Afterword x

This book has undergone a long, and rather arduous journeyduring which I constantly had to position and repositionmyself. I started out with the premise that Soviet Russian

theatre for young audiences was among the best in the world, if not aleader. This impression was based not so much on personal observation,but on preliminary research, including accounts from the early 1980s,in English and Russian, that hailed the Soviet theatre for young peopleas such. Having visited, studied, and worked in the Soviet Unionthroughout the 1980s (1980–1989), I was quite aware that the theatrefor young people was an official instrument of the totalitarian regime.By the early 1990s I wondered how the changes in ideology, culturalclimate, and material circumstances had affected these theatres in thenew Russia. I expected to find a once glorious theatre in crisis—in factthe title of one of the first papers I wrote about this research was titled“Russian Theatre for Young Audiences in Crisis.” I also expected toinform a primarily American audience on how supported, subsidizedtheatre could make a difference in young people’s lives. I felt an affinityfor the Russian theatre, for its presumed magnitude, its spiritual roleand leading function in Russian (Moscovian) daily life. As it turned out,I had to significantly adjust my assumptions and adapt my study to thematerial disclosed.

The findings of my journey are described in this book, that begins,historiographically, with the crude revolutionary beginnings of Soviettheatre for young people shortly after the October Revolution of 1917,and ends with the rather sophisticated productions of GenriettaIanovskaia and Kama Ginkas. Ironically, both took and take place in thesame building. In 1918, Nataliia Sats helped to establish the Children’s

Theatre of the Moscow Soviet—a state-subsidized children’s theatre forpuppets, ballet, and marionettes—in this building and in 1921 itbecame the house of First State Theatre for Children. Both the CentralChildren’s Theatre/RAMT and the Moscow Tiuz credit these firstdevelopments as the beginnings of “their” theatre.

The course of these two Moscow based theatres, and their adaptationto ideological and cultural shifts, have been the focus of this book.Other important Russian theatres for children and youth, such as theLeningrad Tiuz, or the regional tiuzes (according to some the hope ofthe tiuzes in Russia) are left out, in an attempt to center the study andavoid overgeneralization. Nevertheless, any concluding remarks will beframed by personal subject positioning, interpretation, and ways ofunpacking the materials disclosed.

Given this caveat, what are some of the conclusions a work like thisgenerates?

First of all, Dmitrievskii’s 1987 question “Tiuz Today: To Be or notto Be?” seems, at least where the two oldest theatres for young people inMoscow are concerned, decided. In its original form of state supported,professional theatres for children and youth, with the specific functionof ideological and aesthetic enlightenment of its young constituents—theater for children and youth could not survive the ideological andcultural shifts. Theatre for young people in Russia changed from a gov-ernment institution, an instrument to perpetuate and legitimate theofficial ideology of Marxism-Leninism into an art form for young peoplethat adheres to and realizes in its theatrical practices the ideologies andcultural paradigms to which it has submitted itself, producing mirrorstructures which function side by side in a transideological society.

The course of the Central Children’s Theatre/RAMT and theMoscow Tiuz have, in this respect, been paradigmatic of the manychoices and opportunities Russian theatre for young audiences faced.As these two theatres are in the capital, they were traditionally posi-tioned as examples to be emulated. For all intents and purposes theyhave lost this exemplary function. Nevertheless, as some of the oldestdramatic theatres for young people, it is noteworthy that they survivedthe ideological and cultural changes, adapted themselves, howeverdifferently, to the altered material circumstances, and found their placein a transcultural and transideological society.

236 Moscow Theatres for Young People

Contrary to early predictions the Central Children’s Theatre/RAMTand the Moscow Tiuz were able to take off their children’s shoes andgrow up, while still partly preserving their identity as theatres forchildren and youth. They are contestants and participants in nationaland international events such as the Golden Mask Awards and the 2001International Theater Olympics (see chapter 7). The latter featuredtwo premieres by the RAMT and Mtiuz respectively: Alfred de Musset’sLorenzaccio, and Agatha Christie’s Witness for the Prosecution, staged byGenrietta Ianovskaia. An international production, The Polyphony of theWorld, directed by Kama Ginkas, was hailed as the most stunning the-atre event of the new millennium.

In its altered form the Moscow Tiuz is primarily perceived as an “art”theatre, a theatre for the intelligentsia. Particularly, the productions ofKama Ginkas are criticized as “elitist” and exclusionary, if only because oflimited seating. Ianovskaia’s productions are notoriously controversialbecause of her ideological, culturally contextualized interpretations andprovocative metaphors. The RAMT adapted itself less radically and lesscontroversially to ideological and cultural shifts. Despite a threateningstaleness in the early 1990s, it has managed to rebound by staging produc-tions for family audiences, among other productions, that are perhaps lesscritically acclaimed than those of the Mtiuz, but currently attract fullhouses, and to some extent “fill a gap.” In the late 1990s, the RAMT roseto a more pivotal position in Moscow’s theatre world through instigatingadministrative reorganizations, organizing roundtable discussions, andhousing festivals (see chapters 7 and 8). From May 10–June 1, 2002the theatre housed the International Festival of Theatre for Children.By soliciting productions for this festival that are geared specifically toyoung spectators from 5 to 14 years old, the theatre’s search for identityunder the altered material circumstances seemingly came full circle andbrought it back to its roots. The call for participants clearly positions thetheatre: “The festival is dedicated to the 80th anniversary of the RussianAcademic Youth Theater, the oldest Children’s Theatre in Moscow.” It isinteresting to note that the organizer, Vladimir Urin, was also most criticalof the traditional practices of the Tiuzes in the 1987 discussion “Tiuz Today:To Be or not to Be?” and the most vocal proponent for radical change.

Part III is, admittedly, the most subjective part of the book. BecauseI was able to observe most of the productions discussed in this chapter,

Afterword 237

and shared my initial impressions with the audience and (Russian)friends, I was able to form a personal opinion that did not alwayscoincide with the reviews I read afterwards. I indicated this as much aspossible, but it needs to be noted that particularly this last part reflectsmy theories, biases, and interpretations. I have already elaborated onmy decision to include a chapter on Kama Ginkas in this book. Thecomplimentary evaluation of his work is, as shown, corroborated bymost, if not all critics, many of whom consider him the most innovativeand creative director in contemporary Moscow. His first production inthe new millennium at the Mtiuz, an adaptation of Oscar Wilde’s fairytale The Happy Prince, was again hailed as a “startling, penetrating,deeply atmospheric” production with a “truly stunning” finale, a produc-tion that is “quintessential Ginkas” but which nonetheless “looks likenothing he has done before” (Freedman, “Happy”).

In January 2004 I traveled to Yale Repertory Theatre where Ginkasstayed for a seventeen day run of his adaptation of Chekhov’s shortstory Skripka rotshil’da, or Rothschild’ Fiddle. Set and costumes weredesigned by long-term collaborator Sergei Barkhin, and the productionfeatured his favorite actors; among them Arina Nesterova, who playedDadon in The Golden Cockerel and Nashchokina in Pushkin. Duel.Death, and Igor Iasulovich, the monk in The Black Monk. This was notthe first appearance by Ginkas in the United States. In August 2003,Ginkas and Ianovskaia were already at Bard College with K.I. from“Crime” and The Storm, and an American version of Chekhov’s TheLady with the Lapdog, directed by Ginkas, premiered at ART inSeptember 2003. In English, the theatre is now referred to as The NewGeneration Theatre, although in Russian it remains known by itsacronym, Mtiuz. The new name is coined in the book Ginkas coau-thored with John Freedman, Provoking Theatre: Kama Ginkas Directs,which was published at the time they went to Bard.

The Moscow theatres for young audiences have successfully adaptedto the cultural and ideological shifts. They managed to overcome theirunprestigious reputations, expanded their repertories, and attracted anew audience. As such, they contributed to changing the culturalclimate in Russia’s capital. Glasnost and Perestroika opened up, whatculturologist Mikhail Epstein calls a “transcultural world”: a collective

238 Moscow Theatres for Young People

state of awareness involving a plurality of cultural expressions (288).In this climate both theatres have become sites of cultural transformation.

The journey of the Moscow theatres for young people does notend here. They continue to search for new forms, reflecting a plurality ofcultural expressions, as a site for self-reflection. They will keep ongrowing.

Afterword 239

Notes x

INTRODUCTION

1. Lars Kleberg’s Theatre as Action: Soviet Russian Avant-Garde Aesthetics, forexample, gives an original account of the discrepancy between the ideal andthe reality of the Soviet 1920s. For a brief account on theatre in the time ofsocialist realism, conforming to and resisting the dominant ideology, seeInna Solovyova’s article in A History of Russian Theatre, edited by RobertLeach and Victor Borovsky. For a highly evocative and insightful explo-ration of Russian history as theatre and cultural performance see SpencerGolub, The Recurrence of Fate. Harold B. Segel’s Twentieth-Century RussianDrama has several chapters that deal with subversive elements in drama,including dissident dramatic literature. Anatoly Smeliansky’s The RussianTheatre After Stalin, gives the compelling perspective of the insider. In addi-tion, you can find occasional articles in journals, such as the Tulane DramaReview. Introductions to anthologies of translated plays, such as MichaelGlenny’s The Golden Age of Soviet Theatre, are often quite informative, soare the introductions to works on specific playwrights.

1 FROM MARXISM–LENINISM TO PERESTROIKA AND GLASNOST

1. This has often been associated with violence, although there is no concreteevidence for that. For Marx, every state is a dictatorship, in that it is anexpression of the hegemony of a ruling class. Just as the bourgeoisie uses thecapitalist state to suppress the proletariat, the proletariat should usethe socialist state to control the remains of the bourgeoisie. This does notnecessarily have to happen in a violent or suppressive way; the “dictatorship”just indicates that the one class (the proletariat) controls and restricts theother (the bourgeoisie) (de Geus 16).

242 Notes

2. It needs to be noted that Marxism has not been the only influence on Sovietideology. Mikhail Epstein points out several different ideological doctrinesthat influenced what he calls “Soviet Marxism,” including the teachings ofthe French Enlightenment; Slavophile ideas of the spiritual preeminenceof the Russian nation; Tolstoy’s ideas of simplification; mythological beliefs ofa coming golden age, immortal heroes, and future happiness; and ideasof Russian revolutionary democrats and populists (Chernishevskii,Dobroliubov). According to Epstein the incorporation of different ideas inSoviet Marxism was necessary for its power and survival: just as theBolsheviks needed a party of a “new type” the new Soviet State needed anideology of a “new type” (153–154). However, while these and otherideologies influenced Soviet ideology in the course of time to variousextents, Marxism can still be seen as the basis for subsequent adaptationsand reinterpretations.

3. For example, see his imperialism theory in Imperialism, the Highest Stage ofCapitalism, written in 1916. Lenin maintained that the export of surpluscapital and the exploitation of the colonies created the possibility to “bribe”the masses, by giving them better wages. However, imperialist nationswould inevitably declare war upon each other in a longing to expand theircolonial possessions. The chaos created by these wars would still pave theway for a socialist revolution. (Lenin interpreted WWI as a war betweenimperialist nations.)

4. In What’s to Be Done Lenin formulates his doctrine of the “iron cohort”:

I assert: (1) that no revolutionary movement can endure without a stableorganization of leaders maintaining continuity; (2) that the broader thepopular mass drawn spontaneously into the struggle, which forms thebasis of the movement and participates in it, the more urgent the needfor such an organization, and the more solid this organization must be(for it is much easier for all sorts of demagogues to side-track the morebackward sections of the masses); (3) that such an organization mustconsist chiefly of people professionally engaged in revolutionary activity;(4) that in an autocratic state, the more we confine the membership ofsuch an organization to people who are professionally engaged in revolu-tionary activity and who have been professionally trained in the art ofcombating the political police, the more difficult it will be to unearth theorganization; and, (5) the greater will be the number of people fromthe working class and the other social classes who will be able to join themovement and perform active work in it. (185–186)

5. These parties were: the Socialist Revolutionaries (representing the peasantsand capable of violence); the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets, who

Notes 243

were liberal-democratic and revolutionary only as a last resort); the Octobrists(liberal-democratic, for constitutional monarchy and anti-revolutionary);the Union of the Russian People (extremely right-wing, in favor of upholdingthe orthodox church, autocracy, and Russian nationalism); and the RussianSocial Democratic Labor Party (RSDRP) (Marxist forerunners of the CPSU,led by Lenin and founded in 1898) (Ponton 20).

6. See Epstein, for the connection between ideology and language and thedevelopment of Soviet-Marxist “ideolanguage.” Based on Marx’s notionthat “ideas do not exist in separation from language” Epstein maintains thatespecially Soviet-Marxist ideology confirms the force of the union betweenlanguage and ideas. Subsequent chapters in this book will provide numerousimplicit and explicit examples.

7. The party holds that the moral code of the builder of communism includessuch principles as:

— devotion to the cause of communism, love of the socialist homeland,and the socialist countries;

— conscientious labor for the good of society: he who does not work,neither shall he eat;

— concern on the part of each for the preservation and growth of publicwealth;

— a high sense of public duty, intolerance of violations of the public interest;— collectivism and comradely mutual assistance: One for all and all for one;— humane relations and mutual respect among people: Man is to man a

friend, comrade and brother;— honesty and truthfulness, moral purity, guilelessness and modesty in

public and private life;— mutual respect in the family and concern for the upbringing of children;— an uncompromising attitude to injustice, parasitism, dishonesty,

careerism, and money grubbing;— friendship and brotherhood of all peoples of the U.S.S.R., intolerance

of national and racial animosity;— an uncompromising attitude toward the enemies of communism, peace

and the freedom of peoples;— fraternal solidarity with the working people of all countries and with all

peoples. (Qtd. in Evans 91–92)

8. Brezhnev defined developed socialism as “that stage of maturity of the newsociety, when the restructuring of the totality of social relations on thecollectivistic principles internally inherent to socialism is being completed.”

244 Notes

9. Nevertheless, Gorbachev did see the apocalyptic nature of his policies:

We understand well that both the international prestige of socialism andits impact on world processes will depend in many ways on howthis works out in our country. I would say we are simply doomed to thesuccess of our restructuring because we have no right to allow a differentoutcome. (Speech in Cuba 1989, qtd. in Woodby Gorbachev 3)

10. As Evans points out, some conflicts in the former Soviet Union wereconsidered to be either illegitimate or non-legitimate because they werecontradictory to the ideology or the socialist phase toward full communismthat was officially reached (213–218).

11. It needs to be noted that these surveys, and all media reports in general, arereceived with some inherent skepticism by the public: “Russians have fewillusions about the media” (see the figures in Wyman 78–80, 107–109).Nevertheless, the role of the media in its substantially increased diversifi-cation has markedly influenced Russians’ world perception.

12. It is of note that Althusser did not specify a particular ideology in this essay.As a French neo-Marxist he discusses in this article the means by which ide-ologies in general are perpetuated. Margaret Majumdar points out thatAlthusser’s work as a whole is not a single, coherent, systematic body ofthought (vii). Posthumously published work, particularly his “autobiogra-phy” L’avenir dure longtemps [The Future Lasts a Long Time] (1992), illus-trate the contradictions and paradoxes in Althusser’s ideas, making him “theaccursed child of more than one history” (Elliott vii). As an esteemed mem-ber of the French Communist Party, Althusser faced the dilemma all com-munist intellectuals of his generation faced, particularly in France, where, asHobsbawm observed in 1964, “the party increasingly was the socialist move-ment, leaving it meant political impotence . . .” (qtd. in Elliott 190). InL’avenir dure longtemps Althusser states that “objectively, there existed no pos-sible form of political intervention in the party other than the purely theoretical,and, moreover, one based upon the existing or recognized theory so as toturn it back against the party’s use of it” (188–189, qtd. in Elliott 191).

13. Epstein goes a step further in asserting that the process of envelopingmultiple ideologies into one all-comprehensive, omnipresent ideologicalenvironment creates a universalist or “de-ideologized” ideology, which, incontrast to totalitarian ideologies “tries to eliminate all oppositions anduse the entire range of ideas as if they were complementary” (160). Thesetotalizing, or universalizing tendencies of Epstein also come to the fore in histheories of the transcultural (see end of this chapter). Epstein seems toacknowledge this tendency in the following comment: “Russian philosophical

tradition places a premium on wholeness, which has placed a number ofcruel tricks on the event of Russian history and spawned a political totali-tarianism that ironically tried to envelope all of life into a single ideologicalprinciple. This consequence determined the specific boundaries of Soviettransculture in its attempt to attain a free multidimensional totalityopposed to totalitarianism” (301). Kelly, Pilkington, Shepherd and Volkovin their introduction to Russian Cultural Studies (1998) criticize Epstein’s“Lotmanesque emphasis on wholeness, totality, and integration” as well asEpstein’s insistence that self-reflection on culture is made possible by exist-ing achievements of high culture, reinforcing the exclusion of disregardedcultural practices and phenomena (12–13). From a material position Iagree with this criticism, nevertheless I also find Epstein’s theories usefuland intriguing, particularly because they are formulated from a Russiancultural position, rather than an outside Western academic point of view.

14. Epstein maintains that the closest English equivalent of “culturology” iscultural studies, but that, unlike cultural studies, culturology indicates awhole, indivisible discipline that cannot be reduced to a number of specialstudies (Epstein 284, cf. note 13).

2 THE HISTORICAL ROLE AND CULTURAL FUNCTIONOF RUSSIAN THEATRE FOR YOUNG AUDIENCES

An earlier version of this chapter has been published as “Der Kampf zwischenKunst und Pädagogik: Zur historischen Rolle und ideologischen Funktion desTheaters für junge Zuschauer,” Kinder- und Jugendtheater in Russland. Ed.Wolfgang Schneider and Gerd Taube. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 2003, 2–22.

1. Writing under the official doctrine of Marxism-Leninism, which rejectedany ideological critique, one was expected to glorify the contributions ofthe revolution, Marxism, the Soviet state, and its leaders. Quotes fromLenin were mandatory, and contributions from the state to the overallbenefit of the subject in question were to be highlighted. Regressions orfailures should be downplayed or ignored. (See also Epstein’s discussion onSoviet Marxist “ideolanguage” 101–163.)

2. The term children’s theatre causes much confusion since it generally refersto theatre by and theatre for children, professional or amateur. WhileGeorge Shail, in his study “The Leningrad Theatre of Young Spectators,1922–1941” seems to use the term in this broad sense too, Lenora Shpetmakes it very clear that she talks about professional theatre specifically forchildren and youth by adult artists. However, she also points out that the

Notes 245

difference between theatre by and theatre for children was only officiallydelineated in 1919, at a meeting of the working class theatre (401 note 8).

3. Several sources deal with the establishment of theatre for young audiencesin the former Soviet Union. The main ones in English are the 1958 and1980 dissertations of Gene Sosin and George Shail respectively, and inRussian the histories of Aleksandra Gozenpud ( 1954–1961, 1967) andLenora Shpet (1971), and the autobiographies of Nataliia Sats (1960,1972). Nataliia Sats undoubtedly did much to establish and sustain the-atre for young audiences in the Soviet Union, but her autobiographies arehighly subjective, and the information needs to be assessed in the widerpolitical and personal context. Aleksandra Gozenpud’s historical essaysclearly reflect the official Soviet ideology, and need to be interpreted assuch. Lenora Shpet is less blatantly ideological, although her work doescontain the necessary rhetoric. Sosin wrote under difficult circumstances,when the Soviet Union was still a closed society, and he never had a chanceto conduct on-site research. Shail’s lengthy 1980 dissertation is one of themore current scholarly works in English on the history of theatre foryoung audiences in the Soviet Union. His work is informative, but attimes he also perpetuates the Soviet rhetoric.

4. The name of this official publication of the TEO and thus theNarkompros, “Igra [Play],” is in this context significant too (Shpet,Sovetskii 116).

5. 10 Momonovskii Alley, later 10 Sadovskii Alley, now again MomonovskiiAlley. The theatre has been housing theatres for young audiences since theballet and puppet theatre first moved in 1918. From 1941 until this day itis the home of the Mtiuz, one of the focus theatres of this book.

6. Ironically, Nataliia Sats’s Moscow State Children’s Musical Theatre, foundedin 1964, meets this description in content and practices to a great extent (seee.g., Victor Victorov The Natalia Sats Children’s Musical Theatre).

7. Socialist realism became the official doctrine for all the arts and literaturein the Soviet Union in the mid-1930s (see further).

8. The term “tiuz,” an acronym of “teatr iunogo zritelia,” (theatre of the youngspectator) or plural “teatr iunykh zritelei” (theatre of young spectators), wascoined by Aleksandr Briantsev, the founder of the Leningrad Tiuz, orLentiuz, in 1922. The Lentiuz became a model for many new theatres foryoung audiences companies in the Soviet Union, who adopted not onlymany of the practices of the Lentiuz, such as the set-up of the pedagogicalsection, but also the acronym “tiuz” (see Shail’s dissertation).

9. According to the 1996 anniversary booklet of the Central Children’s Theatre,Rozanov and Elena Volkova were the “first pedagogues” (Na Teatral’noi).

246 Notes

10. The pioneers is a Soviet youth organization for children ages 10–15,founded in 1922. The official uniform of the pioneers was a white shirtor blouse with a red handkerchief; the official slogan was “vsegda gotov[always prepared].”

11. The word “igra” in Russian means game as well as play (play of children,theatre play, the playing of actors). Shail translates the term as game-play,although “play-production” is actually a more correct translation of“igro-spektakl.”

12. The Little Negro Boy and the Monkey, produced by Sats in 1927, was stillperformed in 1994 by the Children’s Musical Theatre in Moscow(founded by Sats and, after her death in 1993, continued by her husband).

13. By 1930 there were twenty theatres for young audiences, by 1932forty two, and in 1940, just before WWII, there were more than seventystate-subsidized theatres for young audiences in the Soviet Union (Shail,“Leningrad” 84–85, 681).

14. During the New Economic Policy (NEP), which lasted from 1921 to 1927,a partial return to private enterprise was allowed, especially in farming andprivate industry. This instigated a feeling of freedom, which led to manydaring, avant-garde experimentations and innovations in theatre, art, andliterature. The theatre practices of directors such as Meyerhold and Tairovhave become an inspiration for many theatre artists outside the Soviet Union.

15. A sign of Soviet coercive practices is that Briantsev not only omitsMeyerhold from his accounts, but also virtually ignores the contributionsof Nikolai Bakhtin whom he mentions but four times, briefly, in hismemoirs (published 1979). Both Meyerhold and Bakhtin fell in disreputewith the Soviet regime in the 1930s.

16. Like Morton and other translators I refer to the three separate age groupsas “children” (up to ca. 10 years of age), “adolescents” (ca. 11 to c. 14), and“youth” (ca. 15 years and older).

17. The circumstances of Nataliia Sats’s exile have never been revealed.Reportedly she ended up in Alma Ata, where she founded the KazakhTheatre for Children and Youth, which she directed from 1944–1950(Sats, Novely; Teatral’naia Entsiklopediia). She returned to Moscow probablysometime in 1953. In 1964 she founded the State Musical Children’sTheatre. She never went public with any of the circumstances surroundingher arrest, imprisonment, and exile. She died in January 1993.

18. Indeed, although the Central Children’s Theatre was meant to be the modelfor all children’s theatres in the Soviet Union, the Lentiuz kept setting thetone. Briantsev’s concept of a “synthetic theatre,” including music, songs,acrobatics and dance, and the operations of the pedagogical section were,

Notes 247

248 Notes

from the beginning, widely imitated. Many of the founders and members ofthe new tiuzes had been seeking advice from or were trained by Briantsev,Bakhtin, and other members of the Lentiuz (Shail, “Leningrad” 778–779).

19. This theatre is one of the focus theatres of this book. Followingpopular reference in written and oral accounts, I will throughout the textinterchangeably refer to the theatre as the Mtiuz or the Moscow Tiuz.

3 THAW AND FREEZE

1. Malenkov remained a high-ranking party official, which in itself was aclear indication of relaxation in policies. Likewise, after being forced fromoffice in 1964 Khrushchev could stay in Moscow until his death in 1971,complaining that he had not enough time to “expose Stalin” to the full(Smeliansky, Russian 29) .

2. The Thaw (“Ottepel”) was the title of a short story by Ilya Ehrenburg pub-lished in the magazine Znamia (5) in 1954. The story advocates universal,human values, divorced from political categories.

3. Afraid of criminals, Khardzhiev (1903–1996) emigrated in 1993 to theNetherlands. His collection, which he wished to keep intact, was smuggledout of the country. In Amsterdam he fell prey to unscrupulous practices ofhigh officials, emigrant “friends,” eminent slavists, and notaries. After hissuspect death, some of the most important pieces of his collection, whichhe intended for the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, were sold. Over15 million dollars fell in the hands of those that caused the demise of thecollection (Rottenberg).

4. Virta and Lavrenov, in agreement with the cultural politics of Zhdanov,maintained that the basic principle of conflict between positive and nega-tive forces no longer applied in Soviet society, since all social antagonismhad been resolved and life had become happy and harmonious. The onlyconflict that was left was between the good and the better, disagreementsdid no longer exist, only misunderstandings (Ruhle 515).

5. The world famous director Iurii Liubimov, for example, directed TheGood Person of Schezuan in 1962, as a student project at the Vakhtangovschool and continued his experiments with Brecht’s plays and Brechtiantechniques at the Taganka Theatre of Drama and Comedy, of which hebecame artistic director in 1964.

6. The Soviet Republics had usually two children’s theatres, a national tiuzand a Russian tiuz.

7. Knebel was a student of Michael Chekhov, who founded the SecondMoscow Art Theatre Studio in the 1920s. Chekhov developed a new acting

method that would draw on the actor’s energy, rather than characterpsychology. His ideas were met with opposition within the MK, and in1928 he emigrated, first to Berlin, later to Paris and New York.

8. Smeliansky compares the heroes of Rozov’s plays to Hamlet, who inOkhlopkov’s first postwar production (1954) struck a special chord:“Hamlet was tackling the problems of Soviet young men, or rather Sovietyouths were beginning to tackle Hamletesque problems” (Russian 6–7).

9. Bulgakov’s Molière had not been performed since it was banned at theMKhAT in 1936.

10. While Efros admired Rozov’s work he also acknowledged that Rozov hadhis shortcomings, the principal one being his tendency to moralize “in hisplays as well as in life” (Repetitsiia 74).

11. For a more detailed description of My Friend Kolka! see Smeliansky,Russian 61–62.

12. See e.g., Rezhisserskii teatr: Razgovory pod zanaves veka [Director’s Theatre:Conversations at the Turn of the Century] Moscow, 1999) and two 1998articles, one by Shakh Azizova, “Vernost’ [Loyalty],” in Kul’tura, and aninterview with Central Children’s Theatre actor Antonina Dmitrievna bySergei Konaev in Teatral’naia Zhizn’.

13. The actor hacking up a three pieced suit, symbol of the bourgeoisie, wasOleg Tabakov, impersonator of multiple Rozov characters at the CentralChildren’s Theatre, later a star actor at the Sovremennik and the MKhAT.He is best known in the West for his role as the title character in the movieOblomov.

14. This play, that in many ways foreshadows Rozov’s career as a playwrightfor adults, recalls the suffering and pain of the war. Rozov adapted the playfor the screen; under the title The Cranes Are Flying, it won the 1958Cannes Film Festival Best Picture Award.

15. It needs to be noted once again that the Leningrad Tiuz fares the best inthis respect. Zinovyi Korogodskii, Briantsev’s successor as artistic directorat the Lentiuz, managed to keep the theatre and productions lively andinteresting (Shail, “Meeting”). However, because the focus of this studylies on Moscow, I will not elaborate here on the Lentiuz’s endeavors.

16. These activities were often limited to the urban centers. Indeed, much ofthe “cultural Thaw” was only experienced by the cultural intelligentsiain those sections of society that had access to, and were active in, produc-ing such cultural capital and bypassed large, less culturally active andurbanized sections of Soviet society.

17. In 1984, for example, the Komsomol was empowered by the Ministry ofCulture to execute a directive which included the blacklisting of bands

Notes 249

and songs not to be played at discos; the Ministry also stipulated that80% of the materials played by rock groups had to be written by membersof the Union of Soviet Composers. Rock was seen as the major cause ofthe “stupefaction effect,” the inability to appreciate “real culture” by incul-cating blind consumerism (Pilkington, Russia’s 79–80; “Future” 374).

4 THE CHANGE IN CULTURAL FUNCTION WITHGLASNOST AND PERESTROIKA

1. The confusion in terminology is still rampant. “Children’s theatre” and“theatre of the young spectator”: (“tiuz,” teatr iunogo zritelia, pl.“tiuzes”—see chapter 2, note 2) is used interchangeably in the Russianmaterials, referring to what I hitherto mostly identified by its U.S. terms:theatre for young audiences, theatre for young people, or theatre forchildren and youth. All terms are used interchangeably in the text.

2. A new form of circulation in the 1970s and early 1980s was the khamiz-dat (kham means boor); the printing of a limited number of copies ofcontroversial works for the Central Committee or just the Politburo.These works sometimes found their ways to the broader public, or theWest, through the children of these high officials (Lovell and Marsh 69).

3. 1987 is generally to be considered the year when Perestroika took real effect.“By the autumn of 1986, in Gorbachev’s speeches, the theme of accelerationof development was linked with a strong stress on the necessity of restruc-turing, which the general secretary was soon to describe as ‘radical’ and, by1987, to characterize as ‘revolutionary.’ By that time the whole worldidentified the term Perestroika with Gorbachev’s program of radical reformin Soviet social, economic, and political institutions” (Evans 161).

4. See also a 1986 article by O.S. Bogdanova, Deputy Director of theInstitute for General Upbringing, and S.V. Cherenkova, “Sovremennyistarsheklassnik [The Contemporary Senior],” qtd in Kuebart 117–118 inwhich they discuss the divergence between the learning of moral valuesand the appropriate behavior and the trend to increasing individualizationof personal development and “destandardization of moral growth” (21).For more on the political socialization of school children, see Kuebart.

5. No specific studies were identified.6. As decreed by Lunacharskii in 1918, adult theatres were required to have

at least one children’s production in the repertory, usually performedon Saturday and/or Sunday morning. Reportedly, these productionsremained unaltered in the repertory for years, were acted without muchenthusiasm or qualitative merit, and were generally considered to bring

250 Notes

little prestige. (The Moscow Art Theatre had in the 1990s stillMaeterlinck’s Blue Bird in the repertory as its children’s show. This is thefamous production directed by Stanislavsky before the OctoberRevolution.)

7. By this time the term “molodezhnyi” (youth) theatre is generally used torefer to theatre primarily directed to older youth or young adults—althoughthe term remains multi-interpretable (see also the following chapters).

8. The ideas of abandoning the forced field trips, and loosening the rigid agegroups was not entirely new. Galina Kolosova talked about the two“revolutions” in the tiuzes, both instigated by Korogodskii from theLentiuz in the 1960s: 1) selling tickets through the box office, rather thanto entire schools, and 2) targeting to a mixed audience (pers. intv. 1996).

9. Liudmilla Ulianova founded a “children’s home theatre” for the youngestgeneration from 3 to 7 years old (an age group that traditionally went onlyto puppet theatre), a theatre that only came into existence “thanks toPerestroika” (in Abelia 130).

10. See chapters 5 and 6 for a more detailed discussion on the differentdirections of the Central Children’s Theatre and the Mtiuz.

11. For a discussion on the parallel developments in Russian children’sliterature see Maria Nikolajevna, “Russian Children’s Literature Beforeand After Perestroika.”

12. The Russian word “nravstvennost’ ” refers both to morality and moralbehavior. In Tolkovyi Slovar’ Russkogo Iazyka [The Explanatory Dictionaryof the Russian Language], 1938, nravstvennost’ is described as (1) the total-ity of norms that determine a person’s behavior; (2) a person’s behaviorproper; and, (3) moral characteristics. In Ozhegov’s Slovar’ Russkogo Iazyka[Dictionary of the Russian Language], 1978, nravstvennost’ is described asthe rules that determine a person’s behavior; the spiritual and mentalcharacteristics, that are indispensable for a person in society, and also thefulfillment of those rules, behavior. “Kommunisticheskaia nravstvennost.’ ”

I have translated the frequently used term consistently with moral(s).13. This is, of course, partly due to the fact that scholarly research, published

in books and dissertations, is often slow in reacting to current trends.Although I was able to find journal and newspaper articles on generaltrends in theatre for young audiences, articles on new pedagogical theoriesin theatre for young audiences in Russia were remarkably scarce.

14. Taboridze saw audience etiquette as a first requirement, and gave thefollowing example for teachers to prepare their students:

We will get to know many interesting things. Therefore during theperformance you have to sit still, not make any noise, and not talk to

Notes 251

your peers who are sitting next to you. In the theatre a performance lastsfor several hours. After each act there is an intermission. If you havesomething to say to each other you can do that during intermission.But even then you cannot be noisy. Imagine: more than 200 people arevisiting the theatre, what happens if they all start talking at the sametime? In the theatre prevails always a joyful, festive atmosphere. Andwe have to go there beautifully dressed, in well-ironed clothes, in shin-ing shoes, with smoothly combed hair. Before the beginning and afterthe end of the performance boys should help girls to take off and put ontheir coats. In the foyer of the theatre hang the portraits of the actors.It is desirable that you look at them and remember them. We will talkabout them. (76)

15. This was a problem of the entire intelligentsia in Russia, causing someto characterize the post-Perestroika climate as “chaotic” and “confusing,”rather than “transideological” and “transcultural.” As Lovell and Marshpoint out: the intelligentsia’s relationship to power was transformed.Soviet intellectuals, whether conformist or oppositionist, could alwaysposition themselves ideologically in reference to one monolithic politicalauthority. After Glasnost and Perestroika, such a response would fall shortin light of the social, cultural, economic, and political challenges thatfaced the country (73, 76–77).

16. It has to be noted, too, that, although founded on the same principles,theatres for young audiences in the Russian Republic and the rest of theformer USSR were influenced by different cultural circumstances whichalso had their influences in the theatres’ functioning as an ideologicalinstrument of the totalitarian regime. Thus, the Tbilisi Theatre forChildren and Youth maintains it has always been less controlled bycensorship and was thus able to produce plays that were forbidden inMoscow. It is one of the reasons why this book focuses on two Moscowbased theatres.

17. Shvarts’s fairy tales (for children and adults) also appeared in several filmversions, the best of which are directed by Mark Zakharov, artistic directorof the Lenkom (see chapter 7).

5 CENTRAL CHILDREN’S THEATRE

1. There is still confusion about the actual founding date of the CentralChildren’s Theatre. In the notes of the 1994 program, for example, it saysthat the Central Children’s Theatre was founded in the 1930s—in the

252 Notes

Notes 253

1996 program it reads the theatre was founded in the 1920s. In the 1996anniversary booklet, it is officially dated as 1936, but in a continuum withThe Moscow Theatre for Children (1921–1936)—The Central Children’sTheatre (1936–1992)—The Russian Academic Youth Theatre (1992–1996).See chapter 2 for the first transition and later in this chapter for the secondtransition.

2. As has been pointed out in the previous chapter, the “adultization” of therepertory, frequently quoted as one of the most dangerous threats to thetiuzes, was not a new phenomenon, and although accelerated by, it was cer-tainly no direct result from Perestroika and Glasnost. With thedisappearance of the controlling and prescribing force of the Ministry ofCulture, the theatres, including their artistic directors, obtained the freedomto pursue their desires (Kolosova, pers. intv. 1994; Mikhailova, pers. intv.1996; Shapiro, pers. intv. 1994). This is not considered negative in itself.Although the older generation complains about the fact that everything theyfought for and dedicated their lives to had been gradually destroyed(Levitskaia, Mikhailova), others, including directors, actors, and designers,see it as a healthy development for the theatres, in that they can try their cre-ative powers on something other than productions specifically for youth:“When you play repertory theatre and you have ten performances per month,is it necessary to have ten performances for children?” (Shapiro, pers. intv.).

3. Andrei’s father is the local physician. Due to the lack of monetary gain itwas relatively normal and silently accepted in the former Soviet Union tobribe physicians and other public service people with presents. Arlekinothinks, therefore, that it must be relatively easy for Andrei to get him thedesired jeans, especially since he also offers him to pay for it (to which endhe has sold his scooter).

4. Although the inside reactions to the production are ultimately the mostvaluable in the context of this book, it is interesting to note that foreignvisitors compared the production to West Side Story, albeit adapted toSoviet circumstances.

5. Sergei Mikhalkov had been writing for children and children’s theatre foralmost 50 years. Many of his plays premiered at the Central Children’sTheatre. In 1978 the theatre revived Kon’ki, ili vospominaniia o shkole[Skates, or Memories of School ], which premiered in the Central Children’sTheatre in 1939; his play Sombrero played over 1000 times in the CentralChildren’s Theatre in the 1970s (V Sovetskom 14, 34–37).

6. I saw the play in May 2000. By then the “Soviet” references had beenremoved or down played. Dream played for a full house of young children,mesmerized throughout the visual spectacle of music, dance, lights, costumes

254 Notes

and stage effects. As an adult, I thoroughly enjoyed this production, whichwas (in 2000) far removed from some painful experiences I had in theearly and mid-1990s (see later this chapter, and chapter 8).

7. This was confirmed by my observations and conversations with theaudience, varying from 9 to 14 years old, in February 1996.

8. In the same interview, Bartenev and Kolosova talked about the unsuitabilityfor the Russian public of Western plays for young audiences, because theymiss “something real, some serious, significant content” (Kolosova).“There is a problem that they play out in one form or another and some-times they play it out better and sometimes they play it out worse, thatdepends on talent, on who works with it. But there is almost no allegory,no form of parable, no depth” (Bartenev).

9. My personal experience during a performance of Ivanushka, in May 1994,was quite different. During the two-hour performance the audience wasrestless and inattentive, they seemed to get lost in the words, despite thevisual ploys. There was ample use of lighting, music, and slapstick to drawthe audience in, as well as some audience participation questions (Whatnow? Where to go?). The design and the use of the rotating stage wasfascinating. Nevertheless the performance only seemed to reach the firstfew rows. It is noteworthy, though, that about half of the audience of thisparticular performance consisted of fairly large groups, obviously on a“kultpokhod” [field trip], who are notoriously harder to reach than childrenunder parental guidance.

10. It is of note here that unlike Pitfall this play did not have to go througha laborious process of approval by the Ministry of Culture. Although thethematic content of this play is much harsher, and the social and politicalcritique much sharper and more direct, “this production came to the stageunrestricted, quiet, as if the theatre did not show a tough and veraciouscontemporary drama, but a fairy tale about Little Red Riding Hood. Theblessings of the times . . .” (Borshchagovskii, “Miloserdie”).

11. The Star-Child was still on the repertory in May 2000, playing for a captivatedaudience of mostly parents and children. The house was sold out.

12. One of the performances I saw in the RAMT in 1996, an adaptation ofAjar’s novel La Vie Devant Soi [Life Before Us], which premiered in January1993, lasted 1 hour and 10 minutes longer than the announced 2 hours inthe program. It was acted so poorly and had so many technical mistakes,including missed cues, that it was almost unbearable for the audience(mostly 12 to 16 years old) to watch.

13. The reluctance to put up “topical” plays in theatres in general in Russia,and in the tuizes in particular, is reinforced by the repertory system.

Notes 255

Plays that run less than a year, or even two years are generally consideredfailures, in several respects, economic as well as artistic.

14. Dramatization has been traditionally considered to be appropriate only forthe youngest age group.

15. Although the theatre in 1996 changed the indication of age groups on itsrepertory poster, dividing it into “plays for adults” and “plays for children,”the pedagogical section still operates according to the same principles,conducting the same kind of work (Tikhonova, pers, intv.).

6 THE MOSCOW THEATRE OF THE YOUNG SPECTATOR

1. The Mtiuz has the same confusion about its founding date as the CentralChildren’s Theatre. Some say it was founded in the 1920s by Lunacharskii(Andreev), others chose the beginning of the traveling Mtiuz, an initiativeof “enthusiasts” in 1924 (Platonova), others when it merged with theGostsentiuz in 1941. The different opinions depend upon whether thefounding is dated to the initiation of the building as a theatre, the initiationof the first Mtiuz, or the merger of the theatres under the name Mtiuz.

2. “Travesty,” petite women playing boys and children’s roles, was an estab-lished tradition in the tiuzes which became controversial with Glasnost.

3. Zhigulskii reportedly left on his own initiative. He has been a freelancedirector in Moscow and Suzdal and tried to start up a touring company(Levitskaia pers. intv.). Ksenia Levitskaia, pedagogue at the Mtiuz for20 years, left the same year.

4. The Ministry of Culture was in charge of appointing artistic directors,although the theatres, especially when Perestroika progressed, couldexpress their preference. The fact that a third of the tiuzes went withoutartistic directors reflects the general interest as well as the priorities of theMinistry of Culture.

5. Nicholas Rzhevsky adapted and translated the novella in English as DogHeart (New York: Slavic Cultural Center Press, 1998); Michael Glennytranslated Chervinskii’s adaptation as Heart of a Dog, in his anthology Starsin the Morning Sky (London: Hern, 1998). I have translated the title asDog’s Heart, following the original (sobach’e serdtse instead of serdtsesobaki) and translations in other languages (Dutch Hondehart, GermanHundeherz).

6. I have seen two performances of Dog’s Heart, one in Moscow in 1988 andone in the Netherlands in 1989. Both solicited very different reactionsfrom the audience (as well as from critics, see further).

256 Notes

7. Kama Ginkas is currently one of the most innovative and notorious directorsin Moscow. As he is working from the Mtiuz as his home-theatre,contributing a great part to the theatre’s popularity, chapter 9 includes adetailed portrait of Kama Ginkas and his work at the Mtiuz.

8. In the original version Marshak had the porter call his buddies at the otherhotels in order to prevent Twister from finding a place to stay. Marshakwas forced to remove this verse (it is not in the 1973 publication I used).As an anticapitalist parody, the poem was politically charged from itsinception. Even though Marshak was a celebrated Soviet writer ofchildren’s literature and plays, his work was under close scrutiny and sub-ject to censorship of the Ministry of Culture and Enlightenment.According to Rassadin, the poem was published only after the personalintervention of Litvinov, Stalin’s minister of Foreign Affairs, because thepoem might affect international relationships. Rassadin recalls his conver-sation with Marshak when he discovered that the verse was missing:

“Samuil Iakovlevich, why did you do that? What a shame! The wholestanza about the hotel crisis is just lost!” Marshak was embarrassed:“Yes, yes, my friend, you’re right, I really have to fix that. But, you see,they advised me and I . . . .” (“Pokhvala”)

The Mtiuz put the verse back in.

9. The present theory was published (in Czech) in 1973 (Slavica Slovaca) andas a chapter of Osolsobe’s book Davadl oktere mluvi, zpiva a tanci [Theatrethat Speaks, Sings and Dances], Prague: Supraphon, 1974. Later “Principia”were discussed by Anton Popovic in “Testo e metatesto,” in la semioticanei Paesi Slavi, Carlo Prevignano, ed., Milano: Feltrinelli, 1979; and byZiva Ben Porat in Poetics Today, 1.1 (1979). For a more detailed analysis ofthe workings of parody in Goodbye America!, based on the theories of IvoOsolsobe, see van de Water “Mister Twister or Goodbye America!” Essaysin Theatre 16:1 (1997).

10. Indeed, from 1992 on, the artist and staff turnover was more stabilized,leading to a more constant company (although in 1996 one of the vet-eran actors was filing suit against Ianovskaia—clearly unheard of in pre-Perestroika times). The results of the stabilization are discussed inchapter 9.

11. The discussion about the name continues in 1996. In 1996 the programnotes asked for input on the suggestion to call the theatre 1911, the dateof the initiation of the building as a theatre. In a 1994 interview, formerMtiuz pedagogue Ksenia Levitskaia told me that 911 had been suggested,just the previous Friday, because it was the international dialing code for

Notes 257

America, commenting “I just think she [Ianovskaia] is a psychologicallyunhealthy person.”

12. Before Perestroika the pedagogical section used to consist of six people,plus the head of the archives. The literature section had two people.By 1996 the pedagogical section itself had been abolished. The onlypedagogue left, Svetlana Platonova was in charge of the educational divi-sion of the literature section, headed by Marina Smelianskaia. The peda-gogical work described here, and the philosophy behind it, continuedvirtually unaltered in the new millennium.

13. I had two interviews with Svetlana Platonova, and several informalconversations. Svetlana described her work in essentially the same way inboth interviews. Because the answers were more concise I used quotesfrom the 1996 interview.

14. Svetlana Platonova described the coercive system of repertory formation asfollows:

The artistic director carried a placard to the Art Council, about the sizeof that wall. We had an economic plan, and that plan was for theproductions for the coming twenty years. The productions were bytheme, e.g. Revolutionary—productions about the revolution andabout Lenin; productions about the Comparty [sic]; productions ofromantic nature; foreign classics; Russian classics; fairy tales etc. Fromthat “Plan for the Theatre” only one production was realized and thatenormous placard stands now in the attic. But we had to live like that.(Smelianskaia and Platonova, pers. intv. 1994)

15. Nevertheless the 1994 production of The Enchanted Rings, directed byAleksandr Kalinin, won the critics’ award for best production for children, adecision that perplexed the field (Kolosova and Bartenev, Levitskaia pers. intvs.).

16. Both smirked when I asked them about productions for young people,and referred me to Smelianskaia and Platonova.

7 CULTURAL SHIFTS AND THEATRICAL INNOVATION

1. Likewise, neither the 1991 nor the 1993 coup plotters faced severepunishment, most of them stayed in politics.

2. Among them were Aleksandr Rutskoi, Yeltsin’s vice president, and RuslanKhasbulatov, the leader of the parliament. For a detailed account seeRemnick, Resurrection.

3. I went to Moscow 5 months after the 1993 White House battle (incidentallymy apartment was less than two blocks from the White House). It was by farthe most depressing time I ever spent in Moscow. As I traveled regularly

258 Notes

to Moscow until 1989, I was well aware of the material and cultural changesthat took place in the 1980s up to that time. To witness the preliminaryresults in 1994, five years later, was a mixed and taxing experience. Spendingmost of my time within the circles of the Russian intelligentsia, I found thatthe discrepancy between material and spiritual well-being was paradoxicallyheartening at best, and utterly discouraging at its worst.

4. The constitutional court ruled in 1992 that communists were allowed tostart parties on a local and regional level. The Communist Party ofthe Russian Federation became by far the biggest of the many communistparties.

5. In this light the comments of the pedagogues of the Central Children’sTheatre/RAMT sound eerily true: if they (the young audience) wantcontemporary drama, they just have to look outside (see chapter 5).

6. It needs to be noted that in Russian understanding an “empty” house canstill be half to three quarters full.

7. John Freedman notes that by 1995 there were approximately ten independ-ent agencies or production companies and over sixty private theatres regis-tered in Moscow, of which only a handful turned out shows of any note orwith any regularity (Moscow 247).

8. I managed to see the rock-opera in 1985 in Moscow via “blat” (influence)from the sound booth. At the end of a six months stay, it was indeed astriking experience, vaguely familiar, but something I had not encounteredin the months before. I joined the hoards of Zakharov fans. A year laterI saw the opera again in the Amsterdam Carré theatre. The auditoriumwas half empty, both music and staging looked outdated. It was the sameexperience as I had with the touring Mtiuz production of Dog’s Heart, afew years later: out of its material context the meaning gets lost.

9. A vivid description of this, increasingly common, phenomenon comesfrom Smeliansky:

Evening life and nightlife began to merge. In the first part of the eveningTreplev would be standing on the stage, raving about the new theatre,then immediately after The Seagull, if you hung back as you collectedyour coat, you could watch this new theatre in action. Security menwould quietly fill the foyer and set up special gates like metal detectors atan airport. The “new Russians” would hand in their weapons, be given atag for them, and go off to “relax” in the Lenkom. (Russian 164)

10. “The new Russians” is used ironically, and often derogatorily, to describeRussia’s nouveaux riches, who present themselves as cultured and sophisti-cated. Many theatre people see them as threat to Russian cultural and

Notes 259

theatrical life (see also chapter 9). The term originated from the title of acolumn in the newspaper Kommersant’-daily.

11. This is, of course, subjective, based on both personal and secondaryevidence. For more names see e.g. Freedman Moscow Performances I andII, and Smeliansky The Russian Theatre After Stalin, Predlagaemyeobstoiatel’stva [Propounded Circumstances], and Rezhisserskii Teatr[Director’s Theatre], a 1999 publication of the Moscow Art Theatre.

12. By 1996 both theatres divided their repertory into just two categories: playsfor adults and plays for children. In February 1996 the RAMT had 21 pro-ductions in its repertory, 7 of which were specifically identified as produc-tions for children. Lark, Tic-Tac-Toe, and the premiere of Pollyanna amongothers, were listed under the productions for adults. The Mtiuz had 13 pro-ductions in its repertory, 5 of which were identified as productions for chil-dren (Goodbye America! was listed under productions for adults).

13. Most of these statistics come from “Facts and Stats of the Yeltsin Era” andare based on reports from Unicef, World Health Organization, TheRussian State Committee on Youth Affairs, and the International Instituteof International Finance.

14. Yeltsin finished first with 35% in a field of ten candidates; in the run offagainst Ziuganov two weeks later he defeated the Chairman of theCommunist Party of the Russian Federation 54% to 40%.

15. Soon after the attacks, a conspiracy theory started to circle among theMoscow intelligentsia that the regime itself had organized the blast todivert attention from domestic problems.

16. A more detailed and analytical portrait of Putin falls outside the scope ofthis book. Most Russians I met in the spring of 2000, just after the elec-tion of Putin as president, however, echoed the sentiments of YevgeniaAlbats, independent journalist and author of KGB: State Within a State,and Lilia Shevtsova, author of Yeltsin’s Russia: Myths and Reality.

Russia is a very infantile society. We are accustomed to having a statethat was responsible for everything in our lives—medical care, schools,you know, even the way we made kids. The State was responsible foreverything; the State got involved in everything. Compared to the sickand incapable Yeltsin, Putin has the image of this guy who is ready togive you his hand and lead you into the bright nice future. All you haveto do is just grab this hand and say, “guy, take me in this bright future.I want to go there with you, whatever it takes.” (Albats)

Shevtsova declares: “The most interesting thing is that Putin is viewedas a dynamic, strong, honest, civil, modest and adequate leader, which is

everything Yeltsin isn’t.” (From transcripts of full interviews for “Return ofthe Czar,” May 9, 2000.)

17. See among others Elizabeth Kristofovich Zelensky “Popular Children’sCulture in post-Perestroika Russia: Songs of Innocence and ExperienceRevisited”; Clementine Creuziger Childhood in Russia: Representation andReality; and Langdon Pearson Children of Glasnost: Growing Up Soviet.For personal views of Russian teenagers on a variety of subjects in thelate 1980s see Deborah Adelman The “Children of Perestroika.” Accordingto Zelensky an idealized Soviet childhood was achieved by “an extremelyemotional parent-child relationship; a prolonging of childhood well intoadolescence through the encouragement of dependency in the child, bothphysical and psychological; the conscious separation of the child fromobjective reality through the withholding of information by adults; andthe encouragement of fantasy life” (140).

18. See quotes of Rina Sterkina, director of the Preschool Education Divisionof the Russian Federation’s Ministry of Culture, and Elena Krasnikova,consultant for the Ministry of Education, who helped to develop aprogram of ethical and philosophical education for elementary throughhigh school programs (Zelensky 142–145).

19. Aleksei Yurchak’s article “Gagarin and the Rave Kids: Transforming Power,Identity, and Aesthetics in Post-Soviet Nightlife” describes this phenomenonin detail. It needs to be noted however, that the emergence and develop-ment of the house parties as a youth subculture (unlike the pre-PerestroikaRussian youth subcultures) are in many ways much closer to its WesternEuropean counterpart than implied in the article.

20. Alexei Yurchak, in an interesting segment on the Russian Mafia—the“Kryshi [roofs],” which had become an inherent feature of business inRussia, including the night dances—positions the Mafia Kryshi as a socialcontrol force, an alternative to the lawlessness and orderlessness of the state’sinstitutional and power structures (98). His positioning (as perceivedby the business people themselves) is based, among others, on KatherineVerdery’s What Was Socialism and What Comes Next?

21. Rumors of Efremov’s health and drinking habits had by that time taken onlegendary proportions that equaled those of the country’s leader.

22. This may be partly due to the fact that Klaic does not seem to base his,admittedly subjective, interpretations of the three day meeting on any per-sonal observation of the developments of the Russian theatre, either longterm or short term. His report seems primarily based on accounts of issuesraised by the participants. While many of the issues raised in the report areundeniably present, the process of transformation and change is ignored.

260 Notes

23. The following requirements were identified during the retreat:— municipal funds for project financing— several open venues to present the work of independent companies

and ultimately to help produce it— information centers and magazines— workshops in a range of skills and competencies, such as communica-

tion and marketing, education activities, theatre information process-ing, production documentation and recording, contemporary danceand music theatre, puppetry and movement theatre

— connection with the European networks active in the performing arts, and— an ongoing dialogue within the profession and with the media, cultural

organizations, government and the business community. (Klaic 7)

24. The following information comes from the Soros Foundation Website(www. soros.org):

The numerous nonprofit foundations created by the philanthropistGeorge Soros are linked together in an informal network known asthe Soros foundations network. At the heart of this network are the“national foundations,” a group of autonomous organizations operatingin over 30 countries around the world, principally in Central andEastern Europe and the former Soviet Union but also in Guatemala,Haiti, and Southern Africa. All of the national foundations share thecommon mission of supporting the development of open society.To this end, they operate and support an array of initiatives concernedwith arts and culture, children and youth, civil society development,economic reform, education, legal reform and public administration,media and communications, publishing, and health care.

25. EUnetART (European Network of Arts for Children and Young People)is a network of over 100 organizations in 27 countries in eastern andWestern Europe. All members are art organizations that in whole or inpart professionally undertake activities for children and young people.EUnetART is funded by OC&W (the Ministry of Education, Culture andSciences of the Netherlands). EUnetART has received financial supportfrom the European Commission, the Council of Europe and theEuropean Cultural Foundation (www.eunetart.org).

26. The Russian ASSITEJ center which had been central in the initialplanning and coordination of the project, as well as founding membersMisha Bartenev and director Sergei Rozov, appeared nevertheless some-what disenchanted when I met with them in May 2000. They expressedthe feeling that they had “lost” the project, mainly due to financial and

Notes 261

organizational demands they simply could not meet. The Europeanpartners had taken over (Meeting at ASSITEJ-Russia headquarters,May 2000). By 2001 the initiative had been restructured into the“Magic-Net: A Network Capturing the Diversity of European Cultures”(www.magic-net.org). Magic-Net consists of 15 participating Europeantheatres, linking these theatres to create international European co-productions and connecting professional artists with young people ineducational programs. They received 900,000 Euro in funding from theEuropean Commission for a three-year period (2001–2004).

8 SHAKING THE PAST: THE RUSSIAN ACADEMIC YOUTH THEATRE

1. According to Irina Brovkina, the theatre employed 300 people, including80 actors, in May 2000 (pers. intv.).

2. It is interesting how much is blamed on perceived notions of “American”children’s theatre, such as the obligatory happy end (Novikova“Prisutstvye”), and Pollyanna’s “unbreakable will-power [and] strongcharacter” that characterized the American settlers (Sergeeva “Na ostrove”).

3. Whether this is indeed the case is debatable: is the theatre ignored in thepress because it is thought of little consequence or importance, or becauseBorodin shuns the press?

4. Shakh-Azizova refutes some of the optimism in her article in a postscriptto the article. Noting that some significant and administrative changeshad taken place after the article was written she acknowledges the uncer-tain future of the theatre “What will happen? What will stay and what hasto go?” (9).

5. The performance I saw in May 2000 had a full house, chiefly with youth8–18 years old. Most had come in groups. Younger children had come with theirparents. There was a very strong sense of social control among the groups.

6. To illustrate his point Rudnev quotes Tovstonogov, who maintained thata theatre needs to stage but three comedies, after which it can stage whateverit desires.

9 PROVOKING ASSUMPTIONS: KAMA GINKAS AT THE MTIUZ

1. On my way to The Black Monk (Kama Ginkas, see further) in May 2000I was offered 10,000 rubles (ca. $400) for my (complimentary) ticket.

262 Notes

2. In 1995 Ianovskaia directed an operetta Zhak Offenbakh, liubov’ i tru-lia-lia[ Jacques Offenbakh, Love and Tru-la-la]. The production still played andtoured in spring 2000, but it received considerably less attention than herother productions. In general the production was perceived as pretty, butlacking operetic mastery and ardor”. Nikiforovna calls the production“unwieldy” because of the uncomfortable juxtaposition of Ianovskaia’s seri-ous intentions (Nikiforovna rightly points out that Ianovskaia is too seri-ous and committed of a director to “just” stage trifles) and thelightheartedness of the genre. The company’s video of the production con-firms these observations (author’s copy). Because as a whole ZhakOffenbakh—despite its feminist overtones and emphasis on the ( Jewish)artist’s fate—does seem somewhat of an anomaly in comparison toIanovskaia’s other, politically more engaged, work, I will not discuss thisproduction in more detail here.

3. More precisely, a paper by the critic Dmitrii Pisarev, which was studied inthe Soviet schools next to the perfunctory interpretation by Dobroliubov’(the famous words “ray of light in the dark tsardom” cited in most, if notall, Russian reviews come from Dobroliubov’).

4. One of the critics who does not agree with this view is Anatoly Smeliansky,who asserts that Ianovskaia lost her “lightness” after Dog’s Heart and thecrisis that followed within the company (see chapter 6), and that subse-quent productions became “top-heavy” (Russian 175–176).

5. Smeliansky explains that they managed because of their different theatricalresponsibilities: Ianovskaia, as artistic director, was responsible for creatinga theatrical family, she “was building another theatrical ‘church’; Kama wasonly interested in, and responsible for, the next production” (Russian 174).Ginkas himself muses that he may actually be better off not having his owntheatre as it allows him to concentrate on his productions, whether inMoscow or abroad (Interview with John Freedman, “Russian” 6).

6. As students of Tovstonogov both Ianovskaia and Ginkas were influencedby Tovstonogov’s concept of the all-powerful director, the one with whomthe theatre stands or dissolves.

7. In an interview with Olga Fuks he adds: “[Being a symbolist] was thenworse than a ‘formalist,’ it was almost a spy” (“Koridory”).

8. Ginkas directed among others Mark Twain (Smeliansky, Russian xxx).9. Ginkas maintains that his “chamber theatre” is a principally different style

and look of theatre that cannot be simply explained with the size of thespace (Sotnikova).

10. I observed Ginkas work in two rehearsals of his adaptation of OscarWilde’s fairy tale The Happy Prince in May 2000, on the large stage. In the

Notes 263

first rehearsal he climbed the statue of happiness in which the happyprince was trapped, to show the actor, but maybe even more himself,intricate ways to physically maneuver herself along the statue, which lookslike a cage and occupies the whole center stage. During the secondrehearsal I attended, Ginkas suddenly stopped the run, called the artists inthe house, and, visibly tormented, rebuked the actors for a considerableamount of time, after which he stopped the rehearsal. Reviews and eye-witnesses of the production report it to be “brilliant.”

11. It is of note that Ginkas talks here specifically about the Russian artist, asopposed to the “European” artist.

12. The audience reaction was evident during the performance I attended in1994, on the videotape of the production (author’s files), and the variousanecdotal reports in reviews and interviews.

13. K.I. iz prestupleniia was Ginkas’s third production on Dostoevsky at theMtiuz. The first was Zapiski iz podpol’ia [Notes From the Underground] in1989, the second Igraem “Prestuplenie” [Let’s Play “Crime” ] in 1991.

14. The candies come in various tastes, each named after a story or poem ofPushkin. On the back you will find the internet address of the factory,“Krasnyi Oktiabr” (“Red October”).

15. Compare Goodbye, America! chapter 6.16. Interestingly Ginkas considers Pushkin impossible to translate “he disap-

pears in the air.” For Ginkas, the beauty is in the rhythm, the tonality andthe composition—“there is nothing to translate” without these linguisticelements. The form conveys the content. This is also his explanation forwhy Pushkin, Russia’s national poet, is, unlike Shakespeare or Molière,little known or read outside Russia (in Sedykh, “Igrai”).

17. Daniil Kharms was a member of the Oberiu (Society for Real Art) in thelate 1920s. His absurd, surreal poetry and short stories became available inRussia only after Glasnost and Perestroika (for an introduction to Kharms,Vvedenskii, and the Oberiuty in English see George Gibian, The Man inthe Black Coat).

18. Some critics, like Dina Goder, have a different perspective and assert thatGinkas—by leaving behind his self-authored productions of Dostoevskyand Pushkin, playing a full prose text instead—“started a new phase”(“Chernyi”). In the context of what has been described here, and my ownobservations, I rather see a variation on a theme.

19. As opposed to Ginkas’s Finnish productions, which, according to Freedman,tended to be more lyrical and more gentle than those he staged in Moscow.In Finland he staged, among others, Life is Beautiful, based on Chekhov’s shortstory The Lady With the Lapdog (1995), and Chekhov’s The Seagull (1996).

264 Notes

20. Liubov Lebedina describes in Trud the “bright, almost blessed expression”on the faces of the majority of the audience (“Prizrak”). Fillipov assertsthat it is because of these rare and happy occasions that the critics stickwith their profession (“Ukhodim”). Shakh-Azizova remarks that likeChekhov’s work, Ginkas’s production doesn’t let you go, it hurts: they arenot meant to comfort the soul (“. . . I bezdny”). Inna Soloveva writes that“in general, this production, with its precious sum of devices [priemy] andaudacity of tricks, has something higher” (“Korotkoe”). Alena Zlobinawonders what causes the sense of “light” in the cruel and tragic theatre ofKama Ginkas (and in this production) and concludes that it must be the“light of art itself ” (“Balkon”).

21. From the few dozen reviews I obtained, only one criticized the productionas long, “boring,” and “overdone,” having all the characteristics of a brilliantproduction, but not pulling it off (Zaslavskii, “Povorot”).

22. See also note 11 in chapter 6 of this book. While a name change was stilldebated in 1996, by 2000 the impression was that the Mtiuz had carvedout its new position under the old name and had freed itself from previousconnotations.

Notes 265

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292 Bibliography

admission prices, 93, 100, 127, 129see also tickets

adult theatres (theatre for adults), 9, 10, 29,78, 90, 101, 113, 124, 129, 157, 174,250n

adultization (of repertory), 93, 95, 96, 98,100, 102, 114, 122, 131, 132, 135, 253

Africa, 77age groups, 52, 59, 94, 103, 127, 132, 134,

138, 147, 247, 255agitation and propaganda (agitprop), 46, 49,

53, 202Akimov, Nikolai, 68, 78, 82aktiv, 133, 204Aldonin, Sergei, 203Alienation, 31Alive Forever (Viktor Rozov, Sovremennik),

74, 249nAll Hope (M. Roshchin, Mtiuz), 139–140,

161All-Russian Children’s Fund, 104All-Russian Conference of People’s Theatre

Artists (1915), 42All-Russian Conference of Workers in Theatre

for Children (1930), 53All-Russian Review of Theatres of the

Young Spectator and Puppet Theatres,102–103, 122

All-Russian Week of Theatre for Children andYouth, 101–102

All-Union Center for Public OpinionResearch, 4, 36

All-Union Committee of Arts Affairs, 57, 58

All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers (1934),54, 55

All-Union Leninist Communist YouthLeague, 100

All-Union Review of the Theatres of YoungSpectators (1939), 59

Althusser, Louis, 17, 18, 37–38, 244n andideological state apparatuses, 6, 38, 135,173

America, 41, 48, 235American studies, 100American way of life, 80, 83see also Goodbye America!

Amsterdam, 185, 248n, 258nAnchutka (B. Metal’nikov, Mtiuz), 139,

140–141, 155Andersen, Hans Christian, 75, 148,

149, 207Andropov, Iurii, 3, 30, 88–89anti-Semitism, 153, 156, 169Arbuzov, Aleksei, 76arms control, 89Art in the School (1930), 53ASSITEJ, 77, 90, 185

ASSITEJ/Russia, 11, 261nASSITEJ/USSR, 90

atheism, 53audience, contemporary, 132, 194, 196

family, 122, 148, 160, 163, 190, 273mixed, 113, 120, 135, 156, 187, 191,

202, 251nschool, 101, 159–160 see also

field trips

Index x

Page numbers in bold indicate figures.

audience research, 43, 47, 50–51, 57, 79, 97,109, 139, 147

see also pedagogy; perception

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 39Bakhtin, Nikolai, 41, 43, 50–52, 78, 247n,

248nBaliasnaia, L.K., 91, 92Bambi, 96Barber of Seville (Pierre de Beaumarchais,

RAMT), 203Bartenev, Mikhail, 123–124, 184–185, 201,

254n, 261nsee also individual titles

Batum (Mikhail Bulgakov, Gorky MKhat),171

Belarus, 168Be Prepared! (First State Theatre for Children),

49Bérénice (Jean Racine, RAMT), 191–192, 193Beria, Lavrenty, 63Berlin, 185, 249nBetween Heaven and Earth Circles the Lark

(Iurii Shchekochikhin, CentralChildren’s Theatre), 125–127, 259n

The Black Monk (Anton Chekhov, KamaGinkas), 228–232, 229

Black Snow (Mikhail Bulgakov), 144Blue Bird (Maurice Maeterlinck, MKhat), 44,

251nBlue Report (Dragan Klaic, 1999), 182–183,

199Bogatyrev, Vladimir, 193Boiakov, Eduard, 199, 202Bolsheviks, 26

Bolshevik Party, 54Bolshevik Revolution see October RevolutionThe Bolshoi, 58, 103, 105, 129, 135, 187,

189Bolshoi Drama Theatre, 68, 69Bondi, Iurii, 45–47, 49Borodin, Aleksei, 103–104, 113–114, 116,

118, 119–122, 128, 130, 132, 191–2,195, 198, 199, 200–201, 205, 262n

bourgeois liberalism, 50Brecht, Bertolt (Berliner Ensemble), 68

Brechtian, 120, 148, 248n

Brezhnev, Leonid, 25, 30, 34, 64, 65, 76–77,82, 83, 88, 172

and ‘developed socialism,’ 30, 31, 243nsee also stagnation

Briantsev, Aleksandr, 43, 52, 59, 63, 78, 113,130, 132, 133, 134, 246n, 247n, 248n,249n

Brodsky, Joseph, 77, 148Brook, Peter, 68, 145Brovkina, Irina, 131–134, 189, 203–205,

262nBrownian movement (Efros), 72–73Budennovsk (hostage), 193Bulgakov, Mikhail, 37, 65, 73, 93, 141, 142,

144, 145, 171, 249nsee also individual titles

Burbulis, Gennadii, 167

Cabal of Hypocrites (Molière, MikhailBulgakov), 171

capitalism, 21, 22, 28, 33, 46, 47, 64, 83,107, 124, 125, 138, 152, 154, 155, 175,180, 241n, 242n

The Captain’s Daughter (AlekandrPushkin,RAMT), 190–191

censorship, 29, 56, 66–67, 76, 121, 252n,256n

Central committee, 34, 57, 67, 100, 168, 250Chechnya, 177, 193, 201, 217Cheka, 26Chekhov, Anton, 179, 183, 214, 228, 230,

231Chekhov, Michael, 69, 248–249nChekhov MKhat, 170, 171Chernenko, Konstantin, 3, 30, 31,

88–89Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 177Children’s Television Workshop, 179Children’s Theatre of the Moscow Soviet, 44,

246nChristianity, 18, 193, 212classics, 55, 59, 78, 96, 113, 122, 129, 132,

135–136, 170, 178, 179, 184, 191, 192,199, 179, 257n

rehabilitation of, 55Columbia, 169CNN, 169Comédie Française, 68

294 Index

communism, 2, 17, 20, 22, 24–30, 33, 35,40, 46, 54, 81, 83, 244n

moral code of the builder of, 29, 30, 78,71, 79, 80, 108, 243n

Communist Manifesto, 20, 23Communist Party (CPSU), 23, 29, 34, 35,

36, 40, 57, 63, 67, 80, 89, 169, 244n,258n, 259n

Communist Party of the Russian Federation(Genadii Ziuganov), 169, 258n, 259n

contract system, 146, 156controversies (in theatre), 125, 170–171

see also Ianovskaia, GenriettaCouncil on Children’s Theatre, 53Council of People’s Commissars, 57coup (1991), 33–35, 89, 167, 257n

coup (1993), 169, 257nCrime and Punishment (Fedor Dostoevsky,

Kama Ginkas), 215, 219Crystal Turandot awards, 213, 221culture (cultural history), 1, 10, 213

cultural paradigms, 12, 40, 111, 170, 236as site for self-reflection, 6, 39, 88, 184,

239, 245nculturology, 7, 8, 39, 238, 245nCzechoslovakia (invasion of ), 63

Day of the Pioneer, 47Delegate Assembly, 50–52democratization, 33

see also Gorbachev, reforms underDestutt de Tracy, 18detective drama, 54developed socialism, 30, 31, 243nDictatorship of Conscience (Mikhail Shatrov,

Lenkom), 172discourse, 4, 8, 25, 37, 38, 60, 61, 154–155,

173, 198dissident, 7, 68, 77, 81, 241ndiversification (in theatre), 181–183Dmitrievskii, V., 5, 95–97, 129, 141, 174, 236The Doctor in Spite of Himself (Molière, State

Workshop of Pedagogical Theatre), 47Dodin, Lev, 29, 78, 110, 173Dog’s Heart (A. Chervinskii, Mtiuz), 37,

141–146, 142, 148, 149, 150, 207,209, 214, 255n, 258n, 263n

Dolgina, Elena, 123

Dorokhin, Iurii, 104Doronina, Tatiana, 170–171Dostoevsky, Fedor, 123, 128, 148, 155, 179,

214, 219, 221, 228, 264nsee also individual titles

The Dragon (Evgenii Shvarts), 56, 82, 109Dream to be Continued (Sergei Mikhalkov),

118, 118–119, 120, 127, 140, 205,253–254n

drug abuse, 5, 98, 125, 176in Lark, 125–127

Duma, 169, 197, 201

education, see pedagogyelections:

parliamentary (1993), 168–169presidential (1996), 169, 176–177

Efremov, Oleg, 29, 61, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73–76,77, 78, 82, 170–171, 260n

Efros, Anatolii, 29, 61, 67, 68, 69, 70–73, 74,76, 77, 82, 113, 171, 249n

Engels, Friedrich, 28, 106Engineer Sempson, 47England, 48epic theatre, 68Epstein, Mikhail, 4, 6, 7, 8, 17, 18, 24, 25,

30, 35, 36, 37, 38–39, 88, 181, 218,238, 242n, 243n, 244n, 245n

Eremin, Iurii, 190Ermolova Theatre, 171EUnetART, 185, 261nEurope, 8, 13, 41, 162, 169, 185, 260n,

261n, 262n, 264nEvans, Afred B., 4, 27–35, 244nThe Execution of the Decembrists (Kama

Ginkas), 217the ‘experiment,’ 101, 119

fairy tales, 49, 54, 96, 109, 114, 124, 221for adults, 7, 56, 57, 58rehabilitation of, 55repertory of, 42, 43, 45, 48, 54, 57, 59,

108, 198, 257nsee also Shvarts, Evgenii

Farmakovskaia, Iuliia, 131, 132, 133, 136field trips (kultpokhody), 6, 61, 92, 94, 97,

101, 102, 103, 105, 114, 130, 131, 137,157, 205, 251n, 254n

Index 295

First State Theatre for Children, 45–47Fokin, Valerii, 171, 172, 174, 179, 182, 183Fomenko, Petr, 171, 173, 174, 179,

182, 183formalism, 55, 68, 263nFrance, 8, 47, 209, 244nFreedman, John, 10, 178, 179, 181, 182, 192,

209, 215, 228, 230, 238Freeze, 63, 76–79funding, 94, 98, 101, 181, 182–183, 189,

195, 261n, 262nsponsors, 189, 201state support, 42, 175, 205, 236subsidies, 42, 44, 101, 157, 161, 206, 235,

247n

Gaidar, Arkadii, 59Gaidar, Egor, 175Galakhova, O.I., 42game-play (igro-spektakl), 49, 247nGelman, Aleksandr, 171, 178Germany (Nazi), 56Ginkas, Kama, 13, 29, 69, 141, 148, 155,

163, 171, 174, 179, 181, 182, 183, 184,207, 208, 209, 211, 213, 214–233

background of, 214–215Ginkas finales, 227, 230, 238Ginkas theme, 215, 228, 231see also individual productions

Glavrepertkom, 66Goethe, Johan Wolfgang von, 123Gogol, Nikolai, 179The Golden Cockerel (Aleksandr Pushkin,

Kama Ginkas), 214, 221–224, 228, 238The Golden Key (Aleksei Tolstoi, Central

Children’s Theatre), 58Golden Mask Awards, 119, 183, 199, 213,

237Golub, Spencer, 10, 56Goncharov, I., 106, 124Good Luck! (Viktor Rozov, Central Children’s

Theatre), 70–71Goodbye America! (A. Nedzvetskii, Mtiuz),

149–155, 196, 211, 212, 256nGorbachev, Mikhail, 1, 3, 4, 12, 171, 148, 162

reforms under, 25–27, 30–35, 88–89, 91,167–168, 244n, 250n

Gorelov, Vladimir, 139

Gorky MKhat, 170–171Gostsentiuz (State Central Theatre of the

Young Spectator), 47, 60Gozenpud, Aleksandra, 41, 69, 74, 246nGozzi, Carlo, 128, 195–196Greece, 183Grigorenko, Peter, 77Grotowsky, Jerzy, 77Gvozditskii, Viktor, 224Guardian Board, 197–198Gubenko, Nikolai, 170, 171

Hall, Stanley, 48Hamlet (Shakespeare, Peter Brook), 68Hamlet (Shakespeare, Kama Ginkas), 216The Happy Prince (Oscar Wilde, Kama

Ginkas), 232, 238Hegel, Georg W.F., 19Hertz, Alice Minnie, 41‘high art,’ 182‘high sovietism’ (socialist way of life), 30historical materialism, 20–22historiography, 9Hitler, Adolf, 214HIV, 176homophobia, 173

Ianovskaia, Genrietta, 29, 69, 130, 153,162–163, 183, 207, 208, 209–214, 218,219, 224, 232, 235, 237, 238, 263n

controversy around, 137, 141, 144, 145,146–149, 156–157, 161, 170–171,211, 233, 256n, 257n

see also individual productionsideological function, 1, 3, 4, 13, 27, 34, 87,

111, 184, 187Ideology:

bourgeois ideology, 7, 8, 23, 36–37, 50,53, 241n

function of legitimation and interpretation,3, 4 , 23–24, 27, 34, 87

humanistic ideology, 11, 108, 109invisible ideology, 4, 6, 7, 8, 18, 36–37, 38,

88, 162, 173, 198, 233in post-totalitarian Russia, 4, 6, 8–9, 18,

35–39, 169totalitarian ideology, 8, 25, 61see also Marxism-Leninism

296 Index

independent theatres, 169–170, 181inflation, 181In Search of Joy (Viktor Rozov, Central

Children’s Theatre), 74intelligentsia, 7, 65, 169, 171, 178, 207, 237,

249, 252n, 258n, 259ninterpretation (by audience), 78, 79, 99, 159,

211, 237see also perception

Israel, 162Ivan the Terrible (Sergei Eisenstein), 65

Jackson, Michael, 192Japan, 183junkies, 125–126Juno and Avoz (Aleksei Rybnikov, Andrei

Voznesenskii), 172

Kapustniki, 75Kazarnovskii, Sergei, 184, 219Keep Your Eyes Open, 47KGB, 34, 63, 144, 177Khabalova, Vera, 131–132Khardzhiev, Nikolai, 65, 248nKharms, Daniil, 56, 226, 264nKhlebnikov, Velimir, 65, 196, 199Khomskii, Pavel, 77, 137Khrushchev, Nikita, 25, 28–29, 34, 35,

63–64, 65, 67, 76, 77, 80, 248nde-Stalinization politics, 63–64and full-scale communism, 28–29see also The Thaw

K.I. from ‘Crime’ (Dani Gink, Kama Ginkas),184, 214, 217, 218–221, 219, 238,264n

King Lear (Shakespeare, Central Children’sTheatre), 128, 129, 134

Kirenko, Sergei, 177Kirov Tiuz, 113Kitiia, Giia, 109, 110Klaic, Dragan, 182, 183, 260nKnebel, Maria, 29, 61, 67, 69–70, 74, 77, 82,

113, 191, 248nKolka Stupin, 46Kolkhozes, 53Kolosova, Galina, 101, 251n, 254nKomsomol, 73, 80–81, 93, 110, 117, 172,

249n

Korogodskii, Zinovyi, 173, 249n, 251nKrasnoiarsk Tiuz, 141, 215Kultpokhody see field trips

labor, 21, 32, 77, 95, 96, 106, 124, 140, 153,243n

Latvia, 156Latin America, 175Lavrenov, Boris, 67, 248nLebedev, N.A., 43Lefort, Claude, 4, 6, 8, 18, 25, 36–37, 38, 61,

88, 154–155, 233Lenin, Vladimir, 10, 22–24, 25, 26, 27, 31,

82, 106, 110, 138, 143, 172, 242n,243n, 245n, 247n

see also Marxism-LeninismLeningrad (St. Petersburg), 10, 55, 59, 68, 69,

128, 141, 173, 183, 185, 192, 215, 216,224

Leningrad Theatre of Comedy, 68Lenkom (Theatre of the Lenin Komsomol),

68, 73, 171–172, 181, 252n, 258nLentiuz (Leningrad Tiuz), 2, 36, 50–52, 59,

78, 173, 246n, 247n, 248n,249n, 251n

Let’s Play Crime (Kama Ginkas), 155, 264nLet Us Grow with October, 47Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (Vladimir

Zhirinovskii), 169Likhanov, Albert, 104Ligachev, Egor, 168Lithuania, 214, 215The Little Green Bird (Carlo Gozzi),

195–196The Little Humpbacked Horse (Central

Children’s Theatre), 94Little Lord Fauntleroy (Frances Hodgson

Burnett, Central Children’s Theatre),193–195

Little Red Riding Hood (Evgenii Shvarts), 55,75, 254n

Liubimov, Yuri, 73, 76, 77, 89, 170, 182,183, 248n

Liubimovka Festival, 183Lorenzaccio (Alfred de Musset, Mtiuz), 183,

237Louis XIV, 47, 171Lunacharskaia, Sofia, 53–54

Index 297

Lunacharskii, Anatolii, 42–44, 106, 250, 255n

Macbeth (Shakespeare), 215–216Mackay, Constance D’Arcy, 193The Magic House, 184–185The Magnificent Cuckold (Fernand

Crommelynck, Satirikon), 173Mafia, 176, 260nmagnitizdat, 65, 88The Maids (Jean Genet), 173Malaia Bronnaia (Moscow Drama Theatre),

72–73Malenkov, Georgii, 63, 67, 248nMalevich, Kazimir, 65, 196The Maly, 58, 103, 105, 129, 135, 143, 173,

192, 202Mandelshtam, Osip, 65, 148Marshak, Samuil, 55, 96, 149, 150, 154, 155,

207, 256nMister Twister, 149, 155, 207see also Goodbye America!

mass media see mediamaterial circumstances, 7, 95, 100, 151, 154,

201, 218changes in, 1, 5, 6, 87, 99, 108, 110, 124,

130, 134, 135, 139, 145, 154, 155,157, 161, 162, 169, 170, 172, 177,184, 209, 235–237

The Martian Chronicles (Aleksei Borodin,RAMT), 200–201

Marx, Karl, 8, 19–21, 22, 27, 28, 106, 241n,243n

Marxism, 8, 12, 19–22, 40, 242n, 245nMarxism-Leninism, 1, 3, 12, 17, 19, 22–24,

27, 30, 35, 40, 45, 53, 57, 78, 87, 88,92, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111,119, 122, 124, 125, 135, 137, 140, 148,150, 155, 162, 198, 236, 245n

and Glasnost and Perestroika, 25–27, 89Max and Morits, 44Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 67, 123media (role of ), 3, 4, 6, 8, 34, 36, 37, 38, 66,

88, 92, 107, 108, 162, 179, 197, 244n,261n

Melentev, Iurii, 94The Metamorphosis (Franz Kafka, Satirikon),

173

Meyerhold, Vsevolod, 43, 45, 46, 47, 67,247n

Meyerhold Center, 171Middle East, 77Mikhailova, Anna, 102, 105, 129–130, 133Mikhalkov, Sergei, 99, 118, 253nMinistry of Culture, 5, 66, 67, 93, 114, 119,

131, 141, 146, 254n, 255n, 260nMinneapolis Children’s Theatre Company

(Jon Cranney), 128MKhat (Moscow Art Theatre), 66, 74, 76,

170, 171, 172, 249nChekhov MKhat, 170–171Gorky MKhat, 170–171

Molière, 47, 171, 179, 264nMolière (Cabal of Hypocrites, Mikhail

Bulgakov), 73, 171, 249nmoral code of the builder of communism, 29,

30, 78–79, 80, 108, 243nMoscow Regional Tiuz, 48Moscow Theatre for Children, 48, 58, 253nMy Friend Kolka! (Aleksandr Khmelik, Central

Children’s Theatre), 72–73, 72Mysina, Oksana, 219, 220mysticism, 231

The Naked King (Evgenii Shvarts,Sovremennik), 56, 74, 75–76

name changes, 97, 129, 157, 187, 232, 265nNarkompros (Commissariat of

Enlightenment), 42–43, 44, 47, 48, 53,57, 246n

narodnye doma, 41Nekrasova, Anna, 116, 194Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vladimir, 78, 171,

181NEP (New Economic Policy), 49, 247nThe Netherlands, 13, 182, 248n, 255n, 261n‘new dramaturgy’, 121, 140‘new policy’, 67New Russians, 173, 181, 207, 258–259n‘New Young’, 180

see also youth, youth cultureNightingale (Genrietta Ianovskaia, Mtiuz),

148–149, 207‘non-ideological’, 108, 135nostalgia, 169, 178

298 Index

Notes from the Underground (Kama Ginkas),145, 148, 155

nravstvennost, 105, 108, 124, 131, 191, 251n

October Revolution (Bolshevik Revolution,1917), 1, 2, 12, 24, 41, 53, 174, 235

Okhlopkov, Nikolai, 68, 249nOne Night (Evgenii Shvarts, RAMT),

192–193Oronev, V., 139, 141Orpheus and Euridice (Eduard Boiakov),

202–203Osolsobe, Ivo, 151, 154, 155, 256nOstrovsky, Aleksandr, 96, 123, 179, 199, 209,

211see also individual titles

Our Town (Thornton Wilder, RAMT), 203

Pamiat, 169Paris, 23, 45, 142, 249nparody, 76, 149, 150, 151–155, 199, 200,

212, 224, 256nPascar, Henriette, 45, 46Pasternak, 65, 148‘peaceful coexistence’, 33, 64, 146The Pearl of Adalmina (Moscow Theatre for

Children), 48pedagogues (role of ), 6, 51, 57, 60, 78, 79,

96, 98, 100, 109, 130, 131–134, 135,157–161, 203–204, 246n, 247–248n

pedagogy (audience education), 50–52, 57,97, 104–107, 122

aesthetic education, 10, 51, 59, 78, 90, 92,94, 95, 105–107, 110, 111, 131

at the Central Children’s Theatre/ RAMT,130–134, 189, 203–206

ideological education (communist), 49,53–54, 90, 92, 105, 138, 162 seealso aesthetic education

at the Mtiuz, 137, 157–161, 233, 257npedology, 52, 57perception (audience), 56, 57, 145, 174, 196,

201, 205, 211–213, 216, 224, 230, 244framework of, 4, 7, 23see also interpretation

Perestroika Theatre, 37, 145, 162Peter the Great, 18

Peter and the Wolf, (Sergei Prokofiev, CentralChildren’s Theatre), 58

Petrograd Children’s Theatre, 43Petrushevskaia, Liudmilla, 88, 172physiological reaction, 220, 230Pilkington, Hilary, 79–80pioneers, 47, 49, 53, 55, 73, 80, 81, 82, 119,

126, 193, 247Pitfall Size 46, Medium (Iurii Shchekochikhin,

Central Children’s Theatre), 114, 115,116–117, 119, 121, 125, 127, 128, 139,140, 254n

Platonova, Svetlana, 92, 147, 157–161, 257nplay (igra), 43–44

game-play (igro spektakl), 49, 247nPluchek, Valentin, 67, 68, 76Pogodin, Nikolai, 67, 70Politburo, 34, 88, 250nPollyanna (Eleanor Porter, RAMT), 193, 194,

195, 199, 205, 259n, 262nThe Polyphony of the World (Kama Ginkas),

183, 237Ponomarev, Aleksandr, 196–197, 199–200Ponton, Geoffrey, 25–26, 34positive hero, 46, 54–55, 71, 106–107, 116,

137, 140The Pretore Vincenzo (Sovremennik), 76Prince Vladimir, 18Prokofiev, Sergei (Peter and the

Wolf ), 58proletariat, 2, 22, 23, 53, 143, 241n

dictatorship of, 20, 22–23public opinion, 3–4, 36Pushkin, Aleksandr, 96, 128, 148, 190, 214,

232, 264nPushkin and Natali (Kama Ginkas), 224,

225Pushkin. Duel. Death. (Kama Ginkas), 220,

221, 224–228, 225, 238Putin, Vladimir, 9, 177, 259n

Raikin, Konstantin, 173, 183rational use of free time, 81Reagan, Ronald, 89Red Army, 26, 60Repentance (Tengiz Abuladze), 4, 37repertory system, fixed company, 66, 254nRequiem (Anna Akhmatova), 65

Index 299

Riga Tiuz, 171rock, 80, 83, 92, 250n

rock culture, 172, 180Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare, RAMT), 202Roshal, Grigorii, 46–47, 50, 51Rostov Minifest, 185Rozov, Sergei, 122, 123, 204, 261nRozov, Viktor, 61, 70–71, 73–74, 82, 121,

122, 249nRudakova, O.V., 47Russian–Japanese War, 26Russian middle class, 178Russia’s Choice Party, 169Rybakov, Anatolii, 4, 37, 88Rybakov, Iurii, 76Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 168

Safarova, Irma, 131, 132, 133, 204Sakharov, Andrei, 77, 89, 144, 171samizdat, 65, 88Satire Theatre, 67, 76Satirikon Theatre, 173Sats, Nataliia, 11, 44–45, 48, 50, 51, 58, 60,

235, 246n, 247nschool drama, 41, 43School of Dramatic Art (Anatolii Vasiliev),

171Scofield, Paul, 68The Seagull (Anton Chekhov), 73, 76, 258n,

264nSeagull Award, 213Second MKhat, 58See You-Don’t See You (Central Children’s

Theatre), 74semiotics, 149, 151, 154, 218, 256nSenelick, Laurence, 66Serezha Streltsov (V. Liubimova, Central

Children’s Theatre), 58Sesame Street (Ulitsa Sezam), 179–180Shail, George, 2–3, 50, 51, 245n, 246nShakespeare, 96, 123, 130, 202, 215, 216,

264nShakh-Azizov, Konstantin, 77The Shaman and the Snow-Maiden (Aleksandr

Ponomarev, RAMT), 199, 200Shapiro, Adolf, 29, 97, 171, 253nShatrov, Mikhail, 4, 37, 88, 172Shchekochikhin, Iurii, 110, 116, 125, 126

Shevchuk, Mikhail, 202Shpet, Lenora, 42, 245–246nShvarts, Evgenii, 7, 55–57, 65, 68, 74, 75, 78,

82, 96, 108, 123, 128, 155, 162, 192,252n

see also individual titlesthe sixties generation, 74–75Smelianskaia, Marina, 147, 157, 160–161,

162, 207, 232, 257nSmeliansky, Anatoly, 9, 10, 63, 66, 69, 72, 74,

78, 129, 170, 171, 173, 175, 181, 182,214, 215, 216, 217, 241n, 249n, 258n,259n, 263n

Smirnov, V., 53The Snow Queen (Evgenii Shvarts, RAMT),

75‘social justice’, 32social reality, 25, 37, 38, 87, 99, 106, 173socialist realism, 9, 46, 54–55, 65, 67, 241n,

246nsocialist way of life, 30‘socialist culture’, 95Sokolianskii, Aleksandr, 146, 194–195, 220Solzhenytsin, Aleksandr, 88Somewhere in Siberia (Central Children’s

Theatre), 69Soros Foundation, 182–183, 261nSosin, Gene, 2–3, 45, 59, 246nSoviet communism, 2, 22, 24, 25, 89

see also Marxism-LeninismSovremennik studio theatre, 68, 74–76, 78,

129, 249nsponsors see fundingstagnation (period of ), 4, 9, 12, 25, 29, 31,

37, 64, 79, 88Stalin, Joseph, 2, 12, 25, 26, 27–28, 29, 32,

34, 55, 60, 63, 64, 65, 68, 76, 82, 169,171, 248n

Stalinism, 24, 26, 27–28, 31, 52, 64, 65see also ideology

Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 44, 66, 78, 98, 170,181, 251n

Stanislavsky Award, 213System of, 66, 69, 74, 171

state support see fundingState Workshop of Pedagogical Theatre,

46–47‘stiliagi’, 80, 81

300 Index

The Storm (Aleksandr Ostrovsky, Mtiuz),209–213, 210

Strelkov, Garold, 183subsidies see fundingsubversive elements in Soviet-Russian theatre,

7, 241nsuicide, 58, 122, 176Svezhakova, Iuliia, 213

Tabakov, Oleg, 249nTaboridze, M, 107Taganka Theatre, 65, 73, 76, 89, 129, 157,

170, 248nTale of Ivanushka-the-Fool (Mikhail Bartenev,

Central Children’s Theatre), 123,123–125, 127, 254n

Tale of Two Masters (Lev Kassil), 65tamizdat, 65, 88, 142Tbilisi, 69, 109, 110Tbilisi Tiuz, 109–110, 252ntelevision, 37, 92, 93, 96, 97, 100, 131, 158

see also mediaTendriakov, Vladimir, 88Temusek, 44TEO (Theatre Section), 43, 44, 246nterror, 55, 63, 77, 143

terrorist, 201The Thaw, 7, 9, 12, 25, 29, 57, 63–76,

78–80, 88, 142, 248n, 249nin theatre, 66–76see also Khrushchev, Nikita

Theatre for Children and Youth Week, 124theatre church, 9, 170, 263ntheatre-home, 74, 170theatre journals, 183Théâtre Nationale Populaire, 68Theatre Square, 58, 187theatrical alphabet (club), 133,

158–159theatrical dictionary (club), 133, 159theatrical literate spectator (teatral’no-gramot-

nyi zritel’), 50–51, 52Third International Theater Olympics, 18,

237Three Girls in Blue (Liudmilla Petrushevskaia,

Lenkom), 172Three Sisters (Anton Chekhov, Anatolii Efros),

72, 73

Three went to the Virgin Lands (NikolaiPogodin), 67, 70

tickets, 90, 101, 109, 145, 157, 170, 172,189, 203, 204, 207, 251n, 262n

Tic-Tac-Toe (A. Chervinskii, CentralChildren’s Theatre), 120–121

Timur and His Team (Arkadii Gaidar), 59–60,95

Titov, Iu., 106–107tiuz as instrument of totalitarian regime, 1, 3,

6, 24, 40, 82–83, 87, 90, 99, 102, 109,111, 122, 135, 174, 233, 235, 236,252n

see also pedagogyTolstoi, Aleksei, 58Tom Sawyer, 128totalitarianism, 26, 36–37

see also ideologyTovstonogov, Georgii, 29, 61, 68–69, 73,

141, 171, 215, 217, 262n, 263ntransculture (transcultural society), 6, 39, 88,

89, 111, 136, 149, 178, 180, 195, 213,218, 232, 236, 238, 244n, 245n, 252n

cf. Epstein, Mikhailtransideological environment, 36, 37, 39, 89,

102, 111, 135, 136, 149, 162, 178, 180,184, 195, 198, 201, 213, 217, 232, 236,252n

cf. Epstein, Mikhailtravesty (roles), 139, 193, 194, 223, 224,

255nTurkey, 162Tvardovskii, Aleksandr, 65, 76Twain, Mark, 123, 263nTwelfth Party Congress, 45Twentieth (XX) Party Congress (1956), 64, 67Twenty-third (XXIII) Beograd International

Theatre Festival, 145Two in the Dark (Mikhail Bartenev and

Aleksei Slapovskii, RAMT), 201The Two Maples (Evgenii Shvarts, Mtiuz),

155, 162

Uncle Tom’s Cabin (First State Children’sTheatre), 51

United States, 7, 12, 13, 64, 100, 192, 238universality (universal values), 104, 135, 195,

199, 200, 201, 205, 218, 244n, 248n

Index 301

Urin, Vladimir, 97, 237Urnov, Iurii, 202

Vakhtangov Theatre, 67, 129, 157, 248nVasiliev, Anatolii, 77, 171, 174Victory over the Sun (Aleksei Kruchenykh,

Central Children’s Theatre), 196–197,199

Viktiuk, Roman, 173Virta, Nikolai, 67, 248nVoinovich, Vladimir, 88Volodin, Aleksandr, 76Voronov, Nikita, 194Voronov, Ivan, 129Voznesenskii, Andrei, 172Vysotskii, Vladimir, 65

War, Great Patriotic (WWII), 2, 25, 59–60,67, 73, 75, 77, 80, 82, 120, 193, 214,247n

the ‘West’, 7, 17, 33, 56, 65, 80, 81, 83, 91, 109, 125, 169, 180, 215, 249n

see also EuropeWhite House, 168, 257n‘White Room’, 220, 226Who Will Kiss the Princess? (Iulii Kim, Mtiuz),

233Wild Piglet (Viktor Rozov,

Central Children’s Theatre), 121–122

Wilde, Oscar, 128, 232, 238, 263nWinnie-the-Pooh, 96Witness for the Prosecution

(Agatha Christie, Mtuiz), 183, 237

Workshop of Pedagogical Theatre, 46–47

Wyman, Matthew, 3, 36

Yeltsin, Boris, 3, 34, 35, 144, 167, 168–169, 171, 172, 175–177, 257n, 259n, 260n

youth, youth culture, 24, 40, 79–84, 92–93,99, 129, 179–180

as constructors of communism, 5, 40, 80

as ‘lost’ generation, 5–6, 40as victims of Western influence, 40, 81, 83,

92, 125Yugoslavia, 64, 145

Zakharov, Mark, 171–173, 182, 183, 203,252n, 258n

zavlit, 157, 161Zhdanov, Andrei, 54, 248Zhigulskii, Iurii, 138–139, 141, 156, 255nZhirinovskii, Vladimir, 168–169, 175, 176Zinoviev, Aleksandr, 88Ziuganov, Gennadii, 169, 259n

302 Index