Advanced C Programming Notes

These notes are prepared according to Pune university syllabus

Prepared by : Bhushan Vardhekar([email protected])

M.Sc. Electronic Science Part I, Semester – I

EL1UT04: Advanced ‘C’ Programming

Unit-1: Basics of C

C fundamentals: Introduction of high-level programming language, operators and its

precedence, various data types in C, storage classes in C.

Control statements: Decision–making and forming loop in programs.

Arrays & pointers: handling character, arrays in C, pointers in C, advanced pointers,

structure and union.

Functions: user defined function, pointer to functions.

Questions and Answer

1. What is the difference between declaring a variable and defining a variable?

Ans: Declaration of a variable in C hints the compiler about the type and size of the variable in compile

time. Similarly, declaration of a function hints about type and size of function parameters. No space is reserved

in memory for any variable in case of declaration.

Example: int a;

Here variable 'a' is declared of data type 'int'

Defining a variable means declaring it and also allocating space to hold it.

We can say "Definition = Declaration + Space reservation".

Example: int a = 10;

Here variable "a" is described as an int to the compiler and memory is allocated to hold value 10.

2. What is a static variable?

Ans:A static variable is a special variable that is stored in the data segment unlike the default automatic

variable that is stored in stack. A static variable can be initialized by using keyword static before variable name.

Example:

static int a = 5;

A static variable behaves in a different manner depending upon whether it is a global variable or a local

variable. A static global variable is same as an ordinary global variable except that it cannot be accessed by

other files in the same program / project even with the use of keyword extern. A static local variable is different

from local variable. It is initialized only once no matter how many times that function in which it resides is

called. It may beused as a count variable.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

//program in file f1.c

void count(void)

{

static int count1 = 0;

int count2 = 0;

count1++;

count2++;

printf("\nValue of count1 is %d, Value of count2 is %d", count1, count2);

}

/*Main function*/

int main()

{



count();

count();

count();

return 0;

}

Output:

Value of count1 is 1, Value of count2 is 1



3. What is a register variable?

Ans: Register variables are stored in the CPU registers. Its default value is a garbage value. Scope of a

register variable is local to the block in which it is defined. Lifetime is till control remains within the block in

which the register variable is defined. Variable stored in a CPU register can always be accessed faster than the

one that is stored in memory. Therefore, if a variable is used at many places in a program, it is better to declare

its storage class as register

Example:

register int x=5;

Variables for loop counters can be declared as register. Note that register keyword may be ignored by some

compilers.

4. Where is an auto variables stored?

Ans: Main memory and CPU registers are the two memory locations where auto variables are stored. Auto

variables are defined under automatic storage class. They are stored in main memory. Memory is allocated to an

automatic variable when the block which contains it is called and it is de-allocated at the completion of its block

execution.

Auto variables:

Storage : main memory.

Default value : garbage value.

Scope : local to the block in which the variable is defined.

Lifetime : till the control remains within the block in which the variable is defined.

5. What is scope & storage allocation of extern and global variables?

Ans: Extern variables: belong to the External storage class and are stored in the main memory. extern is

used when we have to refer a function or variable that is implemented in other file in the same project. The

scope of theextern variables is Global.

Example:

//Index: f1.c

#include <stdio.h>

extern int x;

int main()

{

printf("value of x %d", x);

return 0;

}

//Index: f2.c

int x = 3;



Here, the program written in file f1.c has the main function and reference to variable x. The file f2.c has the

declaration of variable x. The compiler should know the datatype of x and this is done by extern definition.

Global variables: are variables which are declared above the main( ) function. These variables are accessible

throughout the program. They can be accessed by all the functions in the program. Their default value is zero.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int x = 0;

/* Variable x is a global variable.

It can be accessed throughout the program */

void increment(void)

{

x = x + 1;

printf("\n value of x: %d", x);

}

int main()

{

printf("\n value of x: %d", x);

increment();

return 0;

}

6. What is scope & storage allocation of register, static and local variables?

Ans: Register variables: belong to the register storage class and are stored in the CPU registers. The scope

of the register variables is local to the block in which the variables are defined. The variables which are used for

more number of times in a program are declared as register variables for faster access.

Example: loop counter variables.

register int y=6;

Static variables: Memory is allocated at the beginning of the program execution and it is reallocated only after

the program terminates. The scope of the static variables is local to the block in which the variables are defined.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void decrement()

{

static int a=5;

a--;

printf("Value of a:%d\n", a);

}

int main()

{

decrement();

return 0;

}

Here 'a' is initialized only once. Every time this function is called, 'a' does not get initialized. so output would be

4 3 2 etc.

Local variables: are variables which are declared within any function or a block. They can be accessed only by

function or block in which they are declared. Their default value is a garbage value.



7. What are storage memory, default value, scope and life of Automatic and Register storage class?

1. Automatic storage class:




Lifetime : till control remains within the block.

2. Register storage class:

Storage : CPU registers.



Lifetime : till control remains within the block.

8. What are storage memory, default value, scope and life of Static and External storage class?

1. Static storage class:


Default value : zero


Lifetime : till the value of the variable persists between different function calls.

2. External storage class:

Storage : main memory

Default value : zero

Scope : global

Lifetime : as long as the program execution doesn't come to an end.

9. What is the difference between 'break' and 'continue' statements?



10. What is the difference between 'for' and 'while' loops?

for loop: When it is desired to do initialization, condition check and increment/decrement in a single statement

of an iterative loop, it is recommended to use 'for' loop.

Syntax: for(initialization;condition;increment/decrement)

{

//block of statements increment or decrement

}

Program: Program to illustrate for loop

#include<stdio.h>

int main()

{

int i;

for (i = 1; i <= 5; i++)

{

//print the number

printf("\n %d", i);

}

return 0;

}

Output:

12345

Explanation:

The loop repeats for 5 times and prints value of 'i' each time. 'i' increases by 1 for every cycle of loop.

while loop: When it is not necessary to do initialization, condition check and increment/decrement in a single

statement of an iterative loop, while loop could be used. In while loop statement, only condition statement is

present.

Syntax:

#include<stdio.h>

int main()

{

int i = 0, flag = 0;

int a[10] = { 0, 1, 4, 6, 89, 54, 78, 25, 635, 500 };

//This loop is repeated until the condition is false.

while (flag == 0)

{

if (a[i] == 54)

{

//as element is found, flag = 1,the loop terminates

flag = 1;

}

else

{

i++;

}

}

printf("Element found at %d th location", i);

return 0;

}



Output:

Element found at 5th location

Explanation:

Here flag is initialized to zero. 'while' loop repeats until the value of flag is zero, increments i by 1. 'if' condition

checks whether number 54 is found. If found, value of flag is set to 1 and 'while' loop terminates.

11. Which bitwise operator is suitable for checking whether a particular bit is ON or OFF?

Ans: Bitwise AND operator.

Example: Suppose in byte that has a value 10101101 . We wish to check whether bit number 3 is ON (1) or

OFF (0) . Since we want to check the bit number 3, the second operand for AND operation we choose is binary

00001000, which is equal to 8 in decimal.

Explanation:

ANDing operation :

10101101 original bit pattern

00001000 AND mask

------------------

00001000 resulting bit pattern

------------------

The resulting value we get in this case is 8, i.e. the value of the second operand. The result turned out to

be a 8 since the third bit of operand was ON. Had it been OFF, the bit number 3 in the resulting bit pattern

would have evaluated to 0 and complete bit pattern would have been 00000000. Thus depending upon the bit

number to be checked in the first operand we decide the second operand, and on ANDing these two operands

the result decides whether the bit was ON or OFF.

12. Which bitwise operator is suitable for turning OFF a particular bit in a number?

Ans:Bitwise AND operator (&), one's complement operator(~)

Example: To unset the 4th bit of byte_data or to turn off a particular bit in a number.

Explanation:

Consider,

char byte_data= 0b00010111;

byte_data= (byte_data)&(~(1<<4));

1 can be represented in binary as 0b00000001 = (1<<4)

<< is a left bit shift operator,

it shifts the bit 1 by 4 places towards left.

(1<<4) becomes 0b00010000

And ~ is the one's complement operator in C language.

So ~(1<<4) = complement of 0b00010000

= 0b11101111

Replacing value of byte_data and ~(1<<4) in

(byte_data)&(~(1<<4));

we get (0b00010111) & (0b11101111)

Perform AND operation to below bytes.

00010111

11101111

-----------

00000111

-----------

Thus the 4th bit is unset.



13. What is equivalent of multiplying an unsigned int by 2: left shift of number by 1 or right shift of

number by 1?

Ans: Left shifting of an unsigned integer is equivalent to multiplying an unsigned int by 2.

Eg1: 14<<1;

Consider a number 14-----00001110 (8+4+2)is its binary equivalent

left shift it by 1--------------00011100(16+8+4) which is 28.

Eg2: 1<<1;

consider the number as 1---00000001(0+0+1).

left shift that by 1------------00000010(0+2+0) which is 2.

left shift by 1 bit of a number=2*number

left shift by 1 bit of 2*number=2*2*number

left shift by n bits of number=(2^n)*number

Program: Program to illustrate left shift and right shift operations.

#include<stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

int x=10,y=10;

printf("left shift of 10 is %d \n",x<<1);

printf("right shift of 10 is %d \n",y>>1);

return 0;

}

Output:

left shift of 10 is 20

right shift of 10 is 5

Explanation:

Left shift (by 1 position) multiplies a number by two. Right shift divides a number by 2.

14. What is an Enumeration Constant?

Ans:Enumeration is a data type. We can create our own data type and define values that the variable can

take. This can help in making program more readable. enum definition is similar to that of a structure.

Example: consider light_status as a data type. It can have two possible values - on or off.

enum light_status

{

on, off

};

enum light_status bulb1, bulb2;

/* bulb1, bulb2 are the variables */

Declaration of enum has two parts:

a) First part declares the data type and specifies the possible values, called 'enumerators'.

b) Second part declares the variables of this data type.

We can give values to these variables:

bulb1 = on;

bulb2 = off;



15. What is a structure?

Ans:A structure is a collection of pre-defined data types to create a user-defined data type. Let us say we need

to create records of students. Each student has three fields:

int roll_number;

char name[30];

int total_marks;

This concept would be particularly useful in grouping data types. You could declare a structure student as:

struct student

{

int roll_number;

char name[30];

int total_marks;

} student1, student2;

The above snippet of code would declare a structure by name student and it initializes two objects student1,

student2. Now these objects and their fields could be accessed by saying student1.roll_number for accesing roll

number field of student1 object, similarly student2.name for accesing name field of student2 object.

16. What are the advantages of unions?

Ans: Union is a collection of data items of different data types. It can hold data of only one member at a

time though it has members of different data types. If a union has two members of different data types, they are

allocated the same memory. The memory allocated is equal to maximum size of the members. The data is

interpreted in bytes depending on which member is being accessed.

Example:

union pen

{

char name;

float point;

};

Here name and point are union members. Out of these two variables, 'point' is larger variable which is of float

data type and it would need 4 bytes of memory. Therefore 4 bytes space is allocated for both the variables. Both

the variables have the same memory location. They are accessed according to their type. Union is efficient

when members of it are not required to be accessed at the same time.

17. What are the differences between a structure and a union?

Ans: Structures and Unions are used to store members of different data types.

STRUCTURE UNION

a)Declaration:

struct

{

data type member1;

data type member2;

};

a)Declaration:

union

{

data type member1;

data type member2;

};

b) Every structure member is allocated memory when

a structure variable is defined.

b)The memory equivalent to the largest item is

allocated commonly for all members.



Example:

struct emp

{

char name[5];

int age;

float sal;

};

struct emp e1;

Memory allocated for structure is 1+2+4=7 bytes. 1

byte for name, 2 bytes for age and 4 bytes for sal.

Example:

union emp1

{

char name[5];

int age;

float sal;

};

union emp1 e2;

Memory allocated to a union is equal to size of the

largest member. In this case, float is the largest-sized

data type. Hence memory allocated to this union is 4

bytes.

c)All structure variables can be initialized at a time

struct st

{

int a;

float b;

};

struct st s = { .a=4, .b=10.5 };

Structure is used when all members are to be

independently used in a program.

c)Only one union member can be initialized at a time

union un

{

int a;

float b;

};

union un un1 = { .a=10 };

Union is used when members of it are not required to

be accessed at the same time.

18. How can typedef be to define a type of structure?

Ans: typedef declaration helps to make source code of a C program more readable. Its purpose is to redefine

the name of an existing variable type. It provides a short and meaningful way to call a data type. typedef is

useful when the name of the data type is long. Use of typedef can reduce length and complexity of data types.

Note: Usually uppercase letters are used to make it clear that we are dealing with our own data type.

Example:

struct employee

{

char name[20];

int age;

};

struct employee e;

The above declaration of the structure would be easy to use when renamed using typedef as:

struct employee

{

char name[20];

int age;

};

typedef struct employee EMP;

EMP e1, e2;

19. Write a program that returns 3 numbers from a function using a structure.

Ans: A function in C can return only one value. If we want the function to return multiple values, we need

to create a structure variable, which has three integer members and return this structure.



Program: Program with a function to return 3 values

#include<stdio.h>

//sample structure which has three integer variables.

struct sample

{

int a, b, c;

};

//this is function which returns three values.

struct sample return3val()

{

struct sample s1;

s1.a = 10;

s1.b = 20;

s1.c = 30;

//return structure s1, which means return s1.a ,s1.b and s1.c

return s1;

}

int main()

{

struct sample accept3val;

//three values returned are accepted by structure accept3val.

accept3val = return3val();

//prints the values

printf(" \n %d", accept3val.a);

printf("\n %d", accept3val.b);

printf(" \n %d", accept3val.c);

return 0;

}

Output:

10

20

30.

Explanation:

In this program, we use C structure to return multiple values from a function. Here we have a structure holding

three int variables and a function which returns it. 'return3val' is a function which assigns 10, 20, 30 to its

integer variables and returns this structure. In this program, 'accept3val' is a structure used to accept the values

returned by the function. It accepts those values and shows the output.

20. In code snippet below:

struct Date

{

int yr;

int day;

int month;

} date1,date2;

date1.yr = 2004;

date1.day = 4;

date1.month = 12;

Write a function that assigns values to date2. Arguments to the function must be pointers to the

structure, Date and integer variables date, month, year.



Ans: Date is a structure with three int variables as members. set_date(..) is a function used to assign values to

the structure variable.

Program: Program to illustrate a function that assigns value to the structure.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<stdlib.h>

//declare structure Date

struct Date

{

int yr;

int day;

int month;

} date1, date2;

//declare function to assign date to structure variable

void set_date(struct Date *dte, int dt, int mnt, int year)

{

dte->day = dt;

dte->yr = year;

dte->month = mnt;

}

int main(void)

{

date1.yr = 2004;

date1.day = 4;

//assigning values one by one

date1.month = 12;

//assigning values in a single statement

set_date(&date2, 05, 12, 2008);

//prints both dates in date/month/year format

printf("\n %d %d %d ", date1.day, date1.month, date1.yr);

printf("\n %d %d %d ", date2.day, date2.month, date2.yr);

return 0;

}

Output:

4 12 2004

5 12 2008

Explanation:

Two variables of type Date are created and named 'date1', 'date2'. 'date2' is assigned by using the function

set_date(..). Address of 'date2' is passed to set_date function.

21. What are header files? Are functions declared or defined in header files ?

Ans:Functions and macros are declared in header files. Header files would be included in source files by the

compiler at the time of compilation.

Header files are included in source code using #include directive.#include<some.h> includes all the declarations

present in the header file 'some.h'.

A header file may contain declarations of sub-routines, functions, macros and also variables which we may

wantto use in our program. Header files help in reduction of repetitive code.

Syntax of include directive:



#include<stdio.h> //includes the header file stdio.h, standard input output header into the source code

Functions can be declared as well as defined in header files. But it is recommended only to declare functions

and not to define in the header files. When we include a header file in our program we actually are including all

the functions, macros and variables declared in it.

In case of pre-defined C standard library header files ex(stdio.h), the functions calls are replaced by equivalent

binary code present in the pre-compiled libraries. Code for C standard functions are linked and then the program

is executed. Header files with custom names can also be created.

Program: Custom header files example

//Index: restaurant.h

int billAll(int food_cost, int tax, int tip);

//Index: restaurant.c

#include<stdio.h>

int billAll(int food_cost, int tax, int tip)

{

int result;

result = food_cost + tax + tip;

printf("Total bill is %d\n",result);

return result;

}

//Index: main.c

#include<stdio.h>

#include"restaurant.h"

int main()

{

int food_cost, tax, tip;

food_cost = 50;

tax = 10;

tip = 5;

billAll(food_cost,tax,tip);

return 0;

}

22. What are the differences between formal arguments and actual arguments of a function?

Ans:Argument: An argument is an expression which is passed to a function by its caller (or macro by its

invoker) in order for the function(or macro) to perform its task. It is an expression in the comma-separated list

bound by the parentheses in a function call expression.

Actual arguments:

The arguments that are passed in a function call are called actual arguments. These arguments are defined in

the calling function.

Formal arguments:

The formal arguments are the parameters/arguments in a function declaration. The scope of formal arguments is

local to the function definition in which they are used. Formal arguments belong to the called function. Formal

arguments are a copy of the actual arguments. A change in formal arguments would not be reflected in the

actual arguments.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void sum(int i, int j, int k);

/* calling function */

int main()



{

int a = 5;

// actual arguments

sum(3, 2 * a, a);

return 0;

}

/* called function */

/* formal arguments*/

void sum(int i, int j, int k)

{

int s;

s = i + j + k;

printf("sum is %d", s);

}

Here 3,2*a,a are actual arguments and i,j,k are formal arguments.

23. What is pass by reference in functions?

Ans: Pass by Reference: In this method, the addresses of actual arguments in the calling function are

copied into formal arguments of the called function. This means that using these addresses, we would have an

access to the actual arguments and hence we would be able to manipulate them. C does not support Call by

reference. But it can be simulated using pointers.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

/* function definition */

void swap(int *x, int *y)

{

int t;

t = *x; /* assign the value at address x to t */

*x = *y; /* put the value at y into x */

*y = t; /* put the value at to y */

}

int main()

{

int m = 10, n = 20;

printf("Before executing swap m=%d n=%d\n", m, n);

swap(&m, &n);

printf("After executing swap m=%d n=%d\n", m, n);

return 0;

}

Output:

Before executing swap m=10 n=20

After executing swap m=20 n=10

Explanation:

In the main function, address of variables m, n are sent as arguments to the function 'swap'. As swap function

has the access to address of the arguments, manipulation of passed arguments inside swap function would be

directly reflected in the values of m, n.

24. What is pass by value in functions?



Ans: Pass by Value: In this method, the value of each of the actual arguments in the calling function is copied

into corresponding formal arguments of the called function. In pass by value, the changes made to formal

arguments in the called function have no effect on the values of actual arguments in the calling function.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void swap(int x, int y)

{

int t;

t = x;

x = y;

y = t;

}

int main()

{

int m = 10, n = 20;

printf("Before executing swap m=%d n=%d\n", m, n);

swap(m, n);

printf("After executing swap m=%d n=%d\n", m, n);

return 0;

}

Output:

Before executing swap m=10 n=20

After executing swap m=10 n=20

Explanation:

In the main function, value of variables m, n are not changed though they are passed to function 'swap'. Swap

function has a copy of m, n and hence it can not manipulate the actual value of arguments passed to it.

25. Out of the functions fgets() and gets(), which one is safer to use and why?

Ans: Out of functions fgets( ) and gets( ), fgets( ) is safer to use. gets( ) receives a string from the keyboard and

it is terminated only when the enter key is hit. There is no limit for the input string. The string can be too long

and may lead to buffer overflow.

Example:

gets(s) /* s is the input string */

Whereas fgets( ) reads string with a specified limit, from a file and displays it on screen.The function fgets( )

takes three arguments.

First argument : address where the string is stored.

Second argument : maximum length of the string.

Third argument : pointer to a FILE.

Example:

fgets(s,20,fp); /* s: address of the string, 20: maximum length of string, fp: pointer to a file */

The second argument limits the length of string to be read. Thereby it avoids overflow of input buffer. Thus

fgets( ) is preferable to gets( ).

26. What are the differences between getchar() and scanf() functions for reading strings?

Differences between getchar and scanf functions for reading strings:



27. What is the difference between the functions strdup() and strcpy()?

Ans: strcpy function: copies a source string to a destination defined by user. In strcpy function both source

and destination strings are passed as arguments. User should make sure that destination has enough space to

accommodate the string to be copied. 'strcpy' sounds like short form of "string copy".

Syntax:

strcpy(char *destination, const char *source);

Source string is the string to be copied and destination string is string into which source string is copied. If

successful, strcpy subroutine returns the address of the copied string. Otherwise, a null pointer is returned.

Example Program:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

int main()

{

char myname[10];

//copy contents to myname

strcpy(myname, "interviewmantra.net");

//print the string

puts(myname);

return 0;

}

Output:

interviewmantra.net

Explanation:



If the string to be copied has more than 10 letters, strcpy cannot copy this string into the string 'myname'. This is

because string 'myname' is declared to be of size 10 characters only.

In the above program, string "nodalo" is copied in myname and is printed on output screen.

strdup function: duplicates a string to a location that will be decided by the function itself. Function will copy

the contents of string to certain memory location and returns the address to that location. 'strdup' sounds like

short form of "string duplicate"

Syntax:

strdup (const char *s);

strdup returns a pointer to a character or base address of an array. Function returns address of the memory

location where the string has been copied. In case free space could not be created then it returns a null pointer.

Both strcpy and strdup functions are present in header file <string.h>

Program: Program to illustrate strdup().

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

#include<stdlib.h>

int main()

{

char myname[] = "interviewmantra.net";

//name is pointer variable which can store the address of memory location of string

char* name;

//contents of myname are copied in a memory address and are assigned to name

name = strdup(myname);

//prints the contents of 'name'

puts(name);

//prints the contents of 'myname'

puts(myname);

//memory allocated to 'name' is now freed

free(name);

return 0;

}

Output:

interviewmantra.net

interviewmantra.net

Explanation:

String myname consists of "interviewmantra.net" stored in it. Contents of myname are copied in a memory

address and memory is assigned to name. At the end of the program, memory can be freed using free(name);

28. What is a pointer in C?

A pointer is a special variable in C language meant just to store address of any other variable or function.

Pointer variables unlike ordinary variables cannot be operated with all the arithmetic operations such as '*','%'

operators. It follows a special arithmetic called as pointer arithmetic.

A pointer is declared as:

int *ap;

int a = 5;

In the above two statements an integer a was declared and initialized to 5. A pointer to an integer with name ap

was declared.

Next before ap is used

ap=&a;

This operation would initialize the declared pointer to int. The pointer ap is now said to point to a.



Operations on a pointer:

Dereferencing operator ' * ': This operator gives the value at the address pointed by the pointer . For

example after the above C statements if we give

printf("%d",*ap);

Actual value of a that is 5 would be printed. That is because ap points to a.

Addition operator ' + ': Pointer arithmetic is different from ordinary arithmetic.

ap=ap+1;

Above expression would not increment the value of ap by one, but would increment it by the number of

bytes of the data type it is pointing to. Here ap is pointing to an integer variable hence ap is incremented

by 2 or 4 bytes depending upon the compiler.

29. What are the advantages of using pointers?

Ans: Pointers are special variables which store address of some other variables.

Syntax: datatype *ptr;

Here * indicates that ptr is a pointer variable which represents value stored at a particular address.

Example: int *p;

'p' is a pointer variable pointing to address location where an integer type is stored.

Advantages:

1. Pointers allow us to pass values to functions using call by reference. This is useful when large sized

arrays are passed as arguments to functions. A function can return more than one value by using call by

reference.

2. Dynamic allocation of memory is possible with the help of pointers.

3. We can resize data structures. For instance, if an array's memory is fixed, it cannot be resized. But in

case of an array whose memory is created out of malloc can be resized.

4. Pointers point to physical memory and allow quicker access to data.

30. What is the equivalent pointer expression for referring an element a[i][j][k][l], in a four

dimensional array?

Ans: Consider a multidimensional array a[w][x][y][z].

In this array, a[i] gives address of a[i][0][0][0] and a[i]+j gives the address of a[i][j][0][0]

Similarly, a[i][j] gives address of a[i][j][0][0] and a[i][j]+k gives the address of a[i][j][k][0]

a[i][j][k] gives address of a[i][j][k][0] and a[i][j][k]+l gives address of a[i][j][k][l]

Hence a[i][j][k][l] can be accessed using pointers as *(a[i][j][k]+l)

where * stands for value at address and a[i][j][k]+l gives the address location of a[i][j][k][l].

Program: Example program to illustrate pointer denotation of multi-dimensional arrays.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

int main()

{

int a[3][3][3][3];

//it gives address of a[0][0][0][0] .

printf(" \n address of array a is %u", a);

printf("\n address of a[2][0][0][0] is %u ,given by a[2], %u given by a+2",

a[2], a + 2);

printf("\n address of a[2][2][0][0] is %u ,given by a[2][2], %u given by a[2]+2",

a[2][2], a[2] + 2);

printf("\n address of a[2][2][1][0] is %u ,given by a[2][2][1] , %u given by a[2][2]+1",



a[2][2][1], a[2][2] + 1);

return 0;

}

Output:

address of array a is 65340

address of a[2][0][0][0] is 65448, given by a[2] , 65448 given by a+2

address of a[2][2][0][0] is 65484, given by a[2][2] ,65484 given by a[2]+2

address of a[2][2][1][0] is 65490, given by a[2][2][1] , 65490 given by a[2][2]+1

Explanation:

This output may differ from computer to computer as the address locations are not same for every computer.

31. Declare an array of three function pointers where each function receives two integers and

returns float.

Declaration: float (*fn[3])(int, int);

Program: Illustrates the usage of above declaration

#include<stdio.h>

float (*fn[3])(int, int);

float add(int, int);

int main()

{

int x, y, z, j;

for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)

{

fn[j] = &add;

}

x = fn[0](10, 20);

y = fn[1](100, 200);

z = fn[2](1000, 2000);

printf("sum1 is: %d \n", x);

printf("sum2 is: %d \n", y);

printf("sum3 is: %d \n", z);

return 0;

}

float add(int x, int y)

{

float f = x + y;

return f;

}

Output:

sum1 is: 30

sum2 is: 300

sum3 is: 3000

Explanation:

Here 'fn[3]' is an array of function pointers. Each element of the array can store the address of function 'float

add(int, int)'.

fn[0]=fn[1]=fn[2]=&add

Wherever this address is encountered add(int, int) function is called.

32. Explain the variable assignment in the declaration

Ans: int *(*p[10])(char *, char *);



It is an array of function pointers that returns an integer pointer. Each function has two arguments which in

turn are pointers to character type variable. p[0], p[1],....., p[9] are function pointers.

return type : integer pointer.

p[10] : array of function pointers

char * : arguments passed to the function

Program: Example program to explain function pointers.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<stdlib.h>

int *(*p[10])(char *, char *);

/*average function which returns pointer to integer whose value is average of ascii value of characters passed

by pointers*/

int *average(char *, char *);

//function which returns pointer to integer whose value is sum of ascii value of characters passed by pointers

int *sum(char *, char *);

int retrn;

int main(void)

{

int i;

for (i = 0; i < 5; i++)

{

//p[0] to p[4] are pointers to average function.

p[i] = &(average);

}

for (i = 5; i < 10; i++)

{

//p[5] to p[9] are pointers to sum function

p[i] = &(sum);

}

char str[10] = "nodalo.com";

int *intstr[10];

for (i = 0; i < 9; i++)

{

//upto p[4] average function is called, from p[5] sum is called.

intstr[i] = p[i](&str[i], &str[i + 1]);

if (i < 5)

{

//prints the average of ascii of both characters

printf(" \n average of %c and %c is %d",

str[i], str[i + 1],*intstr[i]);

}

else

{

//prints the sum of ascii of both characters.

printf(" \n sum of %c and %c is %d",

str[i], str[i + 1], *intstr[i]);

}

}

return 0;

}



//function average is defined here

int *average(char *arg1, char *arg2)

{

retrn = (*arg1 + *arg2) / 2;

return (&retrn);

}

//function sum is defined here

int *sum(char *arg1, char *arg2)

{

retrn = (*arg1 + *arg2);

return (&retrn);

}

Output:

average of n and o is 110

average of o and d is 105

average of d and a is 98 average of d and a is 98

average of a and l is 102

average of l and o is 109

sum of o and . is 157

sum of . and c is 145

sum of c and o is 210

sum of o and m is 220

Explanation:

In this program p[10] is an array of function pointers. First five elements of p[10] point to the function: int

*average(char *arg1,char *arg2). Next five elements point to the function int *sum(char *arg1,char *arg2).

They

return pointer to an integer and accept pointer to char as arguments.

Function average:

int *average(char *arg1,char *arg2) This function finds the average of the two values of the addresses passed to

it as arguments and returns address of the average value as an integer pointer.

Function sum:

int *sum(char *arg1,char *arg2) This function finds the sum of the two values of the addresses passed to it as

arguments and returns address of the sum value as an integer pointer.

33. What is the value of sizeof(a) /sizeof(char *)

in a code snippet:

char *a[4]={"sridhar","raghava","shashi","srikanth"};

Explanation:

Here a[4] is an array which holds the address of strings. Strings are character arrays themselves.

Memory required to store an address is 4 bits. So memory required to store 4 addresses is equal to 4*4=16 bits.

char *; is a pointer variable which stores the address of a char variable.

So sizeof(char *) is 4 bits. Therefore sizeof(a) /sizeof(char *) = 16/4 = 4 bytes.

34. (i) What are the differences between the C statements below:

char *str = "Hello";

char arr[] = "Hello";

(ii) Whether following statements get complied or not? Explain each statement.

arr++;

*(arr + 1) = 's';

printf("%s",arr);

Ans:



(i) char *str="Hello";

"Hello" is an anonymous string present in the memory. 'str' is a pointer variable that holds the address of

this string.

char arr[ ]="Hello";

This statement assigns space for six characters: 'H' 'e' 'l' 'l' 'o' '\0' . 'arr' is the variable name assigned to this array

of characters.

str[4] and arr[4] also have different meanings.

str[4]: adds 4 to the value of 'str' and points to the address same as value of str + 4.

arr[4]: points to the fourth element in array named 'arr'.

(ii) 'arr' is variable name of an array. A variable name can not be incremented or decremented. Hence

arr++ is an invalid statement and would result in a compilation error.

*(arr+1)='s';

'arr' is the name of a character array that holds string "Hello". Usually, name of an array points to its base

address. Hence value of arr is same as &arr[0].

arr+1 is address of the next element: &arr[1]

Character 's' is assigned to the second element in array 'arr', thereby string changes from "Hello" to "Hsllo".

printf("%s",arr );

This statement prints the string stored in character array 'arr'.

35. Write a program to find factorial of the given number.

Ans: Recursion: A function is called 'recursive' if a statement within the body of a function calls the same

function. Itis also called 'circular definition'. Recursion is thus a process of defining something in terms of itself.

Program: To calculate the factorial value using recursion.

#include <stdio.h>

int fact(int n);

int main()

{

int x, i;

printf("Enter a value for x: \n");

scanf("%d", &x);

i = fact(x);

printf("\nFactorial of %d is %d", x, i);

return 0;

}

int fact(int n)

{

/* n=0 indicates a terminating condition */

if (n <= 0)

{

return (1);

}

else

{

/* function calling itself */

return (n * fact(n - 1));

/*n*fact(n-1) is a recursive expression */

}

}

Output:



Enter a value for x:

4

Factorial of 4 is 24

Explanation:

fact(n) = n * fact(n-1)

If n=4

fact(4) = 4 * fact(3) there is a call to fact(3)

fact(3) = 3 * fact(2)

fact(2) = 2 * fact(1)

fact(1) = 1 * fact(0)

fact(0) = 1

fact(1) = 1 * 1 = 1

fact(2) = 2 * 1 = 2

fact(3) = 3 * 2 = 6

Thus fact(4) = 4 * 6 = 24

Terminating condition(n <= 0 here;) is a must for a recursive program. Otherwise the program enters into an

infinite loop.

36. Write a program to check whether the given number is even or odd.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int a;

printf("Enter a: \n");

scanf("%d", &a);

/* logic */

if (a % 2 == 0)

{

printf("The given number is EVEN\n");

}

else

{

printf("The given number is ODD\n");

}

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter a: 2

The given number is EVEN

Explanation with examples:

Example 1: If entered number is an even number

Let value of 'a' entered is 4

if(a%2==0) then a is an even number, else odd.

i.e. if(4%2==0) then 4 is an even number, else odd.

To check whether 4 is even or odd, we need to calculate (4%2).

/* % (modulus) implies remainder value. */

/* Therefore if the remainder obtained when 4 is divided by 2 is 0, then 4 is even. */

4%2==0 is true

Thus 4 is an even number.



Example 2: If entered number is an odd number.

Let value of 'a' entered is 7

if(a%2==0) then a is an even number, else odd.

i.e. if(7%2==0) then 4 is an even number, else odd.

To check whether 7 is even or odd, we need to calculate (7%2).

7%2==0 is false /* 7%2==1 condition fails and else part is executed */

Thus 7 is an odd number.

37. Write a program to swap two numbers using a temporary variable.

Swapping interchanges the values of two given variables.

Logic:

step1: temp=x;

step2: x=y;

step3: y=temp;

Example:

if x=5 and y=8, consider a temporary variable temp.

step1: temp=x=5;

step2: x=y=8;

step3: y=temp=5;

Thus the values of the variables x and y are interchanged.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int a, b, temp;

printf("Enter the value of a and b: \n");

scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

printf("Before swapping a=%d, b=%d \n", a, b);

/*Swapping logic */

temp = a;

a = b;

b = temp;

printf("After swapping a=%d, b=%d", a, b);

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter the values of a and b: 2 3

Before swapping a=2, b=3

After swapping a=3, b=2

38. Write a program to swap two numbers without using a temporary variable.

Swapping interchanges the values of two given variables.

Logic:

step1: x=x+y;

step2: y=x-y;

step3: x=x-y;

Example:

if x=7 and y=4

step1: x=7+4=11;



step2: y=11-4=7;

step3: x=11-7=4;

Thus the values of the variables x and y are interchanged.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int a, b;

printf("Enter values of a and b: \n");

scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

printf("Before swapping a=%d, b=%d\n", a,b);

/*Swapping logic */

a = a + b;

b = a - b;

a = a - b;

printf("After swapping a=%d b=%d\n", a, b);

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter values of a and b: 2 3

Before swapping a=2, b=3

The values after swapping are a=3 b=2

39. Write a program to swap two numbers using bitwise operators.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int i = 65;

int k = 120;

printf("\n value of i=%d k=%d before swapping", i, k);

i = i ^ k;

k = i ^ k;

i = i ^ k;

printf("\n value of i=%d k=%d after swapping", i, k);

return 0;

}

Explanation:

i = 65; binary equivalent of 65 is 0100 0001

k = 120; binary equivalent of 120 is 0111 1000

i = i^k;

i...0100 0001

k...0111 1000

---------

val of i = 0011 1001

---------

k = i^k



i...0011 1001

k...0111 1000

---------

val of k = 0100 0001 binary equivalent of this is 65

---------(that is the initial value of i)

i = i^k

i...0011 1001

k...0100 0001

---------

val of i = 0111 1000 binary equivalent of this is 120

--------- (that is the initial value of k)

40. Write a program to find the greatest of three numbers.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int a, b, c;

printf("Enter a,b,c: \n");

scanf("%d %d %d", &a, &b, &c);

if (a > b && a > c)

{

printf("a is Greater than b and c");

}

else if (b > a && b > c)

{

printf("b is Greater than a and c");

}

else if (c > a && c > b)

{

printf("c is Greater than a and b");

}

else

{

printf("all are equal or any two values are equal");

}

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter a,b,c: 3 5 8

c is Greater than a and b


Consider three numbers a=5,b=4,c=8

if(a>b && a>c) then a is greater than b and c

now check this condition for the three numbers 5,4,8 i.e.

if(5>4 && 5>8) /* 5>4 is true but 5>8 fails */

so the control shifts to else if condition

else if(b>a && b>c) then b is greater than a and c

now checking this condition for 5,4,8 i.e.



else if(4>5 && 4>8) /* both the conditions fail */

now the control shifts to the next else if condition

else if(c>a && c>b) then c is greater than a and b

now checking this condition for 5,4,8 i.e.

else if(8>5 && 8>4) /* both conditions are satisfied */

Thus c is greater than a and b.

41. Write a program to find the greatest among ten numbers.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int a[10];

int i;

int greatest;

printf("Enter ten values:");

//Store 10 numbers in an array

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)

{

scanf("%d", &a[i]);

}

//Assume that a[0] is greatest

greatest = a[0];

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)

{

if (a[i] > greatest)

{

greatest = a[i];

}

}

printf("\nGreatest of ten numbers is %d", greatest);

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter ten values: 2 53 65 3 88 8 14 5 77 64 Greatest of ten numbers is 88

Explanation with example:

Entered values are 2, 53, 65, 3, 88, 8, 14, 5, 77, 64

They are stored in an array of size 10. let a[] be an array holding these values.

/* how the greatest among ten numbers is found */

Let us consider a variable 'greatest'. At the beginning of the loop, variable 'greatest' is assinged with the value of

first element in the array greatest=a[0]. Here variable 'greatest' is assigned 2 as a[0]=2.

Below loop is executed until end of the array 'a[]';.

for(i=0; i<10; i++)

{

if(a[i]>greatest)

{

greatest= a[i];

}

}



For each value of 'i', value of a[i] is compared with value of variable 'greatest'. If any value greater than the

value

of 'greatest' is encountered, it would be replaced by a[i]. After completion of 'for' loop, the value of variable

'greatest' holds the greatest number in the array. In this case 88 is the greatest of all the numbers.

42. Write a program to check whether the given number is a prime.

Ans: A prime number is a natural number that has only one and itself as factors. Examples: 2, 3, 13 are prime

numbers.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

main()

{

int n, i, c = 0;

printf("Enter any number n: \n");

scanf("%d", &n);

/*logic*/

for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)

{

if (n % i == 0)

{

c++;

}

}

if (c == 2)

{

printf("n is a Prime number");

}

else

{

printf("n is not a Prime number");

}

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter any number n: 7

n is Prime


consider a number n=5

for(i=0;i<=n;i++) /* for loop is executed until the n value equals i */

i.e. for(i=0;i<=5;i++) /* here the for loop is executed until i is equal to n */

1st iteration: i=1;i<=5;i++

here i is incremented i.e. i value for next iteration is 2

now if(n%i==0) then c is incremented

i.e.if(5%1==0)then c is incremented, here 5%1=0 thus c is incremented.

now c=1;

2nd iteration: i=2;i<=5;i++



i.e.if(5%2==0) then c is incremented, but 5%2!=0 and so c is not incremented, c remains 1



c=1;

3rd iteration: i=3;i<=5;i++



i.e.if(5%3==0) then c ic incremented, but 5%3!=0 and so c is not incremented, c remains 1

c=1;

4th iteration: i=4;i<=5;i++



i.e. if(5%4==0) then c is incremented, but 5%4!=0 and so c is not incremented, c remains 1

c=1;




i.e. if(5%5==0) then c is incremented, 5%5=0 and so c is incremented.

i.e. c=2


here i value is 6 and 6<=5 is false thus the condition fails and control leaves the for loop.

now if(c==2) then n is a prime number

we have c=2 from the 5th iteration and thus n=5 is a Prime number.

43. Write a program to check whether the given number is a palindromic number.

If a number, which when read in both forward and backward way is same, then such a number is called a

palindrome number.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int n, n1, rev = 0, rem;

printf("Enter any number: \n");

scanf("%d", &n);

n1 = n;

/* logic */

while (n > 0)

{

rem = n % 10;

rev = rev * 10 + rem;

n = n / 10;

}

if (n1 == rev)

{

printf("Given number is a palindromic number");

}

else

{

printf("Given number is not a palindromic number");

}

return 0;

}

Output:



Enter any number: 121

Given number is a palindrome

Explanation with an example:

Consider a number n=121, reverse=0, remainder;

number=121

now the while loop is executed /* the condition (n>0) is satisfied */

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/* calculate remainder */

remainder of 121 divided by 10=(121%10)=1;

now reverse=(reverse*10)+remainder

=(0*10)+1 /* we have initialized reverse=0 */

=1

number=number/10

=121/10

=12

now the number is 12, greater than 0. The above process is repeated for number=12.

remainder=12%10=2;

reverse=(1*10)+2=12;

number=12/10=1;

now the number is 1, greater than 0. The above process is repeated for number=1.

remainder=1%10=1;

reverse=(12*10)+1=121;

number=1/10 /* the condition n>0 is not satisfied,control leaves the while loop */

Program stops here. The given number=121 equals the reverse of the number. Thus the given number is a

palindrome number.

44. Write a program to check whether the given string is a palindrome.

Palindrome is a string, which when read in both forward and backward way is same.

Example: radar, madam, pop, lol, rubber, etc.,

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main()

{

char string1[20];

int i, length;

int flag = 0;

printf("Enter a string: \n");

scanf("%s", string1);

length = strlen(string1);

for(i=0;i < length ;i++)

{

if(string1[i] != string1[length-i-1])

{

flag = 1;

break;

}

}

if (flag)

{



printf("%s is not a palindrome\n", string1);

}

else

{

printf("%s is a palindrome\n", string1);

}

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter a string: radar

"radar" is a palindrome

Explanation with example:

To check if a string is a palindrome or not, a string needs to be compared with the reverse of itself.

Consider a palindrome string: "radar",

---------------------------

index: 0 1 2 3 4

value: r a d a r

---------------------------

To compare it with the reverse of itself, the following logic is used:

0th character in the char array, string1 is same as 4th character in the same string.

1st character is same as 3rd character.

2nd character is same as 2nd character.

. . . .

ith character is same as 'length-i-1'th character.

If any one of the above condition fails, flag is set to true(1), which implies that the string is not a palindrome.

By default, the value of flag is false(0). Hence, if all the conditions are satisfied, the string is a palindrome.

45. Write a program to generate the Fibonacci series.

Fibonacci series: Any number in the series is obtained by adding the previous two numbers of the series.

Let f(n) be n'th term.

f(0)=0;

f(1)=1;

f(n)=f(n-1)+f(n-2); (for n>=2)

Series is as follows

011

(1+0)

2 (1+1)

3 (1+2)

5 (2+3)

8 (3+5)

13 (5+8)

21 (8+13)

34 (13+21)

...and so on

Program: to generate Fibonacci Series(10 terms)

#include<stdio.h>

int main()

{

//array fib stores numbers of fibonacci series



int i, fib[25];

//initialized first element to 0

fib[0] = 0;

//initialized second element to 1

fib[1] = 1;

//loop to generate ten elements

for (i = 2; i < 10; i++)

{

//i'th element of series is equal to the sum of i-1'th element and i-2'th element.

fib[i] = fib[i - 1] + fib[i - 2];

}

printf("The fibonacci series is as follows \n");

//print all numbers in the series

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)

{

printf("%d \n", fib[i]);

}

return 0;

}

Output:

The fibonacci series is as follows

01123581

3

21

34

Explanation:

The first two elements are initialized to 0, 1 respectively. Other elements in the series are generated by looping

and adding previous two numbes. These numbers are stored in an array and ten elements of the series are

printed as output.

46. Write a program to compare two strings without using strcmp() function.

strcmp() function compares two strings lexicographically. strcmp is declared in stdio.h

Case 1: when the strings are equal, it returns zero.

Case 2: when the strings are unequal, it returns the difference between ascii values of the characters that differ.

a) When string1 is greater than string2, it returns positive value.

b) When string1 is lesser than string2, it returns negative value.

Syntax:

int strcmp (const char *s1, const char *s2);

Program: to compare two strings.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

int cmpstr(char s1[10], char s2[10]);

int main()

{

char arr1[10] = "Nodalo";

char arr2[10] = "nodalo";

printf(" %d", cmpstr(arr1, arr2));

//cmpstr() is equivalent of strcmp()

return 0;

}



//s1, s2 are strings to be compared

int cmpstr(char s1[10], char s2[10])

{

//strlen function returns the length of argument string passed

int i = strlen(s1);

int k = strlen(s2);

int bigger;

if (i < k)

{

bigger = k;

}

else if (i > k)

{

bigger = i;

}

else

{

bigger = i;

}

//loops 'bigger' times

for (i = 0; i < bigger; i++)

{

//if ascii values of characters s1[i], s2[i] are equal do nothing

if (s1[i] == s2[i])

{

}

//else return the ascii difference

else

{

return (s1[i] - s2[i]);

}

}

//return 0 when both strings are same

//This statement is executed only when both strings are equal

return (0);

}

Output:

-32

Explanation:

cmpstr() is a function that illustrates C standard function strcmp(). Strings to be compared are sent as arguments

to cmpstr().

Each character in string1 is compared to its corresponding character in string2. Once the loop encounters a

differing character in the strings, it would return the ascii difference of the differing characters and exit.

47. Write a program to concatenate two strings without using strcat() function.

strcat(string1,string2) is a C standard function declared in the header file string.h The strcat() function

concatenates string2, string1 and returns string1.

Program: Program to concatenate two strings

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>



char *strct(char *c1, char *c2);

char *strct(char *c1, char *c2)

{

//strlen function returns length of argument string

int i = strlen(c1);

int k = 0;

//loops until null is encountered and appends string c2 to c1

while (c2[k] != '\0')

{

c1[i + k] = c2[k];

k++;

}

return c1;

}

int main()

{

char string1[15] = "first";

char string2[15] = "second";

char *finalstr;

printf("Before concatenation:"

" \n string1 = %s \n string2 = %s", string1, string2);

//addresses of string1, string2 are passed to strct()

finalstr = strct(string1, string2);

printf("\nAfter concatenation:");

//prints the contents of string whose address is in finalstr

printf("\n finalstr = %s", finalstr);

//prints the contents of string1

printf("\n string1 = %s", string1);

//prints the contents of string2

printf("\n string2 = %s", string2);

return 0;

}

Output:

Before concatenation:

string1 = first

string2 = second

After concatenation:

finalstr = firstsecond

string1 = firstsecond

string2 = second

Explanation:

string2 is appended at the end of string1 and contents of string2 are unchanged.

In strct() function, using a for loop, all the characters of string 'c2' are copied at the end of c1. return (c1) is

equivalent to return &c1[0] and it returns the base address of 'c1'. 'finalstr' stores that address returned by the

function strct().

48. Write a program to display the multiplication table of a given number.

Program: Multiplication table of a given number

#include <stdio.h>

int main()



{

int num, i = 1;

printf("\n Enter any Number:");

scanf("%d", &num);

printf("Multiplication table of %d: \n", num);

while (i <= 10)

{

printf("\n %d x %d = %d", num, i, num * i);

i++;

}

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter any Number:5

5 x 1 = 5

5 x 2 = 10

5 x 3 = 15

5 x 4 = 20

5 x 5 = 25

5 x 6 = 30

5 x 7 = 35

5 x 8 = 40

5 x 9 = 45

5 x 10 = 50

Explanation:

We need to multiply the given number (i.e. the number for which we want the multiplication table)

with value of 'i' which increments from 1 to 10.

(All above questions and answer are selected from www.InterviewMantra.net)

http://www.interviewmantra.net/



Unit-2: Advanced Features and Interfacing

Miscellaneous and advanced features: command line argument, dynamic memory

allocation, Data files in C, file handling in C.

Graphics in C: graphics-video modes, video adapters, drawing various object on

screen.

Interfacing: interfacing to external hardware, via serial/parallel port using C, applying

C to electronic circuit problems.


1. What is the purpose of main() function?

Ans: In C, program execution starts from the main() function. Every C program must contain a main() function.

The main function may contain any number of statements. These statements are executed sequentially in the

order which they are written. The main function can in-turn call other functions. When main calls a function, it

passes the execution control to that function. The function returns control to main when a return statement is

executed or when end of function is reached. In C, the function prototype of the 'main' is one of the following:

int main(); //main with no arguments

int main(int argc, char *argv[]); //main with arguments

The parameters argc and argv respectively give the number and value of the program's command-line

arguments.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

/* program section begins here */

int main()

{

// opening brace - program execution starts here

printf("Welcome to the world of C");

return 0;

}// closing brace - program terminates here

Output:

Welcome to the world of C

2. Explain command line arguments of main function?

In C, we can supply arguments to 'main' function. The arguments that we pass to main ( ) at command prompt

are called command line arguments. These arguments are supplied at the time of invoking the program.

The main ( ) function can take arguments as: main(int argc, char *argv[]) { }

The first argument argc is known as 'argument counter'. It represents the number of arguments in the command

line. The second argument argv is known as 'argument vector'. It is an array of char type pointers that points to

the command line arguments. Size of this array will be equal to the value of argc.

Example: at the command prompt if we give:

C:\> fruit.exe apple mango

then

argc would contain value 3

argv [0] would contain base address of string " fruit.exe" which is the command name that invokes the program.

argv [1] would contain base address of string "apple"

argv [2] would contain base address of string "mango"

here apple and mango are the arguments passed to the program fruit.exe

Program:

#include <stdio.h>



int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{

int n;

printf("Following are the arguments entered in the command line");

for (n = 0; n < argc; n++)

{

printf("\n %s", argv[n]);

}

printf("\n Number of arguments entered are\n %d\n", argc);

return 0;

}

Output:

Following are the arguments entered in the command line

C:\testproject.exe

apple

mango

Number of arguments entered are

3

3. What are the differences between malloc() and calloc()?

Ans: Allocation of memory at the time of execution is called dynamic memory allocation. It is done using

the standard library functions malloc() and calloc(). It is defined in "stdlib.h".

malloc(): used to allocate required number of bytes in memory at runtime. It takes one argument, viz. size in

bytes to be allocated.

Syntax:

void * malloc(size_t size);

Example:

a = (int*) malloc(4);

4 is the size (in bytes) of memory to be allocated.

calloc(): used to allocate required number of bytes in memory at runtime. It needs two arguments viz.,

1. total number of data and

2. size of each data.

Syntax:

void * calloc(size_t nmemb, size_t size);

Example:

a = (int*) calloc(8, sizeof(int));

Here sizeof indicates the size of the data type and 8 indicates that we want to reserve space for storing 8

integers.

Differences between malloc() and calloc() are:

1. Number of arguments differ.

2. By default, memory allocated by malloc() contains garbage values. Whereas memory allocated by calloc()

contains all zeros.

4. How to use realloc() to dynamically increase size of an already allocated array?

realloc(): This function is used to increase or decrease the size of any dynamic memory which is allocated

using malloc() or calloc() functions.

Syntax: void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t newsize);



The first argument 'ptr' is a pointer to the memory previously allocated by the malloc or calloc functions. The

second argument 'newsize' is the size in bytes, of a new memory region to be allocated by realloc. This value

can be larger or smaller than the previously allocated memory. The realloc function adjusts the old memory

region if newsize is smaller than the size of old memory.

If the newsize is larger than the existing memory size, it increases the size by copying the contents of old

memory region to new memory region. The function then deallocates the old memory region. realloc function is

helpful in managing a dynamic array whose size may change during execution.

Example: a program that reads input from standard input may not know the size of data in advance. In this case,

dynamically allocated array can be used so that it is possible allocate the exact amount of memory using realloc

function.

5. Write a program to delete a specified line from a text file.

In this program, user is asked for a filename he needs to change. User is also asked for the line number that is

to be deleted. The filename is stored in 'filename'. The file is opened and all the data is transferred to another

file except that one line the user specifies to delete.

Program: Program to delete a specific line.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

FILE *fp1, *fp2;

//consider 40 character string to store filename

char filename[40];

char c;

int del_line, temp = 1;

//asks user for file name

printf("Enter file name: ");

//receives file name from user and stores in 'filename'

scanf("%s", filename);

//open file in read mode

fp1 = fopen(filename, "r");

c = getc(fp1);

//until the last character of file is obtained

while (c != EOF)

{

printf("%c", c);

//print current character and read next character

c = getc(fp1);

}

//rewind

rewind(fp1);

printf(" \n Enter line number of the line to be deleted:");

//accept number from user.

scanf("%d", &del_line);

//open new file in write mode

fp2 = fopen("copy.c", "w");

c = getc(fp1);

while (c != EOF)

{



c = getc(fp1);

if (c == '\n')

temp++;

//except the line to be deleted

if (temp != del_line)

{

//copy all lines in file copy.c

putc(c, fp2);

}

}

//close both the files.

fclose(fp1);

fclose(fp2);

//remove original file

remove(filename);

//rename the file copy.c to original name

rename("copy.c", filename);

printf("\n The contents of file after being modified are as follows:\n");


c = getc(fp1);

while (c != EOF)

{

printf("%c", c);

c = getc(fp1);

}

fclose(fp1);

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter file name:abc.txt

hi.

hello

how are you?

I am fine

hope the same

Enter line number of the line to be deleted:4

The contents of file after being modified are as follows:

hi.

hello

how are you?

hope the same

Explanation:

In this program, user is asked for a filename that needs to be modified. Entered file name is stored in a char

array 'filename'. This file is opened in read mode using file pointer 'fp1'. Character 'c' is used to read characters

from the file and print them to the output. User is asked for the line number in the file to be deleted. The file

pointer is rewinded back and all the lines of the file except for the line to be deleted are copied into another file

"copy.c". Now "copy.c" is renamed to the original filename. The original file is opened in read mode and the

modified contents of the file are displayed on the screen.



6. Write a program to replace a specified line in a text file.

Program: Program to replace a specified line in a text file.

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

FILE *fp1, *fp2;

//'filename'is a 40 character string to store filename

char filename[40];

char c;

int del_line, temp = 1;



//receives file name from user and stores in 'filename'




c = getc(fp1);

//print the contents of file .

while (c != EOF)

{

printf("%c", c);

c = getc(fp1);

}

//ask user for line number to be deleted.

printf(" \n Enter line number to be deleted and replaced");

scanf("%d", &del_line);

//take fp1 to start point.

rewind(fp1);

//open copy.c in write mode

fp2 = fopen("copy.c", "w");

c = getc(fp1);

while (c != EOF)

{

if (c == '\n')

{

temp++;

}

//till the line to be deleted comes,copy the content from one file to other

if (temp != del_line)

{

putc(c, fp2);

}

else //when the line to be deleted comes

{

while ((c = getc(fp1)) != '\n')

{

}

//read and skip the line ask for new text

printf("Enter new text");

//flush the input stream



fflush(stdin);

putc('\n', fp2);

//put '\n' in new file

while ((c = getchar()) != '\n')

putc(c, fp2);

//take the data from user and place it in new file

fputs("\n", fp2);

temp++;

}

//continue this till EOF is encountered

c = getc(fp1);

}

//close both files

fclose(fp1);

fclose(fp2);

//remove original file

remove(filename);

//rename new file with old name opens the file in read mode

rename("copy.c", filename);


//reads the character from file

c = getc(fp1);

//until last character of file is encountered

while (c != EOF)

{

printf("%c", c);

//all characters are printed

c = getc(fp1);

}

//close the file pointer

fclose(fp1);

return 0;

}

Output:


hi.

hello

how are you?

hope the same

Enter line number of the line to be deleted and replaced:4

Enter new text: sayonara see you soon

hi.

hello

how are you?

sayonara see you soon

Explanation:

In this program, the user is asked to type the name of the file. The File by name entered by user is opened in

read mode. The line number of the line to be replaced is asked as input. Next the data to be replaced is asked. A

new file is opened in write mode named "copy.c". Now the contents of original file are transferred into new file

and the line to be modified is deleted. New data is stored in its place and remaining lines of the original file are



also transferred. The copied file with modified contents is replaced with the original file's name. Both the file

pointers are closed and the original file is again opened in read mode and the contents of the original file is

printed as output.

7. Write a program to find the number of lines in a text file.

Number of lines in a file can be determined by counting the number of new line characters present.

Program: Program to count number of lines in a file.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

/* Ask for a filename and count number of lines in the file*/

{

//a pointer to a FILE structure

FILE *fp;

int no_lines = 0;

//consider 40 character string to store filename

char filename[40], sample_chr;



//receives file name from user and stores in a string named 'filename'



fp = fopen(filename, "r");

//get character from file and store in sample_chr

sample_chr = getc(fp);

while (sample_chr != EOF)

{

//Count whenever sample_chr is '\n'(new line) is encountered

if (sample_chr == '\n')

{

//increment variable 'no_lines' by 1

no_lines=no_lines+1;

}

//take next character from file.

sample_chr = getc(fp);

}

fclose(fp); //close file.

printf("There are %d lines in %s \n", no_lines, filename);

return 0;

}

Output:


There are 4 lines in abc.txt

Explanation:

In this program, name of the file to be read is taken as input. A file by the given name is opened in read-mode

using a File pointer 'fp'. Characters from the file are read into a char variable 'sample_chr' with the help of getc

function. If a new line character('\n') is encountered, the integer variable 'no_lines' is incremented. If the

character read into 'sample_char' is not a new line character, next character is read from the file. This process is

continued until the last character of the file(EOF) is encountered. The file pointer is then closed and the total

number of lines is shown as output.



8. Write a C program which asks the user for a number between 1 to 9 and shows the number. If the

user inputs a number out of the specified range, the program should show an error and prompt

the user for a valid input.

Program: Program for accepting a number in a given range.

#include<stdio.h>

int getnumber();

int main()

{

int input = 0;

//call a function to input number from key board

input = getnumber();

//when input is not in the range of 1 to 9,print error message

while (!((input <= 9) && (input >= 1)))

{

printf("[ERROR] The number you entered is out of range");

//input another number

input = getnumber();

}

//this function is repeated until a valid input is given by user.

printf("\nThe number you entered is %d", input);

return 0;

}

//this function returns the number given by user

int getnumber()

{

int number;

//asks user for a input in given range

printf("\nEnter a number between 1 to 9 \n");

scanf("%d", &number);

return (number);

}

Output:

Enter a number between 1 to 9

45

[ERROR] The number you entered is out of range

Enter a number between 1 to 9

4

The number you entered is 4

Explanation:

getfunction() function accepts input from user. 'while' loop checks whether the number falls within range or not

and accordingly either prints the number(If the number falls in desired range) or shows error message(number is

out of range).



9. Write a notes on graphics mode and video and graphics adapters.

Ans:

Graphics mode: Many video adapters support several different modes of resolution, all of which are

divided into two general categories: character mode and graphics mode. Of the two modes, graphics mode is the

more sophisticated. Programs that run in graphics mode can display an unlimited variety of shapes and fonts,

whereas programs running in character mode are severely limited. Programs that run entirely in graphics mode

are called graphics-based programs. In character mode, the display screen is treated as an array of blocks, each

of which can hold one ASCII character. In graphics mode, the display screen is treated as an array of pixels.

Characters and other shapes are formed by turning on combinations of pixels.

Video adapter: A board that plugs into a personal computer to give it display capabilities. The display

capabilities of a computer, however, depend on both the logical circuitry (provided in the video adapter) and the

display monitor. A monochrome monitor, for example, cannot display colors no matter how powerful the video

adapter. Many different types of video adapters are available for PCs. Most conform to one of the video

standards defined by IBM or VESA. Each adapter offers several different video modes. The two basic

categories of video modes are text and graphics. In text mode, a monitor can display only ASCII characters. In

graphics mode, a monitor can display any bit-mapped image. Within the text and graphics modes, some

monitors also offer a choice of resolutions. At lower resolutions a monitor can display more colors.

Modern video adapters contain memory, so that the computer's RAM is not used for storing displays. In

addition, most adapters have their own graphics coprocessor for performing graphics calculations. These

adapters are often called graphics accelerators. Video adapters are also called video cards, video boards, video

display boards, graphics cards and graphics adapters.

Video and Graphics Adapters

While the names to describe it are many (video adapter, video card, video board, video display board,

graphics card or graphics adapter) its job and function within a computer system remains the same, regardless of

what you call it. Your computer's video adapter is assigned the primary task of producing the visual output from

your system. It is the hardware that works between your system's processor and monitor. It relays the

information received from the programs and applications running on your system (computed by the processor)

to the monitor that allows you to view the information and images on your screen.

A video adapter is board that plugs into a personal computer to give it display capabilities. Those

capabilities of a computer, however, depend on both the logical circuitry (provided in the video adapter) and the

display monitor. A monochrome monitor, for example, can't display colors no matter how powerful the video

adapter. The term video adapter applies to either integrated or separate video circuitry. Each adapter offers

several video modes. The two basic categories of video modes are text and graphics. In text mode, a monitor

can display only ASCII characters. In graphics mode, a monitor can display any bit-mapped image. Within the

text and graphics modes, some monitors also offer a choice of resolutions. At lower resolutions, a monitor can

display more colors. Modern video adapters contain memory, so that the computer's RAM is not used for

storing displays. In addition, most adapters have their own graphics coprocessor for performing graphics

calculations. These adapters are often called graphics accelerators.

Accelerated & Non-accelerated Graphics Adapters

Early graphics adapters received data from the processor and basically forwarded the signals to the

monitor, leaving your system's CPU to do all the work related to processing and calculating. In non-accelerated

(unaccelerated) graphics adapters, the computer needed to change each pixel individually to change the image

on the screen. Having the graphics handled by the processor didn't become much of an issue until graphical user

interfaces (like Windows for example) gained in popularity. Systems began to slow down as the CPU was left

trying to move large amounts of data from the system RAM to the video card.

As always with technology, it didn't take long for the bottle-neck to be sorted out. Today all new video

cards are accelerated and are connected to the system's CPU through high-speed buses such as PCI or AGP. The

biggest difference between accelerated and non-accelerated cards is that with accelerated video cards, the CPU

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no longer has to carry the bulk of the processing burden from graphics calculations. Since the video card has its

own processor, it is able to perform most of the work, leaving your CPU free to process other tasks.

A graphics accelerator, for example, is a type of video adapter that contains its own processor to boost

performance levels. These processors are specialized for computing graphical transformations, so they achieve

better results than the general-purpose CPU used by the computer. In addition, they free up the computer's CPU

to execute other commands while the graphics accelerator is handling graphics computations. The popularity of

graphical applications, and especially multimedia applications and computer games, has made graphics

accelerators not only a common enhancement, but a necessity. Most computer manufacturers now bundle a

graphics accelerator with their mid-range and high-end systems.

Aside from the graphics processor used, some other characteristics that differentiate graphics accelerators are:

1. memory: Graphics accelerators have their own memory, which is reserved for storing graphical

representations. Because of the demands of video systems, video memory needs to be faster than main

memory. The amount of memory determines how much resolution and how many colors can be

displayed. Some accelerators use conventional DRAM, but others use a special type of video RAM,

which enables both the video circuitry and the processor to simultaneously access the memory.

2. bus : Each graphics accelerator is designed for a particular type of video bus (AGP or PCI) So now that

you know the basics behind how your video adapter works, there is another important topic to discuss

when it comes to upgrading your system's video. Unfortunately, it's not as simple as buying any video

card on the market and plugging it in. There are three main types of video upgrades and before buying

you need to know which type can be used in your system.

Add-on Video Card

Add-on video cards are PCI or AGP cards that can be physically taken out of the computer as an individual

hardware component. To upgrade an add-on video card, you need to remove the card and drivers and install the

new video card and drivers.

Motherboard Video-only Chipset

If your system supports a video-only chipset on the motherboard, your motherboard has integrated video (which

is using your system memory). Many PCs come with this type of video, but they will also have an open AGP

expansion slot on the motherboard that allows you to add a video card rather than using the on-board video. To

upgrade in this scenario, you'll need to disable the on-board video and add an AGP video card and install

drivers for the new card.

Motherboard With Integrated Video

This type set-up offers only on-board video — you won't have an extra AGP slot that you can use to install a

new video card. You may be able to install a slower PCI video card or if you really want an AGP video card

you can opt for a motherboard upgrade (to one that offers an AGP slot).

VGA (640x480 31.5kHz, 60/70Hz): IBM developed VGA in 1987, as one of the first computer video types to

use analog signals.

10. What are ROM BIOS calls used in C?

Ans: The ROM BIOS (Basic Input Output System) provides device control for the PC's major devices (disk,

video, keyboard, serial port, printer), allowing a programmer to communicate with these devices without

needing detailed knowledge of their operation. The ROM routines are accessed via the Intel 8088/86 software

generated interrupts. The interrupts 10H through to 1AH each access a different routine.

Parameters are passed to and from the BIOS routines using the 8088/86 CPU registers. The routines normally

preserve all registers except AX and the flags. Some registers are altered if they return values to the calling

process.



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http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/H/hardware.html

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/driver.html

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/chipset.html

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/motherboard.html

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/i/integrated.html

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/e/expansion_slot.html



http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/motherboard.html



ROM BIOS INTERRUPT ROUTINES

10 Video routines

11 Equipment Check

12 Memory Size Determination

13 Diskette routines

14 Communications routines

15 Cassette

16 Keyboard routines

17 Printer

18 Cassette BASIC

19 Bootstrap loader

1A Time of Day

The interrupts which handle devices are like a gateway which provide access to more than one routine. The

routine executed will depend upon the contents of a particular CPU register. Each of the software interrupt calls

use the 8088/86 register contents to determine the desired function call. It is necessary to use a C definition of

the CPU programming model, this allows the registers to be initialised with the correct values before the

interrupt is generated. The definition also provides a convienent place to store the returned register values.

Luckily, the definition has already been created, and resides in the header file dos.h. It is a union of type REGS,

which has two parts, each structures.

One structure contains the eight bit registers (accessed by .h.), whilst the other structure contains the 16 bit

registers (accessed by .x.) To generate the desired interrupt, a special function call has been provided. This

function accepts the interrupt number, and pointers to the programming model union for the entry and return

register values. The following program demonstrates the use of these concepts to set the display mode to 40x25

color.

#include <dos.h>

union REGS regs;

main()

{

regs.h.ah = 0;

regs.h.al = 1;

int86( 0x10, &regs, &regs );

printf("Fourty by Twenty-Five color mode.");

}

11. Write a note on Port accessing using C

Ans: The C language can be used to transfer data to and from the contents of the various registers and

controllers associated with the IBM-PC. These registers and control devices are port mapped, and are accessed

using special IN and OUT instructions. Most C language support library's include functions to do this. The

following is a brief description of how this may be done.

/* #include <conio.h> */

outp( Port_Address, value); /* turboC uses outportb() */

value = inp( Port_address); /* and inportb() */



The various devices, and their port values, are shown below,

Port Range Device

00 - 0f DMA Chip 8737

20 - 21 8259 PIC

40 - 43 Timer Chip 8253

60 - 63 PPI 8255 (cassette, sound)

80 - 83 DMA Page registers

200 - 20f Game I/O Adapter

278 - 27f Reserved

2f8 - 2ff COM2

378 - 37f Parallel Printer

3b0 - 3bf Monochrome Display

3d0 - 3df Color Display

3f0 - 3f7 Diskette

3f8 - 3ff COM1

12. Write a C Program to Print All Arguments passed to C Program using Command Line.

Ans:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(int args,char *argv[])

{

int i=0;

for(i=0;i<args;i++)

printf("n%s",argv[i]);

return 0;

}

Output : Carry out following Steps to Run

1. Save Program

2. Compile Program.

3. Run Program.

4. Now Open Command Prompt.

5. Move to the directory where program is saved.

6. Type following command.

C:>TC>BIN>pgm1 Argument is passed…

C:>TC>BIN>pgm1.exe

Argument is passed…

13. Write a C Program to Add two numbers using Command Line Arguments

Ans:

#include<stdio.h>

void main(int argc , char * argv[])

{

int i,sum=0;

if(argc!=3)

{

printf("you have forgot to type numbers.");

exit(1);

}



printf("The sum is : ");

for(i=1;i<argc;i++)

sum = sum + atoi(argv[i]);

printf("%d",sum);

}

Output :

The sum is : 30

Steps to be followed to execute program using Command Line Argument inside Borland C/C++ Compiler :

Step 1 : Write a Program

Step 2 : Open Command Prompt inside Borland C/C++.

Step 3 : Click on DOS Shell.

Step 4 : Inside Command Prompt type this command.

C:TCBIN>add 10 20

Step 5 : Hit Enter , You will get following Output.

C:TCBIN>add 10 20

The sum is : 30

C:TCBIN>

Step 6 : Type ―exit‖ command to return to Turbo C/C++ Screen



14. Program to copy the contents of one file into another using fgetc and fputc function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<process.h>

void main()

{

FILE *fp1,*fp2;

char a;

clrscr();

fp1=fopen("test.txt","r");

if(fp1==NULL)

{

puts("cannot open this file");

exit(1);

}

fp2=fopen("test1.txt","w");

if(fp2==NULL)

{

puts("Not able to open this file");

fclose(fp1);

exit(1);

}

do

{

a=fgetc(fp1);

fputc(a,fp2);

}while(a!=EOF);

fcloseall();

getch();

}

Output :

Content will be written successfully to file

Explanation of Program :

We have to files with us , we are opening one file in read mode and another file in write mode.


and


It is better practice to check whether file is opened successfully or not using NULL check.

if(fp2==NULL)

{

//File is Not opened Successfully

}

If everything goes right then we are reading file character by character and writing on file character by

character.

a=fgetc(fp1); //Reading Single Character



End of File is specified by EOF character, thus if we get EOF character then process of writing on the file will

be terminated.

do {

a=fgetc(fp1);

fputc(a,fp2);

}while(a!=EOF);

15. Write a C program to read last n chatacters of the file using appropriate file function

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

{

FILE *fp;

char ch;

int n;

long len;

clrscr();

printf("Enter the value of n : ");

scanf("%d",&n);

fp=fopen("test.txt","r");

if(fp==NULL)

{


exit(1);

}

fseek(fp,0,SEEK_END);

len = ftell(fp);

fseek(fp,(len-n),SEEK_SET);

do

{

ch = fgetc(fp);

putchar(ch);

}while(ch!=EOF);

fclose(fp);

getch();

}

Explanation of the Code :

Firstly open file in the read mode.

fp=fopen("test.txt","r");

Now we need to accept position number so that we can start reading from that position. We are moving file

pointer to the last location using fseek() function and passing SEEK_END constant.

fseek(fp,0,SEEK_END);

Now we need to evaluate the current position of the file pointer.

len = ftell(fp);

ftell() will tell you the location of file pointer.

File Location = Total Number of Characters on File

We need to read last n characters from the file so we need to move pointer to (length-n) character back on the

file. and from that location we need to read file.

fseek(fp,(len-n),SEEK_SET);



16. C program to convert the file contents in Upper-case & Write Contents in a output file

#include<stdio.h>

#include<process.h>

void main()

{

FILE *fp1,*fp2;

char a;

clrscr();


if(fp1==NULL)

{


exit(1);

}


if(fp2==NULL)

{

puts("Not able to open this file");

fclose(fp1);

exit(1);

}

do

{

a=fgetc(fp1);

a=toupper(a);

fputc(a,fp2);

}while(a!=EOF);

fcloseall();

getch();

}

Explanation : Open one file in the read mode another file in the write mode.



Now read file character by character. toupper() function will convert lower case letter to upper case.

do {

a=fgetc(fp1);

a=toupper(a);

fputc(a,fp2);

}while(a!=EOF);

After converting into upper case, we are writing character back to the file. Whenever we find End of file

character then we terminate the process of reading the file and writing the file.



17. C Program to Write on Data File and Read From Data File

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

struct stud

{

int roll;

char name[12];

int percent;

}s = {10,"SMJC",80};

void main()

{

FILE *fp;

struct stud s1;

clrscr();

fp = fopen("ip.txt","w");

/* write struct s to file */

fwrite(&s, sizeof(s), 1,fp);

fclose(fp);

fp = fopen("ip.txt","r");

/* read struct s to file */

fread(&s1, sizeof(s1), 1,fp);

fclose(fp);

printf("nRoll : %d",s1.roll);

printf("nName : %s",s1.name);

printf("nPercent : %d",s1.percent);

}

Output :

Roll : 10

Name : SMJC

Percent : 80

18. Program : Copy Text From One File to Other File

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<stdlib.h>

void main()

{

FILE *fp1,*fp2;

char ch;

clrscr();

fp1 = fopen("Sample.txt","r");



fp2 = fopen("Output.txt","w");

while(1)

{

ch = fgetc(fp1);

if(ch==EOF)

break;

else

putc(ch,fp2);

}

printf("File copied succesfully!");

fclose(fp1);

fclose(fp2);

}

Explanation : To copy a text from one file to another we have to follow following Steps :

Step 1 : Open Source File in Read Mode

fp1 = fopen("Sample.txt","r");

Step 2 : Open Target File in Write Mode

fp2 = fopen("Output.txt","w");

Step 3 : Read Source File Character by Character

while(1)

{

ch = fgetc(fp1);

if(ch==EOF)

break;

else

putc(ch,fp2);

}

―fgetc‖ will read character from source file.

Check whether character is ―End Character of File‖ or not , if yes then Terminate Loop

―putc‖ will write Single Character on File Pointed by ―fp2″ pointer

19. C Program to Display same Source Code as Output

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

FILE *fp;

char c;

fp = fopen(__FILE__,"r");

do{

c= getc(fp);

putchar(c);

}



while(c!=EOF);

fclose(fp);

return 0;

}

Output :

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

FILE *fp;

char c;


do{

c= getc(fp);

putchar(c);

}

while(c!=EOF);

fclose(fp);

return 0;

}

Explanation : fp = fopen(__FILE__,"r");

[arrowlist]

__FILE__ is Standard Predefined Macros in C Programming.

This macro will expand to the name of current file path.

Suppose we have saved this source code at path -

[/arrowlist]

c://tc/bin/file1.c

then


will be expanded as -

fp = fopen("c://tc/bin/file1.c","r");

20. Program : To find equivalent capacitance of Parallel combination of capacitive circuit

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int main()

{

float c[10],num,Cp=0;



int i;

clrscr();

printf("Enter the number of Capacitors : ");

scanf("%f",&num);

printf("nEnter Value of Each Capacitor : n");

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

printf("nC%d : ",i+1);

scanf("%f",&c[i]);

}

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

Cp = Cp + c[i];

}

printf("nEquivalent Parallel Capacitance : %f mFarad",Cp);

getch();

}

Output :

Enter the number of Capacitors : 3

Enter Value of Each Capacitor :

C1 : 1.2

C2 : 1.3

C3 : 1.4

Equivalent Parallel Capacitance : 3.900000 mFarad

21. Program : To find equivalent capacitance of series combination of capacitive circuit

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

{

float c[10],num,Cs=0;

int i;

clrscr();

printf("Enter the number of Capacitors : ");

scanf("%f",&num);

printf("nEnter Value of Each Capacitor : n");

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

printf("nC%d : ",i+1);

scanf("%f",&c[i]);



}

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

Cs = Cs + (1.0/c[i]);

}

Cs = 1.0 / Cs;

printf("nEquivalent Series Capacitance : %f mFarad",Cs);

getch();

}

Enter the number of Capacitors : 3

Enter Value of Each Capacitor :

C1 : 1

C2 : 1

C3 : 1

Equivalent Series Capacitance : 0.333333 mFarad

22. Program : Program To find equivalent resistance of Parallel combination of resistive circuits

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int main()

{

int r[10],num,i,Rs=0;

clrscr();

printf("Enter the number of Resistances : ");

scanf("%d",&num);

printf("nEnter Value of Each Resistance : n");

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

printf("nR%d : ",i+1);

scanf("%d",&r[i]);

}

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

Rs = Rs + r[i];

}

printf("nEquivalent Series Resistance : %d Kohm",Rs);

getch();

}

Output :

Enter the number of Resistances : 3

Enter Value of Each Resistance :

R1 : 4



R2 : 2

R3 : 3

Equivalent Parallel Resistance : 0.923077 Kohm

23. Program : To find equivalent resistance of series combination of resistive circuits

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int main()

{

int r[10],num,i,Rs=0;

clrscr();

printf("Enter the number of Resistances : ");

scanf("%d",&num);

printf("nEnter Value of Each Resistance : n");

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

printf("nR%d : ",i+1);

scanf("%d",&r[i]);

}

for(i=0;i<num;i++)

{

Rs = Rs + r[i];

}

printf("nEquivalent Series Resistance : %d Kohm",Rs);

getch();

}

Output : Enter the number of Resistances : 5

Enter Value of Each Resistance :

R1 : 3

R2 : 2

R3 : 3

R4 : 2

R5 : 1

Equivalent Series Resistance : 11 Kohm

24. C Program to display mouse pointer in textmode

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<dos.h>

int initmouse();

void showmouseptr();

union REGS i, o;

main()

{

int status;

status = initmouse();



if ( status == 0 )

printf("Mouse support not available.n");

else

showmouseptr();

getch();

return 0;

}

int initmouse()

{

i.x.ax = 0;

int86(0X33,&i,&o);

return ( o.x.ax );

}

void showmouseptr()

{

i.x.ax = 1;

int86(0X33,&i,&o);

}

25. Write a note on Parallel Port Programming in C ?

Ans: The Parallel Port is the most commonly used port for interfacing home made projects. This

port will allow the input of up to 9 bits or the output of 12 bits at any one given time, thus requiring

minimal external circuitry to implement many simpler tasks. The port is composed of 4 control lines,

5 status lines and 8 data lines. It's found commonly on the back of your PC as a D-Type 25 Pin female

connector. There may also be a D-Type 25 pin male connector. This will be a serial RS-232 port and

thus, is a totally incompatible port.

Newer Parallel Port‘s are standardized under the IEEE 1284 standard first released in 1994.

This standard defines 5 modes of operation which are as follows,

1. Compatibility Mode.

2. Nibble Mode. (Protocol not Described in this Document)

3. Byte Mode. (Protocol not Described in this Document)

4. EPP Mode (Enhanced Parallel Port).

5. ECP Mode (Extended Capabilities Port).

The aim was to design new drivers and devices which were compatible with each other and also backwards

compatible with the Standard Parallel Port (SPP). Compatibility, Nibble & Byte modes use just the standard

hardware available on the original Parallel Port cards while EPP & ECP modes require additional hardware

which can run at faster speeds, while still being downwards compatible with the Standard Parallel Port.

Data, Control and status lines are connected to there corresponding registers inside the computer. So by

manipulating these registers in program , one can easily read or write to parallel port with programming

languages like 'C' and BASIC.

The registers found in standard parallel port are ,

1) data register

2) Status register

3) Control register



The following sample program in C, shows how you can read these locations to obtain the addresses of your

printer ports.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <dos.h>

void main(void)

{

unsigned int far *ptraddr; /* Pointer to location of Port Addresses */

unsigned int address; /* Address of Port */

int a;

ptraddr=(unsigned int far *)0x00000408;

for (a = 0; a < 3; a++)

{

address = *ptraddr;

if (address == 0)

printf("No port found for LPT%d \n",a+1);

else

printf("Address assigned to LPT%d is %Xh\n",a+1,address);

*ptraddr++;

}

}

figure 1.2

26. What is INT86 function?

Ans: This function is general 8086 software interrupt interface used to make a software interrupt occur and then

invoke ROM-BIOS function. Here int stands for ‗interrupt‘ and 86 represnts 8086 family of processor.

Int int86(int into_no, union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs);

prototype in dos.h

executes 8086 software interrupt specified by intr_num

copies register values from inregs into the registers

after the software interrupt execution it returns register values into the outregs.

Status of the carry flag into x.cflag in outregs

Value of the 8086 flags register into the x.flags field in outregs.

Example :

(1) Following program display the ―HELLO‖ at 34,54 position using int86() function.

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

clrscr();

function(34,54);

printf(“HELLO”);

}

void function (int x, int y)

{

union REGS regs;

regs.ah=2; /*sets cursor position */

regs.h.dh = y;

regs.h.dl = x;

regs.h.bh = 0; /*video page*/

int86(VIDEO,&regs,&regs);



}

(2) Following program returns the number of 1kbyet memory blocks present in the system. The value is return

in AX register.

#include <dos.h>

void main()

{

biosmemory();

}

int biosmemory()

{

union REGS regs;

int86(0x12,&regs,&regs);

return(regs.x.ax);

}

27. How will you interact with hardware ?

Ans: There are many ways to interact with hardware.

1. Using high level language functions.

2. Using ROM-BIOS Function.

3. Using DOS function stored in IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS

4. Direct programming the hardware.

As programmer moves from fist to last approach his reliability decreases and speed increases.

28. Write a note on ROM BIOS call.

Ans:ROM BIOS CALLS:The ROM BIOS (Basic Input Output System) provides device control for the PC's

major devices (disk, video, keyboard, serial port, printer), allowing a programmer to communicate with these

devices without needing detailed knowledge of their operation. The ROM routines are accessed via the Intel

8088/86 software generated interrupts. The interrupts 10H through to 1AH each access a different routine.

There are mainly three operation performed by BIOS are

Keyboard routine

Video routine

Printer routines

29. Write Program to find whether mouse driver is loaded or not.

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

union REGS i,o;

clrscr();

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

printf("No Mouse Available.....");

else

printf("Mouse Available......");

getch();

}

The above program declares two variables of type union REGS.union REGS, which is declared in dos.h,

contains two structures(struct WORDREGS x, struct BYTEREGS h).These two structures contain some 1-byte

long and 2-byte long variables which indirectly represent CPU's registers. By placing 0 (sub-function) in ax

register and



invoking mouse interrupt(33h),we can check whether mouse driver is loaded or not.we used int86() function to

invoke the interrupt.int86() takes 3 arguements: interrupt no and two union REGS type variables. If mouse

driver is not loaded, it returns 0 in ax register. All return values are accessed using 'o' i.e why we have

o.x.ax==0 in if statement.

30. Write a Program to show the mouse pointer.

Ans: Que 29 program only reported mouse driver loaded or not.Even if driver is avilable,we have no signs of

mouse pointer.To view mouse pointer,we have to use sub-function 1.Look at the program presented below.

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

union REGS i,o;

clrscr();

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{


exit();

}

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

}

The above program is same as our first program except for the last few lines. We have placed 1 in ax register

and invoked mouse interrupt to see the pointer. Since we are in text mode, our pointer is a rectangular box. We

can observe an arrow if we switch to graphics mode.

31. Write a Program to hide the mouse pointer.

Mouse cursor still remains, even after our program is terminated. Look at the following program.

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

union REGS i,o;

clrscr();

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{


exit();

}

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

gotoxy(24,23);

printf("Press any key to hide mouse cursor...");

getch();

i.x.ax=2;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

gotoxy(10,23);

printf("Mouse cursor is hidden !! Press any key to terminate the program ...");

getch();



}

The above program uses sub-function 2 and invokes mouse interrupt to hide the mouse pointer.This function is

quite a useful function,when writing programs that draw a line or rectangle as we move the mouse. While

writing those programs we don't want mouse pointer to erase what we draw hence we hide the pointer.

32. Write a Program to show the position of the mouse pointer.

For writing any useful program with mouse support,we need to know the (x,y) coordinates of the mouse

position.The below program prints the position of the mouse,as we mouse the mouse.

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

union REGS i,o;

clrscr();

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{

printf("No Mouse Available...");

exit();

}

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

gotoxy(25,23);

printf("Press any key to exit...");

while(!kbhit())

{

i.x.ax=3;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

gotoxy(2,2);

printf("x->co-ordinate=%d \n y->coordinate=%

d ",o.x.cx,o.x.dx);

}

i.x.ax=2;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

}

In the above program we have a while loop.This loop continues until a key is hit.In loop,we used sub-function 3

and invoked mouse interrupt. Sub-function 3 returns X- >co-ordinate in cx register and Y->co-ordinate in dx

register.printf statements prints x and y co-ordinates as long as the loop continues.Maximum screen resolution

for mouse in text mode is 640x200 and in graphics mode is 640x480.

33. Write a Program to print which mouse button is pressed.

Knowing which button is pressed is very important task.The program below prints which button is pressed as

soon as we press any button.

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

union REGS i,o;

int button;

clrscr();

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);



if(o.x.ax==0)

{

printf("No mouse available....");

exit();

}

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

gotoxy(24,23);

printf("Press any key to exit....");

while(!kbhit())

{

i.x.ax=3;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

button=o.x.bx&7;

gotoxy(23,11);

switch(button)

{

case 1:

printf("Left button pressed");

break;

case 2:

printf("Right button pressed”);

break;

case 4:

printf("Middle button pressed”);

break;

case 3:

printf("Both buttons pressed”);

break;

case 5:

printf("Left and Middle buttons pressed”);

break;

case 6:

printf("Right and Middle buttons pressed");

break;

case 7:

printf("All the three buttons pressed”);

break;

default:

printf("No button pressed....");

}

}

i.x.ax=2;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

}

The above program is same as the previous program except we have little extra in while loop.In while we used

the same sub-function 3 and invoked mouse interrupt.This subfunction even returns button press information in

bx register.Entire button press information is stored in the first 3 bits of the bx register.So we ANDED bx with 7

to separate the first 3 bits and stored them in button variable. If the first bit's value is 1 then the left button is



pressed,if the value is 0 then it is not pressed.If the second bit's value is 1 then the right button is pressed,if

value is 0 then it is not pressed.If the last bit's value is 1 then the middle button is pressed,if value is 0

then it is not pressed.



34. Write a Program to set the position of the mouse pointer on the screen.

Sometimes we need to set the position of the mouse pointer, just as we set the position of the keyboard's cursor

using gotoxy().The following program sets the pointer to (x=150,y=100) position on the screen.

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

union REGS i,o;

clrscr();

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{

printf("No mouse available");

exit();

}

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

i.x.ax=3;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

gotoxy(1,1);

printf("Current Position:x=%d y=%d”,o.x.cx,o.x.dx);

gotoxy(15,23);

printf("Press any key to set the mouse pointer to(150,100)...");

getch();

i.x.ax=4;

i.x.cx=150;

i.x.dx=100;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

gotoxy(15,23);

printf("Cursor is set ... press a key to exit”);

getch();

}

In the above program,we use sub-function 4 to set the pointer's position. We set then X->co-ordinate by placing

a value in the cx register and Y->co-ordinate by placing a value in the dx register.

35. Write a Program to switch to graphics mode.

The program below switches text mode to graphcs mode.After executing this program,observe the mouse

pointer.Now,it's in an arrow shape. Try to execute program-4 in graphics mode and observe the maximum

screen resolution for mouse is increased to 640x480.

#include <graphics.h>

#include <dos.h>

Void main()

{

int gd=DETECT,gm;

union REGS i,o;

initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bgi");

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{



printf("No Mouse Avaialable..");

restorecrtmode();

exit();

}

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

outtextxy(100,400,"Mouse Pointer in graphics

mode!!Press any key to exit");

getch();

i.x.ax=2;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

restorecrtmode();

}

In the above program,we used standard library function initgraph() to initialize graphics system.This function

takes 3 arguments;graphics driver, graphics mode,path to the driver.By using DETECT,we tell the function to

select a suitable driver by itselt.When DETECT is used,no need to assign anything to graphics mode.Path is null

since the driver files are located in the current directory.This function initializes graphics system and when the

program terminates we come to text mode by using restorecrtmode() function.

36. Write a Program to restrict the mouse pointer within a boundary.

Sometimes,in our program,we need to restrict the mouse pointer with in a screen boundary.In order to do

that,we need to specify the top,left co-ordinates as well bottom,right co-ordinates.Sub-functions 7,8 are used to

limit the pointer within a boundary.Look at the following program.


#include <dos.h>

main()

{

union REGS i,o;

int gd=DETECT,gm;


i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{

restorecrtmode();


exit();

}

rectangle(99,49,501,151);

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

i.x.ax=7;

i.x.cx=100;

i.x.dx=500;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

i.x.ax=8;

i.x.cx=50;

i.x.dx=150;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

while(!kbhit());



i.x.ax=2;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

restorecrtmode();

}

In the above program,sub-fuction 7 is used to specify two x->co-ordinates and subfunction 8 is used to specify

two y->co-ordinates and these co-ordinates form a rectangular boundary within which mouse is restricted.

37. Write a C programm to draw Free-hand drawing.

If you ever wonder,how pencil tool in paint works.Then,the following program shows how it can be written in

C.The following program makes use of some of the subfunction, which we already disussed above,and shows

how they can be used to write useful programs like free-hand drawing.Just,go through the following program.


#include <dos.h>

union REGS i,o;

main()

{

int gd=DETECT,gm,button,x1,y1,x2,y2;

initgraph(&gd,&gm,"");

i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{

printf("No Mouse is available..");

exit();

restorecrtmode();

}

outtextxy(230,400,"Press any key to exit....");

while(!kbhit())

{

show_mouse();

get_mouse_pos(&x1,&y1,&button);

x2=x1;

y2=y1;

while(button==1)

{

hide_mouse();

line(x1,y1,x2,y2);

x1=x2;

y1=y2;


}

}

restorecrtmode();

}

//Mouse related functions are defined

show_mouse()

{

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

}



hide_mouse()

{

i.x.ax=2;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

}

get_mouse_pos(int *x,int *y,int *button)

{

i.x.ax=3;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

*x=o.x.cx;

*y=o.x.dx;

*button=o.x.bx&1;

}

There is nothing in this program to explain.Since you have gone through the program,you must have understood

the logic.

38. Write a C program for Line drawing using mouse.

Following program shows how to draw a line interactively using mouse. If you knowhow to draw a line,there is

no big deal in developing a program that draws a square.So,carefully observe and understand the following

program.


#include <alloc.h>

#include <dos.h>

union REGS i,o;

char far *p;

void main()

{

Int gd=DETECT,gm,button;

Int x1,y1,x2,y2,prevx2,prevy2,x,y;


i.x.ax=0;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

if(o.x.ax==0)

{

printf("No Mouse is available..");

exit();

restorecrtmode();

}

while(!kbhit())

{

show_mouse();


if(button==1)

{

hide_mouse();

x2=x1;

y2=y1;

save(x1,y1,x2,y2);

line(x1,y1,x2,y2);



prevx2=x2;

prevy2=y2;


while(button==1)

{

if(x2!=prevx2 || y2!=prevy2)

{

setcolor(BLACK);

line(x1,y1,prevx2,prevy2);

x=x1<prevx2?x1:prevx2;

y=y1<prevy2?y1:prevy2;

restore(x,y);

setcolor(WHITE);

save(x1,y1,x2,y2);

line(x1,y1,x2,y2);

prevx2=x2;

prevy2=y2;

}


}

farfree(p);

}

}

restorecrtmode();

}

//Mouse related functions

show_mouse()

{

i.x.ax=1;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

}

hide_mouse()

{

i.x.ax=2;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

}

get_mouse_pos(int *x,int *y,int *button)

{

i.x.ax=3;

int86(0x33,&i,&o);

*x=o.x.cx;

*y=o.x.dx;

*button=o.x.bx&1;

}

save(int x1,int y1,int x2,int y2)

{

unsigned area;

area=imagesize(x1,y1,x2,y2);

p=farmalloc(area);

if(p==NULL)



{

restorecrtmode();

printf("No Memory...");

exit();

}

getimage(x1,y1,x2,y2,p);

}

restore(int x1,int y1)

{

putimage(x1,y1,p,OR_PUT);

farfree(p);

}

When drawing lines interactively,we must make sure that the currently drawn line doesn't wipe off already

drawn lines when it intersects them.In order to do that,the above program uses save and restore functions.These

two functions captures and restores screen contents.



Unit-3: Introduction to C++

Introduction to object –oriented programming and C++, characteristics, objects, classes, inheritance,

polymorphism, overloading.


1. What is the difference between C and C++ ?

Ans:

C Language C++ Language

C follows the procedural programming

paradigm

C++ is a multi-paradigm language(procedural as well as object

oriented)

In case of C, importance is given to the steps

or procedure of the program

C++ focuses on the data rather than the process.It is easier to

implement/edit the code in case of C++ for the same reason.

In case of C, the data is not secured the data is secured(hidden) in C++

C uses the top-down approach C++ uses the bottom-up approach

In case of C, the program is formulated step

by step, each step is processed into detail

in C++, the base elements are first formulated which then are

linked together to give rise to larger systems.

C is function-driven C++ is object-driven

Functions are the building blocks of a C

program objects are building blocks of a C++ program.

C does not supports function overloading C++ supports function overloading

We can not use functions inside structures in

C We can use functions inside structures in C++

C uses scanf & printf C++ uses cin>> & cout<<

2. Whate are the characteristics of C++ ?

Ans: C++ has certain characteristics over other programming languages. The most remarkable ones are:

Object-oriented programming:

The possibility to orientate programming to objects allows the programmer to design applications from a

point of view more like a communication between objects rather than on a structured sequence of code. In

addition it allows a greater reusability of code in a more logical and productive way.

Portability:

You can practically compile the same C++ code in almost any type of computer and operating system

without making any changes. C++ is the most used and ported programming language in the world.

Brevity:

Code written in C++ is very short in comparison with other languages, since the use of special characters is

preferred to key words, saving some effort to the programmer (and prolonging the life of our keyboards!).

Modular programming:

An application's body in C++ can be made up of several source code files that are compiled separately and

then linked together. Saving time since it is not necessary to recompile the complete application when

making a single change but only the file that contains it. In addition, this characteristic allows to link C++

code with code produced in other languages, such as Assembler or C.

C Compatibility:

C++ is backwards compatible with the C language. Any code written in C can easily be included in a C++

program without making any change.

Speed:

The resulting code from a C++ compilation is very efficient, due indeed to its duality as high-level and low-

level language and to the reduced size of the language itself.

http://durofy.com/programming/c-as-a-multi-paradigm-programming-language/



3. What are classes and objects used in C++ ?

Ans: In object-oriented programming , a class is a template definition of the method s and variable s in a

particular kind of object . Thus, an object is a specific instance of a class; it contains real values instead of

variables.

The class is one of the defining ideas of object-oriented programming. Among the important ideas about

classes are:

A class can have subclasses that can inherit all or some of the characteristics of the class. In relation

to each subclass, the class becomes the superclass.

Subclasses can also define their own methods and variables that are not part of their superclass.

The structure of a class and its subclasses is called the class hierarchy.

Object: In object-oriented programming (OOP), objects are the things you think about first in designing a

program and they are also the units of code that are eventually derived from the process. In between, each

object is made into a generic class of object and even more generic classes are defined so that objects can share

models and reuse the class definitions in their code. Each object is an instance of a particular class or subclass

with the class's own methods or procedures and data variables. An object is what actually runs in the computer.

4. Explain the following terms in C++

a. inheritance,

b. polymorphism,

c. overloading

d. Data encapsulation

Ans: Inheritance: In object-oriented programming, inheritance is the concept that when a class of objects is

defined, any subclass that is defined can inherit the definitions of one or more general classes. This means for

the programmer that an object in a subclass need not carry its own definition of data and methods that are

generic to the class (or classes) of which it is a part. This not only speeds up program development; it also

ensures an inherent validity to the defined subclass object (what works and is consistent about the class will also

work for the subclass).

Polymorphism: The word polymorphism means having many forms. Typically, polymorphism occurs

when there is a hierarchy of classes and they are related by inheritance. C++ polymorphism means that a call to

a member function will cause a different function to be executed depending on the type of object that invokes

the function.

Overloading: C++ allows you to specify more than one definition for a function name or an operator

in the same scope, which is called function overloading and operator overloading respectively.

An overloaded declaration is a declaration that had been declared with the same name as a previously declared

declaration in the same scope, except that both declarations have different arguments and obviously different

definition (implementation).

When you call an overloaded function or operator, the compiler determines the most appropriate

definition to use by comparing the argument types you used to call the function or operator with the parameter

types specified in the definitions. The process of selecting the most appropriate overloaded function or operator

is called overload resolution.

Data Encapsulation: All C++ programs are composed of the following two fundamental elements:

Program statements (code): This is the part of a program that performs actions and they are called

functions.

Program data: The data is the information of the program which affected by the program functions.

Encapsulation is an Object Oriented Programming concept that binds together the data and functions that

manipulate the data, and that keeps both safe from outside interference and misuse. Data encapsulation led to

the important OOP concept of data hiding.

http://searchsoa.techtarget.com/definition/object-oriented-programming

http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/method

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/variable

http://searchsoa.techtarget.com/definition/object

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/class

http://searchsoa.techtarget.com/definition/object-oriented-programming

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/class

http://searchsoa.techtarget.com/definition/object



Data encapsulation is a mechanism of bundling the data, and the functions that use them and data abstraction

is a mechanism of exposing only the interfaces and hiding the implementation details from the user.

C++ supports the properties of encapsulation and data hiding through the creation of user-defined types, called

classes. We already have studied that a class can contain private, protected and public members. By default,

all items defined in a class are private.

(For more data and answer please refer to http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cplusplus/index.htm)

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cplusplus/index.htm

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Advanced C Programming Notes