gives a brief overview of the theory of planned behaviour and its key

concepts, critiques and application areas. However, its ultimate goal is aimed at evaluating if

the theory of planned behaviour is an adequate choice for a research paper in the field of

recruiting low salary jobs. Therefore, possible obstacles that have to be anticipated are taken

into consideration: social desirability effects and the lack of reference work in this field.

Furthermore, it is concluded that the tools provided by the theory of planned behaviour and

its successful application on a variety of other topics overweight the risks and problems. For

that reason, this paper supports a venture in the field of recruitment research backed by

Ajzen´s theory.

1. Introduction

“Given a choice between two theories, take the one which is funnier.”

Blore’s Razor1

A relevant step in social research is the choice of one or more crucial theories, in order to

support the researcher´s theses. These theories make the foundation, on which someone´s

research is based. Generally, researchers which are more experienced and established

formulate and corroborate their own theories. Nevertheless, even their own theories are

usually and to a certain degree based on works of other approved science. Every specific

theory comes with an ascertained set of methods. As Diekmann (2004) put it so adequately:

if it is the assignment of sociology to solve scientific or practical problems, then it is not the

theory that selects the problems, but the problems that select the proper theories and

methods to solve them. In this regard, the quote of Blore´s Razor at the beginning of this

section is not supposed to be taken seriously. Rather, the quotation has to be understood as

a basic principle that the success of a profoundly researched study starts with sustained

choices of theories and methods to support it.

In this regard, we will observe the theory of planned behaviour closely. First, we will

examine the origins of the theory. Ajzen and Fishbein´s (1980) theory of reasoned action is

1 Blore’s Razor: The origin of this term is unknown.

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the foundation on which their future work is based. Second, the theory of planned behaviour

will be analyzed in its details,namely, its components, advantages and disadvantages. The

focus on Perceived behavioural control will be stronger, for it is a key element of the theory.

The next section discusses criticism on Ajzen´s concepts. The last section covers the

application areas, on which the theory of planned behaviour applied successfully.

All this should give a broad overview on Ajzen´s theory and leads to the central goal of

this paper: to determine whether or not the theory of planned behaviour is, as a theoretical

background, an adequate choice as a theoretical background for a research paper in the field

of human resources, especially in the field of recruiting low salary employees. Do the

methods and tools provided by the theory apply to this paper´s thesis in order to verify

behaviour as staying away from work, overuse of sickness daily allowance, poor general

work attitude and so forth? Has there been a similar study on the topic with Ajzen´s theory?

If that is the case, were the results useful? With what problems would a researcher have to

content with in regard of a fitting questionnaire? All these questions will be discussed in the

last section of this paper.

2. Theory of Reasoned Action

The theory of reasoned action was developed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). In the

1980´s, Ajzen and Fishbein perceived a lack of an adequate theoretical background to do

attitude behaviour research. Out of this sensed deficiendy, the theory of reasoned action,

and ultimately the theory of planned behaviour were born.

Source: University of York, Diagram TRA

Since all the components of the diagram are explained particualry in section 3.1, details

will not be discussed, at this point. Nevertheless, the most important differences between

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the two theories will be elaborated in the section: even though the core implications of the

theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour are the same, Ajzen extends

his model by one crucial determinant: perceived behavioural control is the differing

component that brands the evolution from the theory of reasoned action to the theory of

planned behaviour. Herby, it points hereby to external and internal factors. The assumption

of the theory of reasoned action about a fully deliberate behavioural intention can be

abandoned. Therefore, the potential area of application for the theory of planned behaviour

is enlarged considerably compared to the limited theory of reasoned action (Mayerl 2009).

Section 3.2 of this paper will examine perceived behavioural control in more detail.

3. Theory of Planned Behaviour

3.1. General Overview

The theory of planned behaviour is based on the assumption that human beings usually

behave in a conscious manner. They take into account available information and implicitly or

explicitly consider the implications of their actions (Ajzen 2005). Ajzen refers to several

individual meta-analyses conducted by Notani (1998), Armitage and Conner (2001), and

Sheeran (2002) among others studies to proof that the intention-behaviour correlations are

usually substantial. He therefore postulates the following: “when people have control over

performance of a behaviour, they tend to act in accordance with their intentions” (Ajzen

2005).

According to the theory of planned behaviour intentions are a function of three basic

determinants. One is personal in nature, one is reflecting social influence and social

pressure, and the third is dealing with issues of control. The personal factor is the

individual´s attitude toward the behaviour. This attitude is the individual´s positive or

negative evaluation of performing the particular behaviour of interest. The second

determinant of intention is subjective norm, consisting of the person´s perception of social

pressure to perform or not perform the behaviour under consideration. Finally, the last

determinant of intention is the sense of self-efficacy or ability to perform the behaviour of

interest, termed perceived behavioural control. This determinant will be analysed in detail in

the next section of this paper.

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In order to summarize the core of the theory of planned behaviour: people intend to

perform a behaviour, when they evaluate it positively, when they experience social pressure

to perform it, and when they believe that they have the means and opportunities to do so

(Ajzen 2005). These three determinants aren´t always equally important, for some intentions

attitudinal considerations are more vital than normative considerations, while for others it is

vice versa. The significance of perceived behavioural control varies as well, depending on the

behaviour in question. In some cases, only two determinants are needed to explain the

intention, while in others, all three factors are important. According to Ajzen (2005), even

the relative weights of the three factors may vary from person to person, or from one

population to another.

3.2. Perceived Behavioural Control

Personal deficiencies and external obstacles can interfere with the performance of any

behaviour. These factors represent people´s actual control or their lack of control over a

behaviour. Given the problem´s ubiquity, a behavioural intention can best be construed as

an intention to try to perform a certain behaviour (Ajzen 2005). A mother´s plan to go to the

zoo with her children next Sunday is best considered as an intention to prepare means of

transportation, tickets and so forth. However, the successful completion of the intended

behaviour is depending on the person´s control over many factors that may prevent the

behaviour. The possibility of rain, sickness of a child or a broken car may hinder the

execution of the intended behaviour. These factors are beyond the individual´s control.

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Ajzen (2005) accentuates, that the theory of planned behaviour does not deal directly

with the amount of control a person has actually in a given situation. Instead, this theory

considers the possible effects of perceived behavioural control on achievement of

behavioural goals. Ajzen explains further, that perceived behavioural control can influence

behaviour indirectly, via intentions. Also, it can be used to predict behaviour directly as a

proxy or a partial substitute for measure of actual control.

The broken arrow in the diagram of 3.1 indicates that the link between perceived

behavioural control and behaviour is expected to surface only when there is a certain

agreement between perceptions of control and the person´s actual control over the

behaviour (Ajzen 2005).

3.3. The Informational Foundation of Behaviour

The next step to gain a more complete understanding of Ajzen´s theory is to explore why

people maintain certain attitudes, subjective norms, and perceptions of control over a

behaviour. He therefore introduces the antecedents to each factor previously discussed.

Source: Icek Ajzen, University of Massachusetts

The first antecedent (antecedent of attitude toward the behaviour) is ascertained by

accessible believes about the consequences of behaviour, termed behavioural beliefs. Each

behavioural belief links the behaviour to a certain outcome, or to some other attribute such

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as the cost implied by performing the behaviour (Ajzen 2005). Ajzen continues his line of

thought, saying that a person who believes that performing a given behaviour will conduct in

mostly positive outcomes, will hold a favourable attitude toward performing the behaviour.

On the other hand, a person who believes that performing the behaviour will lead to mostly

negative outcomes, will hold an unfavourable attitude.

The antecedent of subjective norms is also assumed to be a function of beliefs, but a

different manner of beliefs than the first antecedent: the person´s beliefs that specific

individuals or groups approve or disapprove of performing the behaviour or that these social

groups of interest themselves engage or do not engage in it. The most important referents

include a person´s parents, spouse, close friends, and co-workers and depending on the

behaviour involved experts like physicians or tax accountants. Generally speaking, people

will perceive social pressure to perform the behaviour, if they believe that most referents

with whom they are motivated to comply think they should perform the behaviour. On the

contrary, people will have a subjective norm that puts pressure on them to avoid performing

the behaviour, if they believe that most referents with whom they are motivated to comply

would disapprove of their performing the behaviour. The beliefs that define subjective

norms are termed normative beliefs (Ajzen 2005).

The concluding major predictor, perceived behavioural control, is a function of beliefs as

well. Here, the beliefs about the presence or absence of factors that facilitate or impede

performance of the behaviour have to be pointed out. Past experiences or second hand

information about the behaviour are the foundation for these beliefs. The more individuals

think they possess the required resources and opportunities and the fewer obstacles they

anticipate, the greater is their perceived control over the behaviour. Ajzen (2005) underlines

that in their totality, these control beliefs lead to the perception that one has or does not

have the capacity t o carry out the behaviour in question.

3.4. Background Factors

According to Ajzen (2005), the behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs

people maintain may themselves be influenced by or related to a multitude of variables: age,

gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, education, nationality, religious affiliation,

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personality, mood, emotion, general attitudes and values, intelligence, group membership,

past experiences, exposure to information, social support, coping skills, and so forth. People

growing up in different social environments experience different socialisation and acquire

another set of information about a variety of issues. This information provides the basis for

their beliefs about the consequences of a behaviour, about the normative expectations of

performing important others, and about the obstacles that may prevent them from

performing the behaviour. Analogical, temporary moods can influence the way we perceive

things: elder people may obtain information differently than younger ones, and women may

have experiences that differs in important ways from the experiences of men. Ajzen (2005)

therefore concludes that all of these factors can affect our behavioural, normative, and

control beliefs. As a result they influence our intentions and actions.

3.5. Critics

A popular theory as the theory of planned behaviour never goes without criticism. This

section will focus on the four most prominent issues about the critical discussion on the

theory of planned behaviour (Mayerl 2009): a major critique point is the missing theoretical

and empirical sufficiency of the explanatory model. However, Mayerl (2009) adds that this

fact is nowhere near surprising in a sociological context, since the social situation is only

marginal covered. Merely, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control are social

factors. The theory of planned behaviour only covers the cognitive layer of the participant:

the subjective definition of the situation of the participant. Due to this fact, it misses out that

behaviour is always embedded in a social definition of the situation the behaviour is

executed in as well. This includes forms of cultural norms, rules, codes, social expectations

and collective schema, which influence a behavioural situation and therefore the behaviour

itself (Mayerl 2009). Ajzen (1991, 2005) repeatedly took position to this argument and points

out that the theory of planned behaviour does not try to provide a holistic explanation of

behaviour. Rather, it is an approximation of behaviour. He furthermore stresses that it is this

simplicity and relatively low complexity that is the strength of the theory of planned

behaviour. Mayerl (2009) sees in this approach Ajzen´s standards diminished.

The second major criticism mentioned by Mayerl (2009) is the narrow area of

application. Even though the theory of planned behaviour is already an improvement from

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the theory of reasoned action, it fails to explain automatic spontaneous behaviour and this

also includes non-intentional mediated behaviour. While for some theorists most behaviour

falls into this category, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) regard them as a minor subcategory and as

exceptions.

The third critique by Mayerl (2009) is the conceptual and methodological criticism which

is aimed at the construct specifications and operationalisation of the model components.

These accusations could be falsified by numerous empirical applications (Ajzen 2005).

The forth and last major critique point is that the theory of planned behaviour is not

constipated as a choice between more than one alternatives. Therefore, it lacks a selection

law, which could explain why a person chose a selected certain behaviour and not another.

The logic of selection a behaviour in favour or disfavour of a behaviour (the mechanism of

action) is also ambiguous within Ajzen´s theory. According to Mayerl (2009) the theory of

planned behaviour can therefore refer predictors of intentions, but it cannot specify the

interplay, when which component becomes behavioural relevant for an agent.

4. Application Areas of the Theory of Planned Behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour has been used for a multitude of research studies in

different fields. A few examples are listed below to give an idea of the heterogeneous

practicality:

- Albarracin, Fishbein, Johnsonan and Muellerleile (2001) compared Ajzen´s two

theories as models of condom use. They synthesised 96 data sets resulting in an N of

22´594 samples. Their research suggests that both theories are “highly successful

predictors of condom use”.

- In Denmark an approach to understand voters’ decisions was undertaken by using

the theory of planned behaviour. The researchers regarded voters as consumers who

are consuming a service, the decisions and the actions of the political party. They

report that the theory is capable of explaining a high proportion of the variation in

future voting intention (Hansen and Jensen 2007).

- Truong (2009) examines consumer acceptance of online video and television services

and concludes that perceived behavioural control is an excellent predictor for it.

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Furthermore, he states that “the theory of planned behaviour has proven to be

effective in predicting technology adoption.”

- Marcoux and Shope (1997) test the robustness of Ajzen´s theory in predicting and

explaining use, frequency of use and misuse of alcohol among students. Like the

other studies before, this one supports the use of the theory of planned behaviour as

well.

As seen above, the scope of application ranges from studies in health related intentional

behaviour research, to political science, to consumer behaviour research and even to drug

abuse topics. The overall positive feedback credited towards the theory of planned

behaviour is an achievement to be noted. In the last section of this paper, the question will

be elaborated whether there has been any research in human resources with Ajzen´s

concepts and with what dangers such a project might be faced.

5. Human Resources/Recruiting and the Theory of Planned Behaviour

5.1. Previous Research

Unfortunately, almost no previous research could be found on recruiting topics involving

the theory of planned behaviour. However, a study about the career choices of accounting

students could be found utilising the theory of reasoned action. Law (2007) examines the

factors influencing career choices in public accounting practice. While he also notices the

lack of reference work using Ajzen´s theories in this field, he supports the theoretical

framework in his paper. Van Hooft, Born et al. (2004) are applying the theory of planned

behaviour to find differences among minor and major groups in job search in the

Netherlands.

Even though these two examples do not cover the field of recruiting employees, they at

least show that researchers are beginning to discover Ajzen´s theories in the related fields of

job choice and job search. The most notable difference would be the perspective from which

the research is conducted. Hooft (2004) and Law (2007) inspect their topics from the outlook

of the individual. In recruiting terms the behaviour of interest would need to be analysed

from the perspective of the company.

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5.2. Problems and Risks

The most obvious problem presents itself by the fact that Ajzen´s theories are fairly new

in the field of human resources. It is difficult to find research data and therefore, most

research conducted would be without means of comparison at first. This also implies that

questionnaires would need to be built from scratch. However, one needs to keep in mind,

that Ajzen provides a well documented outline of how a theory of planned behaviour

questionnaire is supposed to be constructed on his website and in his books (Ajzen 2005,

2010). This should enable the researcher to avoid the most prominent traps in this regard.

Recruitment in low salary jobs is dealing with job-seekers, who might not choose this

sort of employment out of the most applicable reasons. Rather, they might be forced to

accept a low-salary job for reasons as: lack of education, difficulty to find a better paid job in

their actual field of expertise, general job market situation, only part-time work possible

(studying, family or other commitments besides work) and so forth. Job-seekers may not be

willing to display some of these reasons openly. This need for concealment can cause social

desirability effects on items directed at job-seekers in order to sort the less motivated out.

Subject to Diekmann´s (2004) definition and explanations of social desirability effects this

case might be described as followed: job-seekers will choose an answer category which they

think might help them improving their chances on getting the job. The further away the true

answer category is from the expected social desirable place, the more resistant the job-

seeker might be with the declaration of the truth. However, most companies keep a detailed

account of information about their employees: sick leave, career plans, family situation, and

educational status only to name some of them. The less favourable reasons of job choice

might be control for by including this data. One would have to be mindful of the ethical

implications though, by using such data.

6. Conclusions and Outlook

Even though the theory of planned behaviour has been used for a multitude of research

topics in health related behavioural research, socio-psychology, economics, politics, and

many more, no study could be found in the field of recruiting employees. One explanation

could be that the problems and risks involved in executing a study in this field would be

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overwhelming. The other explanation could be that simply no one thought of using Ajzen´s

theory this way yet.

However, I believe that the plurality of research papers and their overall successful

execution in all kind of fields promote at least an attempt to use the theory of planned

behaviour in human resources. The set of tools provided within the theory are especially

suited to conduct a research study about low-salary income recruitment.

Employers are faced with several problems when recruiting personnel. The established

association of manpower provider called “swissstaffing” (2010) provides the following

principal difficulties: desperation to find a better suited job, difficulties convincing

candidates who are in an ongoing employment relation to change their job, in hard times

candidates prefer bigger and more stable companies as employers, and the lack of

qualifications.

A qualified recruiter attains skills and experiences over time to sort out the people fitting

best for the job in question. Although nothing can substitute years of experience completely,

a well thought-out training and consolidated guidelines could improve the performance of

newer recruiters considerably. Here, the theory of planned behaviour could be of use. A

profoundly executed study on several high fluctuating job categories could provide the

guidelines and schooling foundations for future recruiters.

First, a standardisation of employee types would be required for each job. Basically, this

no different than the job requirements themselves plus some information about the key

points from a managing person overseen the employees. Second, the questionnaire for the

work-seekers would need special attention, since it would need to be suitable for a theory of

planned behaviour model and would still need to meet the requirement of avoiding

problems as the social desirability effect and other risks. The third step would involve careful

evaluation of results in order to derive useful findings for schooling and guideline purposes.

Forth, the implemented findings would need to be tested and verified by a second study

conducted some time after. Schooling and guideline effects should then show a positive

effect on recruitment quality throughout senior and freshman recruiters and eventually, it

should also show a positive effect on the work quality of each job type.

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Anyhow, this is subject for a future research paper, with more resources and time at its

disposal.

7. Bibliography:

Diekmann Andreas (2004): “Empirische Sozialforschung. Grundlagen, Methoden,

Anwendungen” Reinbeck bei Hamburg, P18-19, P382-385

Ajzen I. and Fishbein M. (1980): “Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour.”

London Prentice-Hall.

Mayerl Jochen (2009): “Kognitive Grundlagen sozialen Verhaltens. Framing, Einstellungen

und Rationalität” VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften Wiesbaden, P59-76

Ajzen Icek (1991): “The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational behaviour and human

decision processes” 50: P179-211

Ajzen Icek (2005): “Attitudes, Personality and Behaviour. Second Edition” Open Univeristy

Press New York, P100-146

Notani A.S. (1998): “Moderators of perceived behavioural control´s predictiveness in the

theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis.” Journal of Consumer Psychology P7, P247-71

Armitage C. And Conner M. (2001): “Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-

analytic review.” British Journal of Social Psychology P40, P471-99

Sheeran P. (2002): “Intention-behavior relations: A conceptual and empirical review.”

European Review of Social Psychology Vol. 12 P1-36

Albarracin D., Fishbein M., Johnson B. and Muellerleile P. (2001): “Theories of Reasoned

Action and Planned Behaviour as Models of Condom Use: A Meta-Analysis” Psychological

Bulletin Vol127 Iss1, P142-161

Hansen T. and Jensen J. (2007): “Understanding voter´s decisions: a theory of planned

behaviour approach” Innovative Marketing Vol3 Iss:4, P86-93

Truong Y. (2009): “An Evaluation of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in Consumer

Acceptance of Online Video and Television Services”Electronic Journal Information Systems

Evaluation Vol12 Iss:2, P177-186

Marcoux B. and Shope J. (1997): “Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour to

adolescent use and misuse of alcohol” Health Education Research Vol12 No3, Oxford

University Press, P323-331

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Law K. Philip (2007) "A theory of reasoned action model of accounting students' career

choice in public accounting practices in the post-Enron" Journal of Applied Accounting

Research, Vol11 Iss: 1, P58 – 73

Van Hooft E., Born M., Taris T. and van der Flier H. (2004): „Job search and the theory of

planned behavior: Minority–majority group differences in The Netherlands.“ Journal of

Vocational Behaviour Vol65, P366-390

Swissstaffing, Puplikationen, 2009, Die Personaldienstleistung in der Krise: Lehren aus der

Vergangenheit, http://www.swissstaffing.ch/UserData/Publikation_de_00424_00.pdf (26 of

July 2010)

University of Massachusetts, Ajzen, TPB, Construting a TpB Questionnaire,

http://www.people.umass.edu/aizen/pdf/tpb.measurement.pdf (25 of July 2010)

Illustrations:

University of York, search, theory of reasoned action,

http://www.fsc.yorku.ca/york/istheory/wiki/index.php/Image:Tra.JPG (30 of July 2010)

Ajzen Isek (1992): “Application of the theory of planned behaviour to leisure choice.” Journal

of Leisure Research Vol24 Nr3, P207-224

University of Massachusetts, Ajzen, TPB, TPB Diagram,

http://www.people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.diag.html (30 of July 2010)