Ancient Contacts between Crete and Egypt

Abstract: The present author discuss selected items of the Cretan vocabu-lary of the Ancient Greek language, as well as some Linear B and Linear A words, indicating a number of early borrowings from an Egyptian source. It is obvious that the intensive contacts between Egypt and Crete began to develop in the Minoan-Mycenaean age.

1. Introduction.

It is a well-known fact that numerous languages belonging to the Afro-Asiatic phylum and traditionally described as Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Chadic and Cushitic, enriched lexically not only Greek and Latin, the two essential tongues of the classical ancient world, but also other languages of the Mediterranean area. The Semitic influence was perhaps the most plen-tiful and therefore it has been carefully and splendidly investigated (see Szemerényi 1974: 147–152). Unfortunately, possible influences from all other subgroups, including Egyptian, are known only partially or remain unknown.

The present author’s purpose is to indicate, with the aid of the Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary (henceforth: HSED), a number of so far unexplained words in Greek which may be borrowed from an Afro-Asiatic source, especially from Egyptian.

Extensive lists of Egyptian words attested in the Greek vocabulary were given by a number of scholars, e.g. Erman (1883), Spiegelberg (1907), Thompson (1928, 1932), Ernštedt (1953), Daniel (1962), Hemmerdinger

Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak

(Łódź, Poland)

Some Remarks on the Ancient Contacts between Crete and Egypt

46 Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak

(1968) and McGready (1968). Trade contacts between the Pharaonic Egypt and the Aegean world may also be studied archaeologically. Pendlebury (1930) and Philips (1991) discussed Egyptian objects and influences in the Aegean area, especially Crete.

2. Some Egyptian and Ancient Greek correspondences.

Some years ago I tried to explain the following Greek words of obscure origin as possible loanwords from Egyptian (Witczak 1999):

Gk. Hom. dmèV m. ‘a slave taken in war’, Cret. mnèV m. ‘slave’ (Lid-dell, Scott 1996: 441) seems to derive from Eg. d3m ‘young man’ [MK]. The original Afro-Asiatic form was *gorum- ‘young man, slave’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 217, No. 961), cf. West Chadic *gwarum- ‘slave’ (see Sura kurum, Mupun krom, Angas kwarm ‘slave’; with the prefix nV- in Bolewa ngaru and Karekare nčarum), Rift *garVm- ‘boy’ (Iraqw garma) and Cushitic *gorom- ‘young man’ (Somali gorom-saa). If the Greek word derives from this Afro-Asiatic etymon, then its Egyptian origin is beyond all doubts. Beekes (2010: 343) derives Gk. dmèV m. ‘a slave taken in war’ from the native appellative dÒmoV m. ‘house, living, room, layer’.

Gk. dÚnamai ‘to be able, strong, capable’, Cret. (in Gortyn) nÚnamai ‘id.’, also Gk. dÚnamiV f. ‘power, might, strength’, dunatÒV adj. ‘strong, mighty, able’ < AA. *don- ‘to be strong’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 166, No. 729), cf. Akk. dananu ‘be strong’ (< Sem. *dVn-), Somray dwana, Sokoro duno (< East Chadic *dwanu- ‘strong’) and Chibak dəna, Wamdiu duno-ma, Ngwahi dina, Margi dəna-ma, Mbara dono, Logone dono, Buduma dunoa, Gulfey dunu, Kuseri dunu (< CCh. *dwanu- ‘strong, strength’), Eg. wdn ‘to be strong, to be heavy’ [XVIII Dynasty], where w- is a vocalic sign. Tak-ing into consideration the distribution of the Afro-Asiatic reflexes I prefer the Egyptian origin of the Greek set. Beekes (2010: 358) suggests an Indo-European origin of Gk. dÚnamai.

The initial alternation m- ~ p- ~ b- in Aeolic Greek mάthmi ‘I treat, walk’, Att. patšw, Delph. batέw excludes a native origin of the verb. It

Some remarks on the ancint contacts between Crete and Egypt 47

is possible to connect it with AA. *mat- ‘go, walk’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 379, No. 1746), cf. Egyptian n-mt ‘march’ (with a prefix *nV-), Angas mēt ‘come’, Fyer moot (< Western Chadic *mat-), Saho -amat-, -emet- and Afar -mat- (both from Saho-Afar *mat- ‘come’). The Egyptian origin seems pref-erable.

3. Egyptian loanwords in the Ancient Cretan dialects.

Some Greek dialects also exhibit a number of lexical items which may indicate a strong Hamito-Semitic influence on Greek. The investigation of the ample Cretan material attested in Hesychios’ lexicon (see Brown 1985) allows us to distinguish the following possible Cretan loanwords of Hamito-Semitic origin:

Gk. dίjaV m. ‘a kind of snake’, Cretan dίban : Ôjin . KrÁteV (acc. sg.) ‘snake’, also d…faton : Ôjin . KrÁteV (acc. sg.) ‘snake’ demonstrates a non-Greek variation φ ~ β and probably derives from Eg. ddf.t ‘snake’ [BD] < AA. *č.üf(a‘)- ‘snake’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 297, No. 458). The cognate forms are attested in Semitic (cf. Hebrew s.epa‘ and s.ip‘-ōnī ‘snake’) and Cushitic (e.g. Sidamo d. ud. uufa ‘python’ < *d. u-d. uf-). Both Frisk (GEW I 400) and Chantraine (DELG I 287) derive the above-mentioned terms for ‘snake’ from the verb dijάw ‘to search after’, whose etymology is also unknown (Brown 1985: 47; Beekes 2010: 341), thus this connection must remain very much conjectural. The Egyptian origin seems firm with regard to the seman-tic and phonological aspects.

Two Cretan words Jάpta : mu‹a, KrÁteV ‘fly’ [HAL J-102] and (in Polyrrhenia) lάtta : mu‹a, Polurr»nioi ‘fly’ [HAL l-409], as well as Greek dάpthV m. ‘eater, bloodsucker (of gnats)’, show the triple alterna-tion θ- ~ λ- ~ δ-, which cannot be explained as a native Greek phenomenon. These nouns may be successfully derived from one of three different Egyp-tian terms for ‘insect’, namely:

(a) Eg. dw.t ‘kind of insect’ [n] < AA. *ǯu’- ‘insect’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 552, No. 2659), cf. Kabyle izi ‘fly’ (< Berber *ʒVy-), Fali Kiri žu,


Logone zu, Gava njuwa, Zeghwana nzuwe ‘fly’ (< CCh. *зuw-), Iraqw tsu’a ‘gnat’ (< Rift *ǯu’-).

(b) Eg. ddb.t ‘scorpion’ < AA. *ǯa(m)b- ‘fly’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 551, No. 2652, a heading listed without Egyptian data), cf. Akk. zumbu ‘fly’, Mehri debb-et, Harsusi debb-et, Jibbali dəbb-ət (< Sem. *dumb- ‘fly’), Ghat a-zəb, Ayr e-zəb, Ahaggar a-həb, Tawlammet i-zəbb, Taneslemmet i-zəbb, Izayan i-zəb ‘fly’ (< Berber *ʒVb-), Tangale šombo ‘fly’ (< WCh. *ǯamb-) and Fali Gili žibi, Fali Bwagira зebi ‘id.’ (< CCh. *ǯabi’-).

(c) Eg. zb.t ‘kind of insect, parasite’ [MK] < AA. *ʒab- ‘insect’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 541, No. 2601), cf. Tera zaba ‘termite’ (< WCh. *ʒab-).

Gk. Cret. „šttaj : patšraj, KrÁtej (acc. pl.) ‘fathers’ [HAL i-343] < Eg. „ty ‘father, monarch, prince’ [OK] < AA. *tVy- ‘father, chief’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 511, No. 2438). Further cognates are preserved only in Ber-ber (cf. Ahaggar tey ‘stepfather’). The Egyptian origin is, therefore, highly convincing.

Gk. Cret. karorÚj : Ûdra, KrÁtej ‘water snake’ [HAL k-849] < Eg. h. rr.t ‘a kind of snake, worm’ [Reg] < AA. *h. ir- ‘snake’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 281, No. 1273). Scholars who prefer the emendation Ødr…a f. ‘a water-pot, pitcher, urn’ unanimously follow Neumann (1961: 174), who connects it with Myc. ka-ra-re-we = *kararέFeV ‘stirrup-jars’. The suggested emenda-tion is however, , unnecessary, and the semantic and phonological similar-ity of the Greek and Egyptian items confirms the correctness of the reading Ûdra in the Codex Marcianus.

Gk. Cret. mar…n : t¾n sàn, KrÁtej (acc. sg. fem.) ‘pig, sow’ [HAL m-286] seems to be formally connected with AA. *mori’ or *morih. ‘fat, oil’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 386, No. 1784). It is uncertain, however, whether the Cretan term was borrowed from Egyptian (cf. Eg. mrh. .t ‘fat, grease’ [OK] and mr.t ‘fat cow’ [GP]) or perhaps from Semitic (cf. Ugaritic mru ‘fat cat-tle’, Hebrew merī’ ‘id’, Akkadian marû ‘fat’, Arabic mrh. ‘oil’) or elsewhere.

Gk. Cret. nikÚleon n. ‘a kind of fig’ (Athenaeus, Deipnosoph. 3, 76e) can-not be separated from Eg. nh.t ‘sycamore-fig tree; sycamore-figs’. The Cretan


term seems to be attested as early as in the Minoan-Mycenaean texts, cf. the Linear A and Linear B ideogram *30 NI for ‘figs’ (Neumann 1962: 51–54).

Gk. Cret. se‹fa : skot…a, KrÁtej ‘dark, darkness, shadow’ [HAL s-359] < Eg. šw.t ‘shadow’ [pyr.] < AA. *ĉiw-/*ĉi’ ‘darkness’ (Orel, Stol-bova 1995: 128, No. 552), cf. Sem. *ŝiw- ‘evening’ (Akk. šiwītu), Cushitic *d. i’- ‘become dark’ (Oromo d. i’a).

Gk. Cret. t…rij ‘summer(time), harvest’ [HAL t-945: t…rioj : qšrouj,

KrÁtej] seems to derive from AA. *cirih. ‘to warm’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 106, No. 445), cf. Akk. s. arāh

˘u ‘to warm’ (< Sem. *s. VrVh

˘-) and Iraqw cirih. -

‘glow’ (< Rift *cirih. -). The exact source of the borrowing remains unknown, though an unattested (?) Egyptian item would be preferred phonologically.

4. Egyptian loanwords in Linear A and Linear B texts.

The lexical contacts between Crete and the Afro-Asiatic linguistic world may also be observed in Mycenaean and Linear A documents. It is worth em-phasizing that Linear B texts demonstrate two different names for ‘Egyptian’ (Hemmerdinger 1968: 238):

12. Myc. Gk. ai-ku-pi-ti-jo (KN Db 1105), Hom. A„gÚptioj (Duhoux 1989: 78) < Eg. h. .t-k3-pth. , an Ancient name for Memphis (Erman, Grapow 1957: VI 103), cf. also Arabic k. ibt. ‘a native Egyptian Christian, Copt’.

13. Myc. Gk. mi-sa-ra-jo (KN F 841) < Ugaritic ms. ry ‘Egyptian’, cf. Arabic Mis. r ‘Egypt’.

I do not discuss here the problem of the direction of influence: it seems to me that the examples that follow demonstrate the direction from Egyptian to Minoan and Cretan Greek, but the material (i.e. terms for vessels, containers and clothes) is inconclusive.

14. Gk. ¢fÚh f. ‘small fry of various fishes’ (Liddell, Scott 1996: 294) cannot be dissociated from AA. * h. abu’- ‘fish’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 269, No. 1211). According to Ruijgh (1967: 273), the word in question occurs in the Mycenaean toponymy (cf. PN a-pu2-ja PY Jo 438.11) and represents a “mot d’origine sans doute préhellénique”. The Greek noun is probably


of Egyptian origin (cf. Eg. h. b3 ‘fish’ [OK]). The Semitic possibility seems doubtful, as the related term appears only in Akkadian (abūtu ‘fish’). The Greek etymological dictionaries give no convincing explanation of the ori-gin of ¢fÚh (cf. Frisk GEW I 197: „Unerklärt”, Chantraine DELG I 148: „Obscure”). Meier-Brügger (1991) suggests a connection between the Greek word and Sanskrit ábhvam (n.) ‘Unding, Unwesen, unheimliches Wesen, Spuk, Blendwerk’, which is difficult to accept from the semantic point of view (see Witczak 2001; Beekes 2010: 180, treats is as a “folk etymology”). Thus there is no reason to reject the Egyptian origin of Gk. ¢fÚh.

15. Myc. Gk. di-pa (KN K 875; PY Ta 641 etc.) ‘a kind of vessel’ and Gk. Hom. dέpaV n. ‘a beaker, goblet, chalice’ (Anderson 1994–1995: 300; Bertolín Cebrián 1996: 16) derive evidently from AA. *dif- ‘vessel’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 159, No. 695). A possible source of borrowing was most likely Eg. dfy ‘vessel’ [OK], where -y is a vocalic sign. Related terms are attested also in Central Chadic (e.g. Mwulyen deevo, Fali Mucella divu) and Omotic (cf. Ome dip’ee). Frisk (GEW I 367) does not explain the origin of the above word, assuming: „Wie viele andere Gefäßbezeichnungen ein Mittelmeerwort ohne Etymologie”. The same assumption is preferred by Beekes (2010: 317): “Pre-Greek, like many other words for cups”. Chant-raine (DELG I 264) follows Frisk’s way of thinking; however, he proposes the derivation from Luwian tepaš- ‘a small bowl’ (?), though Hester (1958: 35) suggested a non-Indo-European origin on the basis of the e/i alterna-tion. Warren (1995: 8) stresses that “there is a magnificent series of Egyptian stone vessels adapted into Minoan shapes in Crete”, in some cases probably together with the Egyptian name.

16. It is obvious that Myc. Gk. e-re-pa ‘ivory’ (KN Sd 412; PY Va 482 etc.), Hom. œlefaj (gen. sg. ™lšjantoV) m. ‘elephant’s tusk, ivory; el-ephant’ (Bertolín Cebrián 1996: 15) must be associated with AA. *leb- ‘el-ephant’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 360, No. 1662), whose descendants appear in five African subgroups: Egyptian (cf. Eg. 3bw ‘elephant’ [OK], Coptic εβου ‘elephant, ivory’), West Chadic (e.g. Tangale laba-ta < *lab-), Central Chadic


(e.g. Logone nevi < *nyab-), East Chadic (e.g. Mokilko ’elbi < *lyab-) and perhaps Oromo arba ‘elephant’. However, the exact source of borrowing is yet to be established (see Blažek 2003: 126–135). Duhoux (1989: 79) indi-cates the Hittite term for ‘ivory’ (Hitt. lahpaš), suggesting that the Greek word in question was borrowed from an ancient language of Asia Minor. Beekes (2010: 409–410) refers to the Egyptian and Coptic names for ‘elephant, ivory’.

17. Myc. Gk. ka-ra-to (MY Ge 603.1) ‘a kind of container’, Gk. k£laqoj

‘basket’ seems to derive from an Egyptian source (Rosół 2010), cf. Eg. qrh. .t ‘basket, bushel (container for fruits)’.

18. Myc. Gk o-re-i [KN B 7034] loc. sg. ‘on the mountain’, Myc. Gk. PN o-re-a2 [PY Ep 705.7] = Gk. 'Oršhj, as well as Anc. Gk. Ôroj n. (es-stem) ‘mountain, hill’, also ‘desert’, is related to AA. *h

˘oras ‘mountain’ (Orel, Stol-

bova 1995: 297, No. 1358). Though a Semitic origin (cf. Akk. h˘

uršu, Hebr. h. ōreš ‘rock, mountain’ < Sem. *h

˘urš-) cannot be excluded, it is possible to

derive the Greek noun in question from an Egyptian or North African source (cf. Eg. h

˘3s.t ‘mountainous region, desert’ [Pyr.]; Tala ro:si ‘mountain’

< Western Chadic *rwaHas-), The latter possibility seems preferable for both semantic (note the meaning ‘desert’ in Ancient Greek) and phonological rea-sons (Sem. *h

˘ is commonly rendered as Greek c). Beekes (2010: 1109–1110)

prefers to derive Gk. Ôroj from Ôrnumai ‘to stir, rise, rush away, hurry’. 19–21. Myc. Gk. po-ni-ke, po-ni-ki-pi (instr. pl.) ‘a mythical bird, griffin

or phoenix’, Anc. Gk. fo‹nix m. ‘id.’ must be treated as a borrowing from Eg. bynw, bnw ‘the bennu bird; phoenix’ (McGready 1968: 250; Beekes 2010: 1584). The possible homonyms (in Classical Greek, as well as in My-cenaean) with the meaning ‘date palm-tree’ and ‘a kind of musical instru-ment; lyre or harp’ seem to derive from Egyptian as well (Billigmeier 1977: 1–4; Blažek 2003: 121–125), cf. Eg. bny ‘date’ (OK), bny.t ‘date palm-tree’ (Pyr), Coptic (Sahidic) bnne, (Bohairic) beni m. ‘date’, f. ‘date palm-tree’; Eg. byn.t, bn.t ‘harp’, Coptic (Sahidic) boine ‘harp’.

22. Myc. Gk. sa-pa ‘a kind of clothes’ (Bertolín Cebrián 1996: 16) < Eg. sbby.t ‘clothes’ [GP] < AA. *čawVb- ‘clothes’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 112,


No. 476), cf. Aramaic (Syr.) tawb-, Arabic tawb, Soqotri tob, Akkadian šubtu (< Sem. *tawb- ‘a kind of clothes’), Pero čobbo (< WCh. *čwab- ‘to put on’), Sibine čwəbə ‘undress’ (< ECh. *čVwab-). The suggested Egyptian origin of the Mycenaean word seems highly convincing.

23. Linear A su-pu (HT 31.2) ‘a kind of vessel’ (Consani 1999: 302) < Eg. sp.t ‘vessel’ < AA. *cap- ‘vessel’ (Orel, Stolbova 1995: 112, No. 384), cf. Akk. sappu, Hebr. sap, Phoen. sp ‘a kind of vessel’ (< Sem. *sapp-). According to Orel and Stolbova, it represents “a cultural loanword or an inherited HS term”.

24. According to Neumann (1962: 51–54), the Linear AB ideogram *30 NI denoting figs (FIC) was originally motivated by Gk. Cret. nikÚleon n. ‘a species of figs’. The Minoan-Mycenaean term for ‘fig’ seems to be borrowed from Eg. nh.t ‘sycamore-fig tree; sycamore-figs’.

4. Conclusion.

1. The material adduced above (see examples 1–11) demonstrates clearly that the Egyptian language contributed lexically to the Greek speech, espe-cially the Cretan dialect, in ancient (pre-Classical) times.

2. Many terms attested in Mycenaean Greek, as well as in the Linear A texts, appear to be loanwords from an Egyptian source (see examples 12–24).

3. Early Egyptian borrowings refer to commercial items, especially ves-sels and some typical African goods like ivory, cf. Linear A su-pu ‘a kind of vessel’ (< Eg. sp.t ‘vessel’); Myc. Gk. di-pa (< Eg. dfy ‘vessel’), Myc. Gk. e-re-pa ‘ivory’ and so on.

4. Intensive contacts between Egypt and Crete began to develop as early as in the Minoan-Mycenaean age.

Abbreviations

Dictionaries: DELG – Chantraine 1968–1980; EDG – Beekes 2010; GEW – Frisk 1960–1962;

Editions: HAL – Hesychii Alexandrini Lexicon.


Egyptian sources: BD – Book of the Dead; GP – Greek papyri; MK – Middle King-dom; OK – Old Kingdom; Pyr – pyramids; Reg – Royal tombs.

Languages: AA. – Afro-Asiatic (or Hamito-Semitic); Aeol. – Aeolic; Akk. – Akka-dian; Att. – Attic; CCh. – Central Chadic; Cret. – Cretan; Delph. – Delphic; ECh. – East Chadic; Eg. – Egyptian; Gk. – Greek; Hebr. – Hebrew; Hom. – Homeric; HS – Hamito-Semitic; Myc. – Mycenaean; Phoen. – Phoenician; WCh. – West Chadic.

Other: PN – Place-name.

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Ancient Contacts between Crete and Egypt