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a

ECONO~IC AHD SOCIAL FACTORsr IN THE COHSU~PT 0

60045 I ti THE' FUR. TRADE OF UESTERH CRHADA .

, '

Heinr U. Pyszczyk

- 0 . A,, Un ive rs i t y o f Alberta, 1974 * '"u, ..

-

H. R . , ~ n b r q i t y o f Honitoba, 1978 . - "-.-,\

fl THES 1 S .SUBfll TIED I N PART I AL FU

. - THE REQUlREflENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

! 2 DOCTOR OF PH 1 LOSOPHY

I I i n the bedapt ment i'

I

of . e " -5 -

. '5- . ?. Archaeology , , .

@ Heinz Ual t e r Pyszczyk 1987

s I noti FRRSER UH I UERS I TY

A I l r? ght s reserued. This mork may not be reproduced i n d - ~ o l e o r in par t , by photocopy

o r other means, r i thout perm i i a i o n o f the author.

Permission ha.s been granted to the National ~ i b r a r ~ of Canada to microfilm this thesis and to lend or sell copies of the film.

,--

.The author (copyright owner) h a s reserved? o t h e r

>

pub1 i ca t i+on rights , and neither the thesis nor extensive extracts frofn it may be printed- or otherwige reprod'uced without his/her written permission.

J

?u

' L'autorisation a &t& accord&e ' B la ~ibliothhque nationale du Canada de Lmicrofilmer cette th&se. et e pr8ter ou de vendre des exemplairee du film.

C -*

L'auteur (titulaire du droit d'auteur) se r g s e r v e les autres droits de publication,. ni la th&se,'ni de longs extraits de celle-ci ne doivent- stre imprimhs o u autrement reproduits s a n s eon autorisation &rite.

ISBN 0-315-4264q-9

N a m e : Eeinz W. Pyszczyk

Degree: Dpctor of Pkilosgphy

Title of Thesis: Economic and Social Factors in the .. d'

Consumption of Material Goods in

the Fur Trade of Western Canada %

* . Chairman: pk. Philip Bobler

w. Brian Hapden ' Senior Supervisor

r rack Nance

Dr. Roy L. Carlson

Dr. James J. F. Deetz External Examiner Professor

, Department of University of

- - - <J

- 9

PARTIAL COPYHT CI1.1' LICENSE - - -

#

- I *

i' h e r e b y g f a n t t , ~ Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y ' t h e r i g h t to'lcnb . - + - . z,' .

m y t h e s i s .br d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e o f ~ h i c h 1s shown b e l o w ) * t o u se r . .

B f l

o f t h e S imon F r a s e r U n i v e r s I t y . L i b r a r y , and t o rake or sin& a . '

, c o p i e s ' o n l y f o r ' such u s e r s o r i n resp.ons$ t o a r e q u e s t f r m t h e l i b r a r y 1 - t

of a n y o t h e r u n j v e r s t t y , o r o t h e r ~ . $ f f u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , a own . ' - - t,

t +

, - b e h a l f o r f o r one o f i t s . u s e r s . ' I t w r t h e r agtee t h a t permission f o r - ,

1

Z m u l t i p l e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may b e g r a n t e d

4 4 e b y me o r t h e Dean o f ~ r a J u a t e S t u d i c o . &t is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o d y i n g q .

4- r

or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n d t b e a l l o & e d

w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

-

' ,

~ i t l e pf T h e s i s / ~ i s s e r t a t i o n :

Economic and S o c i a l F a c t o r s i n t h e Consumption

o f ~ a t e ; i a l Goods i n t h e F u r T r a d e of W e s t e r n

4, Canada

' Heinz W.' Pyszczyk

i ' , b , ,

' , ' ,

t - - - - - -

.*:& I ,'i -

.- - &

This t h e j i s develops d mode4 that t r e a t s 'material cu l t u re as a

-4 - . - . means o f compn i cat ion, b p a b l e o f car ry ing soc ia l i nformat i ono about t '. t Y

cond i t i ons- i n .soc i et y . These .concept s are app l i Cd to- docume&ory

\ ,

and archaeo I og i ca l data recovered from a number of e i ght eent h ' * Y-,

nineteenth century f u r trade s i t e s located i n the i n t e r i o r o f i

westqm Canada. The major focus o f the study i s t o examine hod

cer to in , forms of. mater ia l cu l t u re were used t o consciously express \

' , di,fferences i n soc ia l i n e a w l ~ t y i n f u r t ~ a d e soc ie ty . The aim o f

t h e study i s t o describe the consequent i n m t e r iak d

cu l ture , as it-was r e l a t e d t o inequal i ty , as wel l as t o discover

whet her the quant i t at i we s t ruc tu re o f mat e r i o l goods, ca r ry ing

f o c i a l in format ion was s i r i l a r t o the s t ruc tu re o f language, us 0

postulated-by concepts o f in format ion theory.

. - I n the secbnd h a l f o f the thesis, a l t e rna te t.heories that could

poss ib ly account f o r d i f fe rences found i n the consuipt ion o f ,

mater ia l remains, evident between the soc ia l ranks in f u r t rade r+

society, were evaluated w i t h the data. Foremost among these mere

v a r i a b i l i t y i n income, t a r i f f rotes, and the cost ofqgoods. These-

fac tors accounted f o r o ,large propor t ion o f d i f fe rences i n - 0

?. consumpt ion and l i v i ng cond i t i ons i n the fur. t rode ranks. ButJ @ (1

there were a lso soc ia l circumstances i n the ' f u r t rade uh i ch resu l t ed

i n on i ncrease i n the consumpt i on o f s t a t us goods even when

d i f fe rences i n income, t a r i f f s and the cost o f goods remained the

- - same o r decreased.

The i w e s t i gat ion o f consumpt'i bn pat t t r n s i n the f u r t rade

ind icated - tha t a numbir o f goods, assoc i a t ed w i t h expressing soc i a l '

- - - - - -- - -

d i s t i n c t i o n o r values he ld by members i n society, mere consumed i n - - - I

, prop\orti.onully d i f f e r e n t quan t i t i es by the o f f i c e r s than the 1

- seruont s. I t was glJo eu i dent that d i f f e r e n c u i n the tdnsumpt ion

o f these goods, betueen the 1.0 ranks, increas;d throug out the f u r I' : 1%

t rade era, espec ia l l y a f t e r the 186Os, even though t F

i nequa l i t y bgtween the s t r a t a decreased. It i s my co tent ion that J 'fl

. the soc i a l Fens i on? created by t h i J chbnge i n i nequa 1 i"ty and i n a B P

decrease i n stataf:kr@a 1 i r a f i on, re& l ted i n a mark f 1

mater ia4 good? t o s g l b o l i r e soc ia l a f f i l i a t i o n i n the upper & ,

li C * 4 .

t rade ranks. =*

Final ' ly, !hosq a t t r i b u t e s o"f a r t i f a c t s used t o cb r ry soc io l -- .? * ,

in format ion were compared t o a r t i f a c t a t t r i b u t e s that served a

pure l y u t i I i t a r i an funct i on. The corp i son *was i n t ended to !F? - r.

d t t e r r i ne whet he^ the quant i t a t i we s t ruet ure o f fhese former '5

a t t r i b u t e s was simi l o r t o the s t ruc tu re o f language, according t o \ S.

in format ion theore t i ca l p r i nc i p l es . ~h&*?esults o f the analys is o f

h i s t o r i c c l ay p ipe a t t r i b u t e s ind icate that the quant i t a t ive

s t r uc tu re o f th ree non-ut i l i t a r im a t t r i b u t e s d i f fered considerably- - from the s ta te? o f three u t i 1 i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s . The s t ruc tu re o f

e

the non-ut i4J Otpr i an a t t r i but oh ressmb l ed more* t Aat o f l anguage wh i ch * , Y +-

id&& l e .di ve rs i t y o f c h i ce (entropy) and a lso redundancy \

(pred i c t ab i I i t y) . The imp 1 i cat i ons o f t hese r e w l t s to'\, t he genero L \

l e i n moter i o l cuJfure and archaeological i nqu i ry were .I

I

'\

Uo It e w n d Ade l gunde Pyszczyk,

for the i r Fores i ght , Pot i ence, and Loue .

1 u.i sh t o thank my' supe+v i sor, B r i an Hayden, f o r h i s ' & < 1

I .

canstruct i ve c r it i c i sm o f myrresearch,'%a4 uabl e in; i ghtJ- on ear I i er a

-"r

i i r a f t s dt th is thesis,dmd f o r h i s steddi i rds j and guidance i i t h aony b .

C

. . aspects- o f my grdduot e

. * $ fw the sound edi , tor ia ,'

thesis, and f o r e f f e c t

3 b , - oork: I *out-d a lso l i ke ' to ' thank ' Jack Hance

B .. f aduice'he provided on e a r l i e r d r a f t s o f the

" . ivC I, 1 r e f r esh i ng my ymor$;about the" propeh

- -

app l i cat ion, o f war-i ous quant i t a t i ve t echn i ques i n archaeo l ogy ,

I mould l i k e t d t h a n k also, Roy Carlson fo r -po in t ing out - e -'

I weaknesfes i n ear l i e r d r a f t s o he thesis; 'those comments haped ' , 3

'i mprove the 'overa I l qua l i t LJ o f e plork,- I appreciate very much , ,y'-'- ' , I James Deetz ' s- l i I 1 i n g n k t o make room i n h i s busy sctiedu 1 e t o serve

'

on the thes is comi i t tec . H is enthusiasm and dedicat ion t o ' -

archaeology 'ia re f resh ing, and i nsp i r i ng t o tho je who meet him. -1C

, Because bf an unfor tunate acc i dent Knut F l admark was, unabl e t o

P

, cont inue t o serve on my corm i t tee. Homever, I m i sh t o thank Knut - I .

f o r mak i ng some very frank, PO i nted observat ions op the pract i ca l i t y

o f my research dur ing the ea r l y stages. Knut 's coaaent.s,helped

mainta in my research focus and:goal s when I was wading through reams

o f data.

tlany people helped me coaplete t h i s work - i n vqrious mays. I

mish t o thank Sh i r ley Smith, Curator o f the Hudson's Bay Company

Archives, f o r a l lowing me access t o the arch iva l mater ia ls . I am .

-.+

g ra te fu l t o Doug Bobcock f o r advis ing me mherc"to obta in documentary -r

references and mater ia ls . Doug a lso ted ious ly copied some o f the

- - -- ---- -- --- A --

Ounvegan debt l i s t J fckr me. H i kc Farman, Knut F 1 adaark, Don Steer, - -7- f

b

ond John H i c k ~ I e t me use unpub 1 i shed archaeo l og i co 1 data from t hd

h i s t o r i c f o r t 3 t h y had excavated. P -- ,.The compi,&ion o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n w e d i f f i c u l t f o r me.

Off ice 3 t o f f, a t the Ftrchaeo l og i ca l Survey o f .Albert a,*'-managed <to-

put up oi t h some i l l -mannered behavior on a femLoccas i ons; t h e i r .

pat i ence and underst and i nq i s apprec i a t ed . I w i sh t o thank n 1 so c-'

past management ; Pau 1 Donahue and qavj d Bur l ey, and present i I \

'i management, Jack l v e ~ and Nart y llagne, o f t he ' Archaco l og i ca l Survey 9

-. o f R l bcMp, fpr t h e i r support . ' -~hankb to' Ue,ndy ~ h h n s o n f o r d r a f t ing L

the map show i ng the ! ocat i on o f -Fur - t rqde' f o r t s in w s ~ t e rn Canada.

F i n a l l y , I wish t o thank my wife, G a b r i e l l a P r q e r , f o r read ing

ear l i e r dra f t.3 ~ f . t h i 3 d i s ~ e r t a t i on and-for her cons i derab i e <

e d i t o r i a l assistance w i t h the f i n a l d r a f t - but above a l l f o r her '

const ant encouragement, and f o r p u t t i ng up III i t h the 'bear' around --" '. - 5 ,

the house. I grudgingly ackno~aledge I i f . t l e K r i s t e n ' s c r e a t i v i - t y i n ,

rcorgan ir ing some o f my data i n ways I could never havs inpg ined! ,

Fortunate ly , tie i 1 was t.oo young t o l rave h i s mark on the wbbk. , - .

\ I

' I

2. _ , ' + 4

* t 4

. , A

14 Page ,. ,/ .

\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABSTRACT., .,.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DEDICATION.. :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . %

ACKNOULE~GE~ENTS . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . , . . . , , . . . .

L l ST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 ST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... B

3 -

CHAPTER I : , INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . Problem ' S t a t ement and Object

x i u

xui i i

The General Context o f t he Prob I em Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approaches .-' t o Consumption Behavior

t l a t e r i a l Goods as Symbols . . . , . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . , , , . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constra-i n t s on Consumpt i on.

Approaches t o t l a t e r i a l Cu l tu re i n H i s t o r i c a l

Archaeology.,. . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . I h e Study Rrea: The Fur Trade i n Uest e rn Canada. :

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O isse r ta t i on Organizat ion

J . - I'

CHAPTER. 2: THE PR-IEIBIPLES OF INEOUALlTV,.a . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . I n t roduc t i on . . , . . . . , , , , . , . . . . r . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charac te r i s t i cs o f I nequa l i t y . ..'.._.: . Stratp, , CI abs and Status. . . . . . . .., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reaard i ng and I nc70me, . I I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

l n e q u a ~ i t y as a Uar iab le . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t leasuresof I r iequa l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . .

U a r i a b i l i t y i n Economic Inequa l i t y ,..,..,,.,.....,. . . . . . . . . . F l e x i b i l i t y and R i g i d i t y i n Social S t ruc tu re

Summary . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . ; . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . y . . . . .

Page

........................ ....... introduction,,'., ..,,.,,,,... 37 -- - , ' t l a te r ia l Cul ture as Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Behau i o r hnd Soc i a l Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 t i a te r ia l Cul ture as Information in Archaeology.. . . . . . . . .?, 47

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background 47 Typea o f F o r ~ a l U a r i a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Imp 1 i cat ions and App l i cat ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,:. . . . . . . . . . . . ; 52 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . , , . , , , ,,-, , , . . 55 -

CHAPTER 4 : ~~ETHOOOLOG I CAL AND ANALY-T I CAL APPROACHES TO CONSUHPT I ON . . . . . . . . . . I ~ I . . I I . . . I ~ t . I . . I . l . . . . S6= AND INEOUALITY

In t roduct ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 The

The

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role! o f 'Economic Factdrs in Consumption 57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Income . I . . . I . l . . . . . I I I . . . I I . . 59

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pr ice 60 flu l t i p l e l ndependent Uar i ab l es and Consumpf i bn. . . . . . . 62

... Role o f Social Factors in Consumption ;., . . , . . . . . . . 64 . . Behavioral and Cu l tu ra l Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . 65

flna l ys i s and Ileasurerent. ........................... - 7 68 Conditions and Assuipt ions.. . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . I , . . . . . 70, . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary , , . , , , , , , , , , , . , , . . , . . . ~ , , . . . . , , . ; . , . . . ?Is

- - CHAPTER 5 : AN l NTROOUCT l ON TO THE FUR TRADE : H I STORY,

ORGANIZATION, AND EUIOEHCE ...,.... 13 ln t roduct ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .? . . ........... -73

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H i s t o r i c a l Background 74 Geographical Se t t ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! I . . . I 1 . . l I . l I I . . . . 74 . Trade and the Players.. . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . dm . . , . . . . . . . . . . 77

. ' . . . . . . . . Post-Ama l gomat ion : The Hudson s Bhy Coapany ;+ 81 . Corporate and Soc i a l St ruc ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . 86

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P o i i t i o n s a n d R e c r u i t r e n t 86. Company St ruc ture ............................... ;..... 96

i x

TRBLE CONTENTS

$ /'. . . - , Page . . C H R P ~ E B 5 u%NT,.~ j

r , . . . Fur Trade Oat Q. ........... : .................... ' ....... : ......... 100 1 '

'. ! . I n t ~ o u c i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 : - ,i.' +

, , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Idea t and Rctua l FUP;' ~ r a d e D o t a. : .. 100 4' _ ~ ~

0ocumen:tary'Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. 101 ' . >

. . Archoe6 T , . I og i ca I -Oat a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

. , t

CftRPTER 6 : T H ~ SOC-l AL ~COHSEOUENCES OF 1 NEOUAL 1 TY , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I N THE. F , ~ R TRADE. :.. 122 - -

1ntrodu~i~n..~.,:.,.,.,..~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 -

~condmic Condit ions and Social Structure: . Pre-1821 . . . . . . 122 - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edonoa i c 1 nequa l i kg. y&, i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # I . . . . . . , . . 6ehavioral Inpi - icat ions. . ; ,

Ecopomic Condit ions and Social Structure: The Post- . , *

. , 1 8 2 1 Era.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 > . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Behaw i ora I Consequences. : '. : 133'

. ."Summarg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ............................. 136 2 =

CHRPTER 7: THE CONSEOUENCES OF THE l NLRND FRE 1 GHT RND TflA IFF C SYSTEn ON I'lRTER 1 AL COHSUHPT I ON I ti. THE FUR TRADE. . . . . . . . . 138

l n t roduc t ioq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 v

. . . . . . . . . . The%North Nest Company Freight and T a r i f f System 139 ' .

. ~ ~ ~ o t heses . k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 '1

. Documentary nd flrchaeological Applications........;. 144 The Hudson's Bay Company Freight and T a r i f f System . . . . . . . 156

Pre-1821 Fre ight and T a r i f f Syst er......., . . . . . . . . . , . 156 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Post-1821 Freight and T a r i f f System -161

1 . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 7

CHAPTER 8: THE EFFECTS OF URR IflBLE I NCOHE AND 1 TEfl PRl CES ON CONSUFlPTlON HRBLTS I N THE FUR TRADE,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,-. ...... t71

Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 172 --- tncore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , . . . , . . . ; t72

. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p r i ce . : .-. 173

X

B Page CHAPTER 8 ( ~~ f i . )

. Uary i ng l ncore and Consurpt ion Hob i t s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Income and Total Conaumption 174

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consumption D i ve rs i t y and Income 100 Consumption and Uarying Retbi 1 Pr ice o f Goods.. . . . . . . . . . .' '191

Uarying Pr ice and Income Relat ionships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Changing Pr i ces o f f l r t ic les . . . . . . . . . . . ....'........,.. 1195

. - "' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. ; ,202 . \

? . - - * CHAPTER 9 : HATER YIL GOODS. I H srerus-o I FF EREHT I AT I OH I H ,

/

THE FM TRADE. . . . . . . : . . . . ; . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 . . . . . . . . . . . . lnt roduct ion. .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Hypothe~es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Gtnera l Consumpt i on ~ a r i ab i 1 i t tj :, . . . :+. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 e

. . . . . . . . . . . . Soc i a I and B e h u i ora I 'Consumpt i on D i f ferences 21'1 a ....:... . I mage/Appearance and C l ass Consc i ousness .d. 21 1 Status Goods and Social D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . . . . . . . . . I . . 219

Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 C

CHAPTER 10: B l G HEH - B IG HOUSES? THE ARCHITECTURAL REf lA l NS OF THE FUR TRADE.. . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. . . . . 233 1 ntroduct ion .......... .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fur Trade For t and Bu i I d i ng Construct ion. 236 Arch i tec tura l A t t r i bu te3 and Rank. . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , . ... 236

. . . . . . . . . . Ram Hate r ia l s and Bu i ld ing Features , \ . . . . I . 237 . Bu i l d i ng Construct ion Techniques, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Bui ld ingLSize, P a r t i t i o n i n g a n d Arrangement . . . . . . . . . 239 f l r ch i tec tu ra l U a r i a b i l i t y an-d Occup'ationd Rank . . . . . . . . . . 246

Archaeological and H i s t o r i c Quan t i t a t i ve Data . . . . . . . . 246 L i v i n g Space.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l . . . . . . . . . . . . 248% Hurber o f Roors,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250, Spat ia l Prox imi ty . . , . . . . . . . ,*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 . Hudson s Bay coipaiiy Uersus Hort h Uest Company. ...... 251 Economic and Social Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l . . . . '258 I L:

.J Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , . ~ , , , , , , . , 267 -

.? - - A-

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT . ) , .

" ,. Page . .

, I CHAPTER 1 1 : 'UAR 1 RBI t 1 T; I H THE STRUCTURE OF RRTER I AL CULTURE. 269 , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ ' , .

I n t raduc t ion . . .... . . ; . 269 Rn l n f o r i a t i o n Theoret ica l f3ppr.oact-1 t o S t y l e . ..........:... 271 App l i ca t ion and, Resu l ts . : . . g.;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

1 '

. 'Hypothesea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -275 . -

. '.: . . Hethod . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 \ -

" ;'... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' Re la t i ve Entropy and Redundancy ; 2.79 7 ,

Archaco!ogicol lmp l i ca t io r i s and Rpp l i co t ion f . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I m p l i ~ a t i o n s . . . 5 . . . . . ... 201 k%

'4, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . App l ica t ions : . . . . , , . 282 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . ', . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . 280

+ .;

H @ v . j

.b CHAPTER 12: D l SCUSS I ON RHQ CWCLUS I ONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Theoret i ca 1 and net h o d g i ca 1 I ssues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adapt i ve versus 1 deat i ona l Approaches. 289

net hod0 I og i ca I I s w e s . . . . .~ . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 . . The Data and" App l i cat ions. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

. . . . . . . Bola and L im i t a t i ons . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 i - - D e f i n i t i o n s and App l i ca t ion . . . . . . . . ..,,.............. 296

. Compor ison and fleasurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Genera l not e r i a l 1 nd i c d r s o f Rank. 298

. . . . . . . . . . . . . Heasurement o f Consumption Uariabi l i t y . . 299 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Causa l i ty and Consequences 304

The E f f,ect o f Commodi~y P r i-ce and Income on Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Soc i a l beterm inants o f Consumpt ion Behou i o r . . . . . . : . . . 306 .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . , . . . . . , . . . . . , . , . . . . . , , 309 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . flaterial Cu l tu re - S t ruc tu re and Style.;.-.n..;i 311

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r'/ Future D i re=t ions and Research rob lea=: ; : 31 1 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

REFEREHeES CITED. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

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- - ? met€ w m m.3

A - - - . P i

r A 9 \-. h

I

\ '

Page %

TABLES AH0 F l GURES, OF PR,l M R Y DtiTfi APPEND I X fl : \

. i ~ U R N T I TAT I UE RHO , STAT I S%I CAL RESULTS. . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 - 9 - Chapter.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . I . . . I . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3$9 Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . , . . , . . : . , . , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 1 1 . ; . , . . , . , . . , ,,> , , , ; $04 e

I i APPENDIX B r PRICE LIST OF GOOOS'FROH SRFPLE YEBRS.

. . . . . . . . . t . . . . . . . . . . SRSKRTCHEUAW RHO RTHABA'SCR 0 1-STR I CTS, : 4 10 -

In t roduc t ion . . ~ . . . . . . ~ ~ . , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . . . , ~ ~ . ~ . . ~ ~ . ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ . ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ 411 . . . . . ~ r ' i c e L i s t o f Goods, 1809-10: hskatcheman D i s t r i c t 412 . . . . . I r Pr ice C i s t o f Goods, 1821-22: Saskatcheman O i s t r i c t 414

Pr i ce L i s t o f Goods, 1834-35: Saakatchcman D i s t r i c t . . . . . $17 . PF - i r , & U ods, 1853-54 : Saskat cheran D i s t r i c t . . . . . 420

Pr i ce L i s t o f Goods, 1866-67 : Saskat chCman D i s t r i c t . . , . . $23 .......... P r i & L i s t o f Goods, 1817: At~habasca.Distr ict . . $28 % ,

Pr i'ce L i s t o f Goods, 1820-21 : Rthab~sca D i s t r i c t . . . . . . . . $30 . ......... Pr i ce L i s t o f GoodsJ 183-36: Athabasca D i s t r i c t 434

1 P r i ce L i s t p f GoodsJ 1851-55: Rthabasw D i s t r i c t . . . . . . . . . $37 C

. . . . . . . . S J ) .

h i c e 1 i s t of Goods, 1865: Athabasca O ' 3 t i c t .: : 439 RPPEtiDlX C: FORT HISTORY RRD ARCHAEOLOGY. ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $41

In t roduct ion. I .. . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $42 The Rthabasca D j s t r i c t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . $42

. The Saskatchemah D i s t r i c t . . . . ,A, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. 415 --

- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary o f promot i ons : 1821 - 1 8 7 k 95

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,Fur t rade docurentory data summary. 108 a ~ u r t ra.de archaeo l og i ca I' dot a sugmar'y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1

Emp togee bnd i ncome frequency d i s t r i but i ons , - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Northe& Depar,tnnt 124 *

Jar i f f 'schedule o f the- t lqr th-Uest Company, 1804.' . . . . . . . 141 pelcent age ' o f goods purchtped from t o t a 1 ava i 1 ab l e

b. .%i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a - c r e d i t , Hotth Uest Conpang. 145 Compw i son o f f i e frequency a f gooda t o vary i ng t ac i f fs, North Rest Cornpuny arcbaeo 1 oq i ca 1 ossamb 1 ages. 149 Compar i son o f k i t ?hen nscess i t i es and k i t chen

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . luxur ies o f the Horth Uest Company 154' 7 5 C0mpar.i son o f archaecrl og i ca l rena ins o f

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t a r i f f e d goods by cdmpany.. 160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6. ,Comparison o f lorn t o h igh t a r i f f e d goods : '162

. . . . . . . . . . . 7 7 Summary o f Hudson's Bag ~ o ; ~ a r i ~ t a r i f f r a tes . 163 7 8 Summary o f consumpt i o n of a 1 coho l and country good3

. . . . . . . . . by rank : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . 167 7 9 Compar i son o f Saskat cheran and flt hobasca o I coho I

, b consumpt i on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . .*, . . . . . r . . 39 7 7.10. R t habasca d i s t r i c t - compar < i tons o f count r

by occupat i on group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 . Summary o f regress i on ana l ys i s : t o t a 1 consumpt i on

\

t o t o t a l iricome . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . I , . . . , I I I , . , . . . . , , . , 3$9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2. Occupat i ona l consumpt ion hab i t a, 176

8.3, Compar i80n o f 'mean annual rages t o t o t a l purchases by ' temporal per iod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

8.4. Summary o f regression analys is: t o t a l income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o t o t a l item d, ivers i ty . . . . .: 350

8.5. Summary o f mean d i v e r s i t y o f goods consumed by ,

P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . income grou s : 182 8.6: Comparison o f mean va r i e t y o f goods by

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . igsome.groups 351 8.'7. Compuridn o f o f f icer ; versus servant; item -

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . consumption t o p r i c e 355 0

x i v

U i l coxon-S i gn t es t b f ten highest p r iced a r t i c 1 es,

u i 1 coxonr,5 iGn t e s t o f archaeo l og i ca 1 data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Compar i sun o f moose sk in p r i c e change and consumption ra te . . . : , . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , . . . . . . . . , . . . , . , . . 0366 Comparison o f s h i ~ t . p r i c e % change and . '

consumption rate..~...............,..lIIII....II.I.I,.. 368 Coipor ison o f change i n income and p r i c e bf tobacco ,.

f on consumption o f tobacco.., ...................... 370 Compar i son o f a 1 coho l p r i ce h n g e and -

consumption r a t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . I I I 1 . . I . I . . . . I I . I , , . 372 Ef fec t s o f changes i n income and p r i c e o f tobacco on consurpt i on o f tobacco, 1 853-66, Hudson ' s Bay Company. , . 200 Summary o f Jackard S i m i l a r i t y Coe f f i c ien t o f goods,..,,. 374 Summary o f servants and o f f i c e r s a r t i fac t type -

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . frequencies per a r t i f a c t category ... 212 Archaeological a r t i f a c t frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s per a r t i fac t category , North Uest Company and Hudson ' s Bay Company s i t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3 Comparison o f consumption ra tes o f u t i l i t a r i a n , i magejappearance and s t a t us a r t i c l es, 181 7 A t habasca

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d i s t r i c t . . . . . . . . . . ~ I . . I I . . . I . . . I I . . . . I 379 'Cornpar i sah o f consumpt*i on ra tes o f u t i 1 i t a r i an, i rage/appearance and s t a t w a r t i c 1 es, 1835 Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Comparison o f consumption ra tes of u t i l i t a r i an , i magelappearance bnd s t a t us a r t i c l es, 1867 Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t . . , . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38+ Comparison o f iconsumpt ion ra tes of u t i 1 i t a r i an , i magelappearance and s t a t us a r t i c l es - from Buckingham Hpuse, 1792 - 1800. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Compar i son o f conkumpt i on ra tes o f u t i l i t a r i an, i magdappearance and s t at us a r t i c 1 es from

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fort George, 1792 - 1800 390 Compar i son of consumpt i on r a t e s o f u t i I i t a r i an, i rage/appearance and st a t us a r t i c l es from Nott inghar House, 1802 - 1 8 0 5 . . . . , , . . . ~ . . . , , . , . I . I . . 391

Compar i s m o f consumpt ion ra tes o f u t i l i t a r i an, image/appearance and s ta tus a r t i c l e s , from Rocky llounta i n House, 1799. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393- Comparison o f consumption ra tes of u t i l i t a r i a n ,

- i sage/appearmce and s t a t us a r t i c l es f r o r For t Ep ine t te , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Comparison o f consumption ra tes o f u t i l i t a r i a n , i magelappearance. and s t a t us arVi c l es from For t U ic to r ia , 1864'- 1897, . , , , . . . . . . . . . . ....,..... 395 Comparison o f u t i 1 i t a r i a n t o per+sonalfiaage r e l a t e d goods, Hudson's Bby Company 181'7, 1835, 1866 debt I i s t s . 397 Compar i son o f u t i I i t a r i an t o h i a t u r a r t i facts, Hudson ' s Bay Company debt I i s t 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....... 100 Sumiary o f comparison o f types o f q ta tus goods t o income, occupaf ion, and soc ia l consciousness. . . . . . . . . . ' 227 Summary o f p~ l t i p l e regress i on resu 1 t s : r e I at i onsh i ps *

betreen number o f s t a tus goods types and income, h

o c c q t i o n , and soc ia l a f f i l i a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Fur t rade f o r t a r ch i t ec tu re summary,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 For t a r c h i t e c t h e and occupation,- summary data . . . . . . . . . 232 Comparison o f l i v i n g space t o occupat ion ' / ( I

and f o r t ' rank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249, Comparison o f nuaber 'of r o o k , and spa t i a l d is tance by occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Comparison o f mean I i v i ng space by t i r e per i od, Hudson's Bay Company f o r t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I I I . ~ l O 1 O 1 O 1 O 1 O . l O 1 O 260 Corparison o f room number and s p a t i a l proximi ty , i

Hudson ' s Bay Company f o r t a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n o f borl aperture widths o f 1

B r i t i s h c l ay p ipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t O S Frequency d i s t r i but ions o f bow l l en$ hs o f B r i t i sk c lay .p ipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $05,

' F r e q u k y d i s t r i b u t i d m of ' bod h e t l widths o f 'i B r i t i s h c l a y p ipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-. . . SO6

. I _

' xui

J LIST OF TRBLES (COHT.) -

1 1 4' Frequency d i s t r i but ions o f -boo 1 h e i I shapes o f . ' B r i t i s h c l a y p ipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

11 .5 . Frequency distv- ibut ions o f bowl shapes o f - - . B r i t j s h c l a y p ipes, . . . . . . . . . ~ . , , C I . . . I I I ~ I I . I . . . . m . I I 408

- , 1 1 .6. Frequency d i s t r i but i on8 o f bowl ca r t ouche des i gn 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I elements o f B r i t i s h c l ay p ipes . . . , 409 1 1 . 7 Hypothet i c o l c l ay p ipe stem frequency d i ~ t r i b u t ion. . . . . . 204 . s

11.8. Clay p ipe stem t o 3 b o r l fragment r a t i o s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287.

ii

( i LIST OF FIGURES

Page 1 . 1 . Conceptual r e l ~ t i o n s h i p between the c u l t u r a l system ',

and behvibr and m a t w i a l cu l t u re , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 . 2 . Exump t e o f the use o f mater i d l 'goods by d r p t a ,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in soc ie ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ' 2 . 1 . Degrees o f i n e q u a l i t y ' i n three hypothet icbl .

populations.,- . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,: . . . . . . . . . ,28 3.1 -, The r e 1 at i onsh i p bet reen _cbnsumpt ion o f goods as symbo l s

o f se l f-concept (mod i f i ed from Grubb and? b a t hwbhl 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 -

3.2. The r e l at i onsh i p bet ween product o r brand and the degree of reference group inf luence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 44 q

4 . 1 . The re l a t i onsh ip betmeen inequal ify, soc ia l act ion, and mater ia l c u l t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . 58

5 . 1 . fl .ap o f the Saskatcheaan and flt habasca d irtr i c t s . . . . . . . 75 5 . 2 . E s t i mated average annua l p ro f i t s aade by the Hudson ' s

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bay Company o f f i c e r s between 1821 - 1880 8t 5.3. The number o f c 1 erks/postaast ers pos i t ions i n t h e

i

northern depart merit , Hudson 'a Bay Company. .'; . , . . . . . . . . . 91 v

5 . 4 , t l o b i l i t y m i t h i n theHudson's Bay Company between 1821 - 1 8 7 0 , , , , , , , , , , ..., ,,.......,,....,... 92

5 . 5 . Promot i ons t o tqudesmen i n the Hudson ' s Bay Company - betreen 182bg-4870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5 . 6 , Promotions t o c 9 - c r k s ~ o f f i c e r s i n theHudson's Bay Company between 1821 - 1870.: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5 7 -Schemat i c corpar i son o f the Hudson ' s Bay Company and . . . . . . . . . . the Horth West Company corporate s t ruc tu re , .. 97

.i

6 . 1 . Total r e l a t i v e inequa l i t y i n the f u r t rade fboa 1800 - 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7 . 1 . Percentage o f goods purchased a i t h increasing t a r i f f s . . 146 7 . 2 . Percentage o f t a r i f f e d goods consumed a t f u r t rade s i t e s 151 8 .1 . , Compar i son o f annua l &wages t o t o t a l goods purchased,

+ . 1809 - ,1866, the Hudson . s Bay Company. . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . I t, 178 a

8.2. ,Comparison o f mean annual wages t o mean t o t a l purchases, by t i q e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

9

xui i i

- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- . I F

r r

L I S T OF F I'GURES (COtlT . I P

- -

1 Page . u c - ~ o m ~ g ~ i s o n o f annual income t o d i v e r s i t y o f goods used- i n 1 b09 +'i n the Saskat chewan. d i s t r i c t . . . . . . ............... 183

8 .4 . Summary o f d i v e r s i t y o f goods used by income groups . . . . . . . , . . i n the Saskat cheman and Ftt habusca d i s t r'.i c t s .,.. 184 8.5.' Comparison o f a r t i f a c t q u a q i t y t o d ive rs i t y ,

\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FO: ~t d o r g e . : '. .'. 187 8.6 . Compariaon o f a r t i f a c t quan t i t y t o d ive rs i t y , --. .

4 . Buck i ngh'nm House, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:. 188 8 :7. red i d t eh a r t i fac t d i v e r s i t y f o r income groups at

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i For t Georhe and Buck ingham House. 189 8 . 8 , Consurpt idp and p r i ce o f moose sk ins and sh i r t s

.... . . . . . . .. i n the ~ i d j o n ' s Bay Company, 1822 - 1853. : , 196 8.9. ~ o n s u m ~ t i o" and p r i ce of a l coho 1 and tobacco i n .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Hudson'4 Bay Company, 1822 - 1866, .,. 197 . . . 9.1. Summary o f r h s u l t s o f Jaccard S i m i l a r i t y Coe f f i c ien t 209

9.2. Summary o f ndTber o f a r t i fact types . per major cattigory .....,......,. ....,.. . . . . . . . . . . 215

\ 9.3. Rat io o f imagekappearance t o u t i l i t a r i a n goods from three H u d s o n ' d a y and three Hort h Uest Company s i t e s . . 218

9 . Percent age o f servants ' and o f f i cers ' appeardncei i maie goods from three Hudson's Bay and three Horth d

West Company s i t e$ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 9 . 5 . Rat io o f s ta tua t o u t i l i t a r i a n goods from three

Hudson's Bay Company s i tes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . 224 . Percentage o f servants' and o f f i c e r s ' s ta tus goods from -

three Hudson's Bay Company s i t es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Hgpot hct i ca I example of the i n f 1 utnce o f f o r t rank

. . . . . . on d i f fe rences i n a r ch i t ec tu ra l a t t r i b u t e s . , :, ... 235 Comparison o f l i v i n g space f o r the servants and o f f i c e r s

' . . . . i n the Hudson s Bag Coapany and Hort h Uest Company. 251 Comparison o f b u i l d i n g area t o l i v i n g space f o r the o f f i c e r s and servants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Comparison o f the number o f rooms f o r the servants

a n d t he o f f i c e r s i n the Hudson's Bay and -

Hort h Uest Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Compariion o f the number o f t imes the o f f i c e r s ' q u a r t e r s - are separate from swuant s ' quarters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

L I S I OF FIG& (CIM1.I - - -- A

a a Page

I l l u s t r a t i o n of c lay pipe bowl u t i l i t a r i a n and non- u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 l l l ust r t ion o f c lay pipe bow 1 heel shape, bowl shape, E' cartou he design element types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Hater ia l cul,tyre patterns are i n t h e . f i r s t . place r a t e r i a l behau i or pat t ern3 - patterns o f soc ia l l y acquired actions and ac t i u i t 2 ies condensed i n sol i d form.. . .The least app~ec ipt ed and most subt l e 60 l e, o f mat C r i a l a r te fac ts i s ' t he i r capacity fo r information commun i cat i on, a symbo l i c and euocat i we bol b i mp i ng i q oh the psy&ho 1 og i ca 1 tubsyst ems 'of the soc i s t y i t se l f - i n a cont i nuous fe;dback loop (Clarke 1%8:399-$00).

The puppose o f t h i s d i ssertat i on i s t o examine the s t ructure o f

material culture, and the r o l e i t p lays i n s ignal ing d i f f e r e n c ~ s or ,* -_

s i m i l a r i t i e s betmeen people i n cu l tu ra l systems. I n other words,

the study i nuest i gates the cond i t i ons under mh i ch mat er i a l goods . x

become i mport ant as commun i cat i we dev i ces, convey i ng soc i o l

i dormat ion. The econom i c and, soc i a l cond i t i ons i n fu r t radc . . y ,

commun i t i es i n the Saskat cheman and A t habaaca regions o f mest ern +

/+-

Canqda occup i e d dur i ng the e i ght cent h and n i net cent h cent u r i es * are -- ,/-- ,'

//

used t o exp l ore these top i c$ . -

I n order t o accompl ish t o f t h i s dissertat ion,

three major awas involv ing tLhe a r t i cu l at ion o f cu l tu ra l and - -- behav i ora l phenomena t o mat e r i a l cu l t ure must be exam ianed : I

factors i n communi t i,es that a f fec t changes i n social s t ructure and

- U K I ~ O&~ORO; 2) m a p in +iciv& r a n q i t tad--- - -

. t o others - i n society; and, 3) the ident i f i cot i.on o f those goods, o r

a t t r i b u t e s o f goods, t ha t are the most sens i t i ve ind' icators f o r

s i gna l i ng and ass i ng l u l t ura l 'i n format ion t o others. I n olrder t u I '

explore the above areas i t i s necessary t o v i em cul ture, and --;* - , ,

mat e r i a l cu l t ure, not on l y as man's adapt i ve means f o r s"& i vb I, but

a lso as the means f o r peop l e t o communi c a t e and expresp themse l ves

, i n t h e i r soc ia l ehi ronment ; such forms o f expression are important - -

f o r i nvest i got i ng mc i a l s t ruc tu re .

THE GENERAL CONTEXT OF THE PROBLEfl STflfEtlEHT

-. -

It i s c r i t Ccal a t the outset t o ptocC

more general cont

a ambiguity i n l a t e

focuses on the sy e mater ia l cu l t u re performs i n society, I

most important r o l e nor the ,on ly ,

are consumed. I n order t o demonstrate .here

my research f ocu j f i t s in, I m i l l rev i em contemporary econom i - /

?=or i es t hat exp l a i n hem and why i nd i v i duo I s choose mat er i a If good3 ,'

/ i n pest and present soc ie t ies . k --

I -, -

During t h e f i r s t ha1 f o f the tment i e t h century microeconomic

t heory and monad i c mode l s o f consumpt i on become the nost - popu l o r - approaches t o underst and i ng consumpt i on behav i o r ( S t e rn t ha l and

4

Cra i g 1980 : 1 0 ) . H i croeconom i c t heary assumes tha t peop l e : 1 ) t r y

. . - . max i mize the u t i l i t y of the i r purchases based on a budget -- - - - - - - - - - - -- -

/ ,- l / cont t ra i n t ; 2) t hatL they knoa what p r o d u c t s and serv ices they

/ b

/ brefer ; and, 3) they have per fec t knoaledge about how t o s a t i s f y

/. these preferences (Sternthal and Craig 1980:40). Essent ia l ly , then,

l i croeconom i cs, ' . . asauaes tha t on I y econom i c f ac to r s gu i de

consumer behav i or ' ( S t e rn t ha l and Cra i g 1980 dl ) . Th i s theory '

predi c t s, f o r example, that consumers purchase a o r c o f an i tem as

I the p r i c e o f tha t item drops ( ~ t e r n t h a l ' and Craig 1980:40). O r , the /

t h to ry mou l d pred i c f thot a changc"i n household i ncome mould a lso - '. - -

see a ~h i-f t i n consumpt i an qudnt i t y . \ - , \

H i croeconom i c theory cont i nues ta be prom i nent i n current ..- '% *. a

consumpt ion research s i nce, i nev i tab l y, the p r i ce o f goods and % -<

househo l d i ncome l eve l s place cons i derab l e cons t ra in ts hom peop l e

choose products (Cochrane and Be l l 1956: 79). But i t mas ql so \

- I

eui dent by the 1950s tho t a microecdnom i c approach t o consumption \

o f t en f a i l ed t o accurat e l y pred i c t consuipt i on behw i o r and i gnored

the psychdl og i ca l and soc i a l d e t b a i nant s o f consumpt i on ( S t e rn t ha1 / 'i \

and Craig 1980: 40-41). I n other aords, r e mere other 'factor,5 I

,/

involved i n ho. peop l e c h o d goods (Stern I and Craig 1980:44). //

/ -

I t mas becom i ng apparent1 tha t the exam i na n o f consum~tion, e i t h e r /'

i n cont e.porary o r p&t soc i e t i es, had t o a r morq heav i l y on /' ot".*-\!

behav i ora I ' s c i enc,d Peop l e o f t en made c umpt ion decisidi&.hich /

mere a l so depcddent on5 /

1968:S). e b n s u ~ ~ t i o n .as not devoid o f -"

any i nput from the res t o f

\ I Even the ear l y marg i na l econom i s t s (e . g . , \Jevons, narsha l l , \ '

C

'4 c-

Ueb 1 en and Kn i ght ) wem awa& that such fac to rs as emu l a t ion and the - - -

\ des i r e . f o r d i s t i nct i on among i nd i v i dua l s were very much a ,part o f \

consumpt i on ( Duesenberry 1919'\ 1 t . Un 1 i ke those econom i s t s who . t

worked with &ononic u t i l i t y t eory, these Fndividuals d i d not \ i 1' -

acceptv tha t t hb. on4 y uar i ab l\es e l evant t o t i on o f type and P q u a n t i t y o f p r i c ~ s a ~ d \ n c ~ e - . ( e l . . Rnd

\ more i mport quest i oned whet her the p r c ference* f o r go6ds

\

by df the behavior o f others

econom i s t s (Cochrane and Be 1 l - -

basic postu la te aiid grouped * $ 7 ' *

A , human .ants - i n to th e that were &pent i a l 1 y i nd i v i duo l l y der i wed

iB

(e.g., food and she l t e r e w t s ) t o those tha t were socia l ' o r \ a*

group-creot ed (e . g . , i on moots) , bor6owi"G' from other soc i a 1 ' \ a

sc i ences (Burk . They a lso r cogn i red that the f i r s t group 4 pes o f th ingsl thaf peopid bought, whi le the

. I

second' group o f wants d i t a t ed the forms and var i a t i s these types t $. o f goods took (Cochrane~ dpd B=T I l956:85). ~t mas apparent in

\ * cant emporary s tud i es o f cTnsuipt i on t hot there was consc i ous cho i ce

* X I

o f some a t t r i b u t e s o f mate , i a l goods. A '

i . *. *

his br ings me back t o the o r i g i n a l t hes i s problem ftatement. I (.

w i 1 1 focus on the second group o f consumer ran t a; keep i ng i n a i nd - tha t the choice o f goods must s a t i s f y a l l 4 n d i v i d u a l needs w i t h i n a,

d

l i m i t e d income. This i s i n e f f e c t what t he cent ra l problem o f

choice i s reduced t o : 1 ) ' . . .decis ions w i t h respect t~ which and t o

what degree each want i s t o ~ b e sa t i s f i ed ; and, 2 ) , . , . decisions w i th

respect t 6 the comb i not ion o f goods and serv i ces t o be acquired t o - 0 ..

sat i s f y the pa t t e rn o f wants' a lready det erm i ned' (Cochrane and Be 1 l /

i

-, 1,

&Trod i t i ona 1 l y econoa i s t s have focused t h e i r . a t t ent ibn OR the -.

second par t o f the choice prob tern, aai n t a i n i ng tha t the f i r s t pd r t -

cannot be ob j ect i ve l y measured (Cochrane and Be l l 1956 : 93) . k t 7

there i s no doubt that the f i r a t par t of , the choice prob l em i s the d

most i n te res t i ng and informat ive about human soc ia l systems and * -

i n t erdct ion. To s ta te tha t man chooses those goods mh i ch best -

s a t i s f y h i s .ants m i t h i n h i s ec&b.aic l i m i t s - i s t o ignore the very -

- I - - -- -

=important quest ion o f ' . . .which~mants are t o be s o t W i e d a d t o ,

i - i-

what deg e t . . . ' l ~ o c h r o m ~ a n d 0e l lP 1956: 93). I t i s t h i s bypb l em - tha t 1 h a v e turned my o t t en t i on t o i n t h i s d i sse r ta t i on . , - I m i l l

.r $ -4 -

i nvest i gat e under what cond i t ions s o d a l o r grobp-ckeat ed wants

become r e l a t i ve l y more import ant, mh i l e at the same t i me9 recogn i z i ng

t ha tao the r basic ind iv idua l needs must s t i l 1 be s a t i s f i e d w i t h i n the

f lo te r ia l Goods as Suabols a

a-

Speech, 'rr i t i ng, a i r e l ess, t e l ephone and

There i s one other aspect aor th not i fig \from the above

discuss ion. Since i t i s general l y thought t het mater i a l goods .

s a t i s f y wants they must, therefore, be capable o f measuring the -

i aport ance o f those .ants and &pressknb the@ t o others i f they are ,j --

group-creat ed (U i essner 1983, 1989; Hodder 1979; Conkey 1980.; Ta j f el

1982; Uobst 1 9 7 ) But the task o f i nves t iga t ing mater ia l c u l t u r e

as a ' f o r a o f symbol i s very d i f f i c u l t s ince a a t e r i b l goods may serve t

on l y an anc i I I ary . r o l e as an i n format ian comaun i cat i on * syst em t o

other more d i r e c t soc i ocu 1 t ura 1 coaaun i cat i on t echn i-ques .

i'

'. 6

-- P

' tcJevison co ipc te and supplement ind iv idua l gestures and soc ia l a r t e fac t s l i k e

- -

ceremonies, customs, t r ad i t i ons , r i t u a l s , and so on.. . (Clarke 1960:100). '

I t i s apparent, however, t hat some oat er i a I' goods form the concrete

mani festat ions o f human d i f f e r e n t w n and s i m i l a r i t y i n society,

thereby performing a soc ia l r o l e . It i s the in ten t ion o f t h i s

d i sser ta t ion t o examine mat er i a l goods i n the f u r t rode using some

fundamental p r i n c i p l e s o f symboiic anthropology and informat ion ,

theory . Uh i l e these t heoret i ca I' approachea are r e l at i ve l y me l I k

deve l oped i n ant hropo I ggyz t o i nvest i gate the funct i on o f vor i ous

soc ia l and c u l t u r a l i n - t i t u t i o n s ( f o r example, see Uiessner 1903,

I 1984, 1985; Geertz 1973)) they have been-app l i ed l ess

archaeo l og i ca l i nqu i r y (Uobst 1977; Hodder 1979, 198 1 6

1973).

Uar i ous forms o f informat ion theory Mobst 1977;

1973), as me l I as i nt-eract ion theory (Deet z 1965; Uha

19771, haue somet imes been used i n archaeo 1 ogy t o exp

o f ten i n

Just eson *

Just eson

a i n how

c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s o f mater ia l goods arc used as a means o f

. commun i cat i on, o r t o express membersh i p at the band, band c l ust er,

o r I anguage group *I eve I . - These approaches . haue been r e I at i ve l y

usefu l i n exp la in ing the degree o f v a r i a b i l i t y i n a p a r t i c u l a r

a r t i f a c t o r group o f a r t i f a c t s a t the reg iona l o r i n t e r s i t e level o f

comparisoh i n archaeology (Conkey 1978, 1981) and anth~opology

(U i essner 1983 ,' 1984). A l though prob l ems have been encountered i n . ,

apply ing informat ion and i n te rac t i on theore t i ca l approaches, each

has prow i ded cons i derab l e i ns i ght i n t o how r a t e r i a l goods f unct i on

, * as a means o f commun i cat i ng or a l ong. i n format i on - r e g r d - i ng- - i

the ind iv idua l and the group. A

- ....

Few at"d ies . have La been conducted .t hbt use ths above theor ies t o

exp la in va r iab i l i t y i n a t t r i b u t e s o f a r t i f a c t ~ s w i t h i n the group;

" however, Uiessner's (1983, 198$) study o f the KaJahari San does

touch upon the subject . Hodder (1979) also has examined v a r i a b i l i t y ,

, i n mater i a 1 goods r i t h i n a group, and has a t tempted t o show that -

important ly, homever, Hodder attempts t o l i n k d i f f e r e n t i a t use 4

mater ia l goods t p changing-mcial cond i t ions i n these groups.

example, he demonstrates that vary ing amounts o f socioeconomic

s t ress i t h i n the group c o w r y w i t h vary ing degrees of khange

c e r t a i n s t y l i s t i c a t t r i b u t e s o f some goods. ; 7

d i f ferences i n the uses o f mater i a l goods are evident a t var i ous

, - s ta tus levels, as def ined by age, sex, o r 'socia l pos i t i on . flore

o f

For -

i n

Hodder ' s approach t o the i nvest i gat i on o f behavi o r and mat e r i a l

cu l t u re pa t te rn ing imp1 ies that v a r i a t i o n i n the use o f mater ia l L

goods, o r t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s cannot be explained w i t h i n a pure ly '

cogn i t i ve framework. lnstead, odd& t r i e s t o e x p l a i n ' v a r i a b i l i t y

o f mater ia l cu l t u re by focusing on horn people's perceptions o f t h e i r 1 - - .

socia l environment changed. Hodder's research suggests that

mater i a l c u l t u r e i s important t o ca r ry such soc ia l in format jon about ' --

those perceptions, and tha t r e l a ted socfa l ac t ions must be l inked t o \ . externol economic or environmental fac tors . Before examining the - ,

a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f such an approach f o r the f u r t r a the basic tf consf r a i n t s on consumpt i on are i n t roduced .

t have mentioned e a r l i e r tha t although people have personal or

group-created r a n t s they must balance these C

const r a i n t s tha t are p laced on

const r a i n t s . on consumpt i on are

creat ing vary ing degrees oV access t o goods

considered i n d e t a i l i n t h i s d i sse r t a t i on s

parameters with i n i h i ch the needs and aant s

. Uarying income i s b l so a means o f de te ra in in

r an t s w i t h i n the basic .

The t r o r o s t important

me and cost o f goods,

These cons t ra in ts are

nce they set the basic - o f peop l e must be met.

g inequa l i ty , organiz ing,

members o f soc ie ty v e r t i c a l l y (Blau 1977). It g ives members o f

soc i e t y vary i ng degrees-'of power, r csu l t i ng i n vary i ng degrees. o f ,

access t o mater ia l i h i n g s (F r ied 1970). This i s the more

t r a d i t i o n a l defi-nit ion o f i n i q u a l i t y , accounting f o r the unequal

a c q u i s i t i o n o f mater ia l th ings by i nd i v i dua l s according t o t h e i r

r e l a t i v e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n soc ie ty . F igure 1 . 1 summarizes the

r e l a t i onsh i p bet reen the cu l t ura l system, behav i o r and poss i b 1 e

fadtors f o r the use o f mater ia l goods.

Exam i nat ion o f var i ab l e i ncome i n soc ie ty deaonst r a t es that i t

a f f ec t s the acqu i s i t i on o f mater ia l goods. That is , we can examine

consumption i n a soc ie ty a t t r o d i f f e r e n t po in t s i n t ime ( 0 and 8)

and f i n d tha t consumption d i f fe rences i n two income groups change

d ramat i ca l l y from t i n e R t oq t ime B (Figure 1 .2) . Ue might f i n d that

most o f these d i f fe rences* are accounted f o r by an increase i n income

o f the upper ranked group. ,!But, .if income d i f fe rences between the

tmo groups do not change, then other fac tors (sorc t i mes soc i a I ) ray

be in f luenc ing people 's buying behavior. One o f the major purposes

o f t h i s d i sse r t a t i on - m i l l be . to invest iga te under what cond i t ions

t la ter ia l Goods

It laterial Goods . t o Inc~ease

Standard pf I Liv ing

p a t er i a 1 Goods

-4 t o t laintain

puts for above

Purposes

F i gure 1 - 1 . Conceptual r e l at i onsh i p bet reen the cu l t ura l

system t o behavior and material cu l tu re .

F i gure 1 . 2 . Hypot het i ca l exarp l e o f the i ncreas i ng d i uergence i n

the use o f r a te r i a l goods between strato o f 3ociaty.

these other p o ~ s i b t e f a c t a b e a k m e conw, in the fur trade kt 9

, - western tanada.

/

APPROACHES TO IlATER l AL CULTURE I ti H 1 STOR I CAL ARCHAEOLOGY /

H i s t o r i ca 1 archaeo 1 ogy has expanded i t s genera l a i ma

consi derabl y over the las t century. I t has become more than a . descr i i ve supp l ement t o h i s to r y (F i sh 191 0; Harr i ngt on 1955;

Ua 1 ker 1967; Do 1 1 a r 1968;. Hoe 1 Mume 1969; tier 1 ands and Breede 1976), . -

moui ng progress i ve l t ornards the app l i cat i on o f more ant hrop l og i ca 1

t heoret i ca l frameworks t o exaa i ne sat e r i a n cu l t ure (Deet z and

Det h 1 e fson 1965; Det h l e fson and Oeet z 1966; Schuy I e r 1970; South

1977; Ferguson 1968; Leone 1973; Cleland and F i t t i n g 1968; Fontana

1968; B i n fo rd 1968; flcGu i r e 1984) . Recent l y, Canad i an h i s t o r i ca 1

archaeologjsts have argued tha t h i s t o r i c a l archaeological remains

can cont r i but e more about past soc i e t i es than mere I y descr i p t i ve

i n f ormat i on (Adorns 1 981 ; S t evenson 1 983; Prager 1 980; Pyszcryk and

Prager 1982; B J I ~ 1 ey 1985). These authors contend t ha t h i s t @ . archaeo l bgy must : 1 ) become' more 'sc i ent i f i c' ( i . e . , use a more \ nomot het i c approach t o i n t erpre t past soc i e t i es; 2) become more

anthropo log ica l ly or iented and begin t o exp la in d t u r e chande and

process with mater ia l cu l ture ; and, 3) begin t o examine behavioral

aspects o f archaeological s i t e formation processes and mater ia l -

c u l t u r e pa t te rn ing more o r less along the l i nes o f Sch i f f e r (1972)

and South (1977). %

Desp i t e these advances i n h i s t o r i ca 1 archaeo logy i n recent

years, i t i s beeoaing increasingly apparent t ha t the c u l t u r a l

- - - - - - - - --

quest ions are the most d i f f i cw I t t o i nuest i gate r i t h an j n c o w 1 e t e, - -

and o f t en poor 1 y understood archaeo I og i ca I record. For examp I e, -#

inves t iga t ion o f archaeological ~ i t e formation processes by

archaeo l og i s t s has been severe I y c r i t i c i zed f o r not rea I 1 y

t o a b e t t e r underst and i ng o f past cu l t ura I regu l or i t i es

h i s t o r i c and preh i s t o r i c soc i e t i es . Neuert he 1 ess, much J >

o f t h i s research beg ins t o a r t i-cu I a te human behavior r i t h the

archaeo log isl, record, add i ng t o be t t e r underat and i ilg archaedog i ca I I' *

format ion processes, and u 1 t i mat e 1 y ~ a k i ng i t poss i b l e t CI answer . * broader c u l t u r a l questions.

There i s an equal ly large gap and f a i l u re by h i s t o r i c a l

archaeologists t o l i n k various pa r t s o f the c u l t u r a l system t o 4&

behavioral co r re la tes (Ke l l y and K e l l y 1980). Conceptually,

behavior andqgther pa r t s o f the c u l t u r a l system are re la ted,

regard less o f rhether such behavior i s governed by the basic need +

f o r su rv iva l o r i s s o c i a l l y created. By using the larger c u l t u r a l

subsystems (e. g . , econom i c) a i t h i n wh i ch t o exam i ne human behau i or,

ideas, or.values, tau to log ica l problems are avoided rhan exp la in ing

t hese soc i a I constructs m i t h concepts o f soc ia l s t r uc t u3-e whose very \

d e f i n i t i o n s o f t en cbntain aspects o f behavior o r ac t ion . I n many P

rays h i s t o r i ca I archaeo I ogy prov i d m an i dea 1 opport un i t y t o exan-i ne

' these re l a t i onsh ips because i t i s capable o f cont ro l l i n g many of the

key var iab les needed la examine cu l tura l /behav iora l fac tors

thorough-ty r i t h mater ia l cu l t u re . H i s t o r i c a l archaeology i s

there fore capable o f theory bu i I d i ng i n a ray that no other

sub-disc ip l ine o f anthropology or archaeology can. b P

Horeuer, even w i th such cont ro l o f key war iables, the more

import ant r e 1 a t i onsh i ps bet ween i ncgw 1 i t y - and t he consumpt ion o f - -- -- --

& mater ia l goods have on ly recent lb received a t t en t ion i n h i s t o ~ i c o l

archaeological studies; few studies have examined'the r o l e o f -

mater ia l cu l t u re i n ca r ry ing inf6cmation about the soc ia l -condi t ions "r

o of inequal i ty . For example, the ma jo r i t y o f s tud ies o f i nequa l i t y

i n oest ern Canada have measured expected econom i c d i f f erences I

between d i f f e r e n t s t r a t a of soc ie ty with mater ia l cu l ture , faunal, * or bot an i ca 1 rema i ns ( L ~ s e y 1973; W i ber 1979; Pyszczyk 1978; Forsran

1985; He i t zmann 198013; Shay 1985; - Eobromsky 1985; Prager 1985;

Hamj l ton 1985; Adam and Lunn 1985; Horsfa 1 l 1983). These s tud ies

cont r i but ed t omards f i nd i ng accurate archaeo 1 og i ca l measurement s o f - ,

i nequa 1 i t y, a lso demonst r a t i ng tha t cons i derab l y more work needs t o a

\ be done at t h i s levc 1 o f research. Models have been developed only

recen t l y that begid t o examine inequa l i t y w i t h i n a broader c u l t u r a l

framework (Bonks 1985; Pyszczyk 1985).

The value o f h i s t o r i c a l archaeology t o examine anthropologicar

models of i nequa l i t y has been demonst r a t ed i n other s tud ies i n North

Rmer i ca. Some o f these works .use a cogn i t i we-symbo l i d approach ,

3- whereby mat e r i a 1 goods funct i on as a commun i cat i we dew i cs i n soc ie ty

(Geertz 1973). For example, South (1977:10) has argued tha t

mater ia l goods serve as s ta tus symbols i n s i t u a t i o n s where

ind i v i dua I s i n power are f a r removed from t h e i r pomer soii.;es and

must resor t t o r i t ua I and r a t e r i a I goods t o d i f ferer i i i a te t hedse I ves

from lower s t r a t a . Research on e t h n i c i t y i n h i s t o r i c a l soc ie t i es

(Schuyler 1980) t o some extent deals with inequa l i t y and soc ia l

d i s t i n c t i o n (Otto 1977, 1980). Paynter 's (1983) extensive study o f

h i s t o r i c Connect i cut set t I ement systems shoms the r e I a t i onsh i p

on inequal- i ty w i t h i n h i s t o r i c populat ions. em is' (1976, 1981)

examination o f . i nequa l i t y r i t h i n a.deveIoping h i s t o r i c . f r o n t i e r i n ._ the southern un i t ed States a ~ s o ' ~ l a c e s the unequal acqu is t ion o f

mater ia l goods.wi th in a much broader c u l t u r a l context . O t to ' s

(1984) work examines s ta tus pat terns i n the 'Old South' o f

Un i t ed S t a t es and r e l at ed archaeo l og i ca l mat e r i a l reaa i ns . these s tud ies po in t t o the emergence o f more integrated

ant hropo l og i ca l approaches t o i nvest i gat e consumpt i on i n h

the

A l l

archaeology. '

- ,

THE STUDY AREA: THE FUR ADE I N UESTERH CfltiADR ,

I have chosen the f u r t rade era i n res te rn Canada t o examine

fac tors involved i n the consumption o f aa te r i a l goods because o f a - long l a s t i n g professional commitment t o t h i s h i s t o r i c period, and a

great deal o f f a m i l i a r i t y w i th the archaeological data base.

Perhaps the two most important reasons f o r examining the ,

dissertation problem a i t h a h i s t o r i c per iod data base i s that

i nequa l i t y and consumption var iab i l i t y i s re1 l documented

h i s t o r i c a l l y , leaving no doubt that i f existed, a f f e c t i n g the

everyday l i v e s o f a l l ,occupants. I n o t h e r words, I s t a r t r i t h a - proven fac t upon which t o fu r the r b u i l d models and hypotheses

B >

regarding inequa l i t y and consumption v a r i a b i l i t y , Furthermore, the

degree o f i nequa l i t y and soc ia l condi t ions change through time

dur i ng the f u r trade, a l l o r i ng any -potent i a l l y assoc i a t ed changes i n

r a t e r i a l cu l t u r e t o be measured, U i t hout such r e t l documented

~ h m p s i n ~ U P &ads s o c i a l s t r w c t u ~ t , i t .ercC$ beQiff&dt to -

demonstrate the pred ic ted changes i n the use' o f mater ia l ou l t u r b - a

po i n t that has been me 1 1 demonst r a t ed by U i essner ( 1983, 1984) when

comparing d i f fe rences i n mater ia l cu l t u re pa t te rn ing t o changes i n

socia l s t r uc tu re o f contemparary hunter-gatherer soc ie t ies , '

The study area #as a lso chosen t o examine the d i sse r ta t i on

prob 1 em because the dot a bose +is adequat e. It cons i s t s o f ' some we l l

documented archaeological s i t e s and a vast set o f r e l a t e d

documentary records. Re l a t i ve 1 y good cont r o 1 o f archaeo 1 og i ca l

remains associated r i t h each occupational group ex is ts , and many key L

var iab les (e.cj., rages, .ei hn i c background, occupat i on) o f the .' occupants o f the f o r t s -are knorn, o f t en accompan i ed by l i s t s o f

I

goods bought by each man and fam i 1 y . A t present, the maj o r

l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s data bose are: 1 ) the sheer volume o f the

documentary record; and, 2 ) the smal 1 percentage o f f u r t rade s i t e s

that have #een adequately sampled i n mestern Canada. One o f the

ind i rec t r e s u l t s o f thi's study m i l l be t o i d e n t i f y the add i t i ona l

k i nds o f archaeo l og i ca 1 assemb 1 ages and documentary dot a tha t must

be co l l ected i n the f u t ure t o more thoroughly exam i ne the problem.

R l though some 1 i t e ra tu re has been m r i t t en about i nequa l i t y and

soc ia l s t ruc tu re i n the f u r trade, a fern o f the very fundamental

r e 1 a t i onsh i ps regard i ng how the acqu i s i t ion o f mat e r i a l goods was

o f fected by economic and techno l ogi ca 1 changes i n the mestern

. f ron t i e r are poor 1 y understood. To some degree then, the

d i ssz r t a t ion. i s exploratory i n natuqe. It f i r s t attempts t o

det s rb i ne hor fac tors such as i ncome, changes i n the t ransport a t i on

and t a r i f f system, and the i ndus t r i a l r evo lu t i on making products

much more accessible, a f f ec ted the acqu is f t i on of mferfat goodsEy \ -

each soc ia l stratum i n the f u r trade, Control o f these fac tors

becomes increasingly important when attempting t o exp la in r e l a t i v e

d i f f e r e n c e s . i n the acqu i s i t i on o f -ma te r i a l goods between soc ia l

s t r o t D through t i me. lkesc var i ab l es are i aport ant t o underpt and

before examining poss ib le soc ia l fac tors f o r consumption d i f fe rences

i n f u r t rade soc ie ty , B

As a f i n a l point , even though a considerable amount o f

l i ? e r a t u r e about inequa l i t y i n the f u r trade has been w r i t t e n i n the

past 30 years, and changes i n i t are we l 1 documented ( e . g.,

Chalmers 1969; BL 1980; Cominos 1963; Diamond 1961; lnn is 1975;

Rich 1961; Uan K i r k 1975; Friesen 1984), there i s s t i l l a l o t of b '.,

research- that can be done i n terms o f why these changes came about.

The evo lu t ion o f soc ia l i nequa l i t y and r e l a t e d consumption pat terns

i n past soc ie t i es i s only touched upon i n t h i s d isser ta t ion ; i t i s a

less important ob jec t i ve o f the studg.

- The manner i n mhich t h i s d i sse r ta t i on i s organized i s a

r e f l e c t i o n o f the l i m i t e d mount o f archaeclogical research v - conducted on inequalVi ty i n European i ndus t r i a l i zed soc ie t ies ; t h i s

l i m i t e d research r e s u l t s i n t r o de f i c ienc ies : 1 ) no sound basis -

e x i s t s t o evaluate whether the a t t r i b u t e s or types o f mater ia l @j

c u l t u r e chosen t o examine behavioral v a r i a b i l i t y i n abor ig ina l

soc ie t i es are equal ly useful and compatible t o h i s t o r i c

i ndust r i a I i zed soc i e t i cs; and, 2) very l i t t l e work has been done t o

diat iqtdsk h t a t ~ b n d w id c$tuPe p& te&ng-/~uOkledk - ---->- J il . i

cormuni cat i ng soc i a l messages, as opposed t o such pat t e r n i n g be i ng a ,

consequence o f the d i f f e r e n t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y t o resources.

I n Chapter two, the basic character i s t i cs and concepts o f

inequal i ty as a uar ia t t le are out l ined, and how inequa l i t y a f f e c t s - -

soc i a l s t ruc tu re and behav i o r , The chapt e r descr i bes the potent i a I

fac tors respon j ib le f o r the r e l a t i v e degree o f i nequa l i t y and i t s

consequences t o soc i a l s t ruc tu re and, f i na l l y, t o the use o f

r a t e r i a l goods by members o f soc ie ty . Chapter three reviews

theor ies t o exp la in v a r i a b i l i t y i n the, form and the use o f mater ia l

cu l t u re in the so= i a l behaui o ra l system bf cu,l"ture, and t h e i r \ app l i ca t ion t o inequa l i t y . The chapter examines hoe mater ia l

-

cu l t ure can symbo l i ca l l y commun i cat e soc i a l ' va l ues tu others, and

mhat form i t takes- to - perform t h i s funct ion. +

I n Chapter four the major methodological issues regarding the

above concepts are summarized. A b r i e f summary o f the propos i t ions

that are der i ved from the previous chapters i s presented, ,out I i n i ng

how they m i I l be operat i ona l i zed and exar i ned m i t h the

archalo l og i ca l and documentary data. As we l I, the t heoret rca l

condi t ions and boundaries o f the models and propos i t ions are -L

Chapter f i ve reu i e ~ s ' the h i s to r y and the j o c i,al s t r uc tu re o f /

the f u r t rade i n western Canada. The oc upat i onbl s t r uc tu re i n the

f u r t rode i s exam i ned, sham i ng what d i f f e nces there were : 1 ) 3 bet ween the var i ous occupat i ona l groups w i t h i n the compan i w; 2 ) i betmeen the two major companies i n the e a r l y period; and, 3) hoe and

I

why i nequa l'i t y chmged through t i me. I n the remainder o f the

chapter the documentary and archaeological ,data tha t are used i n t h e " - - - - - --

l a t e r $"a l y t i ca 1 chapters are descr i bed.

Chapter s i x continues t o explore the corporate and soc ia l 'c

s t r uc tu re o f f u r t rade soc i c t y r i t h documentary quant i t a t i ve dot a,

Primary saphas i s i s placed on descr i b i ng the econoa i c cond i t i on3 and 3 >

hor they are a r t i c u l a t e d w i th inequal i ty and soc ia l condi t ions i n .- f u r t rade soc ie ty .

.5

I n chapters seuen through ten the consumption o f mater ia l - L

goods i n t h e f u r t rade i s examined w i th the documentary and

archaeologicai data', Chapter seven invest igates horn the f u r trade - t a r i f f system a f fected consumpt ion by the war ious f u r t rade company

ranks. I n chapter e ight the d i f ferences and changes. i n income and

the cost o f goods are exaoimed t o determine horn they cma te possib le

d i f f e r e n t i a l consuaption between the ranks i n the Horth Uest and \

Hudson ' s Bay Compan'i es . . -

2 y I n Chapters n ine and 10 t he focus moves from econoa i c 3

variab-les t o socia l /behavioral Factors tao exp la in d i f f e r e n t i a l - consumption hab i t s i n f u r t rade soc ie ty . I n chapter n ine t heLsoc ia l

use o f -mater ia l indthe fur -4mde ranks i s bxamined, and 4

compared throughout the f u r t rade era, I n chapter 10 the '

a r ch i t ec tu ra l remains. a t f u r t rade s i t e s are

whet her they cou I d d i s t i ngu i sh i ncobe groups

'purposely used t o d i f f e ren t i a t e the o f f i c c r s

f u r t rade soc ie ty .

d

exam i ned t o det e r r i nu

and whether they were

from the servants i n

3 ' Chapter 1 1 app 1 i es i nformat i on t hcory t o exam'i ne the

guan t i ta t iue s t r uc tu re of mater ia l cu l t u re a t t r i b u t e 3 that denote a m

u t i l i t a r i a n as opposed t o a non-uti l i t a r i a n funct ion. Since7-formal

uor i at i on o f each type o f mater ia l a i t r i but e p lays such an i " t p I -

r o l e i n the study o f i nequa l i t y i n t h i s d isser ta t ion, each type o f

a t t r i b u t e was examined t o determine whether i t d i f f e r e d i n - i t s

s t ruc tu re , This chapter attempts t o prove that mater ia l c u l t u r e

U S G ~ i n soc ia l communication has e quan t i t a t i ve 3 t ruc tu re tha t i s

" s im i l a r t o language,

Chapter 12 summar i zes and e l ab&at es upon the resu l t s cd the -

d i sser ta t ion . Problems invo lv ing the measurement-of inequal i t y a i t h 8

mater ia l g o d s are reviewed and possib le so lu t ions are proposed.

The chapter discusses whether the acqu i s i t i on o f mater ia l goods was

p r ima r i l y doainated by technological and economic var iables, o r

whether mater ia l c u l t u r e a lso played a symbolic r o l e i n the f u r

t rade era i n r e s t ern Canada, It summar i zea rhether u t i I i t a r i an

v&us non-ut i I i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s t r u l y d i f f e r i n t h e i r s t ruc ture , i

and presents the impl ica t ions o f these f ind ings t o the study o f

s t y l e i n archaeology._ -

Appendix A i ndudes the ma jo r i t y o f descr ipt ive, and ana l y t i ca l

data re l a ted t o the major analyses chapters. nuch o f these da ta

have been condensed i n t o s i ap l e r t ab l es and fli gures tha t are 'found

i n the thes is t e x t . However, there are occasions shen the reader

w i l l have t o r e f e r t o Rppendix fl f o r fu r the r i n fq raa t i on about

research r e s u l t s ,

Appendix P I i s t s some o f the types o f mater ia l goods found i n

the f u r t rode documentary record, and where poss i hi e, the i r p r i ces , 1

Th i s append i x i a not exhaust i ve o r comp l ete. On I y the goods from -

the Hudson' s Bay Company debt i i s t s samp l ed f o r t h i s d i sser ta t ion

were noted. They do not cover a l I the types of goods used i n one I

part i cular year o r area, and ml y coucc a feu p r s spanning 1809 - --

1866. - '..

'\ Appendix C b r i e f l y describe$*-the history o f each of the major

fur t rode s i t es ,.hose asseab l ages ore used in t h i s d i ssert at i on.

3

THE PR l HC l PLES OF+ I NEOUAL PTY *

I NTRODUCT I ON - . ,

The purpose o f 4 t h i s chapter i s t o def ine the basic economic, and

soc i a l character i s t i cs o f i nequa l i t y and h w these character i s t i cs - a f f ec t cons"mpt ion. I m i l 1 show that inequal i t y i s not j u s t about

the unequa 1 d i s t r /but i on and acct& t o r=sourc& i n human soc i e t i es.

People o f d i f f e r e n t income leve ls have d< i f fe ren t perceptions,. .. -- - ua l ues, and i n t eruct i ons . Those act j-on*, percept i ons and forms o f

i n te rac t ions are ~f fected when not on ly the degree but a lso the

s t ruc tu re o f inequal i t y changes. These p r i n c i p l e s ri'l I form the " I

cornerstone f o r , l a t e r archaeological i nqu i ry o f how d i f fe rences i n --l

1

i ncomc and group-creot ed behav i o r are re l a ted t o pa t t e rn i ng i n

mgter id -e t t t tu re i n 'the f u r t rade.

CHARRCTER 1 ST l CS OF 1 NEQUAL l TY

lnequal i t y r e f e r s t o the manner i n r h i c h ind iv idua ls i n soc ie ty

are u e r t i c a l l y ranked o r d i s t r i b u t e d i n terms o f aea l th and pomer %

(Tumin 1967:12; Fr ied 1967:186; Berreman 1981; Blau 1977). Roles

form the hor i zon ta l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f people i n soc ie ty (e.g., sex,

age, o r occupat i on), a 1 though i n many soc i e t i es r o l es are a 1 so

u e r t i c a l Ly ranked. Together, ranks and r o l e s a l low people t o s t r i v e -- -

fo r t h e i r econo.ic and soc ia l goals, at the same t ime a f f e c t i n g

I f r e were t o conduct a cross-culturaI,comparison o f . s o c i e t i e s 5

throughout t h e morld, me r o u l d f i n d t h a t i n e q u a l i t y i s v a r i a b l e i n

more-rays than - jus t ' t h e degree o f access t o m t a l t h . For example,

t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i n e q u a l i t y may be very i n f l e x i b l e , o r r i g i d ,

a l l o r i n g l i t t l e movement bet-aeen ranks o r s t r a t a , o r i t may be very

f l u i d , a l l o r i n g considerable movement t o take p lace. I f p o s i t i o n s 1

i n soc i a l organ i r a t i on a re p r i mar i l y a s c r i bed (predet erm i ned by

r u l e s o f descent, sex, e t c . ) , then the re i s l i t t l e ~ovement between

ranks, I f, on t h e o the r hand, p o s i t i ons are a c h i w e d (based

p r i m a r i l y on personal a b i l i t i m ) , there i s a t least t he p o s s i b i l i t y

o f v e r t i c a l movement in s o c i e t y .

Nobility r e f e r s t o p o s s i b l e changes i n the degree o f h o r i z o n t a l

o r u-er;tical r i g i d i t y i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . Socia l m o b i l i t y can r e f e r '

t o a n d h i n g e i n t h e s t a t u s o f a person (B lau 1977:65). Hornever, i n

t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n mobi I i t y r i l I' r e f e r t o t h e degree o f movement o f

people between s t r a t a o r a long t h e i n e q u a l i t y g rad ien t , General l y , '

s o c i a l mob i I i t y co inc ides r i t h some o ther graduated parameter such

as po re r o r income, The u n i t s o f people involved i n m o b i l i t y may

range from i n d i v i d u a l s t o e n t i r e s t r a t a such as i n Ind ian cas te

systems (fli l l e r

' u n i t invo lved i n

m o b i l i t y t h a t ex ,

consurpt i on t h a t

982). But t h e fam i l y i s , o f t e n the most c r i t i c a l

s o c i a l mobi l i t y (Tumin 1970:295). The degree o f

s t s in s o c i e t y s e t s the upper boundar i es o f -- a househaold cbn reach.

' I n e q u a l i t y can a l s o be t r e a t e d as a v u r i a b l e because o f t he

r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e t h e r e i s bet reen ind iu idua ls , i n t e r a s o f t h e i r

acce3s t o c r i t i c a l resource3 (f lcGuire 1983). F r i e d ( i967:186) -

&

s t a t es that i t i s the cont ro i over c r i t i ca t resources, i . e., t h e

resources t ha t a re e i t h e r scarce o r h i g h l y desi rable, by a fes

ind iv idua ls in soc ie ty tha t g ives r i s e t o i nequa l i t y . Thus,

mater ia l goods can r e f l e c t the degree o f i nequa l i t y because they

represent the source o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and they are capable o f

symbolizing i t (tlcGuire 1983:101).

S t ra ta , Class and Statu3 C

Although i nequa l i t y i s a continuum o f i nd i v i dua l s mho are

unequal i n power and aeal th, those w i t h r o t a t i v e l y s i m i l a r amounts

o f power o r meal t h are grouped together t o form st ra ta (Giddens

1973 ; 1061, S t r a t a may not be very r e l 1 def i ned, but i ns t ead may

form a gradient (Centers 1970:467). Often though, ahen i nd i v i dua l s

have t ha same amounts o f pomar and rea 1 t h, because the i r occupat ions

are r e l a t i v e l y s imi tar, s t r a t a become very re1 1 def ined. Class

impl ies more than j u s t unequal access t o wealth and power, I t

r e f e r s t o d i f f e rences i n l i f e - s t y l e s ( i . e . , values, tastes,,

behav i o r ) o f war i ous s t r a t a (Cot grove 1978: 203; Centers 19$9; Curt i s

1972; Gans 1970; Kohn 1969; Kraus 1976; Lassre l 1 1965; Levy 1966;

f lart i neau 1958; Park i ns 1971 ; P i r i e 1960; Schat zman and S t rauss

1955; Glenn and A ls ton 1968). S t r a ta are r e l a t e d p r i m a r i l y t o the

econom i c const r a i nt s o f consumpt i on through vary i ng i ncome , C I ass ,.

i s r e l a t e d t o the tas tea i n commodities people have based on what

others i n t h e i r neighborhood a lso hawe.

Status i s the amount o f honor a soc ie ty chooses t o confer on

the i nd i v i dua 1 because o f h i s l he r persona l character i s t i cs, sk i 1 1 s 8

and obi 1 i t ies, o r because o f ascr ibed parameters such as age and sex

(Tur i n 1967; tla i r 1970; Barnour 1979) . Status r e f e r s t o those -

d i s t i n c t ions people make with

r o l e r e l a t i ons , which in\ t u r n

(8 l au-1977 : $6). S t a t uses are

as porer, wea l t h, pres t tge o r

one another t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e i r Z

r e f l e c t soc ia l d is tance o f sore so r t Z

graduated d i f fe rences i n such th ings

educat ion ah i ch essent i a l l y denot e

i nequa l i t y . So, i n t h i s sense, s ta tus d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n r e f e r s t o the

degree o f i nequa l i t y m i t h i n soc ie ty .

A l l statuses are assigned a r e l a t i v e morth or value, a process

ah i ch i s r e fe r red t o as eva l uat ion ( T u d 1967). Eva l uat ion i s b

. bestowed on the ind iv idua l by other members o f society, but peopl e

a lso evaluate themselves accordi ng t o t h e i r own percept ions o f ahat u

they t h i n k t h e i r serv ices are r o r t h . Somet i mes, ahen a great deal

o f d i f f erence bet meen persona l and soc i c t a l eva l uat i on occurs,

tensions a i l l a r i se . P r e s t i g e i s one k i nd o f evatuat ion that i s

bestowed on the ind iv idua l i n the form o f honor by others; -

p r e f e r a b i l i t y i s the degree o f worthiness tha t the ind iv idua l t h i nks

he deserves. A person can be eva l uated accord i ng t o a spec i f i c r o l e

o r qua1 i t y , o r he i s eval~uated according t o the cumulative ( " _

assessment - of 'CJ I I h i s tatu uses (Turn i n 1967; Cot grove 1978). ?

Genera l l y then, the consequences o f eva l uat i on are tha t i nd i v i duo l s

are e i the r in tegra ted o r a l i enoted i n soc i e t t j and a i l l react and -

behave accord i ng l y ,

i i Reward i nq and l ncoae

Remarding c o n a d t s o f i nd iv idua ls .of var ious ranked

statuses with t ang ib l e o r i n tang ib le soc ia l

resources. Oft en the tang i b l e mat e r i a l goods acqu i r e d by persons

are the means by mhich they acquire i n t y g i b f e resources such a5

power or p res t ige (Blau 1977; Lenski 1951). Sometimes the

a c q u i s ~ t i o n o f s ta tus may be r e s t r i c t e d by nominal parameters (e.g., -

sex, age, e thn ic background) r e s u l t i n g i n a lorn degree o f

eualuation. This i s s i m i l a r t o ascribed s ta tus mhere some

i nd i u i dua l a, a l though they may have more ab i l i t i es than %it hers, are -

over looked because o f c e r t a i n nor i na l parameters they lack o r

possess. Again, such discrepancies i n eua l uat ion, i f they are i

!

severe enough, can lead t o soc ia l tensions, Less emphasis on

nor i na l paramet ers i n remard i ng, and consequent poor l y de f i ned

s ta tus homeutr, can a lso lead t o more tension and competi t ion,

Reward i ng by i ncome i s a means mhereby access t o c r i t i ca l

resources and. par t i c i pat i on i n the soc i a l system become voss i b I e

(Doug l as and I shermood 1979: 90). Uary i ng i nsome l i m i t s access t o

c r i t i c a l resources and soc ia l i n te rac t ion . I f income i s lo r , people

ray be v i r t u a l l y barred from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n soc ia l a f f a i r s .

l ncore therefore uust a l so a f f e c t behavior, as expressed i n the

types and the q u a l i t i e s o f a c t i v i t i e s o f people. Uarious typea o f

act i v i t i es requ i re money. This r e s t r i c t s the lower i ncore groups i n

what they can do. Often there i s a good c o r r e l a t i o n between s ta tus

and the degree o f soc i a l i nuo l verent in soc i e t y through act i v i t i es

(Douglas and Ishermood 1979:90-91; Young and Ui l lmont 1973).

Such d i f ferences i n sac i a 1 act i v i t i es bet reen the soc i a l ranks *

are re fe r red tq as 'I i fe -s ty les ' uhich are I inked t o d i f fe rences il \

m a t e ~ i a l c u l t u r e used by each soc ia l class. L i f e - s t y l es are

p a r t i a l l y a consequence o f rewarding through income i n society, as

r e l l a3 a consequence o f d i f ferent r o l e s and percept i ons i nd i v i dua

f

F have, Thus, a group o f i ndi w i~dua I s h a s - s i r i l a r l i f e - s t y

simply because they tend t o i n te rac t more with one anoth -

r (although

in te rac t

have aim

ion may heCp re i n fo r ce s im i l a r hab i ts ) , but because they

a 0

i l a r occupations, I n ore, and out looks.

INEQUFIL I TY AS A UARI ABLE

The p r i nary purpose o f t h i s sect ion i s t o discuss how

inequal i ty , as a var iable, has a corresponding set o f economic and

r a t e r i a l consequences and act i ons, as r e l l as a set o f correspond i ng

soc ia l - consequences and act ions. Horever, i t should be kept i n r i n d 9

tha t vary ing degrees o f i nequa l i t y cannot exp la in soc ia l change,

s i nce i t i s the >ore ext erna I, i ndependent propert i es o f cu l t ura l

systems that i ne" i tab l account f o r change :

To be sure, the u l t i v a t e deter r inants o f soc ia l change are technological , econoaic, p o l i t i c a l , and other deve l oprent s, not o f i o c i a l s t ruc tu res (Blau

These other cha rac te r i s t i c s o f soc ia l

consequences sf those u l t ima te de te r r

the f orma I propert i es 977: 12'2).

st ruc tures are s i np l y the

nants, For example, I r i l l

argue l a t e r tha t v a r i a b i l i t y i n the res te rn Canadian f u r t rade

resource base mas u l t i m a t e l y responsible f o r changes i n the r e l a t i v e

degree o f economic inequa l i t y and eventual soc ia l change in fur

t rode soc i e t y . - --

fleasurerents o f I nequa l i t y

One important character i s t i c of i nequa l i t y f o r soc ia l research

iz that it changeq, a l loming i t 10 be i n v e s t i g t e d through t h e and ._

space -- and, i n h i s t o r i c a l archaeology, t o be cmpared t o poss ib le

r e l a t ed behav i o r a l and consumpt ion changes as r e l I . D i f ferences i n

econom i c i nsquai i t y can be measured- i n three ~ rays : 1 ) abso l u t e

,/' - inequal i ty ; 2) propor t iona l inequal i tg ; and, 3) r e l a t i v e i m q u a l i t y

(Blau 1977:56-60). Re la t i ye inequa l i t y def ine3 each person's

h ie ra rch ica l p o s i t ion r e l a t i v e t o a l l others i n soc ie ty (IlcGuire

1983: 103). It can be p l o t t e d as a curve by f i r s t ranking the

popu l a t ion from l o r t o h igh income and then cornpar i ng the c u m ~ l b t i ve

percent age o f the popu l a t i on t o the cumu l i ve percentage o-Ith

3 (F igure 2 .1) . The r e l a t i v k i n e q u a l i t y curve i s skemed towards t he

r i g h t as r e a l t h becomes concentrated i n t o the hands o f smal ler

numbers o f people. The absolute equa l i t y l i n e i n F igure 2.1 --

i nd i cates tha t a ce r t a i n percent age o f the popu l a t i on has the same

percentage o f r e a l t h ( cog . , '20 percent o f the popu la t ion has 20 4

percent o f the

Thus, changes

est ab l i shed by -

i ncores . Such

consumpt ion o f

meal t h, SO percent - SO percent o? the mea l t h, e t c . ) . i n inequa l i t y i n a scc ie ty i n space and

count ing the frequencies o f i nd i v i dua l s

a measurement i s valuable f o r examining

mater i a l goods i s a l t e red as the degree

changes, Re la t i ve i "pGa f luctuat ions . i n p d i s i b l e

t i r e c m & q

and t h e d

how the

o f i nequa l i t y

l i t - g i s a lso valuable t o coapare t o I -

independent var iabies, such as t o t a l

resources and product i on, t o see hor the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e a l t h f

reacts t o t her , P

The concept o f r e l a t i v e inequa l i t y a lso has poss ib le behavioral

consequences. I t i mp l i es tha t f o r any i nd i v i dual ' 3 r e l a t i ve b

p o s i t i o n t o increase, people tha t are ranked higher must be a f f ec ted

Figure 2 . 1 . Uarying degrees o f ' r e l a t i v s inequality\i&ee a

hypot het i ca I - popu l a t i ona. The popu l cat ion i s ranked

from low t o high incomes and cuau l at i ve peraccnt aca l t ti

( income! is plo t ted against s - the corresponding . +

curu l at i ve percent popu i Ron#

i (81 au 1977; 62). Hembers o f soc ie ty may be e i t h e r a r a m o r unarare

o f changes i n inequal i ty , but they c e r t a i n l y r i l l be

such changes. Changes i n i nequa l i t y ,' by mob i l i t y; create econom i c

tensions causing i.ba l ance in soc ia l s t ruc tu re rhi ch can have

threat en i ng consequences depend i ng on whet her i nequa I i t y i s -

increasing or decreasing, I f a decrease i n inequa l i t y poses

pressures on upper s ta tus indiv iduals, they may take act ion t o -.

a l l ev i at c such pressurea and stab i l i ze the soc i a l syst em. Re l a t i ve

inequal i ty , then, i s a most useful ana l y t i ca l t o o l because i t l i n k s

stress, tens i on, and compet i t i on among peop l e t o poss i b l e behav i o ra l

changes i n ind iv idua ls attempting t o move up o r compete i n the

system and pro tec t t h e i r place i n i t .

Absolute inequa l i t y i s a more appropriate meusure i f the actual

d i f ferences i n r e a l t h betreen ind iv idua ls o r s t r a t a are an important

research object i ve . Absolute i nequa l i t y i s eat i mated by determining . ,

t,lp di f fe rence i n wealth (c,g,, income) between t y o o r more

indiv iduals, o r betreen e n t i r e s t r a ta . It i s an important index f o r

t h i s d i ssert a t i on t o b e t t e r underst and the r e l a t i onsh i p bet reen

i ncome d i f ference and consumpt i on behav i or bet ween s t r a t a. I n o t her . rords, i f the d i f ference i n income bet reen upper and lower s t r a t a i s

$500 at t i me 'A' and $1,000 a t t i me '8' , does the di f ference i n

t o t a l consumpt i on o f mat er+I goods i ncrease proport i ona l l y?

U o r i a b i l i t u i n Economic l neaua l i t y

The most v i s i b l e consequence o f ' i nequa l i t y i s the unequal access

t o resources by members o f soc ie ty -- i n other rords, unequol

reward i ng and income, as mcnt i oned prev i ous l y . ' I n h i s t o r i c and

contemporary European and North Amer i can soc i e t y, occupat iona I r o l es p2p

value and input . They - are rewarded on the bas is o f thei r . r e l a t i v e

are ranked i n t o general s t r a t a acco,rdi ng t o

rewards, based p r i mar i l y on i ncome . l ncome

potent i a l l y create vary i ng standards o f l i v

-the s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e i r .

d i f fe rences can

ing s ince those m i t h more

money are ab l e t o a f f o r d more or be t t e r qua I i t y goods, Thus, 3

inequal i ty , expressed by income dif ferences, i s sa id tcr be r e l a t e d

t o a set o f r a t i ona l econon i c act i ons and behav i o r . I f only

reward i ng o r i ncoma mere respons i b l e f o r d i f ferences i n the standard & c

o f l i v i ng , then the amount o f goods consumed mould be d i r e c t l y

propor t iona l t o the income o f members o f soc ie ty . I n other words,

income v a r i a b i l i t y should account f o r a l l the v a r ' i a b i l i t y i n

consumption, I f d i f fe rences i n income increase o r decrease between

people, so should consequent d i f fe rences i n the st'andard o f l i v i n g .

Uarying amounts o f income a1 low and- l i m i t the types o f - a c t i v i t i e s households can car ry out . Through the acqu i s i t i on o f

goods, income i s a lso converted i n t o a v i s i b l e mechan i sm that

permits humans t o demonstrate tha t they ure equal t o o r super ior t o

o thers , o r l e t s t hem pa r t i c i pate i n the same soc ia l net morks . Income i n the form o f savings i n the bank cannot ca r ry out such a

r o l e

But,

d i f f

1934

tha t

It must be converted i n t o material goods t o accomplish t h i s .

j us t hom much income must be used f o r r a t e r i a l possessions i s

c u l t t o est i mate and has been a hot l y debated subj ect (Re i d

Keynes 1942; Duesenberry 1949; F r i edman 1957) , 12 i s apparent Q

the r a t i o o f savings t o consumption in many households i s

extremely war i ab le and s t rong ly connacted t o fac tors present i n the

economic and soc ia l environment, and t o ind iv idua l values and needs

,

(Doug l aa and i shermood 1979 : 53; Hayden and Cannon 1989) . -. --

\ , 1

C

*

F l ex i b i l i t u - and R i a i d i t u i n Social St ruc ture . , ,

I sta ted e o r l i e r t ha t the degree o f r i g i d i t y o f i nequa l i t y and \

\

\ s t r a t i f i cat i on' may change, lead i ng t o poss i b l y d i f f s r c n t behav i o r on < ,

..

* * the par t o f .members i n soc i e t y . . I n other words, I- suggest - that each

type o f behavior i s . r e l a t ed t o the percept ions people have o f of hers I

m i t h mhom they must in te rac t and o f hoa they perceive t h e i r

immediate economic and soc ia l environment (Fest inger 195t;-Jones and

Regon 1971; ~ a r b s t t 1970; Hornan$ 1970, 1971). l*f people f ee l t h e i r

pos i t i ons i n soc i e t y are t hrebtmed o r they are not rece i v i i tg t&'\

s t a t us recogn i t i on they ' f e d 4 hey deserve, they m i l I show a tendency

t o r e i nforce those pos i t ions w i t h whatever means they have, These

percept ions o f =others and r e I a t i onsh i ps change as cond i t ions i n the 1

econom i c or soc ia l env ironment change, A few examples and t h e i r I

under ly ing condi t ions w i l l h e l p k l a r i f y these concepts.

Thc soc ia l s t r uc tu re o f m y c u l t u r a l system can remain stable,

regardless o f mhether i t _exh ib i ts a h igh o r l o r leve l of economic

i nequa l i ty , as I ong as access t o c r i t i ca l resources by i t s members

stays w i t h i n a t o l e rab le range. Hdweqer, a decrease i n r i g i d i t y and C

an increase i n m o b i l i t y creates greater i n s t a b i l i t y , t l o b i l i t y i s a

key fac tor i~ crea t ing other soc ia l behavioral responses amongst u

members o f society, such as r a i s ing the level o f c lass consciousness -

and compet i t i on f o r resources (Uarner. 194 1 ; Parsons 1999; H i l l e r

l97S:XJ).

t o compete

It has

f upward &$ility i s possible, i nd iv idua ls are allowed

b o r . b e t t e r e ononic o r soc ia l pos i t i ons ,

been noted t ha t soc i a l tens i ons emerge under cond i t ions

o f a r e l a t i v e l y unstable system, which has a h igh degree o f m o b i l i t y - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

and r e l c? i ve 1 y poor l y def i ned s t r a t a o r c l assts, where s t at us

c rys t a l i zat ion i s poor (Lensk i 19%; Lima i ne, Kat e r s r t e i n and

Personnaz 1978). People are more aware of the act ions o f not oh l y

t h e i r peers but a lso t h e i r superiors. Under these condition&,

s t a t us

r e j ect

group,

(TUB i n

mobj les ( i .en, those s t r i v i n g t o move upward) m i l l .o f ten

the values o f t hai r s ta tus group and adopt a new referenc * >

general ly the memberp o f the stratum they wish t o e n t e r , /

1967; Homans 197$:311; L ipset and Zetterberg 1970:$36; Uarner - -

1941; f l i t t e r 1982): -

f d -

Such mobile-minded persons w i l l seek assiduously t o cu l t i va te the acquaintance o f those whom &cognize qs t h e i r supzr iors and by mhom they mou l d l i ke t o be coos i dered equa l s. They w i 1 l im i t a te t h e i r s t y l e s o f residence, entertainment, recreat ion, and school ing-- i n short, they w i l l do everyt h i ng the s t atus-preserv i ng person t r i es t o do,.except t ha t they w i l l copy the manner o f those mhom they recognize as t h e i r superiors and by whom they l i sh t o be accepted as equals (Tum i n l 9 6 7 h '101 1 .

Thus, m i t h i n t h i s context, where there i s a p o s s i b i l i t y o f moving

upmard, some ind iv idua ls choose t o accept the l i f e - s t y l e s o r endlate

" t h e behavior o f the new reference group they have chosen. jP -.-

Thereais o f t e n a c o n f l i c t between s ta tus ~ o b i lea and upper

s t a t u s ' indiuidualp who, i n order t o na in ta i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n and

- prevent s ta tus mobi les from enter ing t h e i r ranks, begin t o in t rodu n/ nem c r i t e r i a f o r membership (e.g,, kknshid, e thn ic or ig in) in tha t .,

i$-

rank; Such tens i 0"s bqcome more prcvo bent i f . mob i l i t i s u i ewedo os -

o threat t o upper upper s ta tus ind iv idua ls (cog . , e i t h e r under L . -- -

dec l i n i ng resources o r rac i a 1 'tens i ons) . Many t i mes upper &a t us

ind iv idua ls attempt t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e themselves, o r communicate

supe r i o r i t y and exclusi,on by use o f external symbols o f t h e i r rank

ah i ch l esser s t at us i nd i v i dua l s can se l dom match . Such bchav i ~ r

takas the form o f the accumulation o f r e a l t h a n d ' i t s consumption,

and engag i ng i n act i v i t i es tha t 1 esser ranked i nd i u i dual s cannot

a f f o r d (Homanj 197$:311.; Ueblen 1953; Parsons 1949). L ipset and

Zet terberg (1970:113) f i n d that the greatest need f o r %1

set f-evaluat ion, o f ten tak ing the form o f h igh mater ia l consumpt inn,

co i nc i des l i t h those cases where c 1 ass d i s t i nct i ons become poor 1 y

def ined and the soc ia l s t r uc tu re i s not very r i g i d . Lauman, Siege1

and Hodge ( 1970 : 189). a 1 so argue tha t the s t y l e o f consumpt i on t ha t

ind iv

or va

ex i s t

o f f ' i I

dua I 3 o f a s t at us group employ i s a p r i mwy means o f assert i ng .-

ida t ing status, ~ q u a l i t y , and i d e n t i t y . Uhen such condi t ions

the propor t ion o f income spent on good3 t o ahor soc ia l

a t i o n r i l l increase.

Sometimes e n t i r e s t r a t a o r subgroups have changed t h e i r behavior

and act i gns t o conform more c 1 osefl y t o those abgve them because o f

the soc ia l o r economic advantages i t mould b r i n g them. H i l l e r

(1962) describes a case i n Ind ia r

improve i t s soc ia l pos i t ion , began

caste i t wished t o move i n to . The

had t o maintain t h e i r soc ia l poa i t

showing t h e i r d i s t inc t i veness ( H i l

ere an .ent i r e caste, i n order t o

t o emulate the behavior a f that

on 1 y cho i ce the group above them

on was t o acquire new symbols

sr"1982:89). Epstein (1978:132) --

found that A f r i can tribesmen i n the Copperbelt formed t h e i r own I

soc ia l hierarchy, but apart from t h e i r f e l l o a t r ibejmcn. The upper

1 -. - s t o t us groups (smvant s, gardeners) adopt ed t ha I i fe-st y l e~ o f the

co lon ia l au thb r i t ies, thereby cons:iously d is t ingu ish ing themselves ,

from other A f r ' i can labourers. Such act ions could consequent I y

i ncrcgse consumpt i on and the product i on o f "em cbmmod i t ,i es, t o k

constant ly w i n t a i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .

~~st ; in ( 1 978: 21 8) a lso noted that i n He I anes i a and Hem GU i nea \.

b lacks i n te rac t i ng c lose ly mith mhites, o f t en f o r economic reasons,

began t o emulate the l i f e - s t y l e s of whites t o gain s ta tus . This

behavior a lso establ ished t h e i ~ supe r i o r i t y over other in land t r i b e 3 .-

or m i grant workers . Pet erson-Royce ( 1982: 180-82; 21 2- 13) c i t es a

s i m i l a r change o f l i f e - s t y l e s i n x Hexican Zapotec soc ie ty . Hembers a

mhd m i sh t o move up i n the c lass h ierarchy smi tched t o the nat i ona 1

- Hexican i d e n t i t y by acqu i r ing a l l the c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s o f Hexican

l i f e - s t y l e s and abandoning a l l Zapotec t r a i t s . f l l l external

ind icators tha t once i d e n t i f i e d e thn ic o r i g i n (e.g., dress) mere

.rep l aced.

There are many examples i n soc ie t ies t o shom that the degree o f

dev i a t ion o f behav i o r from c lass va 1 ues ce r to i-n l y -changes m i t h

vary ing i n t e n s i t i e s o f r i g i d i t y i n soc ia l s t ruc tu re . For instance,

i n very r i g i d soc ie t ies , such as India, i nd iv idua ls o f separate

s t r a t a eat and soc i a l i ze toget her and somet i mes a re not a l I owed t o

'ma r r y outs ide t h e i r group. But-as r i g i d i t y decline3, there are more

intermarr iages and,more communication (e.g., eat ing and v i s i t i n g )

among s t r a t a (Turn i n 1967; Homans 1974 : 300; Jenn i rigs 1950 : 257-58) . Homever, as a number o f the abqve examp l Cs demonstrate, when

r i g i d i t y o f soc ia l s t r uc tu re i s h igh there i s no d i s t i n c t advantage

t o be found i n dev ia t ing from the accepted behavior o f one's omn

grwp. In ptherwords, t he degree o f group conformity a n d

s i m i l a r i t y i n behavior i s more a funct ion o f l i m i t e d m o b i l i t y than

the degree o f i n te rac t ion bet.& i nd i v i duo I s . flnd, there i s less

+ need t o demonstrate soc ia l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o r a f f i l i a t i o n t o one's

soc i a 1 group rhen soc i a I s t ruc t ure i s r i g i d -- consequent l y, the

consumpt ion o f good6 t o def ine soc ia l a f f i l i at ion rou I d be I ess

pronounced.

The primary task o f t h i s chapter has been t o def ine and examine -- some o f the Imore'important cha rac te r i s t i c s o f i nequa l i t y and how

they are r e I a t ed t o var i ous character i s t i t s o f econom i c and soc i a 1

behavior i n soc ie ty . I n doing so, I have t r i e d . t o demonstrate t ha t

i nequa I i t y produces d i f ferences i n -access t o resources depend i ng on

how i nd i v i duo I s are ranked. Such d i f f erences must i neu i tab I y 'have '

consequent act ions, r h i ch are la rge ly a fac to r o f 'the var i ab i I i t y o f

economic inequal i ty ; these, too, r i l l place l i m i t s on the t o t a l

consumpt i on o f r a t e r i a I goods.

As I haue a lso t r i e d t o demonstrate, the degree o f v e r t i c a l

movement, o r mobi I i t y , i n soc ie ty leads t o yet another set o f

act ions r h i c h are f a r less dependent on t he amounts o f income o r

rewards ind iv idua ls are given. These are not ac t ions which are

governed so le l y by the economic fac tors o f i nequa l i t y but by the

very s t ruc tu re o f the soc ia l system, r e s u l t i n g i n compet i t ion and b

poor c r ys ta l i za t ion o f v e r t i c a l soc ia l pos i t ions i n aoc ie ty . Such I '

cond i t ions create greater soc ia l awarpness where ind iv idua l ac t ions

becore m e dependent on others, tly a i m mas t o dwmstrmte that

social structure may be viewed as a continuum i n terms of i t s

s t a b i l i t y . The degree of s t a b i l i t y has implications for the may

people choose t o spend t h e i r mooey, or the choices they make i n

consumption of goods -- social group-created consumption needs 1

become r e l a t i v e l y more important,

CHRPTER 3

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF flATER If% CULTURE 4

Consider mater ia l c u l t u r e as tha t segment a f man's physical environment rrhich is ,purposely shaped by him according t o c u l t u r a l l y d i c t a t ed p lans (Deetz 1968:lO).

l NTROOUCT l ON

The purpose 6 f t h i s chapter r i l l be t o examine the r o l e mater ia l

c u l t u r e p lays i n the soc ia l sphere o f soc ie t i es , and t o answer: 1 )

mhat soc i a I, behav i ora l fac to rs are r e l a t e d t o the r a t e r i a l t hi-ngs \

people c h o o x t o make o r purchase; 2) rha t types, o r a t t r i b u t e s , o f

mater ia l goods most r e f l e c t these soc ia l and behavibra l fac tors?

Anarers t o these quest ions become important i n the l a t e r chapters

when t h= soc i a l behau i o r a l changes r e l a t e d t o i nequa l i t y ere l inked

t o the use o f mater ia l - cu l t u re i n the f u r t rade .

The exchange o f in format ion i s v i t a l f o r the c u l t u r a l system t o

operate. Roles -and ranks must be defined, proper s ta tus , p res t i ge

and i mag6 o f i nd i v i duo l s o r groups must be s i gna l ed t o others, i f

the goals o f soc ie ty are t o .be f u i f i l led. I n Yhe f i r s t pa r t o f t h i s

chapter I w i d ! i nves t iga te how a a t e r i a l c u l t u r e serues as a form o f

- commun i cat i on bet reen people. I t i s important i n t h i ? regard t o

know: 1 ) haw, and why, mater i a l goods acqu

A

i r e s o c i a l and symbolic

meaning; 2) mhere such meaning res ides i n a r t i f a c t s ; and, 3) hom

in fo rma t ion content a f f e c t s t h e form and s t r u c t u r e of mater ia l

goods.

Behaviar and Soc ia l Com~ar ison

One o f t h e c h i e f reasons r a t e r i a l goods can transm i t i n foraa t ion

i s r e l a t e d t o how the v i s i b l e behavior o f i n d i v i d u a l s passes 00

in fo rmat ion t o others, such as when simple gestures toke on meaning.

The na ture o f t h e behavior o f peop l e i s dependent one an

ever-widening c i r c l e o f s o c i a l groups, rang ing from t h e immediate

fam i l y t o more s o c i a l l y d i s t a n t members. However, people do have

personal needs and values ( s e l f- i rage) mhi ch they balance w i t h i n the - a broader context o f soc i e t y . They const ant l y eva l uat e t hemse l ves

through compar ison m i t h r h a t o thers do i n soc ie ty , not on l y t d

improve t h e i r sel f - image but a l s o t o formulate s o c i a l s t r a t e g i e s

(Fest i nger 1954; Jonts and Regan 1974). Peop l e t r y t o t r e a t e

p o s i t i v e sel f - images t o convey t o others, f o r bo th self-esteem and

s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n (U iessnerV98t :191) . For example, Crook (1981)

has i g u e d t h a t i nd i v i duo l s p o r t r a y pos i t i ve se l f - i m a p s t o o thers

so they would be more successPu l i,n i n te rac t i ng w i t h them. Such

success i n i n t e r a c t i o n , o f t e n known as r e c i p r o c a l a l t ru i sm, mould be

h i gh l y bencf i c i a l i n hunt &-gatherer sac i e t i es where rec i i t i s

very important (Uiessner 19841, o r i n groups where s u c c ~ s s f u l

r e c i proca l r&l a t i on5 const i t u t e a means o f go i n i ng a compet i t i ve

edge on o the rs (Crook 1981 1.

I n contemporary t i o r th American s o c i e t i e s people are ab le t o

-% demonstrate t h e i r soc ia l a f f i 1 i a t i o n w i th a group r create a . "i

se l f- i wage by symbo l i ng l i t h mat er i a l goods (Ueb l2n 1953;

Duesenberry 1919; Benedict 1931; Barber and Lobel 1953; Hai r and

Anderson 1973; Kroeber 1957; Levy 1977; l la rk in 1974; flyers, Stanton

and Hauy 1971; Stanford 1966; Uan Katesan 1966; U i t t 1969). Symbols

are objects that are u t i l i z e d f o r purposes other than pure ly

u t i l i t a r i a n funct ional ones (Ua~ner 1941; 1959;3), f o be e .L

a symbol must be recognized by a l l peop-le with whom the

i s assoc i ated (Grubb bnd Grot hwoh l 1977 : i01) . As Uobst po i n t s out, '

a p r i m a y funct ion o f mater ia l cu l t u re i n the social@ realm i's t o . . P allom, , . , ,other members o f the group t o evaluate how c lose ly a

\

g i ven i nd i v i duo l i s subscr i b i ng t o the behav i ora l norm& o f tha t

4 group' (1977:327). Conuersely, mater ia l c a t u r e i s a lso a means o f

expressing i n d i v i d u a l i t y m i t h i n the group, e i t h e r t o d issoc ia t 1 onese I f from t hat group and j o i n another one (Crook 1981 : 102) ,b t o

d isp lay a p o s i t i v e self-image f o r more e f f e c t i v e rec ip roca l /-

' r e l a t i o n s (Uiessner 196$:191),

lluch aork has been conducted i n contemporary aestern soc ie t ies

t o determine mhat objects, o r a t t r i b u t objects, take on

symbolic meaning. . Recent research i n A

that i nd iv idua ls are amare o f t h e i r s

They choose products t o improve or p 1

express values and what they t h i nk t - tha t image t o others (Grubb and Grathaohl 1977; Ual t e r s 1971). As

Figure 3.1 shors, there i s a cont inual i a e r p l a y i n terms o f the

-acquisition o f goods t o f u l f i l l ind iv idua l needs, t o produce a

p o s i t i v e self-image, and t o send informat ion about t h i s self-image

Desired React ion t o

Enhance Ind iu idua l '3-

b,c,d = e x t r i n s i c ua lue

Audience B (Parents, Peers, S ig , o thers )

1 . I n t r i n s i c Ualue = The essen t ia l phys ica l q u a l i t i e s o f a product (e.g. , Uoluo = d u r a b i l i t y ) .

2. E x t r i n s i c Ualue = The ex te rna l q u a l i t i e s not forming pa r t

o f a product (e .g . , Uoluo owner - Pract icolJ

F i gure 3 . 1 . The r e l a t i onsh i p s i n the consumpt i on o f goods as

symbo 1 s o f se 1 <-concept ( taken from Grubb and Grat h- r o h l 1977).

t o l a rge r soclot circle^ (Grubb and Gruthwoht t9?7:H33. Mc miat

group t o which a person" i s sending informat ion i s r e f e r r e d t o as the t

reference group, o r tha t group sh i ch serves as the PO i n t o f

reference i n mak i ng compac i sons and cont ras ts (Ost l und 1973 : 243;

Bourne 1957) . Research conducted on p u b l i c versus p r i v a t e behavior i l l u s t r a t e s

j ust how i mportant u i s i b l e behavior and syabo l ing i s i n many . *

s oc i e t~ i es . Ind iu jdua~ ls are less l i k e l y t o dev ia te p u b l i c l y f roa

acceptea behavior o r act ions o f the group t o sh i ch they belong *

(Bourne 1957:215). Although the r e l a t i v e s t a tus o f i nd i v i dua l s

seems t o a f f e c t the degree o f p u b l i c acceptance o f values, p u b l i c

conformi ty t o the group values i s always h igher than p r i v a t e

conformi ty , This general r e l a t i onsh ip , and i t s imp1 i c a t ions t o the

use o f m a t t r i a l goods p u b l i c l y as symbols, i s i l l u s t r a t e d with a few

more examp l es. < 4 Although mater ia l c u l t u r e has some physical r e s t r i c t i o n s f o r

ca r r y i ng messages, i t can ca r r y broad types o f i nformat i on regarding \

' . . ' .c lass a f f i n i t y , soc ia l group a f f i l i a t i o n , and p o s i t i o n along a

t a n k e d sca l e . . . ' (Uobst 1977 : 3231, o r persona l i dent i t y . The

ind iv idua l can p u b l i c l y communicate h i s assoc ia t ion s i t h a group, o r

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f roa i t, w i t h mater ia l goods tha t a re v i s i b l e t o

others. Uobst has a lso st ressed tha t v i s i o n as a sensory device i s

important f o r mater ia l goods which a l l have a '. . . v i sua l dimension, +

and the ' v i sua l dimension o f a r t i f a c t s i s most easi l y manipulated t o

hake on a message func t ionm (1977:322) i n o ther words, mater ia l

ob jec ts which are hidden from pub1 i c v i ew are un l i k e l y t o ca r ry any

soc i a l messages about group membersh i p o r d i f f erences . I

Uobst (1977:328) has suggested t h a t c l o t h i n g and o ther v i s i b l e -

personal items (e.g,, houses)- a re t h e most s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s o f

group o f f i I i a t i on. H i s observat i ons i mp l y t h a t t h6 k a n s o f

c o m m u n i c a t i n g g r o u p a f f i l i a t i o n o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s imp+oued

through t h e v i s u a l mode because ma te r ia l goods cons tan t l y t ransmi t

t h e i r messages and can en te r many contex ts t h a t a re a l l important i n

rece i v i ng soc i a 1 messages :

I f s t y 1 i s t i cjmessoges on a r t i f a c t s a re rece i wed i n t h e v i s u a l mode, t h e d is tance a t eh ich an a r t i f a c t becores u i ~ i b l e , the number o f contex ts i t i s entered i n to , and t h e content o f the message i t s e l f a l l tend t o argue against an o v e r l y sim- p l i s t i c r e l a t i o n 3 h i p betmeen any s i n g l e v a r i a b l e and s t y 1 i s t i c form (Uobst 1977: 328).

Uobst i l l u s t r a t e s h i s model by examining sty4 i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n a

number o f e t h n i c groups i n Yugoslavia. The most v i s i b l e material.

goods such as personal dress, e s p e c i a l l y head dress, most c l o s e l y

expressed i ntra-group s i l i I a r i t y and i n t er-group d i f ferences . Such

d i s t ; r,ct s t y I i s t i c d i f ferences mere most preva l ent i n those r e g i ons

o f Yugoslavia mhere d i f f e r e n t e t t h i c groups f requen t l y i n te rac ted

and competed against one another .

Some o f Uobst ' s r e s u l t s a re re levan t t o the stud9 o f i n e q u a l i t y

and r e l a t e d ma te r ia l c u l t u r e a t t r i b u t e s . I n ' fugoslavian dress, f o r

example, those items t h a t mere on l y v i s i b l e a t a c l o s e r d is tance 1

5-

prov ided in fo rmat ion about t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p o s i t i o n a long a ranked

sca le ( i . e . , meolth, s t a t u s o r age) w i t h i n t h e groop. Uobat 's

theory f i t s melJ mith t h e p rev ious l y presented concepts o f

i n d i v i d u a l pub1 i c l eve l conformi ty expressed by v i s i b l e , conspicuous

1

f

objects. Hore important I y though, he i t lust ra€ e d d i i c h s p e d f i c

a t t r i bu tes o f material cu l ture are re la ted t o increasingly larger

social realms, ranging from individual ranking tq group a f f i l i a t i o n

and d i s t i n c t ion.

Hany o f Uobst ' s concepts about material cul t u re are supported by

other stud i es o f c&t emporary ega l i t a r i an hunt er-gat herers and *

western societ ies. Hodder (1982:210) found that some material 4

objects were used ac t ive ly as symbols i n social s t ra teg ies fo r the

flaasai i n Kenya. Uiessner (1983, 1981) found s i ~ i l g r rb lu t ionships

bet ween not er i a I cu l tu re and behav i or amongst the Son, i k project i l e .

point s ty les and ornamentot ion; both types o f objects ara h igh ly

v i s i b l e and sensi t ive indicators o f social a f f i l i a t ion and

1 d i f ferences . L i ke Uobst , U i essner ( 1983: 257) argues that some L

* .

at tp i but es ' o f mat er i a l cu I t ure carry messages about consc i ous

d a f f i l i a t i o n r iden t i t y t o a target population.

I n a c lass i c paper on consumpt ion, Bourne (1 957) i I lust ra ted how a

aware North. Americans were o f the a r t i c l es they bought, and what

those a r t i c l e s meant t o others. The use o f the a r t i c l e s i n e i ther ,

bubl ic or p r iva te domains af fected choice o f products. ~ e o & e chose

on i y cert a i n types of goods because o f pub l i c soc i a l group i n f l uence

(Figure 3.2). Bourne's f indings suggest that the pcir t icular

function of any object has r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e t o do wi th whether i t

i s used t o carry informat ion about status d i fferences or group i

membsrsh i p; s i l i lar f i nd i ngs have recent l y been deacr i bed by

Lemonnier (1906) for a number o f Hew Guinea t r ibes . Inatead, t h e 1

degree o f conspicuousness o r amount o f v i s i b i I i t y o f o product was

the most important a t t r i b u t e i n determining i t s a b i l i t y t o carry

Reference Group Influence on Choice of Product

Cloth ing

Furn i t ure

Hagaz i nc3

a e f r i g e r a t o r ( type)

Toi l e t Soap

Ueak Strong

Soap.

Canned- Peaches

Laundry Soap

Refr i gerat o r Brand

&d i 03

Cars -

C i garet t es

Beer ( p r t r , va reg. )

Drugs

A i r Cond i t i oners

Instant Coffee

TU (black and white)

F i gure 3.2. The rdl a t i onsh i p bet ween product, brand o r type

and the degree o f reference group i n f l uence i n

cho l ce (Based on f i gure i n Bourne 1957).

i n formot i on about group s i l i l or i t i es or d i f ferences . Bdurne de f i ned , L - - - --- -

'conspicuous" i n - the fo l l oa i ng ways. An object was cons@ I i cuous i f

i t was eas i ly v i s i b l e and ident i f ibdpby others, and ih i t stood out I

and mas not iced. An object coul d be very v i 5 i b l e add consp i cuous

on l y i f i t mas owned b y a few. ' ~ h t ~ s , the t erm 'consp i cuous* ~e fers - *

t o v i s i b l e o b j e c t s w h i c h a r e u n i q u e a n d o w n e d b y o n l y a few -

indiv iduals in.society. C

Bourne a l so not cd that a part i cu l ar reference group cou l d

have some i n f l uence on t Re product or f he brand, or both, somet i res " -

depending hom common t hat object .was. For examp l e i because @

everyone wears clothing, c lo th ing as a product i s only weakly

influenced by the reference group, but c lo th ing brand o r s t y l e i s i

,more sensi t iue t o reference group influence. On the other hand, an

object l i k e a cay which i s h igh ly v i s i b l e and represents a large B

. A persona l i nuest rent, i 3- part i cu l ar l y sens i t i ve t e reference group 9

i n f l uence i n t erms o f both and brand. -"4

$ a

i

There are a few in terest ing points that can be added t o Bourne's 7

f i nd i;lgs. I t appears that as a product i s i n t roduced i n t o the

market p l ace i t cer t a i n l y i s ra re and 'consp i cuous' . However , as

more people are able t o purchase the pro"duct , brand becomes more

important as a v i s i b l e symbol, e i ther expressing indiv idual

d i s t i nct ion or perhaps d i f ferent i at i on from others. New products

w e of ten more expensive, or d i f f i c u l t t o obtain, l i m i t i n g t h e i r \ rJ

P

access t o cer ta in port ions o f the population. Once they become

o f fordable by eueryone, new brands are introduced ah i ch are .

wqh more - e l aborat e, and expens i ue . j t ems considered l uxur i es today L

1

become tomorrow ' s necess i t i es, tie i ng rep l aced by new products o r LI

-

brands (Kroeber 1957; Fa l l e rs 1 973; Doug l as and l shermood 1979) . --

Other s tud i es support Bourne ' s f i nd i ngs regard i ng reference * .

group i n f l uence and 'consumer cho i se , rkey s h h t h i t a 1 though an

1, ob jec f may serue-a p r i m a r i l y u t i l i t a r i a n funct ion, i f i t i.s r a r e - ,

I - - .

J i e , i t i s on ly m a i lab le t o c e r t a i n members), it a t t a i n s the 6

add i t iona l qua1 i t y f symbo l i z i ng d a% membersh i p: For examp l e, : 1

Rottenberg (1958) noted t ha t r e f r i g e r a t o r s i n Pucrto Rico dur ing the

1 910s mere r e l a t iue l y expens i us and ra re . The purchase o f these

obj ect s denoted 'c l a&-membersh i p, i nd i cat i kg that they sdrued a e

i ymbbl ic f u n d i o n as me11 as u t i l i t a r i a n unct ional pale. ' c- f

o f beb,ng put i n the k i tthens, o r some other out-of-f he-,yy pl&ce, . I

r e f r i gerators mere placed in' t h e l i u i ng roo& mhere they mere % . h igh l y

v i s i b l e t o others (Rattenberg 1958). The'use o f these objects as 4

s t a t us symbo l s mas> obu i ods . , . - _ _ $

Oft en i t e m detiot i ng upper c l ass membersh i p are obta i ned by a " -

"I omer c l a& member$ .i n o rde r t o t r y to 9 i i n i fy m;.bersti i p . i,n that ' %

O L

. Ij

p a ~ t i cu l o r c lass. The good$ peop l e choose are dependent; on rhat w '1 a * L

o thers consume. tli l l e r (1982) has descr i bad t h i s t rend i n the e

l nd i an cast t system mhere ent i r e castes copy goods o f upper 'cast es

t o attempt to'hous up. , O f i5qtur&, upper castes t r y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e 4 1

themselues by ac,quiring d i f f e r e n t items denoting t h e i r group '

i dent i t y . Ueb l en :( 1953) .or i i wl'l y, detcr i bed t h i s phenbmenon i n

A ier i can soc i e t y and Fa l l ers ( 1973) presented a s i l i l'ar mode I . - . ,

Under cond i t ions o f h i gh mob i I4 t y and compet i t i OF, there i s a

cont i nue l change i n s t y l e o r types o f mat e r i a l goods aeq" i red by. , - )

e l i t e 3 t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e themoelv& ~ f r o m ~ l o w e r c lasq ind'iuiduals, . -

r e w l t i ng i n *n increased' use and .ore r a p i d change o f types, o r . 3,

T -

. " . I ' 8

1 uxur i es r i I l become t omorror ' s necess i t i es ! .

flRTER 1 flL CULTURE flS 1 HFORIAT 1 OH I H flRCHflEOLOGY

The preceding d i k u s s i o n dea l t with mater ia l c u l t u i e as

informafion i n contemporary soc ie t ies . Iany o f these p r i n c i p l e s

have been app l ied - to archaeological inquiry, p r i m a r i l y t o examine

a r t i f a c t ' v a r i a b i l i t y a t the inter-group leve l . A b r i e f summary o f

these approaches, and t h e i r relevance t o the d isser ta t ion , f o l loas.

Before the 19603, the u t i l i t a r i a n funct iona l r o l e o f mater ia l

cu l t u re t o s a t i s f y the basic.economic needs o f soc ie ty received

cons i derabl e a t t ent i on i n archaeo I og i ca 1 research (Hodder 1982 : 3;

Socket t 1982 : 59) . Homeuer, archaeo 1 og i s t s had a I ready begun t o

e x p l i c i t l y def ine the r o l e s that a r t i f a c t s played i n each subsystem -

o f cu l t u re dur ing the 1930s (L in ton 1936; Osgood 1940:25-29).

Osgood suggested that r a t e r i a 1 goods played a r o l e i n each o f the

f ~ l l o m i n ~ s y s t e m s : 1 ) t he mater ia l realm, r h i c h included technology

and econom ics; 2 ) the soc ia l realm, r h i c h included soc ia l

organizat ion and behauior; and, 3 ) the ideat iona l realm. fhere r c s

l i t t l e fu r the r c l a r i f i c a t i o n a s t o m h i c h a r t i f a c t t y p e s o r a r t i f a c t @

a t t r i but es be 1 onged t o each subsystem o f cu 1 t ure . During the 1960s, B in fo rd (1962) f u r t he r ref inedOsgood's /

'categories by spec i fy ing rha t types o f mater ia l goods funct ioned i n

each realm o f soc ie ty . B i n f o r d (1982: 68) -also noted t ha t the

funct ion o f objects mas mdnifotd, rorkTng i n mang M f c ~ e n t weusof -

c u l t u r a l l i f e . H is mul t i - funct iona l v i e r o f mater ia l cu l t u re i s

important f o r the "examination o f i nequa l i t y because i t impl ies that

even , f o r ra t ua r iab i l i ' t y - o f many u t i l i t a r i a n objects, other than m those goods o f i nequa l i t y tha t r e re s p e c i f i c a l l y a c t i v i t y - r e l a t e d

(e.g., cont ro l o f r i t u a l parophenalia by e l i t e s ) , i s capable o f

ca r ry ing informat ion about soc ia l s t ruc tu re .

Sackett (1982:82).modified O~good's and B in fo rd 's a r t i f a c t .

categories because he f e l t tha t i t ras not a l rays c lea r which

a t t r i b u t e s o f objects functioned i n each realm. Sack l t t d iv ided

+ ob jec ts i n t o u t i l i t a r i a n and n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n objects mainly on the

bas is o f form, arguing t h r t the l a t t e r category o f a r t i f a c t s

functioned pr imar i l y i n the spc ia l and ideat ional domains o f

cu l tu re . He spec i f i ed t ha t u t i l i t a r i a n objects could a lso serve a

soc ia l o r i deat i onal Tunct ion, r h i ch was consi dercd t o be 0.f

secondary i mport ance. Consequent l y, rhenever a u t i l i t a r i an obj ect

performed a soc ia l o r ideat ional function, such meaning ras ca r r i ed

i n i t s adjunct form -- namely, i n those a t t r i b u t e s which had no

u t i l i t a r i a n funct ion; t h i s v i e r o f s t y l e i s beginning t o be

supported by an ' i ncreas i ng number o f coit emporary stud i es (Leronn i er

1986:180). Although Sackett (1982:69) conceded that u t i l i t a r i a n

ob jec ts r e r e capable ~f performing soc ia l o r ideat ional functions,

he f e l t tha t t h i s requ i red the add i t i on o f adjunct form.

To sur rar i ze, the deue l oprent o f a f unct i ona l i s t approach t o

i nve t t igot ing va r iab i I i t y and regu lar i i ty i n mater ia l cu l t u re i n

archaeological inqu i ry mas general ly s i s i l a r t o the other soc ia l

sciences. It created a greater arareness o f the r o l e that r a t e r i a l

- -- -- - - - - - B

? ,. , 5 .

c u l t u r e played i n a l l realms o f past societ ies, and o f p o t e n t i d r

changes i n these r o l es t hrsugh t i me. Archaeo log i s t s recognized tha t

c e r t a i n i teas, o r t h e i r a t t r i bu tes , were o f t en used i n one realm

more than i n others: Homeuer, there has a lso been considerable

- --- - APA- mhich-tgpes ond attributes in .aterial B

c u l t u r e are usef-yl i n denoting similarities o r d i f f e b n c e s i n

behauior, whether betmcen ethnicLgroups o r between soc ia l s t m t ' a - /

(0 i n f ord -1 962; Uobst 1977; Sacket t 1977, 1982: 80-94; U i essner 1963, .. r

1984, 1985; Lemonn i b r 1986) , Horeouer , the cont r ou t r sy over the

f unc t i ona l i s t approach surrounds the under ly ing r u l e s that govern 1"

these choice; o f a t t r i butes, and how they are r e l a t e d t o human

behau i o r -- r u l e s wh i ch ore not a1 ways very c l ea r (Hodder 1982;

H i l I e r 1902; U i essner 1984; Uobst 1977). I t becomes necessary . L

L -.I

therefore, t o co rb in t the f ind ings i n the f i r s t sect ion o f t h i s 9

chapter w i th the rays that archaeologists examine mhere soc ia l

meaning resides i n mater i a l goods, i n order t o more thorough1 y

underst and' the symbo l i c use o f mat e r i a l cu l t ure .

Tupes o f Format U a r i a b i l i t y

Archaeologists seem t o agree tha t adj unct forms i n e i t h e r

u t i l i t a r i a n o r n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n b r t i f a c t s c a r r i e s p r i m a r i l y conscious

soc ia l or ideat ional meaning. Uhat they do not agree upon i s

whether t h i s form i 3 the only means o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g soc ia l \ groups. flnd as w i I l become c l ear short l y, i t i s not the on l y

4

v i s i b l e may tha t s ta tus groups can be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from one

another i n soc ie ty . I n order t o c l a r i f y these po in t s fur ther , a

more in-depth discussion o f formal u a r i a b i l i t y ahd i t s behauioral 9

I *

The i-con0 l og i ca l a"d the i sochrest i c (socket t -1982) approaches d

have emerged from the recent " cont rouersy about how t o d i s t i ngu i sh . c

bet ween groups by e x a k n i ng the i r r e 1 a t ed mat e r i a l cu l t ure . The' d

i conolog ical w r m c h - s ta tes that groups can be d i f ferent i at ed best

t cmpora l l y and spat i a l1 l y by d i f f erences i n adjunct forms of

u t i ~ i t b r i a n ob jec ts (Longacre 1971; Plog 1980). I n other .ords, on

adjunct form serves p r i m a r i l y t o denote in ten t iona l o r conscious

soc ia l information. For example, s p e c i f i c d i f fe rences i n po t te ry

' des i gn are sa i d t o d i f fereht i a te soc i o-econoui c groups from one -

another, I n some cases, these d i f ferences are a 'consequence o f

consdious'symboling o f members o f each group (e.g., d i f f e r e n t totems

& f o r two groups) leading t o d i f fe rences i n formal v a r i a t i o n i n design

between those groups, Thus, formal v a r i a t i o n i n even u t i l i t a r i a n

ob jec ts i s capable of,&ssine on informat ion t o others about

cond i t ions o f the c u l t u r a l system (Uobst 1977:321; ~ i e s s d '

1981 : 193). I t 'mould appear a 1 so t hat t h i s approach can be app l ied

t o i nequa l i t y because membsrs o f ' d i f ferent s t r a t a can use such goods

t o sign'al purposeful d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n i r o f f i l i a t i o n , i f they mish.

The i sochrest i c approach s t a t es that forma 1 var i ab i I i t y i n

u t i 1 i tar i an goods i s the 'uriint ent i ona l by-product o f soc i a 1

i n te rac t ion (Sacket t 1482:J 05). Presumab l y, the greater the

in teract ion, the more s i m i l a r the mater ia l cultu;e pa t te rn ing

' becomes, flt f i r s t glonce, isochresism seems o f l i t t l e ualue i n

examining inequal i ty , bemuse: 1 ) the d i f f e r e n t i a l se lec t ion o f . ,

ob jec ts are due t o d i f fe rences o r s i m i l a r i t i e s i n income, not the

degree o f in teract ion; 2) the pure ly u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s I o f C

-, " -C

i nd i.cat ed in chapter two, i nequa l i t y can a I so be an unconscious

a f f a i r where va r iab i l i t y i n t h e h e , o f goids between s t r a t a i s the

consequence o f the unequal access t o goods. Furtherwore, the

i sochrest i c approach cannot be d i am i ssed ent i r e l y s i nce i t imp l i es

that u t i l i t a r i a n items Can a lso d i f f e r e n t i a t e soc ia l groups i n the

realm o f unconscious d i f fe rences i n behavior and p r i v a t e l i f e -s ty le '

Iloreouer, as was apparent i n the previous sec t ion o f t h i s chapter, *

u t i I i t o r i a n a t t r i b u t e s o r e n t i r e classes o f goods can o f t e n

d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t r a t a even though members o f a c u l t u r e may not be

very aware o f these d i f fe rences (e.g., d i f fe rences by c lass o f

underclothing, e t c . ) . b

I r i l l use the c lay p ipe stem length as an example t o i l l u s t r a t e

how u t i I i t a r i an a t t r i but es can take on consc i ous poc i a l meaning, a n 4

then i n chapter I t , I w i l l i l l u s t r a t e how t h i s a t t r i b u t e can

d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t r a t a i n an archaeological context , The c lay p ipe

was an i mportant common personal i tern f o r centur ies i n Europe and

Horth America (Ualker 1977; 0suald 1960, 1975). It performed the

important funct ion o f smoking. But, the c lay p ipe a lso changed i n

form over the centur ies. O f p a r t i c u l a r i n te res t i s the a t t r i b u t e

p i pe s t em l engt h mh i ch changed over the cent ur i es; t h i s 'change

cannot be easi l y explained w i t h a u t i l i t d r i a n funct ional approach.

It has been suggested t ha t the increase i n stem length t o 33 inches

by the I a t e 1700s helped cool the smoke o r a I lowed the smoker t o

r e s t h i s elbow on the cha i r , There i s no

support t h i s i n t c rp re ta t ion, nor mould i t

lengths decreased i n the 1850s (Pyszczyk 1983). Uas i t perhaps

because smokers enjoyed burning t h e i r mouths i n the V ic to r ian per iod

o r because the i r arms became shorter?

I f the soc ia l h i s t o r y o f the c lay p ipe i s examined, long stemmed

pipes become popular among upper s t r a t a .. i n Europe dur ing the l a t e

1700s. Although p ipe stem length gradual ly decreased, the long

s t er red war i e t i cs

Uictor,ipn per iod. f

s ta tus . But long

rank because they

mere s t i l l popular a i t h the 'gentlemen' dur ing the

ThusJ p ipe stem length became an ind ica to r o f

stemmed c lay pipes d i d not become ind icators o f

r e r e r m t r i c t e d t o members o f soc ie ty by economic

means, These. pipes mere s I ight 1 y more expens i vc but the l orer

i ncore groups could s t i l l a f f o r d them. Long s t emmed c lay pipes

became indicators,of rank because t o some degree they were

i mpract i ca l t o use i n r o r k contexts by the l omer i n c o ~ e groups, rho

p re fe r red the shorter stemmed 'cu t t ies ' (Uatker 1977). I t i s

%ual ly important t o note that p ipe stem length acquired soc ia l \

meaning, symbolizing rank, even though i t maa-a purely u t i l i t a r i a n

a t t r i b u t e . %

4

IflPLlCATlOHS AHD APPLICHTIOHS

The preced i ng d i scuss i on i nd i cat es that r a t e r i a l goods car ry

soc ia l in format ion and p lay a r o l e i n soc ia l s t ra teg ies . Symbolic

mean i ng o r i nformat ion i s acqu i red through cogn i t i on by members of

soc i e t y o f what other peop l e have y ~ d use, and hom' members mant t o ' S

be uiemed by others. Lomer income groups mant t o acquire those - /

a r t i c l e s tha t upper s t r a t a are using in order t o moue up and be

u i emed and eva l uat ed more poa i t i ue 1 y by others. f l 1 though the

purchase o f be t t e r q u a l i t y or new a r t i c l e s a lso improve one's -

standard o f l i u ing , there are many instances mhere item q u a l i t y o r

funct ion i s not a fac to r o f personal needs -- choice i s o f t en

i n f I uenced by mhot others _are using or, i n the case o f upper s t a t us

indiv iduals, by mater ia ls that are unique from mhat others have.

These resu I t s i mp 1 y that the approach present 1 y taken i n archaeo logy

t o exam i n i ng the r e I at i onsh i p bet ween i neque l i t y and consumpt i on

must be broadened. Consumpt ion i s not ent i r e I y an i ndependent

act i on based on l y on personal n&ds, but i s also soc i 0 1 1 y or ien t ed.

The answer t o the quest ion as t o mhere soc ia l in format ion

res ides i n r a t e r i a l goods fu r ther supports the argument that

archaeologists should broaden t h e i r approach mhen inves t iga t ing

inequal i ty and mater ia l cu l t u re . There i s l i t t l e doubt that a feu

unique, very expensive a r t i c l e s r i l l d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t r a t a -- a major

consequence of economic inequa l i t y . However, such items are h i gh l y

curated and very r a r e i n archaeological deposits, Since soc ia l

information resides p r i m a r i l y i n n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s o f .m;ry

c l m j ~ f s o f u t i l i t a r i a n a r t i c l e s , these w t i c l e s a lso serve t o

d i f f e r e n t i a t e people, There are a lso in'stances mhen even

u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s o f goods car ry informat ion. I n the morld o f 4

mass-produced goods, nem i t ems o r ner i ten brands and s t y l as f i r s t

enter i ng the market are consp i cuous, and acqu i r e prest i ge for t h e i r

owners -- that i s, unt i I others acqu i r e these ~t i c 1 es, too. The

i mp l i cat i ons o f these f i nd i ngs f o r archaeo I og i I i nqu i r y suggest 9 tha t i nequa l i t y should be examined e i t h e r : l y w i t h an ar ray o f

a r t i c l e s i i t h s i m i l a r functions, that d i f f e r only i n t h e i r

non-ut i 1 i ' torian a t t r i bu tes ; or, 2) mith u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u ? t s of

' I

w t i c l w rbich are d i f f i c u l t t o exp \

lain in a purely utilibcim

If- i s 2 a lso evident that the form and s t ruc tu re o f r a t e r i a l goods I

are q f fec ted mhen uaed t o ca r ry informsit ion about soc ie ty . Uob3t

t (-1 977) demonstrated mh i ch a t t r i b u t e s o f goods car ry soc i a 1 t

- U

infdrmat ion, a f feet ing

quant i t o t i ve s t ruc tu re

used i n the soc ia l rea

(Shannon 1949; Herdan

the form o f mater ia l cu l t u re , But the

o f mater ia l goods may olsa be a f fec ted when

l f o r communicat ion. lnformat ion t heo r i s t s

966) have recogn i zed f o r some t i me that

i language, as a means o f communication, has a

s t ruc tu re . Language funct ions not only t o a l

communicate i n many d i f f e r e n t mays w i th combi

languige a lso has a s t r uc tu ra l e f f i c i ency a14

communication t o take place (Herdan 1966).

d e f i n i t e quont i t a t ivc

Joa people t o

nat ions o f sgmbols, but '

owing e f f e c t i v e \

The imp1 i ca t ions o f in format ion theory t o the study o f material

c u l t u r e as a means o f conveying information i n soc ie ty r i g h t

determine what purposq s t y l e o r adjunct form f u l f i l I s . I t mould

ansrrer uhet her the quant i t a t i we s t ruc tu re o f s t y l e t o car ry

informat ion d i f f e r s from other ottri 'butes o f mater ia l goods. fhe

appl i ca t ion o f informat ion theoret i ca l quan t i t a t i ve analys is t o

u t i l i t a r i a n versus n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s o f h i s t o r i c a r t i f a c t s

may provide ins igh ts i n t o the s t ruc tu ra l d i f fe rences that ex is t ,

betmeen these tmo types o f s t y l e . I f n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e 3 1

funct ion p r i p a r i l y as an informat ion car ry ing device, they should

have a d i f f e r e n t quan t i t a t i ve s t ruc ture , s i m i l a r t o language, and

one ahich i s ' d i f f e r e n t from pure ly u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s o f

mater ia l c u l t u r e , These concepts are appl ied t o wel l documented

h i s t o r i c European c lay pipe3 i-n chapter 11.

_ I n t h i s chapter, the use o f mater ia l c u l t u r e as o means o f v6 C:

e b t ransmi t t i ng social , in format ion mas explored; the app l i ca t ion o f

t h i J approach t o orchaeo 1 og i ca l i nqu i r y was but 1 i ned. To summar i re,

, I have made the f o l l o r i n g po in ts i n t h i s chapter:

1 . People evaluate and compare themselves t o others t o improve t h e i r setf-image; symboling with mater ia l goods i 3 one may o f accompl ish ing t h i s object ive.

'9 2 . t l a te r ia l m l t u r e funct ions t o v i s i b l y d isp lay group o f f i l i a t ion or d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .

Q 3. The most e f f ec t i ve goods t o commun i cate group a f f i l i a t i on o r d i f f e ~ e r t t i a t ion are ones tha t a re h i gh l y v i s i b l e t o others; I ) gdods tha t are phys i ca l l y v i s i b l y t o the eye; and,.2) a nem or conspicuous object , standing out because i t mas owned by only a feu ind iv idua ls , These can even be simple u t i l i t a r i a n items i f they are nem and unique t o a feu ind iv idua ls .

J

,' 4 . The approach ' p ~ e ~ e n t l y token i n archaeology t o examine t'he r e l at i onshi p bet meen i nequa2l i t y aod consumpt i on must be

" broadened, t o include not on ly very r a r e i tems, but a lso many s i m i l a r types o f p o d s mhlch d i f f e r i n t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s ta tes o r arC unique and v i s i b l e t o others.

3 C

B h 5 . Bccahe some a t t r i b u t e s o f r a t e r i a 1 cu l t ure funct ion as .

anot her form o f commun i cat i on, concept ua l l y a t l east, they %

.by have a quan t i ta t ive s t r uc tu re simi l o r t o the elements o f l anguage .

-C

CHAPTER 4 .

HETHODOLOG I CFIL AND ANALYT I CAC. APPROACHES TO CONSUHPT I ON EIND l NEQUAt l TY

l NTRODUCT I ON

It i s nor necessary t o r ev ie r , c l a r i f y and summarize the

concepts that were discussed i n chapters tuo and three, t o shorn hor

they are r e l a t e d and horn they can be appl ied emp i r i ca l l y t o the

h i s t o r i co l documentary and archaeo l og i ca l record. I n order t o

accomplish t h i s task, the fo l loming top ics are discussed i n t h i s

chapter: 1 ) a summary o f the most important concepts and theor i es,

and t h e i r r e l a t e d consequences, regarding the consumption o f goods

i n past soc ic t i t s ; 2) uoys in which these r e l a t ionships can be

examined u i t h h i s t o r i c a l and archaeological data; and, 3) the -i

necessary cond i t i ons and assumpt ions that must be met t o app ly t hem

t o paat soc ie t ies . k

The major research p ropos i t i on under inves t iga t ion i n t h i s v--

d i s s e r t a t i o n s ta tes t h a t : h~ the & ~ G G of l r c m i c in'dquu/ity

h c t m mcio/ strutu &wi9m3, the wi9 OJ ~ t e ~ i r 7 / p a d to

s@ / ;ire m i u / d / ' f f m t jut im &IU/ J bectwi9 mr# IUP~GJ, T h

proposi t ion, hornever, cannot be ' inuest igated without f i r s t exam

how v a r i a b i l i t y i n conwmption i s a f fec ted by a number o f

cons t ra in ts (e.g., income, p r i c e ) . I n other mords, d i fferences

in ing

i n

mater ia l consumpticn bet- oeobers o f soc ie ty cen stem from thee

factors: 1 ) the income o f people and the p r i ces o f goods; 2) 2

v a r i a b i l i t y i n v iers , uaiues, and percept ions o f people; and, 3) the

commun i cat i ve r o 1 e o f goods i n the exchange o f i nformat i on about

personal i mage o r soc i a 1 pos i t ion (F i gure 4.1 ) . These fac to rs are

not a I rays equa 1 1 y import ant nor are they constant . He i t he r are

they ent i r e 1 y independent o f one another. I t becomes much more

d i f f i c u l t t o determine the re l a tu i ve importance o f each fac to r

h i s t o r i c a l l y because i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i ngu i sh between horn

consumpt ion pat terns are governed by the const r d i n t t on one hand and

the need3 and ran t s on the other. I n the remainder o f t h i s chapter,

t hese .prob l e,s and the i r r e l a t i onsh i ps t o the research propos i t i on

are fur ther c l ' a r i f ied.

THE ROLE OF ECONOHIC FACTORS I N CONSUHPTI ON

I n order t o f u l l y understand hor sodia l fac to rs a f f e c t the 1

choice o f the type and quan t i t y o f mater ia l goods r e must f i r s t come

t o g r i ps w i th the issue o f economic fac tors . I n t h i s section, I

r i l l . b r i e f l y describe a se r ies o f demand funct ions cormonly used i n

i i croeconom i c theory t o invest i gat e how the choice and quant i t i es o f \ R

gqods ore a f fec ted by a se r ies o f independent var iab les (Green I

19?1:16-76; Cochrane and B e l l 1956). I t i s important t o note t ha t

thdse var iab les can e i t h e r be examined i nd i v i dua l l y o r together t o ,

sxdl a i n consumpt i on ' sach met hod i s leg i t i mat e i n study i ng 1

conbumpt i on behav i o r (Green 1971 ; S t ernt ha 1 and Cra i g 1980; Horgan I

1964 ; 102). These r e 1 a t i onsh i ps represent the bas i s f o r exam i n i ng

other possib le soc ia l fac tors involved i n the consumption o f

mat e r i a I goods,

- URRY IHG DEGREES OF INEQUAL I TY ' E " "

G ~ ~ I T I ~ ,'- A

, ' \Rmfabmm - P

I\ "b

*r T i

Econo. i c D i f ferencss '

\ f WlIFIBILITY IN

Figure 4 . 1 . General model of the relationship-betmeen

in,~qual i t y , social act ion, and material culture.

, . . '. * \ % ~ . >" ,' +

i

c,

, 59 *

i . " 1 %

Ir L < I

- - - - 5

a The use o f l i crg'ecopom ics and the exam inot ion 'bf uar ious

fo I l& ing assumptio~s. F i r s t , the co"sumpti& ... choicCs P o f ' I

i nd i u~idyo l s are made i ndepsnddnt l o f t hC consumpt i &I of others . I

(Green 1971 :20). second, bhs only variables that are relevant t o t

the det ern i nat ion o f consumer purchases are pr ice& and i-ncomt ah i ch * -

are a l mays i ndeptnde~t war i ab l cs (Duesenberry 1949: 10). . +

The f i-rst i ndependent war i ab l e o f consumpt i on i s i ncone ah i ch

a . determines t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f an indiuidual 'sbudget spent ongood3 .

(&en 1971:52153). Since budget, i s essent ia l ly a measure o f t o t a l q- . +

U con~urption; and i s said t o be proport ional t o income, the t g t a l r

amount o f consumpti on i s dependent on the s ize o f income (Green \

1971 :57). Given t h i s r e l p t ionship, i t f o l l o ~ s ~ t h a t income \

\\ .% var ia t ions betaeen social strqta, a i l I influence the propohtion

P

spent on go~ds : ' \ - - -

/

__-- //'/A P.

- i nd i v i duo l s w i t h r e lativcf t j gigher i nsomes' and/or spend i ng

- , p r i v i l iges w i l I, on aubrage, spend proport i ona 1 1 y more on B " . r a t e r i a l goods;

. . ?.

- on i ncreasn or decrease i n i ncome w i l I ' see a proport '! ona l " L

increase or decrease i n t o t a l consumpt ion i n any "soci a I. '

gPoup. ~ %

e B h

There i a nothing, howver, in economic theory o f c o ~ ~ r p t ion t o

red i c t e i t her ahqt types or war i et y o f conmod i t i cs a r c bought, only

I ,

t h a t fhose bundles o f goods are bought tha t are p re fe r red and b r i n g : - I , g,

~ o c t k n e and Bsl l '1956:79). I f the above re l a t i onsh ip betmsen ' -

b

. ' <

i-

inco#e and t o t a l conwmption holds, then thpse ind iv idua ls with a .*

h igher t o t a 1 i ncome w i 1 1 somehow spend that l arger budget, and can

e i t he r : .,

-

-

-

buy a proport i ona l 1 y great C r war i e t y o f goods than l omer

i ncome groups;

buy a p ropo r t i ona l l y greater amount o f a p a r t i c u l a r type o f

good than the 1 ower i ncome grwps; e

buy more expens i ue goods than I omer i ncomv groups. 2

These poss i b i 1 i t i es must present 1 y serue as compet i ng hypot hasas

which can be examined w i t h the h i s t o r i c a l and archaeological data,

Econom i s t s genera l 1 y r u i e out the second o 1 t ernat i ve (buy i ng a

greater amunt o f a p a r t i c u l a r item), a l l other fac tors being equal,

s ince the u t i l i t y of any commodity

consurpt i on i ncreasgs (Duesenberry

decreases as i t s' Fake of

1949 : 9; Green 197 1 : 42-44) . < ---a/

The other i mport ant i ndependent war i ab l e t hat o f f ect s the

quan t i t y o f an item tha t i s consumed i s v ~ r i a b ~ i l i t y in, p r i c e (Green

'1 971 : 53) The p r i c e funct i on, r e fe r red t o as 'own-pr i ce 1

5

e l a s t i c i t y ' , '., . re la tea the q u a n t i t y - o f a commodity demanded t o

-changes i n i ta -own p r i ce ' (Green 19?1:53). Omn-price e l a s t i c i t y con

be computed f o r any i tem by d i v i d i n g the percentage change i n the

- -- - P - - - . "

quant i t y of consumpt ion o f an i t em by the percent age change i n the - - - - - - - - - -

p r ice o f that i t em. Th i s funct ion assumes that an increase o r

decrease i n i ten p r i ce 1 eads t o a sofit l n w ! 5 ncrease or decreasz i n

- - the quant i i y o f the goods rhen other independent war i ab l es, such as

i ncom'e and i nd i v i duo l pre ferences, sera i n const ant (Green 1 971: 53) . r *

Given t h i s re la t ionship . . between item cost and quantity, and keeping

t he above assurpt ions i n mind:

- a decrease i d item p r i ce o f desirable goods b i l l ' b e followed

by an increase in i t s r e l a t ive freqhency o f *purchase,

regardless of the income o f the indiuiduol*; '.J' '9

- an i ncrease i n i t em p r i ce w i l ,I be fo 1 i obed by a - decrease i n

i t s r e I at i we frequency o f purchase, regardless o f the i ncome

o f the ind iv idual .

The quanti ty o f the consumption o f goods is .d ic ta ted by the

r e l at i ve degree o f access t o the source o f manu fact urc, i f the< p r ice . i

t

of those goods changes with r e l a t i v e access. Such v a r i a b i l i t y i n .

p r i ce rou ld be s imi la r to..the own-price e l a s t i c i t y of a eqmodity i

and have s i l i l ar prcd i c t ab 1 e consequences on consumpt i on :

?

c * - mhere t rantport at i on const i t utes a s i gni f i cant cost, the 2

frequency o f consumption o f goods i s less, the fur ther the

consumer i s away from the source o f manu fact ure; L

- mhere transport at i on const i t u t e3 a s i gn i f i cant cost, the

f requency o f consumpt i on o f goods i s greater , the

closeP' the consumer i s t o the source of manufacture;

- the frequency o f consumption o f goods i s less w i th the \

-

h igh cost o f t ransportat ion;

- the frequency o f the consumption o f goods i s p e a t e r w i th

the l o r cost o f t ransportat ion.

flu I t i o l e l ndependent Uar i ub l ea and Consumot i on

It. i s apparent t ha t the amount o f any commod i t y bought i s

dependent not on ly on i t s p r i c e and the s i ze o f the budget, but a l so a

thelpr ices o f a l l othep commodities (Green 1971:51). This

compl i cat ing #act or makes i t necessary t o e i t her assume i n the obove

measurement s t ha t budget o r i ncome rema i ns const ant and that v t he

p r i ces o f a l l other commodities a lso remain constant, o r t o take

these var iab les i n t o account. I n most cases mi th the h i s t o r i c data +

tha t I m i l l examine, these independent var iab les are he ld constant. i

But there are c i rcumstances, .hen both p r i ces and i ncuae change, G I1

c rea t ing problems in'examining consumption with only a s i ng le

i ndependent war i ab l e . . \

1

. -

Economists hove developed mathematical models t o cope w i th

i nstance; uhen both budget / i hcome and the p r i ce o f an i t em chonge

s i mu l tone& 1 (Green 1971 : 56-59). These met hods mere needed t o %.

determine hou the quan t i t y o f s commodity mas a f fec ted by both

var iab les a t once. Simply stated, the e f f e c t that changes i n both 7

budget and p r i c e have on the quant i t y o f a commodity i s measured by:

1 ) f irjt e=t imat ing the chaPge i n p r i c e - o f an item and d i v i d i n g i t \

by a change i n the budget (knomn as, the marg i no l propens i t y t o

spend); 2) then est imat ing the p r i c e and quan t i t y o f an i t e a and

d i u i d i ng i t by the t o t a l budget (known as the average propens i t y t o

--r i l l a f f e c t the quan t i t y o f consumption o f that item more in X

the i o r e r stratum than upper stratum. /

For the t i r e being, i t i 3 assumed tha t change3 i n budget and p r i ce

r i l l a f f e c t a l l types o f goods equal ly .

The above are a I l general econom i c ( income and p r ice) t o

consumpt ion r e l a t i onsh i ps t ha t have d i at i nct emp i r i ca l forms ( i . e . , h

occupa'tional income, sett lement and regional p r o f i t s , f l uc tua t ions

i n p r i ces o f goods, d istonce o f settlements t o sources o f

manu f act

archaea l

ure, and t a r i f f s ) r h i c h can be examined r i t h documentary and

ogical data t o determine hor the consumption o f mater ia l b'

goods i s b f fpc t ed. These r e l a t i onsh i ps are a lso important t o the

main dissertat'ion.problem, since they a l l must be accounted fo r

f i r s t , e i't her by ho ld ing them const ant, or by k a s u r i ng\hor they

a f feet consumpt i on together r i t h the las t i ndependent u a 4 ab l e t o be

discussed -- soc ia l condi t ion3 and t h e i r re la t ionsh ips t o \

sonsumpt i on.

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL FACTORS I N CONSUHPTION !

I w i l l nor add a t h i r d major independent var iable,

soc i a l I y-or i ent ed needs and behau i or, t o exam i n i ng consumpt s

u a ~ i ab i l i t y and suggest t ha t i nd i u i dua l cho i ces o f commod i t P

ies are

dependent- t o so;e degree on the c2onsumpt i on and behau i o r o f others.

It i s assumed ' that the consumpt ion budget i s not only dependent on

income, but a l so on soc ia l needs: It has h e n suggested that both

income and p r i c e o f goods are dependent on the soc ia l need t o

p - -

T - - - - - - *.

consume (Burk 1968). I n o't her mads, peop l,e can de 1 i ber'at e I y - -

increase the ir income by hav i ng more - f h n one famTFy--~emdFer takep d-

job t o a t t a i n greater purchas ing pomer (Burk 1968; florgan

1 964 : 23-41 . O r peop l e can de 1 i berate I y purchase expens i ue .i t ems o r I

I brands. that they be l i eve fem others m i I I- buy (Green 1971 : 28). This I 1 i s ssssnt i a l l y the uiem that mas taken chaptert two and three where I

the r a t e of consumpt ion o f some goods mas rsl at i w 1 y more dependent

on social cond i t ions r a t her than only on econom i c factors.

I n t h i s . social C model, consumption can no longer be viemed as

be i ng dependent on l y on econom I c uar i ab I e$ . Homeuer , attempt i ng t o

demonstrate-that v a r i a b i l i t y i n the form and yse o f material cu l tu re

can be exp l a i ned by somet h i ng more than econom i c factors 'requ i res

f i r a t that me underst and hoe those econom i c factors are re la ted t o

so? i a 1 uar i ab l es . Second 1 y , i t r-equ i res some u i r y spec i a I

s i tua t ions and circumstances mhere economic var iables e i the r remain

constant or can be control led t o determine the e f fec t that these

other 3oc i a l uar i ab 1 es have on the cont~~mpt i on o f r a t e r i a I goods.

These topics are el&orated upon i n the remainder o f t h i s chapte~.

Bchav i ora 1 and Cu 1 t vra 1 Factors 8

I t m i l l b e r e c a l l e d that themajor social research proposi t ion

stated: & t h & J G u # m m w i c ineqm/i(ybetmw ~oc iq / d e t o

d i # , m t i u t i t w .urku/dhctwe MPG m k d , As the reswrces or \ -a

w mark t s deteriorate, thereby decreasing the level o f inequali ty, the

level o f class consciousnass increases, resu l t i ng i n a re la ted

i ncrdase i n the use o f mat er i a 1 goods t o def i ne h i erarch i ca l ,

66 - P L - - --

v

p o s i t i ons . Under. these c i rcumqt ances, 0

d i f f e ~ e n t i a t ion mith mater ia l goods i s

the need t o commun i cote -

i n t e n d f ied.

It i s proposed t hat there i s an i nuerse r e 1 a t i onsh i p bet reen the C

degree o f i n t e n s i t y o f communication and the degree o f

s t a b i l i t y l u n c e r t a i d y o f soc ia l categories found i n the c u l t u r a l

system. I f consumption o f , ce r ta in types o f mater ia l goods can be

dCfined as one form o f communication, they too nust perform il r o l e

i n mainta in ing the s t a b i k i t y o f any society, and the e f f i c i e n t

movement o f i nformat ion i n cu 1 t ure . Consumpt i on becomes a r i t ua l

a c t i v i t y mhcn goods are used '. . . t o make f i r m and v i s i b l e o

p a r t i c u l a r set o f judgements i n the f l u i d processes o f c l a f s i f y i ng

persons aqd events' (Doug l as and I sherwood 1979 : 67). Hat e r i a I gcods . arc the v i s i b I e p a r t s o f consumpt i on r i t ua Cs (Doug 1 as and I shermood

1979:66,81). They act t o a f f i r m and s t a b i l i z e soc ia l categories,

making i t poss ib le t o make sense o f the s t ruc tu re o f society. Thus,

the types and a t t r i b u t e s o f m t e r i a l goods used become the means by

mhich informat ion about the system i s t ransmit ted u i s i b l y and

concrete ly. Ha te r i a l c u l t u r e under these condi t ions d i ~ e c t l y

de f i nes d i s t i nct i veness o r sets up means o f assoc i at i an o r - .

exclusion. Given t h i s re la t ionsh ip , during periods o f soc ia l

ins tab i 1 i t y :

1 There l i 1 1 be a proport i onal 1 y greater emphas i s on consumpt i on

' general t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e ind iv idua ls i n t oc i e t y .

- the t o t a l consumpt ion budget m i 1 l change i n proport i on

t o the need f o r increased soc ia l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ;

2 . There m i 1 l be a proport i onat I y greater emphos i s on moter i a 1

cul ture capable o f present ing a stronger pos i t ive image o r =

d i f ferent i at i ng bet ween members i n soc i et y . .

- proport i ona l l y more a r t i c l es r e l at ed t o persona l

appearance/ i mage are used;

- proport i ona l l y more s t at us i tems are used rhen ranks arc P

threatened and are l ess we l 1 def i ned through other social

The i r p I i cot ibns o f the' above statements t o pat t e r n i ng i n mater i a I

cul ture are as_fol lows. F i r s t , t o some degree the d i v e r s i t y or

frequency of uja of r a t e r i a 1 goods ray change or i ncreose i f members

o f d i f fe ren t s t ra ta begin t o develop d i f f e ren t values, perceptions,

ond ideas of interact ion r i t h others. These act ions ore according l yo>

d ic ta ted by the social strategies they wish t o pursue (when,mobility 1

i ncreases or i nequa 1.i t y i s poor l y defined) -- such behav i ora 1

d i f ferences are r e l at ed t o many types of mat er i a 1 good?. Access t o

resources, through i niome, a 1 l 0.3 i nd i u i dua l s t o support those u i ers

wi th r a t t r i a l goods, and in teract ion with members o f one's social

group helps enforce and maintain,such views. For example,

d i f ferences that s t r a t a have towards saw idg income versus spend i ng

i t , or t oward persona l hyg i ene and

a l l re la ted t o the degree o f socia

and the i mage that members i n each

corre l at es o f such 04 ions and the

the importance o f appearance, are 1

arareness that each stratum has

have o f themselues. The mater i a l \

\

mea~urement o f at a t us d i f ferences .

i n these areas arc not ent i r e l y dependent on i ncome d i f ferences. 1

tior i s the moter i a l expression a; conspicuous as fo r those mater i a l

i teas which have been described as 'status' markers. I n other-

sords, inconspicuous o b j e c t s such as heal t h goods and other bygeni c

goods a l s o moni tor s o c i a l aaoreness and c l a s s consciousness.

The other ' se t o f mater i a 1- goods tha t narks stca&u~ d i f ferences

more v i s i b l y a r e those r e l a t e d t o actai ons where members, o'f soc i e t y h

c o n t i n u a l l y attempt t o c l e a r l y de f i ne t h e i r r o l e j and ranks through

v i s i b l e forms o f c'ommunication. The k inds o f ma te r ia l goods tha t

m i l I be used t o mark such d i f f e r e n c e s between s t r a t a inc lude

p r i mar i l y those u t i l it o r i on i t ems t h a t vary i n grand names o r _ _ - - -

s t y l e s , a1 lowing a d . i ve rs i t y o f asaociat i on o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

b ~ t r e e n members t o t a k ~ p lace , These inc lude not on ly those items '

t h a t are t h e most expensive o f a l l goods used, but a l so d i f f e r e n t

b rands /s ty les o f u t i l i t a r i a n goods which may d i f f e r i n q u a l i t y and

p r i c e , and can be e f f e c t i v e l y used i n s o c i a l expression.

F'nalusis and lleasurement

I f t h e above r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t , the o ther independent economic

var i ab 1 es must e i t her be shown o r assumed t o remain const an t . I f

t key cannot be Re 1 d_ const ant , t he i n f I u e r y they 'have on consuapt i on

r u s t be accounted for , s i nce they too cou ld c rea te a r e l a t i v e i

increase kin e i t h e r t h e q u a n t i t y o r v a r i e t y o f ma te r ia l gnods used i n

s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . I n chapter n ine o f t he d i s s e r t a t i o n , I have

chosen t o examine t h e above s o c i a l model. by f i r s t h o l d i n g econgm i c

v a r i a b l e s constant, and then examining how consumption v a r i e s when

t h e need f o r s o c i a l d i * f f e r e n t i a t i o n changes, I n t h i s l i n e ~f 0

i nqu i r y , I i n v e ~ t i gate how each .ilndependent econoa i c war i ab I e

a f f e c t s consumption be fore combining them t o determine which

war i ab l e i s t h e most i mport ant . Hoaevcr, 1 rake t he assumpt i o n tha t

e

i f .there i 3 a need t o i ncrease d i f ferent i at i on, then d i f ferences i n n

status and i mage-related goods should increase between the s t r a t a .

mhile u t i l i t a r i a n goods - w i th in the tmo groups remain constant, I f 4

only the status and image'related goods increase, then the model has 0

been confirmed. I f , on the other hand, both s t a t e and 'b i mage-re I at ed goods and u t i 1 i t a r i an goods i ncrease at the same rhte,e

the mode 1 i s not conf i rmed. '

I n the second ha l f of chapter nine, I combine the key

independent econom ic war i ab l es and the soc i a 1 war i ab 1 ea t o det e r r i ne

how mwh of an e f fect each has on the consumpt Eon o f goods used fop

sqcial d-nt i a t ion. . ~ h i J type o f analysis m i l I determine mhich

o f these var ia b ies accounts~ for more o f the v a r i a b i l i t y i n

consumpt i on o f goods fo r soc i a l d i f ferent i at ion mhen the need fo r D -

social d i f f e ren t i o n increases i n fu r trade society. I n other r" b

uords, for tHe social model t o be confirmed the r e s u l t s o f , the .. *

analysis should show that there i s a be t te r f i t betmeen increasing

social d i f f e ~ e n t i a t i o n and consumption of image-relate .and 'itatus P goods than any o f the other' ,i ndepandcnt economic war i'ab l es undcp

considerot ion. A muit iuor ia te s t a t i s t i co l technique (Cult i p l e A

regress ion - i s used t o det ern i ne uhat the r e 1 a t i onsh i p i s bet reen

the dependent war i ab 1 e (consumpt i on o f s ta t us goods) v d the key

independent war i ab l es (,i ncome, occupot i ona l rank and the degree o f

soc i a 1 d i f ferent i at ion). These ana I y t i ca l t echn i ques are descr i bed

more l u 1 l y i n chapter n i ne .

l T 1 OHS AH0 ASSUHPT IONS

In the remainder o f t h i s chapter, the general p p p l i c a t i o n o f

these concepts t o the fur t rade i n mestern Canada mill be discussedo

It mas evident t ha t many o f the t heoret ica l concepts and p r i nc i p les

o f soc ia l s t r uc tu re and consumption are most appropriate i n

c a p i t a l i s t and i ndus t r i a l i zed soc ie t ies . I n such soc ie t ies , economic

- cond i t i ons become very dom i nant fac tors i n soc i q l s t ruc tu re . The

above mode 1 s and r e I a t i onsh i pa are based on the assumpt ion that i n

such soc ie t i es there i s a tendency t o aim tomards maximizing the

e f f i c i e n c y o f resource acqu i s i t i on and p r o f i t s by using technology, I

e f f e c t i v e communication and informat ion exchange. I n chapters f i v e

and s ix , i t w i l l be demonstrated tha t f u r trade soc ie ty was

h i erarch i ca l l y and hor i zont a

r o t e o f maximizing p r o f i t s .

It i s a lso assumed tha t

and occupat ion are c l ose l y I

1 y organized t o ca r ry out i t s econom i c

n most cap i t a l i s t i c societ i t s , income

nked and cons t i t u te the moat important

var iab les i n determining ranking and status. Certa

dderminants o f s ta tus such as age and sex l i ke l y p

they were o f I esser i mport once than occupat i on and

t rade society. fls mell, concrptqa l ly at least, the

r e l a t i onsh i p bet meeV,he e c o n o ~ l c cond i t i on3 o f the

n l y other

ay a ro le , but

ncore m i t h i n f u r

c l ose 4.

f u r t rade and

occupat i on and rank i ng should be s t rong ly r e l a t ed t o - a d i f ferent i a 1

1 con t ro l of power and resources. This i s a pkomi s i ng auenus o f 1

research in f u r t rade .s,oc i e t y and one wh i ch l i l I be exp I ored i n morbt;

detdil . ' in the next choptcer. Fol l-owing th i t , inequal i t y and i t s - r e 1 o t i onsh i p t o those essent i a 1 resources can be exam i ned i n more

data i I. Uhet her or not the l a t t e r r e l at i onsh i p was present in the

fur trade as i t i s i n moat c a p i t a l i s t i c societies, past and present, 4

i s an i mportant considerat ion ih t h i s dissertat ion.

The other important point that must be made about

occupat i on/ i ncome (or .access t o resources) i s that occupot Lon

(through buy i ng power) can on l y set upper 1 i l i t s fo r the purchase

and acquis i t ion o f material goods, It mu3t be t reated as the

potent i a l means by ah i ch d i f ferences i n i nequa l i t y can be

i communicated t o others. It i s a po ten t i a l l y l i m i t i n g condi t ion thot

sets boundor i.ts f o r the purchase* o f goods by each group. But, i t

rust be re-emphaaized thot t o t a l income i s o f ten a poor predic tor o f

the t o t a l amount or tybes of goods t hat are bought a t any t i me by

port i c u b r individuals, as demon3trated by many stqdies o f

contemporary soc i et i es (Cochrane and Be l l 1956 : 235-6) . average

values fo r groups are, however, more pred i c t ab l e. There i s s t i l l u

great deal o f inb iu io rUu lvar iab i I i t y in material cu l tu re consumption

that canno! be explained by income alone. This point becomes very

important rhen me begin t o examine how the acquis i t ion o f material

cu l ture i s ja f fec ted by factors other than buying power i n fu r trade

society.-

To conclude, I have in ten t iona l l y chosen a more formal,

d e d k t i us approach t o the d i ssert a t i on prob l em at t h i s s t age t o

expl ic i t ly loy bare some important re la t ionships and t h e i r

under l y i ng assumpt i ons. To sumrar i re, i n t hi s chapter I have rode c

3

the f o l lowing points:

1 . The u3e o f an economic theory of consumpt i on aisumes t hat , '

i ndi u i dua l s buy independent i y of ot her3 and t hat p r i ce and income are the key independent variables a f fec t ing consumpt i on behau i or.

2 . The u s e o f a social theory o f consumption assumes\that indiuiduald' consumption hab i t s are o f f e u p a r t by soc i a l cond i t i ons and the consurpt i on behau i otb a f ot he,rs : Social condit ions d i c ta te the need t o comrunicate d i f f e r e n t i a t ion and aaffi l i a t ion ~ i t h materiat goodsL; social cond i t i ons A d behau i or there a - fore become i ndependent var i ab l ea i IT, consumpt i on behau i or .

2~ 3 . flat er i a l goods serue u t i l i t a r i an purposes and mark soc i a l condit ions i p society. 'Status d i f f e ren t i a t i on may not only appear i n gobds cons i dared t o be 'st atus' markers,- but also i n goods re la ted t o appearance and i rage rh ich are ind i rect l y

, assoc i at ed m i t h soc i a l awareness and c l ass consc i ousness . 4 . There are war i ous approaches t hat can be taken t o the

inueatigatian o f economic and social factors involved i n consumpt ion, A ser i es o f independent war i ab les can be exam i ned separate I y , ho l d i ng other war i ab l es const ant, or the e f fec t that a number o f independent variables simultaneously have on m dependent war i ab l e can be i nuest i gat 2d.

5. The fu r trade i n m e s t e ~ Canada f u l f i l l s many economic and social condit ions a f capi ta l i s t and indus t r ia l ized sociat ies,

- making the use o f economic and social theories o f inequal i ty . f eas i b l e met hods o f exam i n i ng re l at ed consumpt i on pat t ems.

I

I

. +fl&.CHRPTER 5 1 * - 'd

--

w

AH I HTRODUCT I on TO .THE FUR TRROE : H l STORY, ORbffH 1 ZflT I OH AND EU l UENCF

9 i

The preu i ous chapters have out l i ned some bps i c concepts ah i c'h

are importint i n order t o examine the r o l e a t h i t * material t u l t u r e B q k

ploys i n the social strategiea o f contemporary and hi3tor i .c .. . societ ies. Houeuer, before I. investigate the r o l e that material -

IC

cul ture played i n fur t r a d i society, some kriomledge i s requ iped 2

about the t i m e ' p e r i o d o f the fu r trade that t h i s . d i s s e r t a t i . o n d e ~ l s I .

i . i t h, the geograph i GO 1 area i t coueri, and the dot a tbat are '. ' -, 0

auo i lab 1 e t o i nuest i gat e the prob 1 em. The s t ~ u c t ure, and operat ion 7

C

of the fur trade at the ~ e g i o n d l and local^ lev& i s described t(, A .

prov i de the necessary background fo r the exam i nat i on of soc i a 1

s t ructure and material d u ~ t u r e in the l a te r chapters.

The purpose o f t h i s chapter i s t o describe the generol b i s to ry r

of the fur trade i n weatern Canada and tocdescribe the corporate

structure o f the fur trade companies. The-manner i n which the * b,

corporate s t ructure of the fu r trade companies af fected the 1

'settlement and funct ion-of the f o r t s i n tmo major f u r trade

d i s t r ict.3 i s then discussed, The chapter concludes a i t h a

descr ipt ion o f t h e types o f da"ta that arcused i n the.di3sertat ion.

llost o f the contenls of thi s -chapter are de'scr i pt h e , sunmar i z ing 1 .

c

the m o r k ~ o f many peop 1 s (e. g. , l nn i s 1927. 19?5; ~ r l s s & 1890; Rich

1961;Ua_l lace193.1;Dauidson~918; 'Ui l l io~1983;0rorn1~00;Uon - *

K i r k -1 972, 1975; Saunders 1939; Axt e l l 1975). The d.i scuss i o" o'f . the :

archaeological remains ~ e c o u e r t d from some o f the f u r t rode a i t e s i s \: -

b r i e f ; readers should r e f e r t o Appendix C, and t o the f o l l o m i n i * ,

major Sources f o r more de ta i l ed information (Fladmark 1976; Arnqld :

1972; Losey e t a I . 1 9 7 7 1 9 7 b 1978, 1979, 1980; Focsman 1985;

Hei t r m c @ 1980, 1961 ; K i'dd 1970; s teer and Rogers 1978; ti061 e 1973; .

Kark l i ns 1983.; Hicks 1969; M i oks 1977; Pyszczyk 1984; Pyszczyk and

Smith 1985, 1986). ' .

H l STOR l CRL BACKGROUHO ~ 3

e t . - " 6

*

. ' Geoaraphical S e t t i n q

It o i s * b i ' f i i c u ~ t t o ;lace the f u r trade i n t o a .el l def ined I

geograph i ca l area s ince i t took p lace over a reg ion i n Canada that . 4 2'

mas constant l y changing i n s i ze dur i ng the l a t e ai ghteent h ahd L

n i net cent h - cent u r i ea ; Genera l l y though, the area under d i scuss i on ' . -

includes the t i 0 h i s t o r i c - fu r t rade reg-i ons known ~3 the ?

4 1 Saskat chemn qnd A t habasco d'i s t r i c t s (F i gure 5.J ) . These ' d i s t r i c t s - '

. v I

. . each formed an imp6rt.ant pa r t o f the Northern Department o f the < . i

.Hudson's Bay Company; becduse o f the r i c h f u r . resources they were I

a! so o f cons i derbb l e i mport ance t o the ri ua k ti07t h Usst dompany,, t o i

at her* I esser - f u r t rade comp& i es, and t o i ndependent ped l ars . They . , .

$

e . mere regarded a3 tmo o f the m o ~ t iaportantp fur t rade regions i n ..

P 4 i

nor th America, constant ly 'shcaing large p r o f i t s while -in t h e i r . b * ' * " 4

prpime. The majoni t y o f archaeolagical and documentary data used in

+ 76 ." A - -- - - - C

% I ^ - I)

* '

- I . -

L h i ~ study-haue been qo l l c ~ t e d fmm the31 tm areas, a 1 though \

- . . G.'

L ne i t h&r set o f data t y u 1 y. represents t h i s very l arge and d-i verse\ -'- + - (. I

4 7

' .. reg ion o f western ~ a n ' ~ a . ' I d -# \ i - , . &

4 Th6 Saskat cheman and A t habasca d i s t r i c t s mere bund-ed* on the i

%*west bg=thc Rocky flohntoint, on the 'south :appwximately by the North * + i

\ \ *

Saskat cheman R i v;r , t o f he east by 'Lake U i nn i peg, and by Lake +

%$: &a ... t ' j

'flthobasco and the Peace River in the nor th r . (Figure 5 . 1 ) . The three _ I -- 4

.,' major drainage basins consi$ed . .'ig i o f the ~ & c e River, .the Athabasca

.. R i war and Mort h Saskatcheman R i ver I F i gure 5 .i ) . These three r i vers > i

& ,

o 1 so become the p&i m a r y ~ ~ r a n s p o r t a t ion routes inland, e i t h e r from P

Hudson Bay o r from Lake Superior. It i s along those r i v e r systems i

2 ., that the m a j o r i t y o f ' f u r t rade a c t i v i t y and settlement took place. '.

'Because o f t h e i r immense size, the two d i s t r i c t s covered many

diverse ecological regions which a f fec ted t h e i r t rade and f u n c t i w , f

The wegetat i on*$f the northern reaches consisted o f boreal fo res t OF I

l i xed mood l ands mh i 12 the tou t hern .areas r e r e composed o f

park l n , close t o the p r a i r i e ecotone. The funct ion o f many o f the v *,

fu r t rade p o t t s mas o f t en two fo ld ; servi'ng as meat p rov is ion ing P>.

depots and fub=trade posts: For example, the f u r t rade f o r t s along 7

t h e North Saskat cheman R i ver became the p r f nc i pa l prow i 3 i on i ng

posts, fu rn i sh i ng the more northern posts in- the R t habosca d i s t 6 i c t

mi th d r ied meat and pemmican. Thus, qu i t e o f t e n there mas anv

i .balance i n f u r and food resource& these two d i s t r i c t s ; t h i s f . I

resource i mba l once became i aport ant in the organ i r a t i an and CI

s t ruc tu re o f the f u r trade, and the eventual d i fferencea i n economic -

i mport once that arose bet meen the t uo d i s t r i c t s .

Trade and the Plauera

The f u r t rade i n the northern parts-of North America, dur ing the

l a te . l6OOj, began pr i mar?$ l y -around Hudson Bay and the major r i 6ers a '. ,

t ha t drained i n t o i t (Figure 5.14 .,.The w t i c y ~ o f thc dominant f u r

t rade company, the Hudson ' s Bay .Company, dur i ng , those ear l y year3

mad t o operate few - . in land pokts, thua mainta in ing a short 3 -3

+ - f r a e r t a t i o n 1 ine, and, fo rc ing the lndipns t o b r i n g t h e i r fu rs t o

C-: ... 1 .

the Bay t o t rade. This system o f tradebmorked-mell j i n c e fem fort;-

mere needed. Those posts- tha t were bu ; l t i ii 1 and mere o l l r e l ot i ve l y B

close t o the Bay, keeping,transportat ion and shipping costs t o a

1~ i n i mum. The ma i n 4 hreat t o the Hudson ' s -Bay Company ' s dom i not i on

o f f the j n l a n d f u ~ t rade by r i v a l traders, beginning iri the \ 1760s, i

put anend t o t h i s . m i t h o d o f t rade and settleme t . . "9

\ Q

The &a o f '!he' ~ u d s o n ' s' Bay Company 3 ,monoPo 1 4 o f the i l and f u r ' t l ? Z~ .

t rade&t i n t h i I a t e 1760s ahen i ndependtnt ~i~ 1 i sh and ~ i o t t i sh .> L.'" &A

p d l a r s (which o f t en 4 ncfirded r e t i r ed or d isgrunt led b f -H as J +on's Boy * 1 "

Company emp l oyees) began t o i n t erctpf ;and t rode l i .t h the l nd i ans 'I +- '

hefore they t r a v e l l e d the long distance t o the Bay. bring the

e a r l y years o f the i n l and t rade and compet i t ion m i t h the Hudson ' sy - .-

Bay Company, these t raders worked i ndependent l y o f one anot her . By -

,1703, homeuer, many o f them decided- t o combine t h e i r e f f o r t s and .

formed the Horth Uest Compa The nem company became the maj o r I

r i v a l t o the ~ u d d o n ' s $ a ~ cApany f o r opprox imate ly~the next 40 t I

yqars, constantly compet*ing 4h mith, and o f t en dominating, the Hudson's I

Bay Company in the quest f o r fu rs . I I .

The r i v a l r y betmeen the tmo compn ies bduced a major

change i n the may the f u r t rade mas ca r r i ed out . An i ncreas i ng ' ?

number o f f u r t radc f o r t s -rere bu i It i n the Saskat cheran +

and --

Rthabasca d i s t r i c t s as each company tr ied t o stay one step ahead o f - 3

a '. 4

t ge other in t h e i r quest for furs. Supp l y l i nes became. very l ohg -4

and much move cos t ly and i n e f f i c i e n t for both companies, but

espec i a! l y fo r the Hort h Uest Cukpany wh i ch shipped a l l i t s goods 1

from flontrea l in to the i n t e r i o r of western Canada ( Inni s 1975; C

h i d s o n - 1918; Rich 1961; Ui l l iams 1903:36-38). As the fu r trade - 1-

front i e r expanded n6 r ih - i h4 m s t 2 y those fur trade posts s i tuated on + -- - --_

the Hudson Bay and i t s drainage system, began t o f i a y - o - w h q _ - -e r o l e in the oqqu i 3 i t ion ot?furs, part i cv lor l y as fur resources began

t o decline i n these regions ( Inn i s 1975). For example, York b:

=6

Factory, mhere t r o d i t i ona l l y mott of the trade mas conducted m i t h '

the I nd i ans, rema i ned the maj or supp l y and fur depot, but no 1 o q e r

massan important center for the trade o f furs.

The in tens i tb o f competit ion fo r l u r d eventual l y took i t s to1 I .

By the ear ly 10003, the companies begori t o feel the economic

pressures o f corpet i.t i on. The s i t uat i on 'mas compounded i n most F

regions by dec 1 i n i ng fu r returns; severe hunt i ng pressure had

rap id ly depleted the fu r animal populations i n the i n t e r i o r o f

west ern Canada. A l though the Hart h Uest Company had a s I i ght edge

i n the trade, i t a l so faced some very l arge econor i c hardsh i ps. I n

par t i cu la r , i t was more . *cz d i f f i c u l t and cos t ly t o maintain the long

transportat ion I iaes-&im ~ o n t r e a l t o the i n t e r i o r (Hasson 1890; C *

Dauidson 1918; lnnii'1975). Horeuer, r i v a l r y seered t o a f fec t the

North Uest Company the I east. According t o most sources, the *

Hontrca I pod l ars always had more lau i sh, larger posts, more trade

goods, and much I arger fo r t popu l at i ons t o support (Hasson 1890;

Owidson 1918j. The economic hardship3 o f the Horth U e ~ t ~ o m ~ n $ -

7 -

increased i n 1809 with the outbreak of the Napoleonic mars, causing * . - - .. t .r the European fu r markets t o close , As me l I, fur trade a r t i c l as

Y

v become 2 x t r e n l y d i f f i c It t o acquire -&ring t h i s period ( U i l l ioms P d ' f

1983). . %-

- Uhatever hardships the Nort h Uest Company f e l t because of the ,

,. competit ion an8 internat ional scene, t h e i r t ac t i cs also paid o f f .

I n most d i s t r i c t s , the North Uest Company dominated the fur trade

and made l arge pro f i t s, mh i I e t h e Hudson ' s Boy Company su f f k d

- -. considerably because o f t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o iw-ease the

effect iveness o f i h e i r - t r a d e a i t h the Indians. Of~course, the

Indian? benef i t ted the most from t h i s competition, receiuing O

< . Bv presents and honors to-induce them t o trade at the posts. For

examp l e, H ' G i l l i w+ay descr i bes at great l engt h t rad i ng cercroni es ~4

mi-th the Indians at Fort George i n 1791-5. The North Uest Company w ,* b r i bed them m i t h tobacco and rum (Hort on 1929 : 31 ) and o f t en gave

some ind iv iduals 'ch ie f 's clothing', iden t i f y ing them as superior

traders among t h e i r people (Horton 1929:50, 55, 74) . Although the,

Hudson's Bay Company also gave t h i o f ten could E

not compete m i t h the Hort h Uest

supplies due t o the t i g h t f i s t e d r p o l i c i e s df the committee i n

London. fl ' G i l l i w a y ' s comment 8 rsgard i ng the t rad i ng met hods of the

r i v a l Hudson's Bay Company Buck i nghan House i n 1799 are a good

example o f the t rad ing d i f ferentes betmeen the tmo companies:

Our ne ighbours are scarce of Goods t h i s Spring, ' a circ'umstance which they have h i the r to careful l y concea led from the not i ues, but t h e demands made

i pp uton them at t,h s t i me- ore so great that they could -

a : net aug@ly t k e m w wtist&tke kdk&i~~hett~tt&, ,.- - -

9. d a

-a

manner. To increase t h i s d issa t is fac t ion cind t o make 2 t --3 z

8 t the contrast ore g l or ing, me have been r a t her more lauish than usual .. . (Hortm 1929:7%.

.a - J. 1 - , i

9

t - f 3. - - e , ,

>

..". Thwe are many more references that indicate t h ~ t the image and 'd 4 $ - appearance of the fur t rad ing enterprises was a;very important

v2 I

factor t o induce the Indians t o trade at the for ts; the Hudson's 009

Company o f f i cers const ant I y comp I a i ned o f not &au i ng +nough a r t i c I es

t o trade. - There are ot htr references which po i rit o"t that mat er i a l op

/

J goods served a very strong social and pymbo l i z i ng purpose as n 1 I .

S i mpson, wh i l e o b s e ~ y i ng . the conduct of t rode ' i n the R t habasca 9:

reg ion, s t at es t hi6't he out ward appearance o f post s, mw l t h and * *

l arge s t ores o f .trade goods were essent id fo r t ~ a d e ~ e 1 a t ions

bet meen the l nd i ons and the Hudson ' s Bay Company (Herk 1831 1. Thus , there i s some i nd i cat ion i n t e documentary records that the

" 3 "

pos i t i ve i mags o f the compad as a rho l e mas very i mport ant f o r \ % r,

'2 economic suruiuai . , J

I n i t i c l l y , the North U enjoyed a tradeLmonopoly i n , -

the fu r r i c h Rthabasca di3t . r i Homeuer, t h i s mas challenged as

I e a r l y a s n s t ~ u c t i o n o f . J %

Hot t i nghom House on the shores o f ~ a k e '@thabasca by Peter F i d l e r

(Kark 1 ins 1983). But the attempt mas fu t i l e and by 1806 Not t i nghan

House mas abandoned, leaving the tiorth Uest Company much t o t h e i r

own i n t h i s area u n t i l 1815 when t h e i r f u r =trade monopoly gas .again ,

cha l lenged by the Hudson's Bay Corpony . R l though t h i s nem assaul t I (

.7

by the Hudson ' s Bay Company mas not ent i r e l y successfu I, * -

increase the operat i ng costs fo r the Worth Uest Company

? 4, reg ion and reduced t h e i r fur rkurw (Ui l l iams M), g

. . - By 1820, i t mas apparent that nei ther company mished t o con't inus

the r i ua l ~ y any l onger s i nce i t mas cost i ng* them both dear Isy. The, '

-

Hudson's Bay Company's attempt t~ gain part of the Athabasca f u r . ,

trade on l y meant more forts, t rade goods, and personne I, 'expenses

that mere not e n t i r e l y j u s t i f i e d l i gh t o f the lo. p r o f i t s ih-at $ , 1:

the compdhy made i n the area: The .large losses that the t iokh" l e s t - - Company suffered, together mith tpgin@ng signs o f i" ternal

dissention mi th in the company ranks, l e f t l i t t l e doubt thut s - T

ama l gamat i on m i t h the Hudson ' s Bay Comwny mou l d 'be o ri se econom i c

cho ice. I n 1821, the t i o compan i es a ~ a l gamat ed t o form the new *I

Hudson's Bay Company, 'ending what mas perhaps one o f the most w

co l or f u l per i o d t i n mest ern Canad i an fur t rade h i s t or y . f

I"

-

Post -Ama l aamat i on : The Hudson ' s Bau Com~anq I

The ama l gamat i on o f etpo l arge fu r trade corporat i ons had .p

tremendous consequences on the econom i c and po l i t i ca l pomer

s t ructure o f fu r trage soc i c t y . ' Af ter 1821, the new Hudson's Bay -

<

Company mas%otal ly.reorganized t o meet the nem conq i i t ions in fu r f4-

t rad ing and trapping p r a c t - i g s i n the Canad i an tlort hmest . The man c I L

i n charge, and ma i n ly 2rispons i b l e for reorgan i z i ng the nem cbmpany , * N ; 8 i mas Governor George S i mpso&. Under h i s odmi n i s t r o t ion, a nem era' i n

, 15

the furtradebegan,%hichmouldhaue l a s t i n g . e f f e c t s o r i t h e s o c i o l . +-

s t ructure o f the fur trade company e m ~ l oyees. The fo I IOU i ng maj o r

change3 t o the fu r trade mere i n i t i ated by S i mpson : 1 ) d reduct i on %,>

in numbers of f o r t p and company personnel ; 2) greater central i zat i on rk

o f administrat iue porer; 3) $the construction o f a more e f f i c i e n t ,

\

'\

transport a t i on and prov i t.i on i ng system, reduc i ng overhead - -- costs; --- t) : .. - -\

'more e f f i c i e n t and prZcf ica l t rad ing practise* mith the Indians; 9

a +. - 2' - and, 5) an i mat conservat ion i ses t o a 1 1 oa' f u r bearing 3tx

1

populqtions t o recover in depletedwegions. Rs I mill argue later, q *- 1

magy o these changes af fected the deqcee o f wa l th , pomer'and the - . I -*

4 *t, - - - w popul at i an dynam i cs m i t h i n the company structure; a l l have

pred i c t db l e densequences COP. i nequa 1 i t LJ and so= i a 1 ro.1 es . i

The changes- i n organ i r a t i on that the tlort hern Department @

underment a f t e r 1821 are summed up by Innis:

&%

1% 1s - Th i s depart ment became an exce l 1 ent examp 1 e70 f

i the economies o f mo&/roly i n the fu r trbde. The I personne 1 mas e f f i c i ,ent l y organ i zed. ERpenses

& . mere e 1 i i nated i n euery poas i b l e d i rec t ion .and "

control o f the supply o f fuss mas adjusted t o p r i c e . *

I eve 1 s. The supp l y o f prov i s ions- and supp l i es ma3

"b developed mith reference t o the lo,mest possible cost II

j - i n the se l f -suf f ic iency o f each post, o f the -a departments, and o f the organ i t a t ion as a rho 1 e. e

Goods mere imported,.distributed, and handled mith thd greatest possible economy. Seldom has there e x b t e d ..! an instance i n mhich monopoly control mas exercised ovgr a aide area through such a long per iod

+ C of h i j t o r y i n a s ing le industry as i n the Ho~ the rn dep&t ment from 1821 t o 1869 ( I nn i s 1975 : 286-87) .

Trade r e l at ions m i t h the, l nd i ans are an example o f the major PO l i cy

=changes o f t ar 1021 . Fewer gratu i t i eb mere given t o the lndians and

the use o f alcohol in ) t raae was forbidden. tlany f u r trade posts . '

mere c l osed and many company personne l mere d i scharged, espec i a l l y

those r i t h large fami I ies ( Inn is 1975:208). $4 .

The l engt ha of t ransportat i on rout as mere a l so reduced

1

considerubly of&? 1821-, s u b i o n t i a i l y redw in$ t h e ovsrhpodrcosts * 1 . L - - - - - - - - F 4

f o r the compa,ny. A ! # goods mere shipped inland fro. Hudson Bay by w Y a

' % * York boat i n s t e ~ d ' o f - canoes, 0 1 lowing greater quant i t ies o f gwds t o -

%=

be moved t o the inland p o d s . ( l n r i i s 1975:209). ' f l f ter the-time o f y - a

"L

the Hudson ' s Bay Company ' s i n rddqct ion o f the ~ o i k boat i n 1809, i irprouement s cont i nued t o be 'made, a l 1 ow i ng each success i ue l y l arger

a

-- ,; ' uers i on o f York boat t o moue% increasing l y l arger quant i t i s ~ e f il '

r goods. For. examp 1 e, i n 1822, each York boat cou 1 d carry 50 p i eces - , * 4 ,

,' d*$08ds but by 1836, e h boat cou l d ho l d 80 b i eces o f goods ( I "ni s ' i b

Other measures mere taken t o decrease the expenses of the fur -A

t r.ade . S i ipson attempted t 09 i mp l ement a PO l i ,cy o f greater v *

se l f-suf f i c i ency bt the i n l and posts by produc i n p 'country a r t i c l es' -

at the 40s t s and ,#he@eby reducing shipment of some European products

( Inn is 1975:301-306). nany a r t i c l e s (e.g., kegs) were also reused

whenever possible, saving the company the expense o f shipping i n new 1 -

a r t i c l e s (Inris 1975:-305). A r t i c l es o f high value but low weight

were also emphasized i n the trade i n an attempt t o fur ther reduce I

t ransportat ion and shipping costs ( Inn is 1975:306). a

Aithough some of ~i.'pson's new po l i c i es mere d i s1 i ked .b~

company o f f i cers, l abourers and the I ndi ans, they were econoa i ca l l y

e f fec t i ue. The company made i t s largest prof i t s bet ween the 1820s P

and the' 1860s (Figure 5.2j: The decl in ing p r o f i t s of the Hudjonq 5

Bay Company a f t e r the 1860s re re part l y due t o the decrease i n fur

resources i n many reg ions ,o f i n t e r i o r west ern Canada, as wal l as an C . I

increase in compet i t ion fo r furs from free traders ( I nni s

19?5:330-31; Sealey 1969:\?8). The continuing economic decl ine of

\

Figure 5 .2 . Ruerage anhual p r o f i t s made b y t h e commissio.ned' L' ' 0

o f f i cers o f t he H u d s o ~ ' s Bay Company. -+? These

' p r o f i t s o re a l s o a t~dod i n d i c a t i o n dk t he

v a r i a b i l i t y i n t he t o t a l annual p r o f i t s - o f t he

Hudson's. Bay Company between 1821 -, 1860 i from

l nn i s 1975 : 336-37, 377-78) .

the company had dsmoro / i r i ng' e f fec t on company personns I . As / -- A L - - - L -

m.

r e s w r c s cont inual 1 y dm ndled,> p r o f i t sha res f o r comp"any o f f i ce rs - i mere r e uced, f rom 1 /85 hare d f company p ro f i t s per annum t o 1 /do0 .

share b( 1871 ( I n n i s 197 :377; Sealey 1$69:75). By the 1860s~ -6 +

I fo r o f f i c e r s had - decl ined; f k an estimated 720 pounds f o r t . .

ch i e f fac to rs t o y 275 pounds (Sea l ey 1969 : 78) . There . .-

mere femer i ncent t o increase f u r r e tu rns i n the i r - - -\

d i s t r i c t s s ince t h e i r personal r e tu rns continued t o decl ine ( I nn i s

1975:354). By 1887, i t mas announced that no more~commissi~ons mould - --

A %

be g i uenlUto -thp o f f i cers. Th i s act ion promoted fu r ther

d i ssat i s fac t i on and d i s 1 oya l t y among company personne l ( l nn i s -..

1975:356). d

- There .ere o ther reasons f o r the -grctdu. I dec l i ne o f the f j rr * * %

0 -

t rade i n mest ern Canada by the 1860s. fhe beg i nn i ng of tfie ?'-

i ndust r i a l revo l u t i on reduced t hs demi&d fo r fur; because d f be? t c r - e-

c l o t h manufacturing techniques and the increasing use o f s i l k hats

instead o f beaver f u r ha ts ( I n n i s 1975341-82). Although the f u r $'. '

t rade cont i nued m e l l i n t o the. twmantsi e t h century, cmd i s a t i l 1 - 4

present today i n s m e f r o n t i e r areas o f Canada, i t s d o m i n a t i n g T

in f luence on the l i v e s o f i t s employees had ended by.the t u r n o f the:

tment i e t h century. A reduct ion i n potent i a l f& markets, together ,2/

-," m i t h the purchase o f * the mestern i n t e r i o r o f Canada by the Canadian

gouernment , and increased se t t l ement and agr i cu l t urp, comp l e t ed the

end o f an era o f Ca A adian h is tory and a may'of l i - f t . "

' 8 " . +-A In* t h i s sect i an, the 'corporate s t ructure and operat i on o f the

7

8

' i ' u r trade companiev, i s b r i e f l y obt l ined. The ef fect that t h i s . - -

/' structure had on the behav i or and l i fe-st y l es f i t s members k 'oat c 9,

dealt w i t w @ de ta i l here; i t becomes the subject o f i n q u i r g i n /--- I '\ a l a te r chapter o f *the+ d isser ta t ion. ? .\ . \ ' . . .

'-c The corporate s t ructure ofFt he fu r t r a d e - ~ & ~ a n i es a f f e q e d

settlement and function o f f o r t s and, inevitably, the social j ,

o f fur t rode soc i e t y'. The organ i r a t i n o f <he tlort h* Uest Compan /

C

and the Hudson's Bay Company mas des i$nd p r imar i l y t o f u l f i l l t h e k

economic g~.als as e f f i c i e n t l y and e f fec t i ve l y as possible. The \ organ i zat ion o f each company reserb led the social s t ructure o f the

. I

t parent society,' but at a reducebsca l e. Each company mas organized 4

hor izonta l lya ,nduer t ica l ly , p r i i a r i l y b y o c c u p a t i o n , mhichmasthe .

most important mans o f status and inequali,ty i n f u r *

t rode soc i et y f Bromn i t 3 employees mere ent i r e l y 1

-

dependent upon the coppany , the structure 'adopted by each company t

e

mas moke than s i a$ I 'a form o f corporate organ i r a t i on. As i n ;any

cap i t a1 i s t i c soc i et i et; the company corporate s t rus t ure becare 't $,L

1 i r, closely involved with the social struct.ure o f fu r trade society, - 'placing cer ta in restr ic, t ions upon both the a c t i v i t i e s and

l i f e -s t y les o f i t s members.

0

4 - Pos i t i ons and Recru i tment

The basic s t ruc iu re and organirat ion o f a1 l the f u r t radc '%

compan i es cons i s t ed o f a ' number of spec i f i c occubat i ons mh i ch mere

A, p r i v i keges, resu l t i ng i n' a uer t i ca l h i erarchy . Other spec i f i c types t

% -

.$

o f occupot ions, homeuer, mere cons i dered' morebor l ess eqPd . Th i s /+ r: system provid;d t h e b a s i s ' f o r d i s t i n c t s t ~ ~ m p o s e & ' % f ~ d i f f e r e n t

% - occupat i ons, +i n the fur' t rade system. I n genera I, i-n'a I l fur t

L 5 .

fo r ts , the u e r t i c a l h ierarchy.consist=d o f o f f i c e r s a t the top, 6

f o l I omed by c l erks and master pos i €,i ons, sk i I I ed and

semi-ski I led trodismen, ahd f i n a l l y unski l led l a t k p s , ( l nn i s 1975; -. -

Thomas 1978; Pragcr 1985; Brown 1980: 46).

The type o f mork r e 1 a t e8, t o each occupot ion i n the fL? b a d e

a l so r e n e c t e d 'wrt ica l h ie ra rch ica l d i f ferences i n rank and s ta tus . I _

T$ labourer= (consist ing o f fo r t , markers, huntgrs, and the men

mbrk i ng 'on .the boat \ m

t radebopulat ion: T

% + ' ? and menial tasks, reeeiued the low.est m . - benef i ts , and seldom had the opportu.nit

C

( t h e i r own group (Thomas 1978; Bt%n 1980):" '"~h~ 'work o f sem i -ski I I ed *

anq s k i l l e d tradesmen (e.g., blaqJcsmiths, c a r q n t e r s ) was more

sk i l l ed, l ess t ed i ous and more, prest i g i o w . They rece i ued

?- r e l a t i v e l y higher .ages and bene f i t s (e .9 . ) o f t en having separate - l i v i ng and somet i mes were ab l e t o i mprove the i r pos i t i on

i f they mere l i t e r a t e and capab 1 e, o r i f they increased the i r '

. ' 9 . ,

ir breadth o f knom l edge by l earn i ng another sk i i 1 (Thomas 1978 : 1 3 ) .

These. two groups o f company employee were considered the 1 a b o i ~ ' .. t

. s e r ~ b t ~ c ~ a s s o f t hy fu r trade, possessigg vary simi tor. 1 i f s -s ty les , --. f t dis t ingu ishab le p r i a a r i l y by d i f fe rences. i n income-(Brorn 1980;

*' .

The upper"ranks o f the compon i es mere made up o f the . - b

commissioned of f icers, ' min ter ing p&tncrs (Horth ~ c s t ' Company), w

clerks, and i n the .Iatbr period, t he postmasters. These groups o f

ranks race i ued the most benef i t s (e. g . , i ncomef i n the f u r t rade and - - - - \

- d i d the least mork, being mainly responsib le f o r ' t h e s:

administrakion of'. p a r t i c u l a r f o r t o r an e n t i r e f u r t rade d i s t r i c t . . r

For example, the Hudson's Bay Jompany, c h i e f fac to rs mere

I a r g e E f o r t s o r e n t i r e f u r t r a d e . . \

distr ict ; ; t h e i r counlerparts i n the Horth Uest Company mere the I

minter ing partners. Trade& i n the Hudson's Bay ~ o m ~ a n ~ and -

l i n t e r i ng par tners o f h' Hort h Uest Company mere i n charge o f the *

-4 6 ,

ind iv idua l f o r t s and smaller areas.. The men i n a l l th ree categor ies I

o f ten also he ld shares i n t h e i r respect ive companiCs. 'O f ten minor

outposts mere run by c l6k's afld s t a f f e d by on ly a feu working men.

I nd i u i duo I s mere r e c r u i t ed i n t o par t i cu Car company pos i t i ons

general ly based upon t h e i r ab i l i t ies , but o f t e n along e thn icaand

fami ly l i nes (Davidson 1918:229-31; flasson'1890; Bromn 1980:16). It

i s q u i t e apparent that q thn ic and fami ly l arge l y det e r r i ned i n

mh i ch par t o f the uer t i ca l hierarchy o f

+ placed, and hom f a r they could adyance ranks. These; *

rec ru i t ment po l i c i es war i ed cons i demb l y bet meen the conpan i as and I -

I 1

throughout t he f u r t rade. - In the Horth U e j t ~ o f k n ~ , 'the l omer

ranks mere composed p r i l a r i l y o f French Canad i an voyageurs (llasson

1890; Oauids?n 1918). Homeuer, th6 o f f i c e r s and c l e r ks o f the

company mere e i t h e r o f Sco t t i sh o r Engl ish descent, o f t en coming

~FO. o l d Canadian fami l i es (Hasson 1890:t?h-76; B r o m 1900:16). The

d i u i s i on bet meen these tmo groups mas sharp, and set don, i , f ever, 1

d i d a French Canadian .eve i n t o a'hjghdr rank (Davidson 1$18:236). d

Sometimes unsk i l led labourers learned a t rude thereby r -

t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s l i g h t l y .

The ethn i c compos i t i on o f the Hudson 's Boy Company gqs- a 1 so me 1 1 .\

def ined . - v e r t i c a l l y before 1821. During those ea r l y years, th= ..

company emp l oyed most I y men of B r i t i ah descent (Bromn 1980; Inn i s

1975; Rich 1961;+HBCA Reels 383-386: uols. 1-17; Reel 785 /

B239/f/lO-12; Reel 786, Reel 787 B239/f/45,50,55,57,58,59,60). *'

J. w .

Before 1780; .hei the majok i ty o f the t rode mas ca r r i ed out at the

Hudson Bay, the bu lk o f s k i l led and unsk i l led employee^ cons i s t ed o f

Orkneljren. Chief factors, traders;and c l e r ks mere almost almays

~ r i t ish o r Scot t ish . These pos i t ions became r e l a t i ue ly me1 l def ined

atong e thn ic

t h e i r Engl ish

moved i n 1 and,

Canad i ans rho

i nes; Orkneymen se l &a l LJ moved up i n the ' ranks ah i l e

o r Sco t t i sh peers o f ten d i d so. As the f u r trade

the company began t o r e c r u i t more o f the tough French

mere more capab l e o f m i t hst and i ng the many hardsh i ps

tha t ment a l ong i,t h t hese-nem cond i t i ons . ' Homever , t h i s e t hn i c - -

group found i t i f f i c u l t . t o moue up i n the ranks o f the Hudson's 3

Bay Cdmpany as they d i d i n the Hort h Uest Company. :* - '

C 6

Af te r 1821, some o f t he n,em Hudson ' s Bay Company ' s rec ru i t ment , -

PO l i c i es changed rap i d l y; others changed r o r e s l om l y , Bet ween

1821-1870, o f f i c e r and c l e r k pos i t ions mere s t i l l mostly dominated

by Eng 1 i shren and Scots, but. the number o f French Canad i ans and 1

m i x e d ~ l o o d s i n the' unski I led labour force had r a p i d l y gromn ( I n n i s

1975:312; Bromn 1980; HBCA Reels 383-586: uol?. - 7 , Reel 705

B239/fP10-12, Reel 786, Reel 787 8239/f/$7,50,55,57,58,59,60~

(Figure 5 .3) . y o f the .ixed-blood mns o f former co&

employees mere now found i n the company ranks, and there raa a - -

grow i ng t dndhcy f o r both the m i xed-b l oods bnd t r e n c h Canad i ons t o

at t empt t o enter the upper ranks bet meen 1821 and 1850 (Figure 5.3); -,+--

The documentary ev i dence-i rid i cat es tha t they made some progrdss, as

r e l at i we l y more Canad i ans and r i xed-b I& were a I l owed to- ent CP' 1

higher ranks as they s t eod i l y i mproued t h e i r educat ion (F i gure 5.3),

But the documentary record a lso indicates t ha t the number o f c l e r k

qnd o f f i c e r pos i t i ons begon t o dec l ine markedly by 1860 as p r o f i t s

began t o decline, increasing competi t ion f o r the few ava i lab le

pos i t i ons (Figure 5 .3 ) .

The documents a lso show tha t the overa l l degree of upward

mob i l i t y ,-'shomn i n the rec ru i t ment of t radesmen, c l erks and o f f i cers

from the lomer ranks, cont'inued t o s tead i l y increase betmeen 4

1821-1870 (Figure 5.4); homeuer, the recruitment mas much slower i n

the c l e r k / o f f i c e r ranks, p r i m a r i l y becausythese pos i t i pns were - /

s t i 4 l being - f i l l e d - by men brought from B r i t a i n (Sealey'

1969 : 75). Re l a t i ve l y mope French Canod i ans and Hat i we Bosn were

promoted t o tradesmen than those o f B r i t i sh descent bet meen

1021-1810 ( F i g u r e 5 . 5 ) . This t r end decreased.,during l(lt1-1860 and - -

began t'o increase again betmeen 1861-1871 (Figure 5 . 5 ) . As wel l ,

there mas o cant i nual i ncrease i n the pramot ions o f French Canadians - <

and tiat i we Born i n t o c l crk/o f f i ce r pos i t i ons (F i gure 5.6 1. H'omever , *

as Tab 1 e 5 . 1 i nd i cat es, very fem French Canadi ans o r Hat i we Born - v

at ta ined the more pomerful ranks o f t rader o r factor , being 4

p ~ i m a r i ly promoted t o postmaster o r ' c le rks .

YEAR ' = B r i t i s h

= French Can./ Hat i ue Born

Figure 5 . 3 . The number of c le rk /o f f icer posit ions i n the northern department , Hudson ' 3 day

@

4 Company,

F i gurs 5 . 1 . -Rob i l i t y e. g . , mouement upmard. from a l omsr i ncow position) mithin the ~udson's Bay Company. '

pm-q = Br i t i sh

YEAR '

@ T I x* French Canad i an/Nat i ue Born

Figure 5 . 5 . Promt ions to tradesmen in the Hudson ' s Boy

Company, 1821 - 1870.

VEAR

= French Canad i anltiat i ue Born

igure 5 . 6 . Promotions t o

Bay- Company,

'. . the Hudson's ,

TABLE 5.1 b \ - SUHHARY OF PROHOT I OHS: 1821 - 1870

To Tradesmen - French Canadian1

Hut. i.ue Born 7 - Br i t i sh - 3

1.

To Post mast ers/O f f i cers - French Canadian/ Hat i we Born -0 . .& 2

1 - British 4 t

4 $ '

4

To TraderdCh i e f Fact o r 3 - Fqench Canadian/

Hat i ue Born 0 - Br i t i sh 0

HBCA, Ree l s 853-854, 6,23g/u/ 1 .

- tt;* . There was considerable f l e x i b i l i t y i n both t he v e r t i c a l and .

hor izonta l s t ruc tu re o f the f u r t rade companies., Such f l e x i b i l i t y

was l orge l y governed by the econodi c cond i t ions present a t the . '

regional or the t o r t l eue l . ' I n o t h g words, a t small minor outposts . -

the t rader mas o f t e n a lso the c lerk , and the blacksmith sometimes \

became the carpenter as me l l (e. g . , the .b l acksm i t h a t For t George).

flt r e l a t i v e l y more important fo r t s , s t r i c t e r d e f i n i t i o n o f bo th .

hor i zonta l and ver t i ca l r o l e s and statuses ex i sted. Thus, *

s t r uc tu ra l complex i t y i n the f u r t rade system mas not un i form A-

t

is reg iona l ly , o r between fo r ts , q t any po in t i n t ime,

The complexity o f the f u r t rade corporate s t r uc tu re not on ly i: %

d i f f e r e d betmeen f o r t s and regions, i t a lso d i f f e r e d between the

conpan i es and through t i me. For examp l e> 'before 1821 the Hudson ' s -

Bay Company h i erarch i ca l s t ruc tu re re3emb l ed a steep pyram i d, wh i l e

the North Heat Compeny s t ruc tu re consisted o f a broader, cut-of f

pyram i d tha t contained fewer s t r a t a (Proger 1985: 4; Brown 1980)

(Figure 5.7). The Hudson's Bay Company had o more r i g i d ,

cent r a l i zed power st ructure. than the Nor Uest Company. The

p r i aary< author i t i es and shareho l ders o f e company res ided in 1

London and, although t hey were adv i sed b a governor i n North B

Rmerico, they con t ro l l ed the company. I n the North Uest Company,

however, near ly a l l the major shareho l ders r e s i ded i n North Amer i ca --

and, un I i ke the Hudson ' s Bay Company, then w i n t e~ i ng partners l l wed

i n and operated the

The degree o f mob i I

mas r e l a t i v e l y simi

ir fur t rade f o r t s more o r less independently.

i t y m i t h i n each company dur ing the e a r l y per iod

l a r ,

HUDSOH'S BAY CONPAHY HORTH UEST CONPAHY i

A - Figure 5 - 7 . Compar

Prager ison o f fu r trade company structure (from

* "* - Rs the preu i ous- f i gums on mob i 1 i t i nd i cot ed, the r e l ot i ve mobi l i t y

i n the Hudsan' s Bay Company only begun t o increase a f t e r 1

amalgamation, . -

~ t ~ e width o f the pyramidal s t ructure o f the two companies , I

".

- - d i f f e red both i n terms o f population and ro les (Figure 5.7) . The

Hort h Uest Company general l y had the I argest f o r t popu 1 a t i ons, most

o f thoas being labwrers ( Inn is 1975; Horton 1929; Brown 1980;

Dav i dson 191 8). The r g t i o o f o f f i c e r s t o labourers mas a l ways - . i

sma 1 l e r in the Hort h Uest Company than i n the Hudson ' s Bay Company.

For example, compar i son of the number. o f peop l e a t the ~ o r t h- Uest

Company Fort George t o i t s i ua l the Hudson's Bay Company Buck i ngham

Houge i nd i cat es that eboyt t m i ce as many peop l e ra re l i v i ng at Fort

George; the number o f o f f i c e r s at each post mas r e 1 a t i we I y s i l i l ar I

(flort on 1929 : l x ) . As me l I, the number o f tradeamen; at l ras t at the

inland forts, mas a lmays greater i n the Worth Uest Company than i n

the Hudson's Bay Company.

The ama lgamat ion o f the two companies i n 1821 created a greater *

concentrat ion i n power and central i r a t ion o f adm i ni-st r o t i ue

author i ty over the northern deportment o f the fu r trot& ( Inn is 1975;

Bromn 1 980) . The ma j or shareho l ders s t i l 1 res i ded i n London, ' but'

the new governor o f the fu r trade, George S i mpson, becare. more

powerful i n h i s a d m i n i s t r ~ a b i l i t i e s . For example, the

number o f factors at tending the annua 1 counc i I meet i ng? cont i nua 1 l y . - " *

&- &?2-

dec 1 i ned, l eav ing much o f the decision mak i ng and pomer f ou only a

few of f icers , and pr imar i l y t o Simpson (Fleming 1940; Ol iver 1911).

- S i mpson further concent ra ted author i t y by reduc i ng the number of

? ch ie f factors and increasing the number o f ch ie f t raders uho o f ten

were nut sharehoi derq cmd ketd nu votes in cotmc-i t (M i-wer

191 1: 621-25). I nuest i gat i on o f the records .bet ween t h e 18305 and

1860s ind icates a general reduct i on i n ch ie f fac to rs dnb t raders,

and an i ncrease i n the number o f c l erks and 'post master >os i t i ons

( inn-is 1975:321). As wel l , the fu r t rade records show an increasing ?r

spec ia l i za t i on o f pos i t i ons throughout the f u r t rade (HBCA, R&JS '

383-386: vols. 1-17, Reel 785 ~239/f110-12, R te l 786, Reel 7 8 f . .

8239/f/+7,50,~5,57,58,59,60); * t h i s i s another example o f a tendency sr.

tomards an. indr- ingly tomplex system oderat ing i n the i n t e r i o r o f

west ern ana ado . To some degree, the s t ruc tu re o f the new Hudson's Bay Company

r e k b l ed the ear l y, more r i g i d , cent r a l i zed Hudson ' s Bay Company

system run p r i r a r i l y f rom Hudson Bay, but 'at a much more comp l ex

leve l . Horeuer, the new compuny mas spread out over a l arger *

t e r r i t o r y , increasing the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n communicat ion, '?J

admin is t ra t ion and the maintenance o f power. The curta i lment o f

pomer (especial l y of the o l d ' t iort h Uest Company o f f i cers who were h

unaccustomed t o such r e s t r i c t ions) ; the decrease i n the number o f

pos i t i ~ n s and the t remendous p r o f i t s made by the company a f t e r

amalgamation, r esu l t ed i n r o r e m o b i l i t y on& competi t ion w i t h i n the

company ranks, causing even greater o d m i n i s t r a t i ve d i f f i cu l t i es .O . . %

The d i f

as p r o f

f i cu l t i es o f operat i ng and runn i ng the company became ro rse

i t a began t o drop i n the 1860sJ leading t d e reduct ion i n the

number o f pos i t i on3 and p ro f i t s o f company emp l oyees - .

* I nt'roduct ion

I have already used some d f the fu r t rade documentary data tha t - . :

are n e c e s ~ ~ f o r de jc r i p t i ve and ana l y t i ca l 'purposes f o r the

d i sse r ta t i on problem. I n the f o l loaing section, I r i l l describe the -

cvera l l i e r i t s and de f i c i enc i es o f the + fu r t rade documentary and k

archaeo l og i ca l data base t c address the d i sser t a t i on prob l em. Th i s n \

b r i e f summaryis foi lowed by a descr ip t ion o f data tha t are u i e d in

t h i s d isser ta t ion . r

- .. S

Ideal and Actual Fur Trade Data

. Archaeological remains-are an incomplete record o f the use o f 4 .

mat e r i a I, cu l t u r e i n past soc i e t i t s . They on ley represent the t ypts #'

7 f mater ia l goods that are not per ishable. Ideal l y then, both

/orchaeo l og i ca l qssemb l ages and documentary records descr i b i ng -. mater ia l goods mould y i e l d the most complete p i c t u r e o f tha use of

mater ia l cu l t u re i n the f u r t rade. Preferably, these data should

represent the e n t i r e f u r t rade era and geographical. reg ion under

i nvest Egat i on. They shou l d represent &&any' f u r t rade f o r t s . a3 + -

possib le in each t ime p e r i o d and region, r e f l e c t i n g both regional

h ie ra rch ica l d i f fe rences as re1 l as f o r t h iq ra rch ica l d i f fe rences

4 m i t h i n each region. The data should represent war ious s ta tus groups -

and, preferab l y, i nd i v i dual households . The most thorough anal ys i s i

%u l d be undsrt akcn i f comp l e t e set o f both document orb and e

archoao log i ca l dot a ex i s t ed f o r each f o r t . \

Document a ru Da t a - --

B

Primary h i s t o r i c a l f u r .trade doto-were co l lec ted i n the Nat ional

Rrch iues. o f canado i n k t t ama and i n the Hudson ' s Bag Company I

Arch i ues i n U i nn i pep. The. types of sources i nc t uded fur' t rade C "a

- Y

jdurndts qnd l e t t e r s which vary g rea t l y i n type o f data, P . r

completeness and accuracy .' Oft en these dab4 are d i f f i cu l t t o .' -t ' . %

, compare and almost i mposs i bl e t o quant i fy; horever, they do i de

ins igh t i n t o l i v i n g condi t ions*dnd the v a l u e s ~ e l d by members o f f u r

t rode Zbc i e t y . For examp l e, t h; .+tiuds@n ' s Bay Cppany H i nut es o f +

2 <

Counc i I ( 1 82 1-78) are "an exce l l en1 source f o r _sot i a l and po i

Lcb"ditions , and p o l i c i e s o f the fur t rade. s d r , . , the most

important types o f data f o r the d i s j s r t a t ion problem, consist * . * r

fur t rade company inventor jes o f a l I goods shipped t~ the i n 0 -

t ica t'

o f : 1 ) ' *

and f u r

t rade posts, and somet i mes the types o f a r t i c l es t hot were g i wen - to '

%

each o&upat i ona l group by ;he company; 2 ) compdny debt l i s t s i

descr ib ing what each man o r fam i l y bought annua t l y, i n what

quant i t i es, and horn much each i t em cost ; and, 3 ) company l edgers *

l i s t i n g the employed's e thn ic background, wages, $lace o f work and .*

occupat i on. *'

'P - . @ w i.1 l beg i 6' m i t h the f u r t rade company debt l i s t s , These l i s t s

- - % Y .

--vary cons i derbb4 LJ i n the rr degree o f . comp l et eness before 1809 f o r

the Hudson's Bay Company i n mestern.Canado. U n f o r t u ? a t e I ~ s i m i l a r - - f'

. > records from the tibrt h Uest Company are a l most t o t a l l y absent. The

b

t

, @ sheer uo lume o f the Hudson's Bay Company debt l i s t s a f t e r 1809

' *produced equal ly d i f f i c u l t problems a i t h * c o l l e c t i o n . Since only a

l i B i t ed number o f records could be reproduced by mechon i ca 1 means, V

t he ma jo r i t y had t o be copied by ha"d p lac ing a severe l imit on hou

muc'h data cou l rf. be c~ l l ect ed.

The Hudson ' s Bay Company debt I i s t s

overcome the problems involved m i t h the

. though a samp I i ng procedure mas used, a

s t i l l co l lec ted 'from the archives. The

mere sampled i n order t o \

large amount o f data. Even

t o t a l o f 500 debt l i s t s mere - 4

arch i va l records mere . , i

samp led by s t r a t i f y i ng them accord i n g t o a number o f i mphtant f - . .

c r i t e r i a. These mere: 1 ) t i + period; 2) fur t rade region; and ,, 3) C

occupation and i ncome. Samp I es mere taken from the Athabasca and "

the Saskatchewan fur t rade d i t t r i k t s . Samples o f debt l ist; mere ' "

a lso taken from a v a r i e t y o f fo r t s , ranging from important ccgipnal 2

headquarters t o the more isolated, minor d i s t r i c t outposts. l'n sore

cases, i t mas d i f f i cu l t t o de te r r i ne a t which posts sore o f the men 3

rorked. kenera l I y though, the debt l i s t s should represent a

r e l a t i v e l y large geographical reg ion and r e l a t i v e i rpor tance o f f u r '

t rade posts. - It mas equal l y i mposs i b I e t o exam i ne and sample debt l i s t s from

. . each year bet meen 1809 t o approx i mat e I y 1870 from the t mo *major f u r . trade d i s t r i c t s . Thus: debt I i p t s mere co l I ected f o r roughly every

decade, up t o the 1870s. Temporal compar i sons l i l l be mad= rn i t h b Y

t h i s sample t o document changes in the use o f mater ia l goods

throughout the fur t rade era. The general pat terns and changes i n

the use o f mater ia l goods should be evident . To ensure the 0

represent at i ve nature o f th i s sarp l e, those dears tha t aere not

somp I ed mere scanned t o ascert a i n ehet her any ma ja-r buy i ng

d i f fe rences took place. The buying habi-ts o f the employees remained =

- r e l a t i v e l y consistent over these t en year periods, and o f t en even B

l onger .

Bet meen 20 percent and 50 percent o f the debt l i s t s mere B '

co l l ected from &each o f the samp l ed years, reducing the s i r e o f the

sample even more. Debt l i s t s mere selected from each econom i c and -

occupat ,- i ona l group : 2 1 ) company o f f i cers and c l erks ( fac tors , t raders, p o s t k t ers, c l erks ) ; 2 ) company t radesmen (b l acksm i t hs,

*. , ,

carpenters; sh i par i ght s) ; and, 3) coimon l abourers ( f o r t l abourers, . .

boatmen). For some years, almost a l l o f the o f f i ce r "and tradesmen %

detit l i s t n mere- cop i ed becau; t h q c r e so feu. . I n t h o l arge * I -#

labourers category, homeuer, only about a t h i r d o f t he debt l i s t s

mere copied. A s melt, l i s t s x d r e s e n t i n g the uarious e thn ic

backgrounds mere cop i ed t o ensure tha t ony war i a6 i l i t y r e ~ u l t i ng

s. from ethn ic buying behavior could be examined.

I I ' '

1 Both the company debt l i s t s and the ledgers prow i ded add i t i ona l

I

types o f inform'ation about the i nd iu i dua l ' s occupation, h i s ethnic - background and a t ah i ch f o r t he mas s ta t i oned. In' the maj o r i t y o f

'

cases, the i nd i v i dua l ' s occupation mas r e l a t i v e l y easy t o ascerta in.

Homeuer, the pb;t i cu l o r . f o r t a t ah i ch the man morked mas more e

d i f f i c u l t t o determine-and, i n many cases, ogly the f u r trade reg ion

o r d i s t r i c t mas -avo i l ab l e. The mages each i a n mode mere recorded

f o r each t i me per i od so tha t the d i ifer$!ces= i n moges bet meen,

occupat i ona l groups and ,the changes through t i me cou l d be est i mated . I :.

8 Uogps could a lso be compared t o the t o t a l amount o f goods each,man

e l -3. bought a t the . in land posts. Addi t i onal p ro f i t s tha t mere w d e by

fac to rs and t raders ah; h d shares i n the company have already been - 3 @ - comp i led by l nn i s ( 1975) t hr*oughout the f u r t rade per i od -and the

- var ious d i s t r i c t s .

In each debt l i s t the types o f -goods t ha t mere purchased, the

quant i ty , ofid the p r i c e o f each item were noted. O f t e n the - t i le o f -

year t ha$ %b= $odds mere bought was 7 recorded i n t he i edgers. The -

t .*

t o t a l amount o f money each man spent at the company s tores mas ---

recorded. Unfortunate 1 y, because o f t i me res t rS c t i on?, a l I t h e ~ - ,

dot a cou l d not be c o p i d . The t i me o f year goods wer; bought mas /

e l iminated and the p r i c e of each item mas not copied from the

ledgers. tfome~er, the p r i ces of var ious types o f items f o r every - .

year that mas samp led mere noted and are summar ized i n Appendix 8.

The amount ,of money spent ?W 1 uxur i es versus u t i l i t a r i an i t ems f o r

each s ta tus group at d i f f e r e n t t he per iods can be est i m t e d mi th .* t h i s information. As q e l l , the quan t i t i es o f goods bought mere

recorded and a lso a1 lom the r e l a t i v e importance o f s ta tus item

con~umpt i on t o be computed . ~u;erous f o r t i -nvlr i tory l i s t s a l so ex i st ' tha t descr i be the t rade

gaod stores as me l l a the equipment and f u rn i ah inga i n the ?I

1 abourers ' , c l erks ' , and fac tors ' quarters . These documents g i ve a

good i nd i cat i on o f how the company perceived i nequa l i t y and rank i n

the f u r t rade by how e laborate ly the d i f f e r e n t l i v i n g spaces mere

f u r n i ~ h ~ n f o r t u n a t e l ~ , deta i led inventory I i s t s f o r the in land

posts are extreme l y sporad i c and i ncons i s tent , mak i ng_i t d i f f i cu l t

t o s y s t e r a t i c a l l y compare the r e l a t e d mater ia l goods o f s ta tus

groups, e i t,her through t i me o r space,

Other more s p e c i f i c forms o f data about the s t ruc tu re o f f u r -

trade soc ie ty o r consumption o f mater ia l goods were more d i f f i c u l t - - t o obta in . For example, as mas already apparent i n the preceding

----

sect i on, i n f ormat i on regard i ng persona l advancement i n 'the company

o r geographical m o b i l i t y mas d i f f i c u l t t o d i r e c t l y obta in . Homever,

- A

a mith extensive searches through the ledgers, the number o f -

- - . aduance~ents from labourers t o tradesmen, o r from c le r ks t o

1

* 7

postmast ers and fac tors mas comput ed. As me l I, advancement_ 1

according t o e thn ic background mas a lso computed t o determine horn i t *

o f fected mob i l i ty ; such" data are absent f o r the North Uest Company

and the e a r l y par t o f the f u r trade i n the i n t e r i o r . Oatacegarding *

educat ion and t he number o f years the tap l oyee morked f o r the

company mere e i t her very sparse or d i f f i cu l t and t i me consur i ng t o

obtain; such data mould a lso have provided some ins ight i n to the

amount o f pre jud ice t hat ex is ted i n the syst em regardi ng c r i t e r i a

fo r aduancement, - --ub '

l nformat ion descr i b i ng persona l va l ues and 1 i fe-st y 1 es i n the

' i n t e r i o r o f r e s t ern Canada cores p r i mar i l y from numerous 1 et t c r s and . j ourna l s . These data .are i ncons i s t ent i n qua l i t y, through t i me and

space, and are o f t en very subject iue and d i f f i c u l t t o i n te rp re t .

Furthermore, they represent the records o f a select f e r ind iv idua ls

rho mere l i t e r a t e and rho, f o r the most par t , came fro^ the upper

ranks o f the company. In other mords, l i f e - s t y l e s and values on the

f ron t i e r are seen through the eyes o f on 1 y one segment o f fu r t radc

soc ie ty . Those journa ls associated mith a s p e c i f i c f o r t u x d i n t h i s

study mere considered the most i aport ant , These i nc l udc Duncan

IIcG i I l i "ray ' s Fort George j o r I , U i l 1 i om Tom i son ' s Buck i nghom

House journal , and that o f John tlacDonald o f Garth rho rnorkedpat

Buck i ngham House. Hoiever , other j ourna I s o r l et t ers regard i ng '

0

company p o l i c i e s and r u l e s mere a lso examined. Of these, George

S i rp3on 's l e t t e r s and j ourna.1 s are regarded as the most i r po r t ant ,

The documentary i n f ormot i on descr i b i ng war i ous f u r trade f o r t . %

charactcr ia t ica (e,g,, f o r t type, lacnt ian, size, ackupation le@,

s i ze o f bui ldings, space, population, etc,)a are incomp I

they are of s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l t o shed l i g h t on the l i v

---.- as measured oy a l l ocat ion o f space and quo l i t y o f hous

numerous f o r t p l ans ex i s t descr i b i ng bu i l dings and bu i

ete, Jut \

ng cond i t i ons S

ng. fls a e l l ,

d ing

dimensions mhich give a good i n d i c a t i m of l i v i n g cond i t ions through

time and space, and according t o the r e l a t i ve importance o f the f u r

& t r a d e f o r t . Even photographs o f the l a t e r per iod f o r t s (e,g,, Fort

Dunvegan, For t U ic to r ia , For t Edmonton) are ava&ble f o r

examination. I n addi t ion, valuable informat ion regarding the

Iocat ion, occupation length, and the type o f f o r t i s avai l ab le but

contains some e r ro r s (Uoorh i 3 1930; S m y t j ~ 1968). These data shed a

great deal o f l ight on the h ie ra rch ica l s t r uc tu re and complexity o f

the f u r trade system and the var i ous companies t ha t mere i nuo I wed.

These document s are even auai l ab l e f o r the ear l y par t o f the f u r

t rade and the Horth Uest Company.

llany books have been m r i t t e n about the h i s t o r y o f the f u r t rade -

o r about spec i f i c top ics regarding f u r t rade l i f e , flany o f these

sources g i ve accurate account s o f the 'fur t rade and are o f t en used

as add i t iona l sources o f reference. As the previous h i s t o r i c

i n t roduct ion t o the f u r t rode has a l ready demonst rated, these

sources not only contain voldable ins igh ts about the f u r trade, but

they a l so' cont a i n p r i mary document ary i nformat i on i n t o the f u r t rade

which connot be ignored. For example, I nn i s (1975) provides

countless s t a t i s t i c s and f igures regarding the f u r t rade. He l i s t s

the number o f company shareholders, the number o f shares omned by

each person, and p ro f i t 3 made from these shares. The t ypaa and

-- - -- -

. - quan t i t i es o f goods shipped in land and v i t a l in format ion about the

t ranhportat ion system are a lso de3cr i bed i n Inrris (1975).

To summar i ze, t h e ~ e documentary data are o f suf f i c i ent qua l i t t~ C

t o examine the d i s s e r t a t i o n prob ler . It i s unfortunate, hornever, ,

tha t more spec i f i c documentary data ary not ava i lab l e f o r each o f

the f u r t rade archaeological assemblages used i n t h i s d i sse r ta t i on .

Homeuer, as able 5.2 indicates, there i s a good deal o f documentary

informat ion f o r each s i t e . Becaus%of the gaps in . in fo rmot ion that

do ex i s t , the nature o f the analyses and in te rp re ta t ions must be

more general i n form. These data and the analyses thereof hove the

most po ten t i a l t c shorn more general pat terns o f mater ia l

consumption, r a the r than p a r t i c u l a r consumption o f each ind iv idua l

a t a p a r t i c u l a r f o r t . The ddta are adequate f o r

consumption pa t te rns covering a large reg ion and

spans. A

nvest igot ing rh

ong temporal

Those f u r t rode s i t es haw i ng orchaeo l og i ca l asserb l ages that

even remotely f u l f l l l e d the minimal research condi t ions set out i n

the previous sect i on are b r i e f l y described i n Rppendi x C . The

archaeological data from each s i t e are f a r from ideal and, i n many

mays, euen ' l ess su i tab l e than t%,-document o ry dot a. But i n some

cases (espec i a I I y f o r the tiopt h Uest Company), they represent the

only remaining evidence o f the l i f e - s t y l e s and use of mater ia l goods A

at the in land posts. I n short, they help f i l l some important gaps .

i n the h i s t o r i c a l record that others ise rnou I d not be researched and

de3cr i bed.

FUR TRADE FORT DOCUHENTARY DATA SUflHARY a

/

FORT DOCUHENTS

- a 2. Hot t inghar House

1 . ~ u c k i nghare House

t

2. For t George

3. For t U i c t o r i a

-no f o r t p l a w , debt l i s t s , o r i nuent o r i es ava i l ab l e;

-H.B.Co. journal , 1822-23, ava i lab le .

-no f o r t p lans and fern b u i l d i n g descr i p t i on3 avo i l ab l e;

-a fern i nuentor i es, and debt l i s t a present ;

-F i d l e r ' s j ourna l present . Saskat chewan 0 i s t r i c t

-no f o r t p lans o r bu i l ding descr i p t i ons auai lable;

-debt l i s t s and inventor ies auoi lable; -Tomison's ( f ac to r ) j ou rna ls avai lab le .

i

0

-no f o r t p l ans o r bu i l d i ng descr i p t i ons auai lable;

-no debt l i s t s o r i nyentor i i s present; -Duncan HcGi I l i u ray ' s ( c l e r k ) jou rna l .

- f o r t p lan (by Richard Hardisty), photographs;

- f a c t o r a s House s t i l l standing; -no debt l i a t s o r inventor ies avai lable; - f u r t rade l i s t s present.

f9

b FORT DOCUflENTS \

4 . Rocky llbunta i n House -no fort plans or bu i l d i ng descr i pt ions I avai l ab l e;

-a few inventory l i s t s available; -journals avai lable.

- As r e 1 I, the number o f archaeo l og i ca I assembl ages that are -

useful f o r any p a r t i c u l a r par t o f the d i sse r ta t i on problem varies, I

depending upon the type and the leve l o f genera l iza t ion o f the

compar i sons t o be undert aked . For examp l e, r a r e archaeo l og i ca l

assemb l ages are aua i l t ~ b 1 e t o exam i ne the r e l a t i onsh i p bet reen

inequal i ty and mater ia l c u l t u r e a t a regional o r f o r t level than-

at the occupat i ona l group 1 eve I. !! the genera I leve l o f

compar i son$ ent i r e assemb I ages from each f o r t can be l umped and

compared since assemblages from respect ive s ta tua groups are not

needed. @But as i n c r e m i ng I y more det a i I ed, archaeo 1 og i ca l data

become necessary f o r compor i son, the number o f usefu l wchaeo l og i ca 1

assemb l ages d i l i n i shes rap i d I y . The charact e r i s t i cs o f the' uar i ous *-

f u r t rade assemblages and t h e i r po ten t i a l f o r examining c e r t a i n

a;pects o f the d i sse r ta t i on problem'are summarized and discussed

next.

There are seven f u r t rade f o r t s that conta in archaeolog ica l

assemb 1 ages tha t are suf f i c i ent t o i nvest i gat e d i f ferences i n

i nequa 1 i t y and consumpt ion o f goods at the occupat i ona I I eve I . I t

i s *parent tho t these assemb 1 o g h make up a very small percentage b -

o f the ent i r e number o f f u r t rode f o r t s t hot were c o n s t ~ u c t ed 7 n

mestern Canada. Fortunately, there ore a number o f assemblagzs

from a p a r t i c u l a r t ime period, p rov id ing some ins igh t i n t o the

degree o f va r iab i 1 i t y ( i n terms o f a r t i fac t types and r e l a t i ve

proport ions) thot d o e s e x i s t . Furthermore, some o f the assemblages % -

can a l so b e cross-checked m i t h the documentary data t o exam i ne how

e representat ive they ore o f the per iod (Prager 1980).

The f igures i n Table 5.3 ind icate that more than adequate areas,

P

TABLE 5.3&

, - FUR TRADE FORT ARCHAEOLOG 1 CAL DATA SUflflARY

- - FORT ARCHSEOLOG I CAL DATA

A t habasca D i s t r i c t

' 1 . For t Ep inet te -approx. 35% excavated; , ( 1 806-1823) -a r t i fact and s t ruc tu ra l data avai lab1 e;

o -disturbance (from r i u e ~ erosion) i s

moderat e; -occupat i on 1 engt h l ess t han 20 years; -occup i ed by both' f u r trade compan i es; -good cont ro l o f remains from d i f f e r e n t - -- -

occupat i ona l groups. <\

Nottingham Houst -approx. +5X samp l ed; ( 1802,l 806) -good a r t i fact samp !e and .good s t r uc t ura l . . -- i n f o r r a t ion; - --__

- - -- _ -no disturbance t o s i t e ; -- --\ -occupation i s short ( l ess than f i v e

years ) ; . by ther~udson's bay Company; - good cont ro l o f remains from

d i f ferent occupat i ono 1 groups.

- 4

; Saskot chercm" ll i s t r i c t

\ 1 . ~ o r t George 65% excauat ed;

( 1792-1 880) i f a c t sample and good s t ruc tu ra l i nformat i on; I

-no disturbance t o the s i te ; -occupied f o r less than 10 years; -accup i ed by the Hort h Ue3t Comp~ny ; -good contro l o f rtma ins from d i f f erent

oceupat i ona 1 groups; -good cont ro l o f remains from d i f fe ren t

ind iv idua l households. i

FORT ARCHflEOLOGICflL OATfl

2. Buck i ngttd. House zapprox . 80% excauat ed; -- \

( 1 792- r - -. . .,y--=+- -good a r t i fact ,samp 1 e and good s t ruc t ura l

. 3. Fort U ic to r i a

( 1 864-1 898)

informat i on; -upper .levels disturbed by plowing; -occupied for less than 10 years; -occup i ed by the Hudson ' s Bay Compony; - re la t iue ly good control o f remains from d i f ferent. occupat i ona I groups.

-approx . ,60# excauat ed; -good art,i fact sarp l e and good s t ruc t ura 1

i n format i on; -upper levels disturbed by ploming; -occupied for ouer 30 years; -occupied by the Hudson's Bay Company; -good control o f re ia ins from d i f f e ren t occupational groups.

--- --- i n House - t o t a l l y excauoted;

. -good a r t i f a c t sample and good s t ruc tu ra l \&format ion; \.

. -top SIX-s disturbed by plowing; C -occup i ed fo r o"e7-s * r"

-occup i ed by the ~udsan ' s B ~ c s ~ F & . _ - . -good control o f r e m a i n r 6 0 ~ d i f f e r e n t -.

, '-+ / occupat i ona l group,s; //

/ - 5. Ro ky Hount a i n House - to t a l l y excau~t id ;

(h-1 821 1 -good a r t i fa& samp I e and good s t ruc t urn l informat ion;

-not disturbed;

FORT ARCHAEOLOG l CAL DATA

5 . Rocky 40unt a in House (cont . ) (1799-1821 )

tr

-occupied for less than 30 years; -occupied by the Horth Uest Company; -good control of remains from di f ferent occupational groups.

I

t h e i r v i c t u a l s in' (HBCA' ~.24/a.!l i. excavated the area:

a

Rccarding t o Hicks, rho

C . , . the burned c lay and charcoal could B

represent the remndnt s 'of some k i nd o f crude f i rep lace, oven o r f i reback with the r idden mat e r i a l repres&t i ng k i t chen and f i rep 1 ace re fuse and a r t i f a c t s discarded o r los t by the .en and ground i n t o the so i 1 and i ncorporat ed in the midden. The presence o f o h igh concentrat ion o f p ipe fragments and other

t persona l i t ems 3uggest s i t mas an area u t i 1 ized by the men (h icks 1969:95).

I ,

The o f f i ce rs ' and serbants' quarters, and respect i ve a r t i fact

assemb l ages, mere i dent i f i ed a t Not t i ngham House f row a comb i not i on

o f archaeo l og i ca 1 rema i ns and docukn t ory r e fersnces i ~ a r k l i ns 0

1983339-47). The men and Peter F id l e r , mho mas i n charge o f the :.

post, a1 l l ived i n one long b u i l d i n g mhich mas par t i t ioned i n t o Q ,

number o f rooms. The j our& l s i n d i c a t e t hdt F i d l e r ' s quart ers mere

located on the f a r east s ide o f the bu i l d i ng and the servants'

quar ters mere I ocated on the f a r mest s i de o f the bu i l d i ng (Kark l i ns

1983 : 39; HBCA, 8.39/a/Sb) . Th i s s t ruc tu re mas comp l c t e l y excavat od L

and a r t i fac ts belonging t'o each area- are l i s t ed i n the f i no I report

(Karkl ins 1983:+5-$6). 3 ,

1 A p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f l i v i n g quarters o f the two na jor , -

occupat.i ona 1 c l asses a t the three Hort h Uest Company f o r t J ( i - 8 , For t Epinette, For t George and Rocky tlountain House) i s less ce r t a i n

because o f the poor h i s t o r i ca 1 documentary. ev i dence.' A t ,t hsse

s i tes , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the o f f i c e r s ' and servants' dmel l i n g houses

i s based p r i m a r i l y on archaeological evidence and the use o f analogy

t o other b q t t c r documented f o r t s . O f f i ce rs ' q u a r t e ~ s - at a l l t b ~ e

f o r t s-are. cons i s t ent 1 y l arger and more e 1 aborat e l y constructed

(F l admork 197642-65; Steer and Rogers 1978: 163-65; k i dd 1970: 3) ;

resemb l i ~MJ s i l i l a r quarters a t other documented f u r t rade posts

(Snithe 1968:195; .Clark 1969:29;- ~ohnson 1967:tg; Wicks 1969:71).

Servants ' dme 1 l i ngs a t the three f o r t s mere : 1 ) 1 ess me 1 1

constructed (e.g., sometimes having no f loors) ; 2) very smal l o r

p a r t i t i oned i n t o w r y sma 1 1 rooms (F l admark 1976 : 16672; K i dd 1970; - -

Losey 1977aJ ' 1978, 1979; Steer and Rogers 1978 : 122, 183) . These

quarters resemb l ed descr i p t i ons of servant s ' ' dre l 1 i nga a t other

be t t e r documented s i t es (Steer and Rogers 1978 : 122; Smyt he 1976 : 81 ;

Coues 1897; IIacDonald 1959:79). 5, ,

A l though the archaeo l og i ca ! f u r t rade assemb l ages cover the

ent i r e temporal range o f the f u r t rade i n each region, there are

tome very obvious gaps. Host o f the assemb l ages dote from the ea r l y

per iod o f the f u r t rude i n r es te rn Canada, The per iod from

1835-1 864 i s not represented. And the only s i t e t hot dates from the

l a t e r per iod m i t h enough informat ion on s ta tus areas i s the

r e l a t i v c l y minor post o f Fort U i c to r i a . Archaeological ly, l i t t l e i s

knorn about t ha t per iod o f the f u r t rade betreen the 1830s t o the

mid 1860s. There are few data f o r t h i s per iod because few

archaeological f o r t s i t e s span ~ 7 n / y t h i s per iod. A f t e r amalgamation

asserb l ages o f t en span

d i f , f i c u l t i es r i t h both

o f a r t i f a c t s . A t some

o f the tmo companies i n 1821, f o r t occupation per iods lasted longer

and become somemhat more stab 1 e . Fu r t rade archoco I og i ca I

a per iod from 1821 - 1900, causing

spat i a l and more r e f i ned t empora l separat i on

f u r t rade s i tes . tha t spanned the per iod

7 between 1821 - 1860 (e.g., Fort Dunvegan), archaeologtcal

invest i gat ions are -present l y i nsu f f i c i ent t o d i v i de assemb I oges i n t o ,*

shor ter t i n e periods. - -

Geograph i ca l l y, there, ore a lso some extrem.e l y l orge gaps i n the s*

f u r t rade archaco l og i ca l samp l e. fl I though more fu r t rode a i t es have - 9

-bee" excavated i n western Canada than are included i n t h i s study,

they l ack t he necegsary cond i t i ons (e. g . , separate a r t i fac t a

t -

asse-mb I ages represent i ng war i ous s t r a t a) tha t must be present t o ,

i study inequa l i t y . The ava i lab le f u r t rade archaeological

assembf ages do have a feu mdeem i ng qua I i t i - es t hut make t h e m re

ana l y t i ca l l y usefu l t o e x w i n e - r e l a t e d geographical aspects o f 6'

i nequa l i t y . The assemb l ages a t l east cover 'a m i der geograph i ca l

range ( a l b e i t very sporad ica l ly ) , making i t possib le t o examine h ~ w =

fac tors such as the dsbance from supply souqces might have a f fected

the acqu i s i t i on af goods a t the f o r t s and d i f fe rences i n consuipt ion -

between the var ious s ta tus groups.

It i s q u i t e obvious t ha t both geographical and temporal rbnges

are less than ideal i f one wished t o ho ld each var iab le constant

uh i l e conduct i ng i n t er-s i t e compar i sons o f the archoeo l og i ca l

assemblages. The For t George and Buckinghan House fu r t rade

assenb l ages are except i ons , ' The t wo f u r t rade s i t es span the same

per iod and length o f occupation (1792 - 1000). Rtid they are only

400 yards apart on the same supply and t ransportat ion rou te (at

least t o Lake Uinnipeg). Temporal and geographical fac tors that

could account f o r p a t t e r n i ng i n the archaeo log i cat record can be . . Z

e l i r i n a t e d . Quest ions regarding the e f f e c t s o f the length o f supply

l i ne j on the use o f ha te r i a l goods in1 and can be examined m i t h t hest .

I s i t e assemb lages . Even though both f o r t s mere l ocat ed the same

d i stance i n 1 and, ,the North Uest Company ' s supp l y l i nes s t r e t ched Q 1 I 1

the may t o Lake Superior, mh i 1 e the Hudson ' s Bay Company ' s on ly '9

extended t o ~ u & o n Bay.

Bot h~ the ma j o r f u r t rade compan - i es are represented

archaeo I og i ca l 1 y , a 1 though i t mou l d haGF6een p re ferab 1 e t o exam i pe

a larger sample o f posts from eoch company. Somet i r e s separat ion o f

the tmo companies a t each s i t e mas not almays possib le. For

examp 1 0th f u r t rade compan ies hre represented a t Rocky Hounta i n c House (1799 - 1835) and For t Epinet t e (1806 - 23) . It i s very

\ d i f f i c u l t with these assemblage$ t o examine the mater ia l c u l t u r e

used by each company. Even though both f o r t s mere occupied much

ldnger by the North' Uest Company, i t * i s s t i l l d i f f i c u l t t o separate '

the a r t idfact assemb l ages from each occupat ion. A t a more general

level o f analysis, homever, mhere me simply mish t o examine

i nequo 1 i t y through t i me, these assemb loges a r e s t i l l ana l y t i co 1 1 y

use fu l , t

The q u a l i t y o f the a r ch i t ec tu ra l brchaeological data from the

many f u r t rade s i t es tha t h a w been excavated i n western Canada a lso

war i es cons i derab I g . flany f u r t rade s i t es mere excavated p r i mar i 1 y i r

w i t h res to ra t ion o r reconstruct ion purposes i n l i nd ,' i a k i ng

a rch i tec tu ra l in format ion very important. The s i t e s i n t h i s sample

have a great deal o f in format ion about the type and qua1 i t y o f -

construct ion o f bu i l dings represent i ng the var ious s t a t us groups;

.rang other s i t e s mere a lso used f o r the a r ch i t ec tu ra l comparisons

(see chapter 10). AlsoJ informat ion about the s i ze and i n t e r i o r

pa r t i t ion ing o f eoch bui l d i ng i s auai l ab le a t most o f 'these f o r t s .

I

119 "

---

Fina l l y , the archaeologicaI a rch i tec tu ra l data i s a lso s u f f i c i e q t o

describe and compare the const ruc t ion and physical appearance o f the t -

f u r t r a d e posts o f the two companies.

The h i s t o r y o f the fu r t rade era meets some important

cond i t ions f o r examination o f the r o l e o f r a t e r i a l c u l t u r e i n the

s t ruc tu re o f h i s t o r i c soc ie t ies . ,,t alloms archaeologists t o take

bath d iachronic and synchronic approaches t o the study o f mater ia l

cu l t u re . The f u r t rade mas not a s o c i a l l y o r c u l t u r a l l y s t a t i c

syst em e i t her tempora l l y o r geograph i ca l l y, a l l om i ng i nvest i gat i on . -

-of t he use o f moter i a I c u l t ure- through t i me or spaqe. he f u r t rode * I

era var ied cons-i derab l y i n aea l t h cmd resources t h r ~ u g h t i re ,

between regions, and betmeen the f o r t s and t h e i r occupants. It also -

var i ed cons i derab l y i n t e r r s o f ce r t a i n key econom i c cond i t i ons that

could p o t e n t i a l l y a f f e c t the use o f mater ia l cu l t u r k by f u r t rade

society; among these are d i f fe rences i n the e f f i c i e n c y o f the

t ranspor t a t i on and supp l y system both chrono l og i ca I l y and

geographical ly. Furthernore, i t contained vary ing degrees o f

cconom i c compet i t i on bet mben corporat c ent erpr i se t . The f u r t rade -

mas an econoaical ly or iented system p lac ing some l i m i t s on many o f

the soc ia l and behavioral ac t ions o f i t s employees; the cond i t ions

the re fo re e x i s t t o examine horn mater ia l cu l t u re played a +ole i n

these act ions.

Rn inves t i ga t i on o f the f u r

and the changes they underwent,

t rade company

indicates that s'

corporate st r uc t uccs,

they con t ro l led the

h:

lives o f their eaployees t o a large extent. The c q x m i u d i f f e r e d

from one another and changed over t i me, produc i ng vary ing degrees o f

inequal i ty , mobil i t y , pomer and cen t ra l i za t i on m i th i n the f u r t rade

system. The p r o f i t s o f the Hudson's Bay Company began t o dec l ine by a

the 18603, creat i ng i ncreas ing tens ions r i th i n t he f u r t rade

commun i t y . There mas more compet i t ion f o r pos i t i ons and mob i l i t y A

l i t h i n the company and considerably more d i ssent i on among the ranks.

Discrepancies between a b i l i t y and rank sere becoming'more marked.

llany o f the me l l educated Nat i ve Born mere given c l erk o r post master

pos i t i ons i nst ead o f the more prest i g i ous t rader o r fac t o r b

. pos i t ions. These act ions placed a grecter burden oir those i n pomer

t o maintain and .cont ro l the e n t i r e f u r t rade system.

U i t h i n th i3 large, economically or iented corporate s t r uc tu re mas

a fur t rade soc ie ty ahich, t o a large extent, revolved around the -

i nd i v i dua l f o r t s scat t ered throughout west ern Canada. As m i l l be U

d i scussad i n more deta i l i n l a t e r chapters, these f o r t s mere -

ind iv idua l microcosms o f the la rger f u r t rade system and mere very

i mportant i n the everyday soc ia l r e l a t ions o f the members o f f u r

t rade soc ie ty . Examination o f the data from each of these f o r t s

r e f l e c t s , t o a large degree, the .soc ia i s t r uc tu re o f the f u r trade,

and i t s r e l a t i onsh ip t o the larger economic fur t rade system,

The summary o f the h i s t o r y and archaeology o f a number o f f u r

t rade f o r t s i n the Saskatchemon and Athabasca d i s t r i c t s mas intended - /

t o introduce sore o f the more important s i t e s p e d in.bhis study. -

Both documentary and archaeo l og i ca l i nformat i on are used %I- from

s i t es as me ll, but t o a much lesser degree. Obu i ous l y, i n t erms o f 1 1

numbers, these few s i t e s are no ind icat ion o f the many f u r t rade

- - - -- - -- -

s i t e s present i n the two d i s t r i c t s . But theg do represent s i t e s

rhi ch reprbsented sore very t y p i c a l trends and l i fe-st y l es o f both

f u r t rade companies throughout the f u r t rade era i n res te rn -Canada.

\ The f o r t s cover r i d e geographical and temporal ranges r h ich are

necessary t 0 exam i ne the d i sser t a t i on prob l em. To some extent ,

\ then, they can be used t o address the r o l e o f mater i a l ' cu l ture at

the reg i ona l , St t -kment and occupat i ona 1 l eve I . i-

In the l as t pa r t o f the chapter, the pre ferab le types o f data -

needed f o r t h i s d i sser ta t i on r e r e descr i bed, f o l l ored by a

descr ip t ion,o f the actual data and t h e i r de f i c ienc ies . The

def i c i enc i es tha t ex i s t i n the document ary and archaeo 1 og i ca l

records can be overcome i n the fu ture w i th more work. The

documentary data are so enormous that i t mould take years t o -

thorough l y exam i nc t hem; they were there fore samp l ed . Current l y,

the lack o f b e t t e r archaeological data t o address the d i sser to t ion

problem i s s i mp l y a matter f o r more t i me and money t o be i nvest ed i n (

a r e l a t i v e l y new f i e l d . Uery fern f u r t rade s i t e s have been

excavated so thorough l y as t o prow i de the qua 1 i t y o f data needed t o 1

exam i ne i f f erences i n consumpt i on bet reen f u r t rode ranks.

Hopefully, these de f i c i cehc ias i n the a r c h d e o ~ o ~ i c a ~ data base can . be overcome i n the fu ture .

",L

t CHAPTER 6

THE SOC I AL CONSEOUENCES OF ECONOH I C ItiEOUflL I TV I N THE FUR TRADE

l NTROOUCT l ON

The purpose of t h i s chapter i s t o e laborate upon the

re l a t i onsh ip betmeen the fur t rade corporate company s t ruc tu re and

the soc ia l s t ruc ture , and consequent behavior o f members o f f u r

t rade soc ie ty . I t i s important t o document more thoroughly hor the

major primary economic cond i t ions i n the f u r t rade d i f f e r e d betreen

, the compan i es and changed through t i me. I n the f i r s t pa r t o f t h i s

chapt er, the f i r s t component o f the ressarch propos i t i on i s examined

-- name l y, that the degree o f r e l a t i we and abso l u t e i nequal i t y

changes throughout the f u r t rade per i ad. I n t he second par t o f the

chapter , add i t i ona l h i s t o r i c documentary ev i dence demonst r a tes tha t

these economic changes had a considerable impact on the soc ia l

f ab r i c of fu r t rade soc ie ty -- and, consequently, on the consumption

o f mater ia l goods. \

ECOHDHlC CONDlTlOHS flND SOCIAL STRUCTURE: PRE-1821

The documentary ev i dence i nd i cat es t ha t t h e ~ e mere cons i derab I e *

d i f ferences i n the economic and soci n i s t ruc tu re o f the North Uest

Company and the Hudson ' s Bay Company. To some extent , these

d i f ferences mere already b r i e f l y out l i ned i n chapter f i we. They are . -

Q considered i n more d e t a i l here t o spec i fy the soc ia l and behavioral I

imp l ica t ions they have i n f u r t rade soc ie ty . Then, i n the L l a te r

chapters, these econom i c d i f ferences bet ween the compan i es are

cornpored t o the mat e r i a l rema i ns associated i t h the occupat i oncl 1

groups i n the respect i ve f u r t rade corpan i es.

- Economic I neaua l i t q

The r e l a t i v e and absolute economic inequal i t y o f both f u r trade

companies, p r i o r t o 1821, mas computed using the f igures i n Table

6 . 1 . The f i r s t set o f f igures in Table 6.1A &,scribes the average

rages (and shares f o r the fac tors / t rad&rs) and the number o f

erp l oyees i n each i ncome group; a sma 1 l e r i ncore group breakdomn

could not be conducted mi th the ava i lab le data. The second set o f

f i gu res i n Tatils 6-16 l i s t s the r e l a t i v e percentags o f mages and

employees per i ncore group. The degree o f r e l a t i ve i neqqa 1 i t y $mas

determined by computing the cu ru la t iue percentage o f both rages and

number o f employees, beginning r i t h the labourers and ending mith

the fac t o rs / t raders (F i gure 6.1 1. As i nequa 1 i t y decreases, the -

percentage o f t o t a l income i s more evenly spread out omong the -

populat ion; a t absolute equal i t y , atry p a r t i c u l a r t o t a l percentage o f

i ncome mou 1 d have an equ i va l ent t o t a l percentage o f popu I at i on.

The r e l a t i t:t degree o f i nequa 1 i t y mas greater i n the ,Hart h" Uest

Company than i n the Hudson' s Bay Company (F i gure 6.1 1. For axarp l c ,

i n the Hort h Uest Corpany p r i o r t o t82C approx i mate l y 85 percent o f

the labourers received roughly 18 percent o f the r e a l t h . Labourers

and c l e r ks together comprised about 98 percent o f the popu l a f i o n and

received 41 percent o f the uea l th . F i na l l y , labaurers, c lerks, and

EtlPLOYEE AND I HCOHE FREQUEHCY 0 I STR I BUT I ONS, HORTHERN DEPARTtlENT

A . - /-'

OCCUPATION DRTE/CO!lPflNY O f f i ce rs C I erks Servants

m a Uages(t) Uages(f) Uag&(t)

Pre- 1 821 - Horth Uest C o . 20 3,000 120 200 822 22 - Hudson's Bay Co. 35 565 90 100 600 12

1822 - 1859 - Hudson ' s Bay Co . 12 600 32 90 213 20

1860 - 1894 - Hudscn's Bay Co. 10 380 27 100 190 25

El. Re I at i we Percent Popul a t ion and Uages (cornput ed from above f igures) ,

Fact ors/Traders C l e r h Servants

- North Uest Co. 2.1 58.8 12.5 23.5 85.4 17.7 - Hudson's Bay Co. 4 , 8 54.9 12.4 25.0 82.8 20.0

y 1822 - 1859 - Hudson's Bay Co, 4.7 50.2 12.5 2b.l 82.9 29.7

1860 - 1890 - Hudson's Bay Co. 4 .4 , 33.8 11.9 2 4 . 0 83.7 42.2

(Figures i n 6.1A taken from Fleming 1940; O l i ve r 1914; Oavidson 1910).

F i gure 6.1 . Tot a l r e l o t i ve i nequa l i t y i n the H o F l J e s t Company and *

the H.udson' 3' Bay Company, 1800 - 1890, The curves were

computed by ranking the employees by t h e i r income, from

lo r t o high, and then ca l cu la t i ng the cumulative

percent ' i ncome t o cumu l a t i we percent ' popu l at i on.

r$ - factors/ t raders together made up 100 percent o f the employees and -

100 percent o f the mealth. S im i la r cumulative percentages f o r t he

Hudson's Bay Company ind icated tha t the percentage o f t o t a l meal t h a

uas more evenly spread out, both p r i o r t o and a f t e r 1821 (Figure

6 1 1 . The degree o f r e 1 a t i ve i nequa 1 i t y i n the Hudson's Bay Company

decreased from the 1820s t o the 1860s (Figure 6.1 ) . I t i s a l so ev i dent that mages/pro f i t shares. mere r e l'at i ve l y

h i gher i n the North Uest Company i n a l l three maj o r occupat i ona l

categories than i n comparable categor ies i n the Hudson's Bay Company

p r i o r t o 1821 (Table 6.1) . The r e s u l t s a lso ind ica te t ha t the mage

spread bet meen the o f f i cers and servant 9 mas a 1 so r e 1 a t i ve l y greater

in the North Uest Corpany . Thus, absolute inequa l i ty, i n terms o f -

mage d i f ferences bet meen occupat i ona 1 groups, i s much greater i n the

Mort h Uest Company p r i o r t o 1821 . The r e l ated consequences o f these -

d i f ferences bet meen t hese occupat i ona 1 groups on consumpt i on . are

invest igated fu r ther i n chapter e i gh t ,

Quant i t a t iue data are not avai table t o compare the degree o f

' m o b i l i t y betmeen the ranks m i th i n each company p r i o r t o 1821. It i s '

q u i t e obv0ious from general h i s t o r i c sources, homeuer, t ha t there mas

l i t t l e upward m o b i l i t y i n ranks i n e i t h e r f u r t rade company before

1821. I t i s apparent from data presented i n chapter f ive , t ha t 0

Hert h Uest Compony l abourers r a r e l y moved i n t o the o f f i cers ' c 1 ass;

t hus, s t r a t i f i cat ion i n the tiopt h Nest Company mas very r i g i d :

. . . the la rge ly B r i t i s h leadership o f bourgeois and o f c l e r ks dest ine& t o become bourgeo i 3 and the ma i n l y French-Canad i an

P voyageurs rho l i ght , a t best, become gu i des o r in te rp re te rs . The voyageurs had t h e i r omn

- - - - - --

d i s t i n c t i v e e thn ic i d e n t i t y and soc ia l and cultural a t t r i b u t e s - - d i s t i m t i u e values, l i f e s t y l e s , . . . (Bromn 1980:48).

Uert i ca l mob i l i t y i n the Hort h Uest Company mas re legated t o

ind iv idua ls mho mere already m'ithin the bourgeois class, cons is t ing

p r i mar i I y o f c l e r k s rho aspired t o enter the ~ a n k s o f par tners i n

the company. I n the labourer and trade ranks, labourers could learn

a t rade and improve t h e i r income poh i t i on (Dauidson 1918:228).

,* I t i sques t i onab leahe the r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n theHudson8sBay

mas less r i g i d than i n the Hort h Uest Company p r i o r t o 1821 . Company

By the

decreas

o f f i c e r

l a t e 1700sJ upward m o b i l i t y m i th in company ranks mas already

ing . flpprent ice c l erks, f o r examp l e, mere rec ru i t ed i n to the

ranks d i r e c t l y from B r i t a i n instead o f from the lomer ranks

o f the company :

Bg the ea r l y nineteenth century, homever, soc i a I s t r a t i f i cat ion sharpened and ordinary

, apprent i ces, t radesmen, and l abourers found femer chances f o r advancement (Brown 1980: XI),

It appears tha t p r i o r t o compet i t ion bet meeni the t mo f u r trade

companies there mas'only s l i g h t l y more mobi l i t y mi th in . the Hudson's

Bay Company ranks than i n t h e m Uest Company.

Before 1821, many means mere ava i lab l e t o r e s t r i c t mob i l i t y and 'I

- mainta in a r i g i d system o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n both f u r t rade

companies. To sore degree, the a b i l i t y t o gpin a b e t t e r pod i t

the h i e ~ a r c h i c a l system o f each companb mas based more on ascr

than ach i euement . Homeuer , c l ass d i s t i nct i on mas ma Cnt a i ned a

on i n

p t ion

ong -

both types o f s ta tus : 1 ) ethn ic l ines; 2) the amount o f education - -

- -

o f the ind iv idua l ; and, 3) q u i t e often, familybackgro"nd. I" most

cases, the Horth Uest Company corporate system mas more severe- than ,

the Hudson'a .Bay Company i n es tab l i sh ing s t r i c t r e s t r i c t i o n s on r h o -- - - - --

C D U T ~ occupy the power pos i t ions i n the f u r - t rade. But even by the

end o f the eighteenth century, these categories o f r e s t r i c t ions reqe

becoming increasingly more important. in the Hudson's Bay Company as

me1 l (Brown 1980).

Behavioral l mp l i cat icons I

-- - , P r i o r t o 1821, there ras r e l a t i v e l l i t t l e discontent r i t h i n o r Y . compet i t i on bet meen any .of the occppat i ona l ranks o f c i t her company.

The amount

c lass d i s t

of company o r corporate cohesion, regardless o f r i g i d - -

i nct ions, mas r e l a t i we l y h igh. There mere some major

reasons f o r such minimal c o n f l i c t m i t h i n e i t h e r company. F i r s t ,

most o f the a t t e n t i o n o f each company, p r i o r t o amalgamation, mas . b

focused on external compet i t ion and i ntra-company conf l i c t . b

-

l n t arna l tans i ons bet meen the ranks mere a l so I essened because there

mas less competi t ion f o r pos i t ions, compared t o a f t e r 1821;

It i s d i f f i c u l t t o est imate hom the above fac to rs af fectea

poss i b l e d i f ferences i n the degree o f i n te rac t ion OF ve r t i ca I J i n tegra t ion i n each company. Theqe appears t o have been r e l a t i v e l y

Uest Company because o f e t hn i c d i f ferences between them. The degree /

o f inequa l i t y mas a lso r e l h t i v e l y higher than i n the Hudson's Boy

Company and, consequent l y, d i f ferences i n the behau i o r and the B

l i fe-sty I t s bet meen the tmo groups should be greater i n the Horth 1

opport un i t i es f o r advancement i n the North Uest Company the French

Canad i ans and ha 1 f-breeds mere r e 1 a t i ve 1 y i so 1 a t ed from the o f f i cers

and c l erks . Consequent 1 y , t hb dom i nanb reference group f o r each

iccupdt i onal group cons i s t ed o f the i r i mmed i a t e fam i 1 i es and the i r

peers. These c i rcumstances produced a r e 1 a t i ve 1 y h i gh degree o f

cohesion and conformity m i t h i n each socioeconomic class, and major

d i f ferences fietmeen them. /

There i s some ind i cat i on t hat the degree o f i n te rac t ion bet ween . .

i

the r a n k s ' i n the Hudson's Bay Company may have been s l i g h t l y greater

than i n the Horth West Company. According t o Brown ( l980:47-8) , i n

the ea r l i e r f u r t rade per i od (pre-1780s) mhen the Hudson ' s Bay

Company conducted the f u r t rade p r i r a r i I y from Ww.,Bay, there mas

greater in te rac t i on bet meen the a t at us p a @ s ma i n l y because they

mere from very s i m i l a r e thn ic stock. Also:

In e i ghteent h-century Hudaon Bay, such a 'a ide r society ' mas not only inaccessi b l e but a 1 so pract i ca l l y absent, r e i n fo rc i ng the

* i mportance o f ve r t i ca 1 1 i nkcges and mak i ng the. fur t rade s u b f i e l d on exaggerated yet -

fragmentary vers ion o f i t s home soc ie ty (Brown 1980:32).

Uh i l e ve r t i ca l in tegra t ion may have been present p r i o r t o

compet i t ion betreen the companies in, the 1 7 8 0 ~ ~ i t began t o

deter i o r a t t even before dma lgamat ion. Even before 1821, there mas

a, ', . .general- anxiety t o d i s t i ngu i sh ' o f f i c e r s ' from the men'

(U i l l i ams 1983:25); th is statement i s a lso ?upported by the Hudson's

8

Bay Company ll i nut es o f Counc i l (F l em i ng 19401. The degree o f

ver t i ca l i ntegrat i on i n the Hudson's Bay Company should be

r e 1 at i ve 1 y greater than i n the Hort h Uest Company. ' Ue rod 1 d expect,

therefore, behavioral d i f fe rences t o .be considerably less betreen

the ranks o f the Hudsbn's Bay Company than i n the North Uest

Company. -

I ECONOfllC CONDITIONS AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE: THE POST-1821 ERA

P

Sore o f the more rad i ca l

Bay Company a f t e r 1821, have

Thme changes had t reoendoua

s t r u c t u ~ e o f the f u r t rade.

possib le e f f e c t s they had on

out l ined.

changes that took p lace i n the '~udson 's

already been ou t l i ned i n chapter f i v e .

consequences on the economic and soc ia l

They are summarired here and the

soc ia l condi t ions and behavior are

Some h i s t o r i ans contend tha t the r e l a t i ve degree o f i nequa l i t y

or s t r a t i f i cat ion i n the a f u r t rade a f t e r 1821 i ncreased and

sharpened (e.g., Bromn 1986:30). This statement must be c l a r i f i e d .

'-3 I n fact, the data presented i n Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1 ind icate

that the degree o f r e l a t i ve economic i nequa l i t y cont i nua 1 I y

decreased i n the Hudson's Bay Company a f t w 1821 (Figure 6.1 ) . This d

decrease'becomes r e l a t i v e l y greater a f t e r 1860. P r i o r t o 1860, the

number of Hudson's Bay Company employees had been reduced i

cons i derab l y, and p ro f i t s made by the o f f i cers cont i nua l l y i ncreased

r h i l e the mages o f the servants stayed the same. Betaeen 1821 - 1860, the abso l u te rage d i f ferences betmeen the o f f i cers and men

. a l so becbme greater than a f t e r 1860, resu l t i ng i n more absolute

econom i c i nequa l i t y (Tab l c 6.1 1 . These r e l at i we l y g r e a t e r ' ' *

- 2 . d j / ferences i n income coincided wel l with the tremendous p r o f i t s

shown by the coapany i n the middle per iod (e,g., betseen 1821 - \

18601,. Thus, bet ween 1821 - 1860, wh i l e p ro f i t s were soaring, the

e l i t e o f the f u r t rade got r i cher , but the morking c lass made only le

m i n i ma 1 econom i c progress. Cert a i n l y bet ween 1821 - 1860 c 1 ass

d i f ferences and s t r a t i f i cat ion webe as sharply def i ned through

economic means as they r e r e before 1821, a

It i s apparent from Figure 6.1 tha t the r e l a t i v e degree o f

inequal i t 9 and th6 abso-lute d i f fe rences i n income o f the

.occupat i ona l c I asses began t o dec l i ne a f t e r the 1860s as the overa 1 1

p r o f i t s o f the company mere dec l in ing (Table 6.11, The data a lso

i nd i cat e that the maj o r fact o r that he l ped t o cornpensot e f o r bot h

the r e l a t i v e increase i n wages and the dec l in ing p r o f i t s o f the -

cospany was the general reduct ion i n the number o f 'Cmp l oyees. he savings i n wages, by reducing the number o f employees, c e r t a i n l y

helped t o balance the dec l ine i n p r o f i t s from the f u r t rade.

It i s a lso d i f f i c u l t t o accept Brown's (1980:30) content ion 3

that by the ea r l y n ineteenth century soc ia l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n had ,

sharpened. I f t h i s s t a t ement ' i mp l i es that the opport un i t y f o r

upward advancement decreased, the f i gures do not support t h i s

statement, Upward m o b i l i t y w i t h i n the companies was extremely --

minimal p r i o r t o 1821. However, a f t e r 1821, uprard m o b i l i t y i n the

company increased stead i I y i n a l l ranks (see Figures 5.5, 5.6 and

Table 5.11. The major d i f fe rence i n v e r t i c a l mobi l ' i ty a f t e r 1821, ,

horever, took p lace among the French Canadi ans and Hat ive born, who

made greater go i ns r e l a t i we t o other e thn ic groups. Uhereas s t at us I ,

mas r e l a t i v e l y wel l def ined along e thn ic and occupation l i nes p r i o r

. t o 1821, i t was r e l a t i v e l y less wel l def ined a f t e r 1821, flore

- Hot i ve born were educat l d than before, even though they may not have

b,een o f ths proper e thn ic background t o become o f f i c e r s o r . 'gent l emen', Thus, i n the l a t e r per i od, i t appears from the

docurentary data that upward advancement was somewhat more prevalent

and tha t soc ia l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n was becoming less r i g i d .

Brorn does po i n t out, however, tha t by the 18403 French

Canad i ans and Hat i ve born found i t eas i e r t o ga i n h i gher -

,occupat i ona l pos i t i ons 9 i t h i n the company :

A l though '{.a] fbreed' o f f i cers and app l i cants mere e f f e c t i v e l y kept from high-ranked pos i t i ons u n t i l the l a t e 1840s o r e a r l y 1850sJ t h e i r numbers had been growing, severa l hod shorn theme l ves act i ue and usefu I , and pressures t o reward t h e i r serv i ces began t o prove success f u I . . . . By the

w

1850s, then, the b a r r i e r s against nat iue-born o f f i cers mere not as i nsurmount ab l e as before (Brown 1 980 ; 209).

The increasing tendency f o r the Hat iue born t o compete f o r h igher

pos i t i ons w i t h i n the company, together with the decreasing p r o f i t s

and reduct i ons i n aua i I ab I e pbs i t i ons, p I aced cons i derab l e s t r a i n on I

f u r t rode soc i et y . I t i ncreoied compet i t i on f o r *be t t e r pos i t i ons

and p rec ip i t a ted pre jud ice by the upper ranks o f fur t rade soc ie ty

towards those ind iv idua ls who mere advancing. It posed a th rea t t o I

the power s t r uc tu re o f fur t rade society, as i s apparent f ~ o p

carrent s made b y . S i rpson and other o f f i cers about the ha l f-breed

chi 1 dren i n the company ( U i 1 1 jams 1963: 77). There mas resentment ---

toward l e t t i n g Natiue. born ind iv idua ls advance i n the company, , although they o f t en had the proper education and t r a i n i n g . Hoieues,

<

there were now add i t i ona 1 comp l i cat ions t o prevent the Nat i ve born

from advancing mhich were not present p r i o r t o 1821. tlany o f the

company o f f i c e r s fathered 'half-breed' sons whom they d i d not wish

t o see i n common labour pos i t i ons (Brown l98O), There mas const ant

pressure on senior ' company o f f i cers by the res t of the f u r t rade fa

soc ie ty t o d iscont inue the r a c i a l pre jud ice that mas a prevalent I

fo rce i n the Hudson's Bay Company throughout i t s operat ions i no North ,

firer i crl .

Behau i ora l Consequences

Before 1821, the major focus o f competit ion mas betmeen the

r i v a l companies; by the 18603, as p r o f i t s and oppor tun i t ies f o r

- pos i t i ons declined, tensions and discontent w i t h i n the company ranks

began t o emerge (Thomas 1978:27). These tensions not only ex is ted

w i t h i n the working c lass ranks, but a lso between the o f f i c e r s and

I abourers . There was cons l derab 1 e compet i t i on bet meen the o f f i cers

o f the company over the dec l in ing economic r e s urces and p r o f i t s - P a f t e r the 1860s. Factors and ch ie f t raders hap benef i t ted g rea t l y

from the p r o f i t s they made fro^ the furs they took i n t h e i r

respect ive regions. A f t e r 1821, and p r i o r t o theb18603, there mas

some competi t ion f o r these pos i t ions, because rany f o r t s mere closed -

-m

i u ~ d ' t h e number of pos i t i ons reduced. Homeuer, of,ter the 1860s) when

p r o f i t s began t o dec i i ne, compet i t ion amongst the t raders over the

remei n i ng fu rs increased dramat i ca I I y i n some reg i ons, a l most

- - --

%%

t u rn ing i n t o a regional r i v a l r y . Dunvegan was a ~r imc example o f

t h i s compet i t ion. Accusat i ons were made by o f f i c e r s o f New .

Ca l edon i a that Dunvegan mas s tea l i ng par t o f the i r trade i n f u r s by d

pay i ng more f o r them (memorandum from Campbe I I, Dunvegan, t o P . S . Ogden, ch ie f trader, Hem Caledonia, 19 Harch 1860; HBCA, Reel Ill

176, 8.39/b/l6).

The unanimity betreen the o f f i c e r s and servants continued t o

decl ine a f t e r 1830, w i th cases o f insubordinat ion by the servants

becom i n i more common (Thomas 1478 : 19). I n 1830, George S i mpson '3

noted that there was g ro r ing unrest among the servants because the

company d i d not l e t them spend t h e i r money on ' luxury' goods r h i c h

mere scarce i n the capany shops (HBCfl, B.239/c/2). There ras a lso 1

unrest about the unequal t a r i f f system favouring the o f f i c e r s and

. t h e low r a t e o f wages tha t the company servants ~ e c e i v e d . Hen i n

the f u r brigades became very unru ly by the 1860s and had t o be f ined I

or even sent home (Thomas 1978 : 23) . The unrest and d i scont ent added

t o the need t o create greater >ocB a l d i s t i nct ions between the

o f f i c e r and servant classes and t o maintain a t i g h t l y s t ruc tu red

corporate h i erarchy (Thomas 1978 : 27). I _J

The consequences o f a less r i g i d soc ia l s t ruc ture , decreasing

econom i c i nequa I i t y bet ween ranks, and greater compet i t i on and

c o n f l i c t m i t h i n and betmeen ranks dur ing the l a t t e r h a l f o f the

n i net cent h century, undoubted l y produced a greater amareness o f

s t at us, rank and c lass i n f u r t rade soc ie ty . C l ass l i nes were l ess

wel l def ined and c loser i n terms of income, meakening the a u t h o r i t y

and the p r i v i l e g e s o f the b f f i c e r s (Hbughton 1957). These

consequences produced more uncert a i n t y about rank and pos i t i on3 than i

A

before 1860 and" mere countered by var i ous k t ho-ds . Greater pressure

mas placed upon t he o f f i c e r s , ' by c h i e f company admin is t ra tors , t o

eat and I i ve separate I y from the servants (flerk 1931 : 238). As ear l y

as 1822, Simpson admitted tha t there seemed t o be some compet i t ion

mithin the o f f i c e r ranks. T h e r e mere attempts by senior o f f i c e r s t o

have him p lace more d is tance between the ranks by r e s t r i c t i og

in format ion about important mat ters i n the compary t o oaky the c h i e f %

f ac to rs :

I reg re t t o observe tha t a considerable degree o f reserve approaching t o coolness appears t o e x i s t betseen the Chief Factors and the C h i e f ~ r - ade rs , a r i s i n g i n my opin io" from the circumstance o f t h e former being desi rous t o make a r i d e r d i s t i n c t i o n i n the rank than i 3 e i t h e r necessary o r proper. . . The Traders as a mat ter o f course have no voice . i n our Counc i I 3 and are not perm i t t ed t o be present, i n fac t they are t o t a l l y ignorant o f our proceedings except i n so f a r as may be as a mat ter o f favor communicated t o them p r i v a t e l y . . . (Fleming 1940:381).

I

Rccordi ng t o Cha l mers ( 1 969: 121, by 1854, ve r t i ca 1 rank i ng mas so

h i gh l y s t r uc tu red tha t a t I arger gat her i ngs t raders, c l erks and

apprent ices mere seated i n s t r i c t order o f rank t o the gqycrnor o f 7 * I

the company, Sealey ( 1 969:7S) notes tha t betreen 1822 - 1.860 the

f u r t rade resembled a 'caste system' operated by an o f f i c e r c l a s t

c l e r k s rho mere a loof from the servants. This f r o n t i e r -

ar i s toc racy began t o reaken a f t e r 1860 r h t n the economic cond i t ions

o f the Hudson's Bay Company a 1 so dec I i ned (Seal ey 1969 : 78) . Thus,

along with the increased amareness o f r a n k and pos i t i ons ' caae an

i n c r e a x d awareness o f customs, values, r i t u a l s associated w i t h the

p a r t i c u l a r soc ia l pos i t i on . I n the l a t t e r par t o f the f u r trade, I

' , company- eaployees, ' . . .p laced increasing value on the accoutrements

and amen i t i es o f c i v i l i zat i on f o r ,i heme l ves and f o r others' ( ~ r o w n *

1900: 198). Such changes i n t hc soc ia l s t r uc tu re o f the f u r t rade i n

- the lo,t t e r par t o f the nineteenth century had t o a lso have some

impl ica t ions on the changing r o l e and s t r u c t u r o f mater ia l cu l t u re . A 9

V I

The r e I at i onsh i ps bet oeen the nore genera l econom i c uar i ab l es I

I

and soc ia l behavioral'consequences that took.p lace i n the f u r t rade

were examined i n t h i s chapter. The major po in t s i n t h i s chapter are

summarized as fo l lows:

1 . The degree o f r e l a t i v e and absolute economic inequa l i t y mas higher i n the North Uest Company than i n the Hudson's Bay Company before 1821. There mas a lso r e l a t i v e l y less v e r t i c a l movement o r advancement o f employees i n the North l e s t Company than i n the Hudson's Bay Company.

i

2 , .The per iod betmeen 1821 t o c. l a t e 1 50s was one where the 8, Hudson ' s Bay Company en j oyed h i gh econo j c p ro f i t s and u i r t u a l l y no external compet i t i on. ~omer'was he ld by a few i n the company. There w s a s t eadi l y grow i ng mob i l i t y i n ranks and a t I east some i n t egrat i on of other e thn ic groups i n t o the upper company ranks.

3 . Af te r 1821, the degree o f r e l a t i v e - i n e q u a l i t y i n the Hudson's Bay Company cont i nua l l y decreased, The abso l u t e d i f ferences i n wages between .the o f f i c e r s (and less so-the c l e r ks ) and the servants mas greatest bet ween 1822 - 1850 and then dec l i ned

, t he rea f t e r , Af ter 1860, there was a reduct ion i n the p r o f i t s o f the Hudson ' s Bay Company.

4 , The number o f occupotional ranks increased a f t e r 1021 wi th the add i t i on o f the I esser 'post mast e r g pos i t i on i n t ended p r i mar i l y f o r l i xed-b l oods , There mas r e I at i ve l y more v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y betrecn ranks q f t e r 1860, but access t o the

-- - o f f i c e r ranks by labourers mas s t i 1 1 very r e s t r i c t e d .

5: l n t erna I compet i t i on f o r pos i t i ons i n'creased i t h i n the war i ous occupat i ona I ranks and tens i ons bet meen t hem i ncreased a lso by t he 1860s. It mas more of a s t rugg le f o r the o f f i c e r c lass t o mainta in t h e i r au tho r i t y and soc ia l d i s t i n c t i o n than i n the e a r l i e r f u r trade per iods. Thus, i t i s argued tha t there mas an increasing awareness o f p o s i t i o n

4 and s tg tus i n f u r t rade soc ie ty l a t e r i n the f u r t rade.

6. There i s a p o s i t i v e re l a t i onsh ip betmeen the s t a b i l i t y and abundance o f the pr imary economic factors,,such as f u r resources and markets, and the stab i I i t y o f the soc ia l s t ruc tu re . As f u r t rade resources ded ined, tremendous s h i f t s mere made i n Y h e corporate s t ruc tu re o f the Hudson's Bay Company, e.g., reduct ion o f personnel, fo r t s , and p r o f i t s , *

increase i n mob i 1 i t y and a- decrease i n both absolute and / r e l a t ive inequal i t y .

.-1

Both the documentary and the archaeological evidence t o invest igate

these inferences are examined i n the remaining chapter3 of t h i s

d i sse r ta t i on , .

THE CONSEGUENCES OF THE INLAND FREIGHT AND TAR1 FF SYSTEn ON IlATERl AL CONSUMPTION I N THE FUR TRADE

. . . tha t the expence o f t ransport i ng Goods from flontreal t o the place o f Rendezvous and from thence t o the Posts i n the I n t e r i o r >ha l l have encreased o r d i l i n i shed, -- i t aha I l be i n the power s f the Concern t o change and a l t e r the same according t o the t r u e expence and Cost o f the Transport o f such Goods : . . . (North Uest Company t l inutes o f Counci I , Ual iace 193$:195),

. . l NTRODUCT I OH

I n t h i s chapter the f r e i gh t and t a r i f f systems o f the fur t rqde

corpan i es are exam i ned . Uas the consumpt i on o f r a t e r i a l goods by

the employees a t the in land posts a f fec ted by the f r e i 3 h t and t a r i f f \ ra tes set by the t mo mj o r fur t rade compan i es operat i ng i n mestern

Canada? Uhat mas the bas i s f o r set t i ng these t a r i f f ra tes? How d i d

t hesc po l i c i es d i f f e r r eg i ono l l y and bet ween the occupat i ona l ranks

o f t be f u r trade? These quest ions become i rpor tan t i n t h i s

d i &ta t ion because they could exp la in some o f the d i f ferences i n

the consumpt i on o f mat e r i o l goods, b0t.h geograph i b l l y and

t erpora l l y, l i t h i n the i ncore groups i n the fur t rade. These are

a l s o the econoric var iab les tha t oust be understood before the

behav i ora I and soc i a I i mp I i cat i ons o f the consumpt i on o f mat er i a I

cu 1 t ure are exam i ned .

THE NORTH UEST COHPANY .FREIGHT FIND TARIFF SYSTEH

The movement o f the f u r t rade fur ther in land dur ing the l a t e

1700s p laced a tremendous econom i c s t r a i n on the North Uest. Company.

The f r e i gh t and t a r i f f systems fo r goods shipped in land t o the f u r

-

'

t rade f o r t s acre regulated so that the North Uest Company could - 6

o f f s e t i t s f r e i g h t costs by tax ing the p r i c e of the goods used by *

the employees. The Hort h Uest Company's iupp 1 y 1 i nes re re longer

than the Hudson's Bay Company '.s and, by the 1790s, i t i s already

euident i n the o f f i c i a ' l company minutes that t a r i f f s on goods played .

a key par t i n the in land f u r t rade: d -

And as the present concern have i n v i em t o extend t h e i r posts t o other and more d i s tan t

I p a r t s o f the North-Uest , torards the Rocky l lountains and beyond them, the charge OQ

goods a t a l l such Posts shal I be regu l atcd according t o the expense of sending them t h i t her when knorn (Ua I I ace 1934 : 122) ,

Examination o f the t a r i f f schedule o f the Horth Uest Company, drawn

up i n the e a r l y 1800s, shors that the.cost o f shipment o f goods -

intand var ied u i t h distance and a lso with the type o f goods (Ual lace

1934:197). But i t should a lso be noted that the costs o f f r e i gh t

f o r goods mere set reg iona l l y and not f o r i nd iv idua l f o r t s ; ra te3

i ncreased s t cadi I y from reg i on t o region as d i s t once from the depots

Dry goods inc lud ing cases o f guns, knives, hats, and baskets-of k e t t l e s pa id on the Kam i n i s t i qu i a advance and &st ; 26% t o Hipigon department, and h e l a Plu ie, L a c Quinipique, Upper and Lamer Red Rivers and

- Fort Dauphin departments; 60% t o For t des ' P r a i r i e s o r the R iv ie re Opas departments; 65%

t o Eng l i sh R i uer and dependent i es; 70% t o the a

Upper Athabasca River; 80% t o Athabasca and dependencies.. . . (North Uest Company fl inutes, T a r i f f Schedule, Canadian f l rchives). .

h

Uary ing f r e i gh t t a r i f f s predumabb had the same' e f f e c t on

consumpt ion hab i t s from f o r t s ;it h i n the same region, but a i ght have .

d i f f e r e d betmeen regions such a3 the Saskatcheman and t he Athabasca

d i s t r i c t s , fl

The r e r a i nder o f the Hort h Uest Company t a r i f f schedule i s

summor i red i n ~ d b l e 7.1 . Evident l y, the me i ght o f the product had a -.

I'

great deal t o .do mith t h e 7 t a r i f f that mas placed o n - i t . But does

i t ? For i t -mou ld seem equal ly reasonable t oaP loce the highest 91

'2 t a r i f f s on those goods tha t mere i n most demand, thus making 'A ,,

the greatest p r o f i t s from the system. I f the t a r i f f s of d i f f e r e n t As 3

a r t i c l es i n the same reg ion are examined i t i s apparent tha t some

goods are taxed more than ,others, at though i t i s doubt f u l whet her

they are any heavier , The data could ind icate that t a r i f f s mere - placed on i tens tha t mould b r i n g the greatest returns, and not

c- , simp1 y t o recover cost o f f r e i g h t f o r i tern3 that meighed the most,

as the corpany claimed.

It i s a lso evident tha t the costs o f goods sent in land by the

R

TAR i FF SCHEDULE

TRBLE 7.1

OF THE NORTH UEST COflPRNY ( 1 804) 0

- * 4

REG I OH TYPES OF GOODS 1 - 2 3 S 5 , 6 7

(Percent mark-up on Goods Sh i pped I n l and)

Dry goods (ba l es, cas- settes, guns, knives, hats, baskets o f k c t t l e d 26 /. 45 45 60 65 70 80 , . - L

................ Tobacco.. 65 105 105 150 &SO 175 210

. . . L Gunpomde~ . . . . . . . , . . , . ; ,53 90 90 125 130 140 170 ,. . ' -

. High mines. .:. . . . . . . . . . . . 13b 210 210 305 310 350 420

Shot and ba l I . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 375 375 350 360 SOQ ?90 3

Average.. ......,,,....... 55 67 67 112 113 1 2 W O - . 4

k 1 . - Fond du Lac dept . and "dependencies. \, "3-' 2. =,Hipigon dept.

3 . . ~ a c La Pluie, Lac Quinipique, Upper and Lomtr Red Rivers and Fort Oauphin depis.

1. - Fort d a Prair ies, l f i v ie re Opas depts. w - 5. = Eng l i sh River and dept s .

6. - U ~ p c r Athabasca River, 7. = A t habmca dept . -

(Taken f PO. Ua I l ace 1 93% 1 97 ) .

142 -- - - -

no r th Uest Company were di!ferent ior t h e effisec-s end the m. The

h igh t a r i f f s were intended f o r the engages, tradesmen and the

c ierks, the l o t t e r having t o pay as much as 150% markup on the goods

they purchased i n the i n t t r i o r Jn 1805 iUal lace l934:2l3) . Later,

however, i n 1808, those t a r i f f s on goods purchased -i n I and mere . r

reduced t o 100% fo r c l e r ks and in terpre ters . There i s no i nd i cat ion

tea and

sh i pped

Certa i n

i n the company-' s l i nut es tha t the o f f i cers pa i d *ore than the

tlontreo 1 value f o r t h e i r goods i n land, I n fact, the gent l emen

running the i n t e r i o r poSsts received luxury i teas, sdch as coffee,

e, as par t o f t h e i r minter supplies, r h i c h mere

in land a t the company's expense (Ual lacc 193t:218).

y, the f r e i g h t t a r i f f system favoured the higher ranks i n . L

the Horth Uest Company. O =,

A l though the cost o f the, tmnspor t o f goods mas tremendous l y a

' h igh f o r the North Uest Company, the t a r i f f systen more than made up

f o r 'those losses. Hen mere encouraged t o spend t h e i r money in1 and 4

on goods and they r e r e f f en pa id i n goods, Those en. i n the more

, r e i o t e departments mere even given add i t iona l wages end item; (e.q.,

knives, beads, uermil l i,on) as par t o f t h e i r equipment (Ubllace

1931:213). By a l loming ' the l obou re~s a l o t o f oppo r tun i t y . t o spend

t h e i r rages on goods, the conpay pl&ed thCm in .debt fo rc ing them

t o s ign on again f o r another term (Davidson 1918:233). The few

avai l ab le records ind ica te that e n t i r e sa lar ies , and o f ten*

considerably more, mere spent ort- goods a t the i n land posts by the ,

men ( D a v i d i ~ o n 1910:233).

Before cont h u i n g r i t h the analys is a number o f hypotheses, a .

based on the propos i t i ons out l i ned in chapter four, are rev i emcd . '

I f the consumpt'i on o f goods i s based on the r e l a t i we. degree o f M

access t o % t h e i r sources o f minufacture, then:

Hi : as d istance from supp l y depots , ificreases, the cost o f a l l $

goods increases a t f o r t s o f both f u r t rade coapantes; 4

\

H2: the d i f fe rences in the consumption o f t a r i f f e d goods betmeen

the o f f i cers and the men i n the North Uest Company and t he7 '\ i

Hudson's Buy Company m i l l i ncrease as d i s t once from the depot \

increases;

H3: the d i f fe rences i n the consumption o f ta r i f fed 'goods between

the o f f i c e r s and the ' saruants o f t h e ~ u d s o n ' s Bay Codpany

should be p r o p w t i o n a l l y lower than betreen the o f f i c e r s and -

the servants o f the North West Company. This i s proposed

because the supply l i nes o f the former company are shorter ; - f o r t s t ha t are the same distance from t h e i r respect i ue supply . -C

sources should be simi lar ;

Ht : there shou l d be a proport i ona l l y greater d i f ference i n I

%

consumpt i on bet reen the seruant s and the o f f i ce rs o f the e

Hudson's Bay Company o f those goods t a r i f f e d higher before

1821 'than a f t e r 1821. 4

These hypotheses are invest i gat ed a i t h the r e l euont documentary and I 4 , ,

archaeological data, It should be noted tha t only r e s u l t s per t inen t

t he t e x t . d t her more deta i led data and tab l c r r - s g ~ r d i ng t he r e s u l t s

can be found i n the. Appendix A .

I '.

Document ar" and flrchaeo loZl i ca 1 Arm l i cat i ons B

The proposi t ions ou t l i ned earJ ier i n chapter four, based

p r ima r i l y on econo~ic, p r i n c i p l e s (e.g., as distance increases, the

cost o f sh i pment o f goods a lso - i ncreases) are support'ed by? the

po 1 i c i es o f the Hort h Uest Company -regard i ng econom i c r e s t r i c t i ons

p l aced on the consumpt ion o f mat er'i a l goods. Hornever, the vdry i ng

t a r i f f s placed on ind iv idua l items may haue very l i t t l e t o do with

the expense o f t ranspor t ing them inland. Instead, those t a r i f f s are

a consequence ,of the demand f o r those goods at the i n land posts and

the need o f the company t o tax hsav i est those i t e r s i n most demand. , I

Just how such p o l i c i e s ac tua l l y a f fec ted the consumption

each o f the nor th Uest Company ranks m i l l be eymined

documentary and archaeolog ica l~data . T

F i r s t , the amount o f money spent. on goods by Horth Uest Company

1 obourers mas compared across each o f the major regions by d i v i d i n g

the t o t a l deb i t s o f the men by the t o t a l c r e d i t s (Table 7.2; F igure

7 . 1 ) . I t mas assumed tha t the amount spent on goods ( represe l~ t ed by

the percentage i n Table 7 . 2 a X d F i g u r e 7 . 1 ) uould b e s t r o n g l y

c u r t a i l e d as the t a r i f f s on goods.increased. The r e s u l t s from theae

conpar i sons on l y par t l y support t h i s hypot hes i s . On l y the R t habasca I

River region, 'which had the highest average f r e i gh t costs, a lso had

the I oaest consumpt i on rates, r h i I e the t o t a I spent on goods var i ed - #:a, . 1

considerably a t a l l o ther posts, regardless o f t h e i r d is tance from

TABLE 7.2

PERCENTAGE OF 6000s PURCHASED OF TOTAL AUAILABLE CREDl T SPENT ON GOODS

i

A . 8. FUR TRADE DISTRICT TOTAL DEB i 1 TOTAL CREOl T A + B

(Liures) (L i ures) X

1. Lake Nipigon, Lake o f - I s l ands 31,595 41,226 -

2. Lower 8 Upper Red R i uer, F t . Dauphin, Lac,La P lu ie 169,497 1 94,934

Fond du Lac ' 25,112 27,104

Lower Fort des P r a i r i e s 30,665 30,716

Upper Fort de3- Pro i r i es ' 8, $33 8,457

A t habasca R i uer 18, I$$ 25,835

(Taken from Dauidson 1918:233).

Figure 7.1 . ' Graphic Sumary of Table 7.2

C I'

Hot e : The Apercent i ncome spent on goods i ncreases m i t h d i s t ance unt i l the more d is tan t A t habasca d i s t r i c t i s reached. This inverse r e l at i onsh i p bet m e n percent purchased and d i s t ance from source*[s l i ke l y the resu l t o f the cont i nu i ng i n c r ~ a s e i n t a r i f f s . However, the t a r i f f s i n the Athobasca d i s t r i c t may have been at the threshold o r much too high, thereby decreasing the amount o f money spent on goods.

supply sources. These data r e r e i nsuf f i c i ent t o exam i ne rhe t her

t h i s r i s e i n t a r i f f s r a y haye a lso increased the d i f fe rences i n J

consumpt i on bet ween the o f f i cers and servants, o r i n ce r t a i n types

o f Lrt i c ~ e s .

I n order t o exam i ne the above t a r i f f hypotheses fur ther , the

\ archaeo l og i ca l assemb l ages from the ear I y tior1 h Uest Company post s \

mere examined t o see whet her products rh i ch cost r e I at i we l y more t o \

t rarLsport f u r t he r i n l and mere be i ng depos i t ed i n archaeo l og i =a l

s i t e s i n r e l a t i v e l y l o r e r quan t i t i es i n the Athabasca reg ion as

opposed t o the Saskat cheran reg i on. Furthermore, d i'k t h e ~ e

. ... d i f ferences i n cost have any e f f ec t on ,$ i f ferepces i n consumpt i on i

hab i t s bet reen the var i ous ranks o f the company i n d i f ferent

regions? Ui th documentary debt l i s t s , t h i s hypothesis mould be

r e l a t i v e l y easy t o examine, but feu such l i s t s ex i s t f o r the Horth 4

Uest Company. I n t irder t o examine the problem fur ther , three groups

o f a r t i f a c t s mere chosen that e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y are

r e l a t e d t o 'domestic goods', 'tobacco', and ' lead ba l l s / sho tm . I t

r i l l be reca l l ed from the f igures presented i n Table 7.1 that each

, o f these i t e r s had d i f f e r e n t t a r i f f s appl ied t o them, and that t h m e .- ,

t a r i f f s changed a t d i f ferent r a tes os distance from the depot 1 -

increased. Ket t I es, pots, and kn i ues*rere chosen t o represent

domestic goods. Tobacco p ipe fragments mere chosen t o represent

tobacco consumpt ion and lead ba l l d s h o t aerc d i r e c t l y der i wed from

the archaeo l og i ca l assemb l ages. 'T

I t should be noted tha t a l though the ~ e r u a n t s may have,' a 1.0 used t.

stone pipes more o f t en than the o f f i c e r s , only the c l a y pipes from,

each groyp mere used t o measure the degree o f t obaccd consurpt ion. 0-

This fiight create so.e e r r o r i f me campare tabncca canslupt ion only

betreen o f f i c e r s and servants from one f o r t (e.g., tobacco

bonsumpt i on i s probab l y h i gher among the servant s-t han the f i gures

i n Table 7.3 suggest). But, the c r i t i c a l comparison i s t o determine

whet her smok i ng d i f ferences bet reen the t r o i ncome groups ac tua l l y

increased as t a r i f f s on tobacco increased i n the more d i s t a n t

Athabasca f o r t s . Uhat me are, therefore, looking f o r i s rhether the

degree o f spread i n the percentages o f p ipe frequencies changes

bet reen the t r o i ncome groups a t d i f ferent f o r t s , assum i ng tha t the

degree o f e r r o r i n t obacco consurpt ion (by not account i ng f o r the

stone pipes) i s the same f o r a l l th ree f o r t comparisons (Table

7.3).

I n the f i r s t comparison, the three major a r t i f a c t groups

&covered from both occupational ranks were compared t o one another

from f o r t s r h i ch mere l ocat ed i ncreas i ng l y f u r t he r i n l and (Figure

7 . 2 ) . The r e f u l t s o f the comparison o f r e l a t i u e percentages o f

var ious types o f g o d s (ca lcu la ted by d i v i d i n g a r t i f a c t frequency o f

a p a r t i c u l a r type by the t o t a l a r t i f a c t frequency) ind ica te tha t the

h i gher t a r i f fed products, tobacco and l ead ba 1 l s/shot , decrease a t

For t Ep i n e t t e in the Athobasca reg ion which i s considerably ~ u r t h e r

from the depots (Figure 7.2). Horeuer, the consumption o f the lower

!ad i f fed domest i c i t ems a t For t Ep i net t e increases . Domest i c goods I

o y l y change 2 0 percent i n t a r i f f r a t es from the Saskatcheuan t o the

fltbabasca f o r t s , suggest ing tha t their need fay outreiehed the

, aihimal r i s e i n t h e i r p r i c e .

The more important quest ion fo r t h i s study i s how the d i f f e r e n t

t a r i f f s might have a f fec ted consumption o f goods o f each

TABLE 7,3

FREQUENCY OF GOODS COllPAREQ TO UARY l NG IRR IFFS: \

HORTH UEST COllPAHY ARCHfiEdLOG I CAL ASSEI'IBLflGES

A . 8 . A + B GOQDS/FORTS OFF I CERS SERUAHTS TOTAL

A . DOllESTlC GOODS F t . George:

freq.* L

' t o t a l a r t i f a c t s x t o t a l a r t r f a c t s

Rocky llt . House: f req . t o t a l a r t i f a c t s X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s

F t , Epinet te: f req. t o t a l ar t4 f ac t s X t o t a l a r t i fac ts-

B.TOBFtCC0 F t . George:

f req, t o t a l a r t i fac ts X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s

Rocky flt. House: f req . t o t a l a r t i f ac t s X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s

F t . Epinet te: f req . t o t a l a r t i fac ts X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s

A , 8. A + 8 GOOOS/FORTS OFF I CERS SERUAHTS TOTAL

o BflWSHOT Ft . Gqorgs:

freq. Rocky H t . House i

freq. t o t a I q r t j fac ts X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s

F t . Epinette: freq. t o t a l a r t i fac ts # t o t a l a r t i f a c t s

--

*NOTE: Freq. re fe rs t o the number o f a r t i f a c t s o f that type; # t o t a l mas computed by d i v id ing number o f a r t i f a c t s per type by t q t a l nurbar o f a r t i facts from each occupat ional class. '

R. nt. w Epinette

, F i gure 7 . 2 . Percent age o f doaest i c goods, tobacco, and l cod

bat I / s h o t from two Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t tiorthilJest

Company posts (Fort George and Rocky flounto in House)

and one fit habasco d i 3tr i c t Hort h Uest Company post

(Fort Ep i n e t t e) fo r a l I o&upat i ona i groups comb i ned .

Derived from data in Table 7 . 3 .

- the three cat egor i es o f goods assoc i a t ed 4 i t h each occupat i ona I

group were converted i n to r e l at i ve percentages by d i v i d i ng the t o t a l

o f each type by the t o t a l a r t i facts per occupat ional group. The

i.e& 1 t s jnd i cats that as d i stance from the depots i ncreases, the 9

percent age d i f ferences bet ween ranks become even sma l l e r i n the

higher t a r i f fed goods (Table 7.3). For exarple, a t Rocky Hountoin

House, l ead 'ba l 1 s/shot mere purchased i n greater quant i t i es by the

of f icers , but at the more d is tant Fort Epinette, the di f ference i n

the percent ages bet meen the o f f {cers and the servants decreased

(Table 7.3). ,

The di f ference i n the percentages o f the tobacco group betmeen /

the o f f i csrs and servant s are a l aays greater at the Saskat ch'eman

posts but drop considerably at Fort Epinette (Table 7.3). The

except ions are the domest i c i t ems eh i ch have percent ages that are

qu i t e s i l i 1 ar for the o f f i cers and seruant s a t the t mo Saskat cheman ,

d i s t r i c t posts but ah ich increase i n the seruants' assemblages at

the more distant Fort Epinette (Table 1 ~ 3 ) . These resu l t s suggest-

* that increasingly higher t a r i f f s placed on goods at the more d is tant

flthabasca posts tended t o make the consurpt ion patterns o f the two

fur t rode occupat i ona l groups more s i l i l a r . Homeuer , the l omer

t a r i f fed goods mere used i n i ncreas i ng 1 y grdat er numbers by the \

I omer company ranks. -bf'

Uhi l e t a r i f f s d i d not have a s ign i f i can t e f fec t on the 1

conwmpt ion o f the goods that mere being taxed (s i nce most o f t hese +

goods mere con3 i dered necess i t i es 1, they may have i nd i rec t I y

affected the consumption o f other goods considered t o be iuxuries.

That is, a t those f o r t s mhere higher tariff:, ~ t r n a c ~ d t l a lam

imposed, i n d i u i d q l s mere l e f t mith the choice o f : 1 ) reducing

the i r expend i t ure on l uxur i es t o compensat e fo r i ncrmsed p r i ces of

necessities, thus maintaining t h e i r level o f expenses; or, 2) h

spendi"i the same on both grocps o f i tems, thereby increasing the l r

debts. These a l ternat ives mere further inuest i gbted l i t h the -

mchoeo log i ca l assemb l ages represent i ng the Saskat chemon and the - Athabasca d i s t r i c t s .

To determine whether those t a r i f f s ac tua l l y af fected the u

consumption o f 'luxury' items, the frequencies o f ki tchen luxuries

(e.g., ceramics, glassmare) mere compared t o necessit ies (e.g.,

pot3, pans, t i n cups and plates) from the same three for tsc(Table

7 The r e l o t iue percent (number o f goods o f that type divided by . the t o t a l a r t i facts fo r each occupat ional group) o f each group o f '-i goods mas f i r s t corput ed. The resu l t s i n# i cat e that k i t chen

luxur ies general ly decl ine i n r e l a t i v e imdortance at Epinette, while

the k i t chen necess i t i es i ncreose (Table 7 .,t ) . Furthermore, the

f i gures suggest that a t those f o r t s mhere t a r i d f s on goods mare I

lomer, the dif ferences i n consumption o f lyxury k i tchen goods. L

betmeen the men and o f f i c e r s mere less t h a i a t Fort Epinette. Both I

r e s u l t s support the inference that, mhile t k r i f f s d i d not s e ~ i o u s l y

a f fec t the consumption o f necessit ies at thb more distant inland

forts, they cu r ta i l ed the use o f luxury items, especial ly among the

l omer ranks o f ,the company.

To summa-ire, the nor th Uest Company at tempted t o recover the 4

cost o f shipment o f various types o f goods inland by Q var iable

t a r i f f system, thus creat ing a potent ia l s i tub f ion o f economic n

A

I TABLE 7.4

0

K 1 TCHEW ECESS I T I ES UERSUS K 1 TCHEW LUXUR 1 ES

A . 8. A+8 GOOOS/FORTS OFFICERS SERUANTS TOTAL

A , K l T C H E n E S S I T l E S Ft . George:

freq. 5 26 3 1 t o t a l a r t i facts 515 3004 351 9 X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s 1 .O 0.9 0.8

R O C ~ Y nt . H O U ~ ~ : 4

freq. 15 34 49 t o t a l a r t i fac ts 3472 3436 6908 X t o t a l a r t i fac ts 0. 4 1 .O 0. 07

F t . Epinatte: f req . 7 42 49 t o t a l a r t i facts 424 121 1 1635

' X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s 1.7 3.5 3.0 9. K ITCHEH LUXURIES F t . George:

freq. 8 1 95 t76 ,

t o t a l a r t i facts 51 5 3004 351 9 - X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s 15.7 3.2 5.0

Rocky nt_. House : f req . ' 2 1 7 1 92 t o t a l a r t i f a c t s 3472 * 3436 6908 X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s 0.6 2.1 . 1.3

F t . Epinette: L

f req , 17 30 47 t o t a l a r t i facta 424 1211 - 1 635 X t o t a l a r t i f a c t s 4.0 2.5 2.9

- -

r e s t r i c t i ons and var i ab l e consbmpt i on hab i t s throughout k

the f u r ,

hab i t s r e r e , . trade country; horeuer, these r i a t i o n s i n consumption s, 'not near l y as s t r o n g as e x p e c i e 4 even a t fur t r a d e f o r t J as f a r . , +

apar t a s F o r t E p i n e t t e and Fo r t George. The r e l a t i v e consumption o f

some goods taxed heau i l y dropped s l i ght I y, rh i I e t h e uae o f o t her3

mas even s l i g h t l y h igher a t t h e more d i s t a n t i n land posts'. There i s

a very good reason f o r t h i s , i f r e examine c a r e f u l l y t h e types o f

goods t h a t r e r e being taxed so h e a v i l y . nost o f the more h e a v i l y

taxed a r t i c l e s r e r e not luxury goods, but mere goods t h a t acre used

o f t en and requ i r e d f o r surv i va I . Tobacco, sh i.ch comes c I osest- t o Q

t he ' l uxu rym category, dropped s l i g h t l y i n importance among the \

labourers, Thus, se a r t i c l e s mere taxed, not because they sere

the heaviest o r PO i f f i c u l t t o sh ip in land, but because they mere

consumed i n t h e - h i g h e s t q u a n t i t i e s , thus y i e l d i n g th&highest ,

p r o f i t s from t h e t a r i f f s imposed on them. I n o the r ro rds , h igher

t a r i f f s do not a f f e c t t h e q u a n t i t y o f consumption o f goods essen t ia l

f o r subsistence and s u r v i v a l but hove i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s bd c u r t a i l i n g

t h e consumption o f ' l uxu rym items because less money i3 l e f t over t o

acqu i re such goods.

For those i n d i v i d u a l s r i t h g rea te r spending porer , such p o l i c i e s

have l i t t l e e f f e c t on consumption p a t t e r n s . But those people r i t h

less money r u s t then make, more ~ r i t i c a l choices betmecn main ta in ing

t h e l eve l o f domestic consumption and l o r e r i n g t h e i r consumption o f

luxur ies , o r l ooe r ing t h e i r consumption o f domestic. p roduc ts and . /

main ta in ing t h e i r consumption o f l u x u r i e s . I n the Nor th Uest

Compony a t leas t , h igher t a r i f f s had I L t t J e e f f e c t on t h e

consumpt i on o f necess i t i es, but a more cons i derab 1 e one on the

- -- --Ap

r consumption o f luxur ies among the lorer , f o r t ranks. These f ind ings

coinci.de very w e l l r i t h economists' (Green 1971:58) d e f i n i t i o n o f

necess i t ies and l uxur i es , tiecess'i t i es o r e those gebds mh i'ch ne i t her

fo'l I nor r i s e ~ i n consunpt ion as p r i ces change, rh i I e consumpt i dn . /

r a tes o f luxury i t e m s i l l f a l l o r r i s e as p r i ces f a l l o r r i s e . *

Prc-1021 Freipht and T a r i f f Suster -

'\

1 The f r e i gh t a n d ' t a r i f f p l i c i e s of the Hudson's Bay Company i n

the Sdskatcheman and Athabasca d i s t r i c t s mere s i m i l a r t o those o f

the Horth Uest Company before 1821. However, t a r i f f s placed on t rade

and personal goods mere always less severe. The Hudson's Bay

Company a t tempted t o r e s t r i c t personal goods and only shipped those ,

goods in land considered t o be essent ia l t o the t rade and proper 0

funct ion o f the posts (Thomas 1978). L i ke the North Uest Company, d

the Hudson's Bay Company a l so had a p o l i c y o f covering the costs o f

the shipment o f goods in land p r i o r t o 1621, as s ta ted i n a r t i c l e 18: k-

That i n the Invoice o f goods annual ly cons i gned t o each Eactory, every a r t i c l e shal I be charged a t an advance on the prime

, cost, s u f f i c i e n t t o cover the expence o f I r e i ght , i nsurance, i n t erest o f out l ays, and charges,of the Colpony's general Est ab l i shment (Rrrangement s o f the Hudson ' s Bay Company, Se l k i r k Papers 1 : 29-36).

And, a l so l i ke the- H o ~ t h. Ues-t Company, the greatest burden of

covering the shipment of goods in land f e l l on the'servants: < 22. *That the servants o f the Company sha 1 1 I

be charged, f o r any goods mhich they may receive from the Trading stores, at the r o t e s ta ted i n the inventory o f the Post where they ore taken up; but that each man may

n

P indent f o r such stores as he mants mhich shol l be sent out m i th the next shipment;

ii

t ha t the goods so indented for by the servants sha 1 l be s ta ted separately i n the invoice, and charged a t an advance o f only 40 per cent on the p r i me cost and sha 1 I' be

'

del-ivered t o the men a t the invoice p r i c e f ree from any add i t i ona l charge f o r storage

a o r in land t ranspor ta t ion (Rrrangements of the Hudson ' s Bay Company, Se l k i r k Papers v

1 : 29-36 ) .

The Hudson's Bay Company o f f i c e r s paid f a r less than the servants

fo r any goods they bought. The o f f i c e r ' s debt 1-ists for the

Saskatcheman and the Rthabasca regions shom that the markup mas only

25 percent . Uith respect t o the goods suppl ied by the company before 1821,

\ 4

the Hudson's Bay Company servants received less than t h e i r North

Ues t Company co in t erpar t s : \

The men i n t h i s serv ice had 8 pounds s t er 1 i ng each year, out o f ' uh i ch they had t o furn i sh t h e i r c l o t h i n g and t h e i r other neccssiarys. The goods sent in land being mhol l y f o r the f u r r t rade and prow i s i ons, they had t,o buy a I l they .anted at the Factory, rhere every a r t i c l e mas p l a i n and good ond at a i o d e r a t e p r i c e . Thpt furnished by the Company mere a

%

k 1 eat her coo l ( i nst ead' o f Beauei-) Cap and

Fl i t t pns a ~ d Snew Skoes ( Hop& t-9fF : 63) .

But r h i 1 e the Hudson ' s ' ~ a ~ Company servants may not have rece ived

as many f r ec , a r t i c 1 es from the company s t o r e ~ , ~ t h e y bene f i t ted i n C. I

other ways. For eqmple, u n l i k e thp North Uest Company's policies,'

no aention i s made p r i o r t o 1821 o f tjoods being t a r i f . f ed a t

d i f f e r e n t ya tes , or more at f o r t s greater distances inland.

0 i f ferent t a r i f f ra tes f o r each t r o d i ng d i s t r i c t mere not necessary

because the Hudson's Bay Company's supply 1 i nes mere shor ter .

4

[ lochent a ry and flrchaeo 1 og i ca l flpp 1 i cat i ons : Pre-1821

As r i t h the former ana lys is , for the North Uest Company, I w i l l

invest igate s p e c i f i c a l l y hom the t a r i f f system might have a f fec ted

consuapt ion d i f ferences bet meen the t uo aaj o r occupat i 2nd l ranks o f

the Hudson's Bay ComparkJ. Th i s i s d i f f-i cu l t since there mere

dpparently no var ia t ions i n t a r i f f s on c e r t a i n goo+, nor 3

4

va r ia t ions t o vary ing distances before 1821. +Cer ta in ly the

d i f fe rences i n e - r a t e o f t a r i f f s betoeen the two occupational I rU'

g;oups must have a f feet ed t h e i r consuapt ion hab i t s but, un 1 i ke the 3

s i t u a t i o n i n the North Uest Company, t hese ,e f f ec t s cannot be

- d i at i ngu i shed from the pure 1 g uoge-re l a t ed d i f ferences tha t mere ,

present bet ween f he tuo g~oups . Later i n t h i s chapter, however,

the e f f ec t that t a r i f f s had on the consumption o f goods ph io r t o

1821 y i 1 1 bZ dsterm/ned by conparing them t o simi l r goods a f t e r 2 1821.

For the t ime being, i t i s p r o f i t a b l e t d examine whether t he ' : +

-

I

p i f f e r e n t t a r i f f r a t e s o f t h e two companies a f f e c t e d t h e m e o f

boods by t he i r emp l oyees d i f fe ren t 1 y . I f domest i c k i t chen wares, u

1

d obacco and lead ba l l / sho t , f o r example, r e r e t i x e d less i n the

udson's Bay Company than in t h e Nor th Nest Company, r o u l d the

i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e use o f these items between the , .o f f i ce rs~and ' the

ervants be r e l a t i v e l y g rea te r i n t he Nor th Uest Company? 1 - 1

I n order t o exp l o r e t h e above pass! hi l i t y, t h e orchaeo l og icdl 4

8 r6.a i ns represent i ng those goods t h a t mere taxed r e 1 a t i ue 1 y & iq t h e Hor th Uest Company than i n the Hudson's Bay Company mere

L

cobpared i n each occupat i ona 1 group (Tab 1 e 7 .5) . * The r e l a t i ve

/ cantages o f these goods mere c~mpu ted f o r t h e o f f i c e r s and the . . \

1.

ants us ing t h e archeeo l o.gi caul assemb l a g t s avo i lab 1 e f o r bo th i

r+

Bay Company and t h e Nor th West Company. I t i s obu i ous / .

these f i g u r e s that' d i f f e r e n c e between , the o f f i c e r s

i n use o f high t a r i f f e d goods - i s g rea ter i n t he

I

Company than bet meen t h e same o c c ~ p a t i ona 1 groups i n

thb ~ o \ t h U e ~ t Company. I n fac t , t he servants i n the Hor th Uest

~ o m ~ a n ~ \ a r e - c o ~ s u r i ng r e l a t i ve l y more o f these goods t hdn the ,

? f f i cerA, even t bough t h e cconom i,k',i neq"a 1 i t y i s greater bet m e n '

a them (To l'e 7.5) . The i,"ferencs, , that t he re should be r e l a t i.ve l y '

g rea te r d "i fferences i n t h e consumption o f h i g h t a r i f f e d goods

between t h\ occupat i ona l ranks o f t h e Hor t h U e ~ t ~ o i n p a n ~ , cannot be

accepted.

The abo e res;lts, hornever, s t i l l do not s p e c i f i c a l l y t c l 1 us \ \ mhich o f t h e 1.0 uar iab les , h igher t a r i f f s o r T h i g h e r i n c o ~ e , might \ ---

o f fec t consurpt i o n d i f ferences between t h a tr6 companies, and

between t h e ranks o f t he Hor th 'Uest Company. I n o rdc r t o

COHPAR l SON OF ARCHAEOLOG l CAL REHA l NS OF I

TAR l FFED GOODS BY COHPAHY I

TAR l FFED GOODS u TOTAL

Y

COllPANY (kitchen, tobacco, l ead ba l l /shot ) ART I FACTS

-!\ 1

HIGH TflRIFFS Frea . Horth Uest Co.

- Of f icers

LOU TflRIFFS

Hudson's Bay Co.

Frea .

- Of f i cers 665 29.1% 2288

Hots : The Hort h Uedt - Company assemblages come from Fort George and

Rocky flaunt a i n H O ~ ; the Hudson ' s Bay Company assemb l ogas , . i

come from Buck inghom House and Rocky Hountoin House. b

i nves t iga te t a r i f f r a t es fur ther , goods o f the North Uest Campany

- were c l d s s i f i e d i n t o h i gh (e.g., ,lead ba l l s / sho t ) and low (e.g.,

k i t chen goods) t a r i f f e d products (Tcible 7 .6 ) . I t g i l l be reca l l ed

t ha t t he t a r i f f s placed on lead b a l l d s h o t by the North West

Company ranged between 360 and 400 percent fo r the Saskatchewan and "

the R t habascd d i s t r i c t s, respect i we l y . The t a r i f f s p l aced on the

k i t chen goods by the same company i n the same d i s t r i c t s var ied

- b e t k e n 60 - 70 percent, respect i ve l y.

.I Given these d i f fe rences i n the t a r i f f r a t es o f the t r o types o f

goods in the Horth Uest Company me can ex& i ne how they a f fscted

7- consumpt ion pa t te rns . The resu l t s sh&~ t hat there mas * re l at i ue I y

l i t t l e d i f fe rence i n the use o f k i t chen goods between the o f f i i cers ,

and servants % the Hort h Uest Company (Tab l e 7 .6) . Houever , the .

servants used a subs tan t i a l l y greater ahount o f lead b a l l s / $ t o t

than the o f ' f i ce r s in the Horth Uest Company (Table 7 .6) . The

consu.;tionof e a c h o f these t w o g r o u p s o f good ;by theo f f i ce r s

and the servants i n the -Hudson's Bay Company i s r e 1 a t i vc l y s i l i l o r J-

(Tab 1 e-7.6) . It mo" l d seem, there fore, tha t the h igh t a r i f f ra tes r

placed on l ead ba l l s l sho t had no e f f e c t i n reduc i ng t h e i r frequency

o f use i n the Iqwer ranks o f the North Uest Corpany.

Post-1821 Fre iqht and T a r i f f Sustee +. 1

Rft e r ama l &at i on a i t h the Nort h Uest Company the nsw Hudson ' s

Bay Company introduced a d i f ferent f r e i ght and t a r i f f system, at

the i n l and p ~ s t s (Tab 1 e 7 .7) . The company seruont s mere be i ng svcn

more heav i l y taxed than before 1821. T a r i f f s on, imported goods had

i ncreased from 40 percent t o 50 percent wh i l e products

TABLE 7.6

~I~PRRISOH OF COHSUHPT I OH OF LOU - H IGH TRR IFFED G ~ O O S 1

r- ,

I

1 K l TCHEH GObDS LEAD BALLSISHOT TOTAL

COHPAHY 1 . (lorn t a r i f f s ) (high t a r i f f s ) .z

I I I

Horth Uast Co. U

- Off icer3- 121 3.0% - " 270 6.9% 3987 .

- Servants 226 3.5% , 8 fa 12.7% 6440

Hudson's Bay t o .

- Off i ~ e r s 203 8.9% 464 20.1% 2288

Hots: The Horth Uest Company archaeological assemblages come from

Fort George, Rocky Hounta i n House; the ~ u d j o n ' s 0a; Company

assemb l ages come from Buck i ngham House, Rocky Hount a i n

House.

TABLE 7 .7

SUHHARY. OF HUDSON ' S BAY COHPANY TAR l FF RATES

DBTE OFF l CERS SERURNTS

Pre- 1 82 1 - 25% on a l l depot goods - 40% on a l l depot goods

1825 - 20X on depot goods - 50% on depot goods

- 100% on l iquor - 50% on l i quor

- 12.5% on country goods /2 - 12.5% on country goods

- 25% on depot goods - S O X , on depot goods

- 12.5% on country goods - 12.5% on country goods

- 25% on depot goods - 50% on depot goods s

- 12.5% on country goods - 12.5% on couqtry goods b

0 0

\ (e . g . , those goods mode t the company posts from l oca l resources)

;ere on1 y taxed a t a r a d o f 12.5 percent f o r the company servants.

The t a r i f f s on depot goods f o r the gentlemen, homeuer, mere much

lo re r (Table 7.7), Country products mere taxed a t the same r a t e ,

f o r the o f f i c e r s as f o r the men (Table 7.7). The documentary'

evidence a lso shoms that alcohol mas more heav i l y taxed

amalgamation than before i n both occupational ranks.

There i s l i t t 1 e doubt that the d i s t once a f o r t oas

the f r e i gh t depots had no bearing on the t a r i f f s iaposec

a f t e r

ocated from

on goods

shipped intand a f t e r 1821, The Hudson's Bay Company ninutes o f

Counc i I suggest that a UQ i form t a r i f f syat em was adopted throughout

the in land f u r trade: P

The problem o f advances on the p r i c e o f goods bought by cpmm i ss i oned o f f i cers arose through i ncreases vary i ng r i t h d i st ancea from the depot. I t mas 'one substont i a l reason f o r t h e i r p re fe r l ng t o minter at a near than

. d is tan t estab l i shment . ' An average o f t ran t y- f i ve per cent advance was suggested f o r a l l d i s t r i c t s (Fleming 1940:xxvi).

This reference i s a l so in te res t i ng because i t suggest.s tha t t a r i f f s

ray have been placed on goods used p r i o r t o 1021 by the o f f i ce rs

that var ied according t o the d istance amay from the, source of

suppl ies. Ho mention i s made, homever, mhether a s i m i l a r system mas

placed on the goods consumed by the servants at the Hudson's Bay

Company in land for ts :

Oocument a ry and Archaeo l og i ca I App l i cat i ons : Post - 1021

The e f f e c t s t h a t t a r i f f s had on consumption h a b i t s o f t hu

respect i ve Hudson's Bay Company ranks a f t e r 1821 are d i f f i cu I t t o

e s t a b l i s h wi th ' the data. A f t e r 1821, s p e c i f i c types o f goods mere

not d i f f e r e n t i a l l y taxed as they were i n the Nor th Uest Company,

There -were except ions, however, as t h e country made a r t i c 1 es, t he

imported a r t i c l e s , and a lcohol , each had d i f f e r e n t t a r i f f r a tes ; the

.- l a t t e r two groups o f a r t i c l ' e s were taxed more h e a v i l y a f t e r 1021

ahi l e t h e count ry made a r t i c l e s remained r e l a t i v e l y f ixed (Table '

7.7).

Based on t h e above d i f f e r e n t i a l t a r i f f system, there should be

r e l a t i v e l y more s i m i l a r i t y in consumption h a b i t s bet reen the ranks

o f t h e Hudson's Bay Company be fore 1821 than a f t e r , s ince the

t a r i f f,3 f o r t h e men i ncreaaed 10 percent, but t a r i f f s on goods f o r . t h e o f f i c e r s mere s l i g h t l y lower, But because t h e documentary and

archaeologica l data a re incomplete from t h e Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t ,

t h i s in ference cou ld not be thoroughly i nves t i ga ted . However, i t i s

expected tha t ' i f t h e t o r i f f r a t e s f o r t h e company servants \

t i ncreased, they mou l d a f f e c t consurpt i on hob i t s by reduc i ng

a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e more h e a v i l y taxed imported items compared

count ry goods.

aas used t o compare t h e mean consurpt ion o f

s i gn i f i cance l eve l i n the compar i sons

which f o l l o w . The amount o f money spent f o r each type of i tem

(e. g . , a l coho I ) was ca lcu l a t ed f o r each r a n and the means computed . =.I

In a number o f i n s t a n c e s ~ h o r e v e r , the data mere i n s u f f i c i e n t t o

ca r r y out meaningful s t a t i a t i c a l t e s t s and less ob jec t i ve - -

i n te rp re ta t ions o f the r e s u l t s were made. As wel l , becauge o f the

-% uneven numbers o f samples tha t were o f ten present f o r d i f f e r e n t t ime 4

per i ods, or d i f ferent occupat i ona I 'groups, i t w s o f t en necessary t o

de l i be ra te l y reduce la rger samples o f the , servants. Only the basic \

r e s u l t s are summarized i n Table 7,8. Readers are r e f e r r e d t o

Appendix f l f o r add i t i ona l % in format ion .regarding the T-test ,'

s ta t i s t i c a l comparisons (Tables 7.9, ? , l o ) . . ,

F i r s t , the mean amount o f money spent on alcohpl by the

servants was examined before 1821, and then a f t e r 1821 rhen alcohol /

was taxed more heav i I y (Tab I e 7.8). T ~ Z resu l t s o f the T,-t est

i nd i cat e that the consumpt i on o f a l coho1 decreased d r a a ~ t i ca I ky f o r

the servants a f t e r 1821 (Table 709A) . The comparison s f alcohol - - consumpt ion bet reen the occupat i ona l ranks i n the A t hobasca d i s t r i c t _ A _ - -- before and a f t e r 1821 i s shown i n Table 7.8. There i s no d i f fe rence

i n the amount o f alcohol each group boyght i n 1817 o r 1820 (Table

7.90,C). There i s a lso a reduct.ion i n zonsuinpt ibn a f t e r 1820; i n

fact , none o f the debt l i s t s tha t mere sampled i n 1826 shored I

alcohol purchases by e i t h e r the servants OF the o f f i c e r s . Cer ta in l y

the doub l i ng o f taxes was I arge I y respons i b I e f o r the drast i c

reduct ion i n alcohol consunption. However, i t us t a l so be i remembered that one o f Simpson's major aims a f t ,e r the amalgamation

o f the two companies i n 1821 was t o r i d the codpony ranks o f I

'drunkards' ( I nn i s 1975). Thus, the consequent reduct i on i n the use -

o f a lcohol a l so was p a r t l y due t o soc ia l sanct ions as wel l as

econom i c fact 0;s. 6

The mean annual use, o f country made a r t i c l e s i n 1817, 1821,

f M E 7.6

- SUtIHARY OF CONSUWT ION OF ALCOHOL AHD COUNTRY GOODS BY RANK

' 2

b a n sh i l t i ngs per year) YEAR/GOODS OFF l CERS SERUANTS

A . SMATCHEUAH 0 l STR l CT 1809 A Icoho l tansdrpt i on '. -

9 h

1822 A l coho l constppt i on - 23.9

0. flTHABASCA 0 I STRICT 181 7 A l coho l consurpt i on 2 .9

2 .2 1820 A l coho l consurpt ion a 2 .9 B I

1826 A l coho l consumpt i on 0.0 0.01

I

181 7 Country goods 3 .8

1821 Country goods 2.0

0

1826 Country goods 20.9

and 1826 by the servants and the o f f i c e r s mas a lso compared using - - -

;*:

the fithabasca debt l i s t s (Table 7 , 8 ) , The r e s u l t s ind icate tha t

p r i o r t o amatgaration (and the increase i n t a r i f f s f o r imported

goods), the amount that the men and o f f i c e r s spent on country goods

mas not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t (Table 7.10A). By 1821, t h e men L

r e re using consPderobly more country made a r t i c l e s than the o f f i c e r s

(Tab l a 7 . t 00). However, i n t 826 both occupat i ona 1 groups bought

more country goods than before but i n r e l a t i ve y the saae amounts

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s comparison ind icate tha t r h i l e h igher t a r i f f s on

imported goods may have created a

country made a r t i c l e s a f t e r 1821,

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o determine

and r e s u l t s how much o f an e f f e c t

subs tan t i a l l y greater use o f

they a f fec ted both ranks equal l y .

from the ava i l ab 1 e documentary data

t a r i f f i ncreases had on creat i ng

greater d i f fe rences i n consumption between the o f f i c e r s and the

servants i n the Hudson's Bay Company. Certa in ly, a r r s e i n the 1 p r i c e o f alcohol c u r t a i l e d i t s consumption by the servants and the 1

\ o f f i cers, but general l y a t the same r a t e i n both groups. The use o f

I

local goods increased as higher t a r i f f s mere placed on a l l imported

a r t i c l es, but tha t increase occurred equal l y i n both ranks also. I n

p r i nc i p l e , the increase should have been les$ i n the o f f i c e r s ' ranks

rho mere pa id more and a lso d i d not pay as high t a r i f f s on imported

goods as the servants, This suggests that the increase i n the use

of country goods mas created by something other than an increase i n ,

t a r i f f s on imported goods a f t e r 1821. That 'something' could have

been not h i ng more than greater emphas i s on product ion and

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f local goods.after 1821.

I n t h i s chapter, the e f f e c t s o f the f r e i gh t and t a r i f f system on

the use o f mater ia l goods i n f u r t rade soc ie ty r e r e invest igated B -

r i t h the aua i I ab 1 e documentary and archaeo I og i ca l data. n o r ~ -

speci f i cat I y, the main purpose o f the chapter ras t o de te r r i ne

whether regional o r temporal d i f ferences i n the t a r i f f systems

created greater consumption d i f fe rences b t t reen the ranks i n the f u r

t rade. The r e s u l t s of th;s study are,considered t o be a f i r s t

approximation o f the problem and, because there are substant ia l gaps i

i n the data, not a l l regions and t ime periods i n the mestern

Canadian f u r t rade could be explored. The r e s u l t s were s u f f i c i e n t , 1

however, t o shed some l i g h t oh horn one economic var iable, the t a r i f f

system or va r iab le cost o f goods, affectcd.conuumption hab i ts . A

summary o f the r e s u l t s o f t h i s chapter f o l l o r s . . 1 . The documentary data o f the North Heat Company ind icate that

the t o t a I amount spent on goods by the men was r e l atcd t o max imum d i stance from the suppl y depots i n the flthabasca reg i on.

.p

2. The corpar i sons o f the archaeo l og i ca I assemb I age3 support the hypothes i s o f an ouera I I r e 1 at i ve decrease i n t'he use o f higher &ar i f fed products i n the Hort h Uest Company. They a ind icate tha t t h e . t a r i f f system d i d nbt produce r e l a t i v e l y greater consumpt i o n d i f ferences bet ween the ranks i n those

- a r t i c I es that were examined - even at the more remote fit habasca f o r t s .

5

3. The unequal t a r i f f r a tes c u r t a i l e d the use o f luxury items i n t h e lower ranks o f the t iort h Uest Company, resu l t i ng, i n greater d i f ferences i n the use o f these i tems between the

3 ranks. I

4 . Comparison o f consurption pat terns betreen the ranks o f the --

two major fu r trade companies ind icate t h ~ t ~ v e n though the- Hort h Uest Company servants r e r e heav i l y taxed, there mas f a r I css d i f ference i n the use o f r a t e r i a l goods bet reen the ranks than in the Hudson's Bay Corpony.

.

5. A compar i son of the Hudson's Bay Company consumpt ion pat terns

/ before and a f t e r 1821 shors that increased t a r i f f s m a s p e c i f i c

/ items c e r t a i n l y reduced t h e i r r e l a t i v e consumption and uarkedly increased the use o f other i tens, such as 'country made' goods a f t e r 1821 . But the i ncreased taxes d i d not create greater consumption d i f fe rences betreen t h e o f f i c e r s and the servants.

.3

THE EFFECTS OF UARl ABLE IWCOflE AND lTEn PAICES =,

ON COHSUnPTION HABITS I N THE FUR TRADE 9

Uhere men are on ioderate wages the Gent I-& in charge of the D i s t r i c t s t o mhich they belong m i l l use -euery means t o keep t hem out o f the may o f Expense and encourage economy

-

art& sobr i ety, but it i s necssary tha t t h o d . mhb are on high Uages shou I d have an - @ - opportunity o f spending-a large proport ion

+ thereof otherdise the item o f Uages alone w i l l nearly eat up the amount of returns. . . ( h r k 1931 :34$), *

. " r r

G i

% - In t h i s chapter, I m i l l inuestigate mhether~or not dif ferences F

in- income and the cost o f a r t i c l e s af fected consu.ption hdbi ts i n rr

I , _ t he f u r trade. However, befoce I examine hom changes i n apeci f i c Y

*' .-item p ~ i c e a af fected consumption o f material goods i n the fu r tcqde

;P 'v 8

ranks, I m i l l begin wi th the more general re la t ionship betaedri '

income and t o t a I . cunsumpt i on o f mat er i a l goods. Such a compar i son I '

J ?

- cannot be undert akm fo r the erit i rs fur, t rode per iod because .of the -* :

inadequacy o f the dqtd. The period bet meen 1809 - 1867; .for mh i ch *

d t t a i l ed Hudson ' s Bay Company doclment a ~ y data ex i s t mas there f bbs i r

e choaen f o r i nuest i gat i.on. Th i s compar i son, a l though t$ i s I i i t ed . ,: .

' shou l d he l p deter. i ne hom, i ncoae and i t em p r ice a f fec t hd consumpt.i on' *.,

< . ..: * - "

- ~- ---- -

i . # , 0 ,

X-

<,.' - 1

- -~

HYPOTHESES

i n tohe f u r tr'bde . '

..

1 ncome i

G i uen the r e l a t i onsh i ps bet meen i ncomeland consumpt i on out 1 i ned - -

i n chapter f ~ u r , the f b 1 1 om i ng pat terns are expected . -

R . I f people with m . l p t i u e l y higher incomes 1

spend p r o p w t i o n a l l y i.

more on material_goods, then:, 8 * -

HI : there a i l l be a proport i ona 1 increase i n goods consumed as

increases. " ' the i ncore o f the f u r t rade erp l oyees

a propor t iona l chpnge i n people 's rages s ~ e s u l t s i n

then :

8. I f a change

i n conaurption, " ? *

f *% r i l l purchme a proportionally greater amount o f -+

good3 a f t e r 1860 than before 186Op

$" o f f i c e r s r i l l hase a broport ional l y greater amount o f L

good3 a f t e r 1 ban before 1821 P i

. - o f f i c e r s r i l l purchase a p ropor t iona l l y greater amount o f

goods than j e r ahtp? betreen 1821 -1860, than a f t e r 1860.

C . l nd i v i duo I s a i t h h i gher rages may/roy -not consume a

proport i ona I I y greater uar i e t y o f goads ;- - +

H * t h ~ r e r i l l be a proport i ona l l y $reat er wrr i s t y o f goods ' , e l ' 0

-

consumed a3 the i ncome of f u r trade emp l oyies * increases;

ti2 : .there m i I I not be a oroport i ona l l y greater uar i ety o f goods

consumed as the i ncome o f fur t r a d q emp l oyees i ncreasst . ~3: *

i'

--H'+b. l ndiv i dua l 3 l it h higher rages l iil I /a i I I n o t buy a greater

var ie ty o f h igh p ~ i c e d goods: 1

a- HI: thsre m i l l be proportionally greater uar ie ty o f h igh pr iced . ,

goods consumed as, the i ncome o f fur trade emp l oyees

, @ 9

a H2. there m i l l not be a.proport idnal ly greater va r ie t y o f high C

pp iced goods consumed as the i ncome o f f u r f rade employees

increases. E

/

3 .

L - - l i

P r ice -

R: I f a change i n the p r i ce o f an i t er i s f o l lomed by a change i n

i t s frequency o f consumption, then:

* , HI: a-n increase i n the p r i ce o f goods i n the fu r trade m i l l be 7

by a decrease i n the i r consurpt ion;

H2: a decrease i n the p r i ce o f goods i n the fu r t rade m i l l be

fo l l omed bg a i ncrease i n the i r consurpt ion.

Each o f these general- relat ' ionships are

remainder o f t h h chapter. Tables 8.1,

8 J 0 , 8 J 1 , 8.12, and 8.13 can be found *

investigated fur ther i n the

8.3, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, '

i n Appendix A.

- . . I ncome and Tot a t' C o n w i ~ t i on

A compbri son o f the amount o f

goods bought shoul d reuea l hom me l l

income t o the t o t a l amount o f %

the proport i on o f goods conaumed

i s exp 1 a i ned by i ncome . The Hudson's Bay Company debt l i s t s are d

used p r i mar i l y t o xa. i ne <h i 3 guest i on because they nost accurat s l t~ t 1 - - L

r e f l ect the i t ems the company emp l oyees bought ; t heat documents are

also much more comp I ete than the archaeological data. I t should

a l so be noted that, w i t h he except ion o f those goods that t ha L company prov i ded i t s emp l oyees, these debt 1 i s t s cont a i n p I I goods

a" ered by the servants and o f f i cers from the shops and overseas on

n annual bas i s. For example, by the 1830s) there i s, every ' 'A

i nd icat ion that goods mere avai table i n the-sa les shops so t h e t

servants could f ree ly spend t h e i r money:

* r ... every luxury as well as necessaries be f i r s t put i n t o the men's shops,~l ikewise the 0

a r t i c l e s o f f inery, so that the people may have an opportunfty o f

December 18, 1830) . s

I n the f i r s t compari son, the r e l at i onsh i p bet ween i ncome and

t o t a l ~onsumpt ion mas exam i ned for a l l income g+oups i n the fu r - a, r4

trade between 1809 and 1866. The resu l t s o f s ing le regression I

ana I ys i s indi cate that there i s a very weak r e l a t i onsh i p butwean

t o t a l i ncore and t o t a I consumpt i on when the t o t a l wages boch company

8 q Y t ~ . o d e ~ ~ t ~ t h C t ~ t g o o d s h s b o o g M f n d h b'

. a

. ste r l i ng )be imem 1809 - 1866 (Table 8.1; Figure 8.1). In.

other mords, v a r i a b i l i t y i n t o t a l income only explains sohe o f the

r v a r i a b i l i t y i n t o t a l cbnsumption. -

Homeuer, i n t h i s study i t i s - - more - i mportant t o estab l i ah horn A

d i f ferences , i n i ncome bet ween the ranks o f fected consumpt i on - 9

bekw i or . R-pure l y econom i c mode l o f consumpt - i on on l y predi c t s that

people who have iarger incomes m i l l consume more goods than

those peop l e a i th sra l 1 e r i ncomes. The compar i sons o f the mean k

absolute amounts spent by the of f icers , derks , and labourers at the

Saskat cheman d i s t r i c t posts genera l l y bear out t h i s hypot hes is - (r

(Tab l e 8.2) . Homeuer, i n the dot a that mere used t o comp i l e Tab l e

8.2, the. o f f i oers spent more on goods than the labourers only 66.7

percent o f the time; only 50 percent of the time d i d they spend more \

t han the c 1 arks. The greatest d i f fe~ence i n expend i t ures mas

betmeen the c lerks and the labourers, the former spending more than

the labou&rq 87.5 percent o f the time (Table 8.2). Thete r e t u l t s I

do bear out the general statement; hkeuer, that there i s a I

d iaf ference i n mean consumpt i on bet meen the- o f f i cers and servant s. -

I n the next set o f comparisons, the r e l a t i onsh i p bet meen a A'

'8 - change i n *come and consumpt i on ma$ exam i ned i t h the f u r trade

" $ . & P P

debt -. -lls#@# The f igurds compi led indicate. that a f t e r the serva t s ' 4 /- Y

i \ 9 mgbs increased opprox i mate l y 1 2.6 percent: a f t e r 1860 the i ncrease

i n amount o f goods the servants bought mas over 300 peFhnt (Table i: -a

8.3; Figure 8.2). The consumption o f goods by the o f f i c e r s d i d not f

I .

i nwease when both the mag& and pro f i t s made f r p m shares i ncreused b -,

a f t w v 2 1 ( l ab le 8.3; Figure 8.2). 1 .

-7

I

OCCUPATI ONAL CONSUHPT 1 ON HRB I TS

- Occupat ion n ( X I

skatcheman: l 8 ~ i d- I

Off ice& h - 8 10.4 5.8 4 8 7 21 , 4

Apprent i ce C l erks 4 4 . 3 1.7 . 6 . 0 70,8 a)

Servants 50 5 . 2 3.2;- 19.9 26.1 Z.

- - - baskot chemon : 1 6 12- 1 3 Officers Apprent ices Trodeskn Labourers

t

Saakat cheman : 18 1 6 Officers

'Clerks Servant s

\ i

Saakotchemon : 1821 -22 Off i'cers C l erka Tradesmen Labourers

"

:Saskat cheman : 1834-35 + , r,

Officers t , 3 1 4 3 1 .5 1 50 , -$,J

Post Hasters 2 . ' 6 . 0 ts7 4 . 2 37.5 16.0 C 1 erks 5 5 .6 2 . 3 86.0 6 .5 Labourers 69 4.6 2 . 9 f 7 . 9 25 .7

Occupat i on

Off icers Post Hasters

Servants ,

Soakat cheman : 1866-67 Off icars C I erks Servants

COHPARI SON OF IlEAN ANNUAL UAGES TO flUEMGE TOTAL PURCHASES BY-PER I OD

*

1

HEAN(A) flE AN (B ) OEB J TS T I H E PERIOO OFF l CERS SERUANTS A - 8

Uagedt) Debits($) Uages(t) Debits(t) (5)

1860 - 66 260 31.35 22.4 17.4 13.95 -

I

)lot e : The o f f i c e ~ s ' magp are computed from both sol or i es and the , p r o f i t s they made from the i r shares i n company stocks; these f igupes ora approx i ra t i om,

(each dot represents one company employee)

F i gure 8 .1 .rij&mpor i%son of annuo l mags3 to tot a l good3 purchased \

annuo l f y for eoch emp l oyee bet ween 1 809 - 1866, the

Saskat cheman d i st r i ct . -

I B

F i gure 8.2. Cornpar i son o f tot a l purchases (in pounds st e r l ing) by

per i od .

-! " tn the next C ~ S O ~ , thw 8 . Athotoctnngstrrttrs- - -

d i f ference in income between the o f f k e r s and servants had on t o t e t

consumpt i on was exam i ned. Uhen both t he rages and the prof i t s from

shares o f the o f f icers are est i mat ed .and compared t o the wages o f '

P . the servant b, the amount o f abso I ut e income i nequa l i t y i 3 great s r

betreen 1821-1860 than a f t e r 1860 (Table 8.3; Figure 8.2) . However,

= the figu,ras in Table 8.3 indicate that the di f ference i n the '

consumpt ion o f goods bet ween the o f f i cers and servants was greatest -a'"" ,;-'

- rh-

a f t e r 1 860. ,

There are a number o f possible reasons mhy the diRerence i n the

consumpt ion o f goods bet ween the ranks i ncreased a h e r 1860 as

abso I u t e i ncome d i f ferences decreased. Goods may have i ncreased i n

p r i c e a f t e r 1860 reducing consumpt ion by the I omer pa i d ranks, The

debt 1 i s t p r ices o f goodsJ however,. d i d not indicate that t here mas .

-. a maj o r i ncrease i n the cost o f a I l goods a f t e r 1860. Goods mere

ava i lab l e i n both periods and, i f anything, the servants had more

access t o t hem a f t e r 1860. The bas i c domest i c needs o f both income

groups were f u I f i CCcd i n both ~ e r h d s and cannot exp 1 a i n the r i se i n *

t o t a l consumpt i on. I n chapter nine, I r i I 1 argue that the s o d a I

wants increase a f t e r 1860, explaining the r i s e i n to ta l ' consumption

ond the d i f ferences i n consumpt i on bet ween the fu r trade i ncome -

, groups. - e

Consumot i on D i vera i t u and I ncomq

I n t h i s sect ion, the r e I a t i onsh i p bet ween income and consumpt i on -

i s investigated fur ther using the t o t a l d i v e r s i t y o r 'd- t y s o f goods

used by each group. D i vers i t y o f mater i a l goods here u i l l r e f e r t o

the t o t a I number df funct4 on4 1 c l asses - (e . g. , boots, kn i ves, _et c d , -

- - -

k

Aa i n the comparison o f income and to t a l goods purchased, the .

r e l at i onsh i p bet meen the d i u e r i i t y o f goods purchased and t o t a l

annual income o f a l l income groups i s meak (Table 8.1; Figure 8.3).

Re l at i we income does not pred i c t consumpt i on behav i or we I I, as

expressed i n the R-vo I us compar i ng t o t a l d i vers i t y 'of goods boughr

i n l809,by the servants and o f f i ce rs i n the Saskatcheman d. is t r ic t t o

t he i r wages. Homever, the r e i u l t s i n Table 8.9 indicate t,hat the B

r e l a t ionahip i s s ta t i s t i ca l l y s igni f icant . . b -

The debt l i s t s mere atso examined t o determine mhether a change , s-l a

rt i n i ncome produced a change i n d i uers i t y o f goods. Compar i son o f

- mean divers i ty o f goads wed by the servants between 1809 and 1822

in the Saskatcheman d i s t r i c t indicated that the d iuers i ty of goods

had also increased, but not signwicant l y s t a t i s t i c a l l y (Table 8.5,

8.6; Figure 8.1). A s imi lar comparison betmem o f f i ce rs and

servants i n 1817 and 1826 i n the Athabajca d i s t r i c t indicated that

the mean d ivers i ty of goods consumed by the servants had increased -- (Table-8.5, 8.6). A decrease i n the officet-s' income betmeen 1856

and 1866 i n the Saskatchewart d i s t r i i t , however, d i d not cause a b

s i gni f i cant decrease i n the d i vers i t y of.. goods ; i n fact, the

P opposite trend occurs (Table 8.5, 8.6). fl s imi lar comparison i n the

Athabasca d i s t r i c t between I826 and 1866 d id not reveal any

ti gn i f i cant - change i n the mean d i vers i t y of goods used by the

o f f i ce rs (Table 8.5, 8.6). These resul ts suggest that a change i n

J income i s not a l w y s follomed by change i n the d ivers i ty o f goods

r

, /i wed.

Next, the debt l i s t dot a mere examined t o see mhet her there, mas I

S U H ~ A R ~ OF ~EAH.$~UERSITY OF GOODS BY IHCOHE GROUPS B ) t

-

Haan D i v e r d t y o f Good3 YERRIDI STRICT OFF I CERS

- SERUFINTS

8. .ATHFIBFISCA D l STR l CT 5

(each dot represent s one companu emp I ages)

. - ~ i ~ u r b 0 .3 . Comparison of annual i n c d to diversity of goods used

h 1609 in the Saskatchsmon d i s t r i ct . -

0 l u

wr l ty

of O

oo

dr

8 Of

f I e

rre

kru

an

tr

i O

ff

i mrr

fhru

arte

i Of

f 1-

rm

-ru

m tr

5 Of

f la

rrr

kru

an

tr

Of

f i e

*rm

.-.

J

kr

um

tm

t Off

lcx

rs

kr

uo

nt

m

H Of

f i c#*m

kru

on

tr

II

-

< - - - - - - -- ---

Z

a ;ignificant di f ference i n the d i ve rs i t y o f goods betmeen the - o f f i c e r s and servants (Table-8.5, 8.6). Only i n 1834 and 1866 i n -

*?L- - *

the Saskatcheman d i s k i c t and in.1817 ib the Athabasta d i s t r i c t , mas

there a s tat i s t i c e f l y s ign i f icant di f ference i n the d i v e r d t y o f --A

goods consumpd bet meen- the o f f i cers and the &a& s $Tab I& 8.5, 4

8.6). I n each case, the o f f i c e r s bought more types o f goods tha P t ha servant a. These resu l t s suggest that income d i f fer9nce d i d not -

#' - ' E

atbbys resu l t i n a 2 i g n i f i c a n t di f ference i n the d i v e r s i t y o f goods

bet medn the ma j or i ncome groups. \ B

i t mi1 1 be recol fed that ear l i e r , in t h i s chapter it, mas show" * *' - *

c %' * w

that the degree' o f absplute income inequal i ty betmeen the o f f i c e r s

and the servants mas r e l a t i v e l y greater before than a f t e r 1860. The 1

+ d i f ference betmeen thd-*servantsqand the o f f i c e r s i n the d i ve rs i t y o f

g o d s cons0med mas subst ant i a 1 l y greater. a f t e r 1 860 than bet meen 4'

. 1822-1860 i n the Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t (Table 8.5, 8.61. ~omeuer,' 'a

the meon d i f ference mas not as great i n the flthabasca d i s t r i c t as i n + .

the Saiatcheman d i s t r i c t a f t e r 1860 (Table 8.5, 8.6). Uaryhg . .

income differences'betmeen the fu r trade ranks, therefore, do not . Z

exp l o i n the vary i ng d i f f erences i n uar i Z t y o f goods"consumed bet meen -4

the two ranks. Conceivably, there i s a point where nem types o f

i tens are 60 longer bought even thoug'ji income has increased, gnd 4

instead, nem, more cos t ly items replace s im i la r types o f items. IT , >.

i s on1 y rhen the var i et y o f act t i e t increases i n any househo l d o r Y ' group,of households that a greater d i ve rs i t y o f nem items i s

consumed. S t . is suggested that i tern d i vers i t y and i n'come are

r e l a\ed, but, they have an upper I i l i t mhcn no nem it ems are bought -

even though i ncome i ncreases . L

, . +. *

- Archaeo I og i ca ( Rpp I i cat i ons --

The exam i na i i on of i d i vers i t y for the ma j or i ncome groups j s r" -

more d i f f i c u l t with the data. Archaeologically, 4

r Y

a r t i f a c t d i ve rs i t y indices are always dependent on t o t a l sampte s ize 9

--J *

, 4%' ,, L* r r (Kint igh 1984:M; Bobromsky 1985). But tbe documentary record shows A

- ,c that . there i s a re la t ionsh ip between absolute' item d i & r s i t y and - fa

consumption behavior. I f sample s ize isa taken i n t 8 account, i t 'r

--

mould then be po&ls t o measure a r t i f a c t divers. i ty i n the.

, archaeo 1 og i ca 1 r e c o ~ d bet reen the ma j or i ncbme groups. <- -

Archaeo log i ca I i em d i vers i t y was exam i ned r i t h archaeo log i ca 1 ' G assemb l ages recovered from the servant and o f f i cer quarters at Fort \

George and Buckingham House,

A number o f samples r i t h var iable a r t i f a c t frequencies mere . co l l acted from the o f f i cer and servant quarters at Fort George and

Buck i ngha. House. Tot a I a r t i fact frequency t o a r t i fact d i usrs i t y

was p lo t ted fo r the two respective income groups from each s i te-

(Figures 8.5, 8 .6 ) . A logarithmic regression curve was f i t t e d f o - each o f the p l ot s because the re I-at i onsh i p bet meen' d i uers i t y and ._ frequency mas not l i nea r . From these archaeological data and the

f i t t e d curves, i t was possible t o predict what the a r t i f a c t

d i v e r t i t y was when equal sample sizes from each i ngome group were e

compared. These est i mated a r t i fact d i vers i t i es per i ncome group for L

both wchaeological s i t e s are summarized i n Figure 8.7. /

The d i f f e r e n c e - i q t o t o l a r t i f a c t d i ve rs i t y betmeen tha o f f i ce r3 a

f

and the servants at ~ o r % % e o ~ r ~ e i s l ess when the est i mated

- Fort Gecqp Officers

', - (Each dot represents one samp l e )

Figure 8 . 5 . R r t i f a c t quontity t o a r t i f a c t d i v e r s i t y , Fort George.

Figure 8.6. Total a r t i f w t quan t i t y t o t o t a l a r t i f a c t d i v e r s i t y ,

Buck i nghar House, Each dot represents one s a ~ p l e .

ARTIFACT W # n l T V

Figure 6 . 7 . Predicted o r t i f a c t d iuers i ty from a r t i f a c t frequency %

for d i f f erent i ncome ' g'roups est i r a t ed f rom

.archaeological remains a t For t George and Buckinghar 0

% Howe, F-

t o t a l d i ve rs i t y fromequal ( large) s a m ~ l e s i z e s iscompared (Figure

8 . 7 ~ ' & m i l a r comparison o f the o f f i c e r s ' and seruants' a r t i f a c t .

d i uers i t y a t Buck i nghar House i nd i cat es, homeuer , that t o t~a l ! n

a r t i f a c t d i v e r s i t y i s greater f o r the o f f i c e r s than the sewants i f - equdl sample s izes are c~mpared. It i s also evident that although

the degree o f income&wquali ty betmeen the o f f i c e r s and 'the

seruanta mas greater i n the North Uest Company than the Huds

Company, the d i f ference in a r t i fact d i vers i t y mas greater bet meen

- the Hudson ' s Bay Company o f f i cers and servants than bet meen the *

Hart h Uest Company o f f i cers and seruants (F i gure 8.7).

These contradictory resu l t s are d i f f f c u l t t o expiain. It should

be noted, homeuer, that the Horth Uest Company seruants mere

encouraged t o spend the i r money on goods mh i l e the- Hudson's Bay

Company servants had r e l a t i ue l y l ess o m s s t o goods at the i n l and

posts. These d i f ferences betmeen each fu r trade company f re ight and

supply system may explain mhy dif ferences i n a r t i f a c t d i ve rs i t y

bet meen the o f f i cers and servants mere I ess i n the Hort h Ueat

Comeny than b .-- &

To b r i e f

i n the Hudson's Bay Company.

l y summar i re, there i s some i nd icat ion that income and

t o t a l consumpt ion behuv i o r and consumpt ion d i uers i t y are genera l l y

re1 a b d . Homever, uar i ab i l i t y i n income does not pred i c t very i

'accurately u a r i a b i l i t y i n e i ther the t o t a l consumption of goods or

the d i vers i t y o f used. These f i nd i ngs demonst r a t e that i ncome

i s only the means fo r access t o resources. By increasing income, -

f o r example, me cannot assume that people m i l l consume more things

o r a more d iuer tc set o f things; i n other mords, income-is not the - -

so l e causo l fact o i n consumpt i on war i ab i l i t y . - The archaea I og i co l 2

d sxamp I e suggests that the s i mp l e d i f fereme i n access t o goods - - - - by

-- the servants i n the Horth Uest Company and the Hudson's Bay Company

may have produced d i f f erences i n a r t i fact d i vers i t y bet meen the i r L.

respect i ve i ncome groups.' These resu l t s i mp l y that m y genera l

geographic o r cross-cultural comp~risons o f d i f ferences i n .

i nequa l i t y us i ng a r t i fact d i vers i t y shou l d be conducted m i t h some

cout ion. Such compar i sons must f i r s t ensurejt hat access t o goods i n \

both systems i s s im i la r before the resu l t s can) bd considered i o =2

&asure on l y . d i f f e k e s in abso 1 u t e i nequa l ikY.

, COHSUMPT l OH AND UARY l HG RETA ICE OF GOODS

Uaruina Pr ice and Income R e l a t i o n s h i ~ s

A common assumpt i on made about the may upper status groups

select i tems as opposed t o the 1 orer status groups i s re1 ated t o the

re la t iwe dif ferences i n the pr ices o f goods (Otto 1981:115-16). For

example, i t i s expected that because the o f f i c e r s made mom money

than the servants, they bought more o f the h i ghq- PR i ced a r t i c l as - - Y t'

than the servantt. I n ovder t o examine t h i s pridposition, the 29

most expens i ue a r t i c l as found i n the 1835 debt I i at s' o f both i ncome

groups from the Saskatcheman d i s t r i c t mCre selected (Table 8.7).

Each o f the 29 a r t i c l es mas then ass i gned t o the i ncome group i f i t

mas consumed i n r e l at i ve l y greater quant.i t i es by that group. A l l

the a r t i c l es mere then ranked accord i ng t o t h e i r p r it* ( 1 = the b

highest p r ice) , I f p r i ce rank o f an a r t i c l e mas re la ted t o

i occupational rank, then presumably the higher ranked' (priced)

a r t i c l as shou l d be predoa i nant l y assoc i a t ed a i t h upper s t a t us

A Hann-Uhi tney rank t e j t mas used t o examine the & w e .

propos i t ion. Th i s tes t considers mhet her t r o samp l es come from the

same populat ions once the sasp l as are comb i ned and ranked. I f the

higher pr iced a r t i c l e s are d is t r ibu ted randomly i n both the

o f f i cers' and servants' l i sts, then there i s no r e l a t i onsh i p bet reen

varying income ond uarying p r i ce o f i teas, I n other words, the

o f f i c e r s and sepants mould be buying goods i n the same manner, I I

regardless o f the d i f ferences i n the pr ice o f those goods. ~ h d

r e s u l t s o f the analysis indicated, however, that higher pr iced *

a r t i c les i n the 1835 debt l i s t s .mere cons i s t ent l y more Gf t en

associated mith the o f f i c e r group than mith the servants (Table

8 a The consumption o f h igh pr iced a r t i c l e s o f the .two income 4

groups i s d i f ferent . . =

Th i 3 - sahe r e l a t i onsh i p mas exam i ned further us i ng t 1

I L

U i d coxon-S i gn Test mh i ch me i ghs each a r t i c l e accord i ng *to i t s p r i ce

and the d i f ference i n i t a use bet meen t he ranks. . The 10 most 'L

expensi ve a r t i c l es present i n the 1817 Athabasca d i s t r i c t debt l i s t s , /

and the 18% and 1866 Saskat cheman debt l i s t s re re se l act ad. The

number o f t i mes they mere present i n the servants ' and the o f f i cers '

l i s t s mere thertmcorded (Tah l e 8 . U . The number o f debt l i s t s

used fo r each income group mas the same. Rgain, the LO17 and 1835

resu l t s shomed that the o f f i c e r s used more types o f higher pr iced

items than the servants (Table 8.8RJ8).. ~oaeuer, 6y 1866, there gas

no s i gn i f i cant d i f ference i n the consumpt i on o f the more expens i ve

goods bet ween the seruant s and the o f f i cers i n -the Saskat cheman B

d i s t r i c t (Table 8.8C). In terms o f the hypotheses presented P

ear 1 i er, i t seers that the r e l at i we d i f ferences bet ween the fu r CC - - -

t rode ranks i n the consumpt ion o f h i gher pr,i ced a r t i c 1 es are b . . -

affected, by the r e l a t i v e d'egreg . . o f economic inequal,i.ty that existed

i n the fur -t rdde. That i s, consumpt i on d i f ferences mere greater i n

131 7 and 1835, mhen d i f+wences i n income' o f the t mo ranks mere

greater, than i" the 1860s .hen r a 1 at i ve i nequa l i t y bet ween the t mo * * - A _ . /'

ranks had at ready decreased. -.

Archaeo,logicaI AppI icat ions

The appl icat ion o f .the above comparisons t o the archaeological -

dot a mas on l y, poss i b l e because the r e l at i we p r i ces o f some a r t i c l es

found, at the fur trade s i tes could be computed from the debt p r i ce

1 i st s (see Append i x- B) . The archaeo l og i ca l record, homever, poses

other prob 1 ems mhen exam i n i ng mhet her the o f f i cers used r e l at i ue 1 y

r o p e expens i we goods than the servants, . I h e m are very fee - -

expensive goods remaini ng in the a r c h a e ~ l ogi cal record, as i s qu i te

apparent i n Table 8.9, mh i ch 1 i s t s the i tems recoveredT from the

archaeo 1 og i ca l assemb l age3. Expens i ue goods are curat ed and ra re l y

end up in the archaeological record. 4 *

I n wader t o apply the Uilcoxon-Sign test t o the archaeological -

xi.

dot a, the r e l at i we i mport ance o f each dr the 10 a r t i ?acts l i s t ed mas

. computed by d i v id ing the frequency o f the a r t i f a c t by the t o t a l

assemb l age frequency. The r e 1 a t i ve i mport ance o f a r t i fact types i n

the ' o f f i cem ' and servants ' assemb l ages cou l d then be compared t o

det e r r i ne rhet her the h i gher p r i ced a r t i facts mere r e 1 a t i we 1 y more J

i mport ant i n a part i cu l ar income group. I t shou I d a l t o be noted

that sore o f the di f ferences .in the relatiua frmparrissbst.aanfie - C

tmo income groups mere r d a t i ve l y minimal, making i t quest ionable

mhet her they are i n fact s ign i f i cant l d i f ferent . These are, "

-

homeue~, the best data that are current l y avo i lab l e t o i nuest i gat e

the research propos i t ion. The resu l t s o f the s i x fu r trade

asaemb I ages ce r ta in l y suggest thqt the pr ices o f the goods i n the

archaeo l og i ca l rema i ns mere not high enough t o d i f f ersnt i ate the

o f f i c e r s and the servants. I n only one o f the p i x compor i sons (Fort -

George) aas there a s i gn i f i c a n c d i f f erence bet meen the o f f i cers and I -' \i t

QF earwants i n the consumpt i on o f the more expens i we a r t i c l es , - . -:-.&*

A L -

'""-(T& l e 8.98). And, l i ks the other compar i sons o f the Wort h-Uest '-. .. . %

Ccmpany assemb l ages, i t mas the 'servants, not1 the o f f i cers, who mere b

consuming the r e l a t i v e l y more expensive types o f goods. .

It i s d i f f i cu l t t o examine the hypotheses regard i ng econom i c 4 '

inequal i ty anb i tem p r i c e mith the archaeological remains. The 1866

Fort U i c t o r i a resu l t s seem t o support t he hypot hes i s that r e I at i we l y

greater edonom i c equal i t y bet meen the ranks i n the l at t er par t o f

the f u r trade resu l ted i n greater consumpt ion equa l i t d, even i n the - .

more h i gh p r i ced,art i c I es . However , because a comparab l e somp l e -

i

does not ex is t f o r the 18203 or 18303, t h i s inference.must remain i.

entat iue: It mat also suggested that there should be a k e l o t i u e l y

greater d i f ference i n consumpt i on o f h i gher p r i ced a r t i c les bet ween

the o f f i c e r s and the servants 5 n the Wort h Uest Company than i n the

Hudson's Bay Company i n the ear ly period. This hypothesis mas not '

supported by the r e s u l t s obtained i n the U i l coxon tes t conduct ed on

these archaeo log ica l aaaemb l ages (Tab l e 8 . 9 8 4 ) . There i s mor f

equal i ty i n the use o f h igh pr iced a r t i c l e s i n the Horth Uest

differences i n the 2 scores o f each of the comparishs of the fur

t rode assemb l ages (Table 8.90-F) . Thescf i nd i ngs are a 1 so s i l i l ar

t o the item d ivers i ty comparisons made ear l i e r between the tmo

compan i as.

2 - v

The effect that a change.in the pr ice of an item had on rate? o f

consumpt ion i n the fur trode i s exam i ned next. A change i n the \

r e t a i l pr ice of v e c i f i c a r t i c l es used i n the inland fur trade

presumab 1 y mou l d have o f f ect ed consu:mpt i on hab i t s by chang i ng the

. degree of access t o goods for each i ncole group (Be l okr i n icev 1983).

But mhet her r e t a i l prices changed dramat .i ca 1 l$enough t o change

consumpt ion hobi ts i s quest i onabl e . It i s already apparent from the

preceding an9 l ys i s that d i f ferences i n consumpt i on hab i t s bet meen

the income groups on l y occur i n the most expensi we a r t i c les. The

t mo po i nt s that are further i nvest i gated hers are : 1 ) hom changes

i n the prices o f goods affected the quantity i n mhich they mere used :p

3r ' by the o f f i cers and the servants; and, 2) i f p r i ce changes created a 4

d i f ference i n consumpt i on bet meen the o f f i cers and the servants . Lj? ,w-

?"

I chose moose skins, cot ton sh i r t s , tobacco, and a l coho 1 t o r

exam i ne t hess quest ions since these a r t ih es changed i n pr ice it..

bet meen 1822 and 1866 i n the aska at chei& d i s t r i c t . A change i n the -

pr ice of each r t i c l e and the quantity of e&h a r t i c l e that mas used

ib $horn i n Figures 8.8 and 8.9. A l l s t a t i s t i ca l comparisons o f the I

man qwnt i t y of doch i t em used, bet men the tmo i ncome groups and -

betmeen di f ferent time periods, are wmmarized i n Tables 8.10,

F igure 8 .8 . Consumpt ion ra tes and pr i ces of moose sk i ns and common

sh i r ts i n the Hudson's Bay Company, 1822 - 1853. Data

are. taken from the Hudson's Bay Company debt l i stf .

f i gure 8 . 9 . The use of alcohol and tobacco by the Hudson's Bay

Company employees betreen 1822 - 1866. Data are

der i wed from the Hudson's Bay Company debt l i st s . There

i s no use of alcohol in the o f f icers ' sample for 1853,

7 - 198

- - -- - - - - 2

8.11, 8.12, and 8.13 i n Appendix A . I f cost a f fec ted consumpt i~n - - - - - - jl --

. frequency, then t h e quan t i t y o f ' a n ' a r t i c l e whose p r i c e changed >

shou l d a l so change m i t h i n each income group. ' These changes i n cost G r a y a I so produce di.f ferences i n consumpt ion o f a r t i c 1 es bet meen the

- '

i ncome groups. I I

Tfie servants d i d no! increase t h e i r consumpt i op( o f moose sk ins -%

7.:~

bet ween 1822 and -1834 when the sk ins dmpped i n pr'i ce; however, the

o f f i c e r s increased t h e i r consumption o f sk ins s i g n j f i c a n t l y (Table

8.10t3,B). Uhen moose sk ins increased i n p r i c e between 1831 - 1853,

both the servants and o f f i cers bought s ign i f i cant l y fewer sk ins

- (Table 8.1 OC,D). Uhen comon s h i r t s dropped in p r i c e betreen 1822 - 3 r .

1834, and between 1834 - 1853, ne i the r the o f f i cers nor the servants' 0

changed t h e i r r a t e o f 8bnsumpt ion s i g n i f i c a n t l y (Table 8.11AJB,CjD).

A decrease in the er i ce o f tobacco between 1834 -> 1853 resu l t e d i n

an increase in_ con u rp t ion by the servants and a s l i gw ncrease i n # 7

consurpt,i on by the o f f i cers (F i gure 8.9), The servants i ncreased

Che i r consumpt ion o f tobaqco when i t increased im p r i c e bet meen 1053

- , - 1866, whi le the o f f i c e r s ' r a t e o f consumption a lso increased

(Tab 1 e 8.12C; D) . Uhen o l coho I i ncreased i n p r i ce bet meen-. 1822 - 1834, the men consumed s i g n i f i c a n t l y less alcohol and the o f f i c e r s '

Gp

r a t e o f consumption a lso dropped (Table 8 ! 1 3 K ~ ) . Uhen alcohol d i d

not change i n p r i c e between 1834 - 1853, the o f f i c e r s ' 'and servants' .-

L

r a tes o f consurpt i on rema i ned unchanged (Tab 1 e 8.13C) . Rn increase i n the p r i c e o f loose skins betreen 1822 - 1834 may .

haus created a drop i n consumpt ion o f sk ins by the servants, t her'eby

resu l t ing i n a greater use o f sk ins by the o f f i cers than servants i n

1831 (Table 830E). I n a l l the other comparisons o f changes in

- - - - - -- -

s, - 3 -

& C

' D

Q pr i c c j s f the four goods, there mas no s i gni f i cant change i n the

%

- cunsumpt i on r q t es o f the p f f i cers and the servants . /t i s apparent from these resu l t s that changes i n pr ices o f the%

2

four goods d id not always produce changes i n t h e h quant i t ies i n the

two income groups. It should be noted, befor; discussing these " resul ts, that r i t h th6 exception of the comparison made fo r tobacco

consumpt i on be f om and a f t erd 1 860, ' i ncome i n both groups rema i ned

const ant. The use of tobacco before and a i t e r 1860 a t f i r s t glance

makes l i t t l a sense 3 i nce i t was consumed i n higher quaht i t i es a f t e r 9 .

1860 by the o f f i c e r s and seruants, although i t increased in pr ice. *a f *

But when the changes i n income o f the o f f i c e r s and servants before 1

and a f t er 1860 i s taken id to account, the consumpt i on pat terns beg i n - t o mgke more sense. "80th the changes i n the p r i ce o f tobacco and

*

Income before and a f t e r 1860 are summarized i n Table 8.14. Using i

the functions o f c ross-e las t i c i t ies o f demand described i n chabter

four, i t i s evident that an incrmse i n wages o f f i v e pounds a f t e r _ a1 860 for the servants resu l ted i n a greater proport ion o f the budget

(from ,011 - .068) being spent on tobacco (Table 8 . 4 %For the

servants, tobacco mas cons i dered a ' luxury commod i ty ' r h i ch , is

. def i ned as any commod i t y f o r mh i ch the proport ion 0-f income spent

r i ses as income r ises, and fa1 I s as income fa1 I s (Green 1971 :57-8).

The changes i n consumpt i'on o f tobacco by the seruants sat i s f y t h e

f i r s t pert o f .the def ' in i t ion o f luxury 6- t li

The proport ion of the budget that - the of t f i cers spent on t o b ~ c c o t - "

b ~ f o r e and a f t e r 1860 a l j o increased ( from ,0005 t o ,004) even

though the o f f i c e r s ' budget decreased (Table 8.14). FW the

o f f i c e r s then tobacco i s a 'necessity' becouse the propor't ion of- -*' '

EFFECTS OF CHANGES in ~ ~ c o n ~ RHO PRICE OF TOBACCO on coHsunPr I on OF TOBRCCO BETUEEq1853 - 1866 In THE HUDSOW ' S BAY COHPAHY

- -

1 . . Tobacco (seruants) 5.7 + 0.01 4 34.2 ,342 39.9 0.0683 24.42

2. Tobacco

-------------------------------------------------------------------- . . j ,

1853 : servants tl - 20t or 400 sh i l l i ngs; o f f i cers tl = * 420t or'%400 shi l l inga. -

1866 : seruantv tl = 255 o r 500 sh i I l i ngs; o f f i cers tl * 260t or- 5200 shi l l ings,

Uhere: p i x i 'p rbpor t ion o f income spent on commodity (quant i ty x *

u n i t pr ice) PI

P i X i *-"the auerage proport ion o f income spent on commodity - . n /.-. . (quant,ity x p r i ce + t o t a l income) -

PiAxi = the di f ference i n the proport ion of income spent on

commodity f r o ~ t i r e A t o time 8.

P i ax i = the d i f ference i n the proport ion of i ncome spent on - AH commod i t y + by the d i f ference i n i ncome bet reen t i me

fl and time 0. I

Hecessi t y = rhen the proport i on of i ncome spent on commod

, f a l l s a3 income r i k s and r ises'as income fa1 the above case, then, c a l c u l a t ~ o n 2 should be than*calbulat lon 6 i f tobacco i s a necessity.

Luxury = rhen the proport ion o f income spent on commod

t y X i

3 I n greater

r i aas a3 i n c o k r i s e s and f a l l s a3 income f a t l s . IK the above case, then, ca lcu lat ion 2 ahould be laas than ca Lcu l at ion 6 i f tobacco i 3 a l uxury .

-1 - 201

-

9 .

imwe spent on o necessity f a l l s as income increases, und r i s e s os '

in&me.falls (Green 1971:57-8). Even though the income o f the & "

o f f i c e r s f e l l a f t e r 1860, they consumed more tobacco. 'Unfortunately I

the dat a are i nsuf f i c i ent t o exam i ne mhet her a decrease i n the

servants' income wou l ?J have cesu l t e&+ i n a s'i&:lar i ncrease i n =z-__- _ '

t qbocco consumpt i on. - P-'* ' 0 < '

0 h ,

j Some o f the & o w resu l t s correspond me I I t a cross-e last i c i t i es ;/

o f demand o f goods mhen e i t her i ncomt changes, the pr i'ce o f a .+

commodity changes, or both income and pr ice change,; But i t . i s more

d i f f i c u l t tb -d is t inguish betmeen .*necessit ies' and ' luxuries' mhen -

i ncome rema i ns constant and only p r i ce changes. ShQu l d an i tem be F

6

considered a necessity i f the proport ion o f the budget apent on i t

increases mhen i t s p r i ce increases, and the proport ion o f the budget

spent rema i ns the same or decreases mhen the p r i ce-af the commod i t y

decreases? Accord i ng l y bet meen 1 822 -, 18% moose sk i ns, common

shirt^, tobacco and o l c iho l mould then a l l fa1 l i n t o the 'necessity'

category fo r both i ncome groups. The proport ion o f income spent on

these increased and decreased as t h e i r pr ices increased and -

decreased. And should an i tem be considered a ' luxury' i f the -. -

proport ion of the budget spent on i t decreases aa i t s p r i c l C

increases and increases as i t s p r i ce decreases? Hone o f the i tems

exam i ned ' f e l l i n t o the l uxury category. I t i s expected, however-, *-

that i f some o f the more expens i ve goads that changed i n p r i ce mere

exam i ned t h m t respond accord4 ng t o the de f i n i ? i on o f l uxury

goods.

- This chapter examined how the d i f ferent i a l acCess t o goods, due

t o va r i at i ons i n income or item p r i ce, a f fect ed consympt i on pat t erna

i n the fu r trade ronka. A summary o f the results. o f t h i s chapter 6

fo l l oms: * -

t . The compar i sons o f rages t o t o t a l good; bought and the d i v e r s i t y o f g ~ o d s bought indicated that these uafi i abl es re re somet i mes poor l y r e l at -. ed. Horewr , the h i gher i ncome groups, on the average, bought more and a grea tehd ivers kty o f goods.

2. R r e l a t i v e l y greater income inequal i ty betmeen the o f f i c e r s a and the servants i n some periods o f the fu r trade mas not

p !, i mmed i a t e l y fo l l omed by r e l at i ve l y greater consumpt i an of I goods o r greater d i uers i t y o f goods-. A I though -tot a I goods

bought and divers i t y o f goods bought a m dependent up& t otb l income t o some degree, they mere not a l rays strongly enough re la ted in fu r trade society t o create greater inequal i ty i n consumption behavior betreen the ranks.

3. The ano l ys i s of pr-i ce and income i nd i cot ed t hot d i f farences i n consumpt ion bet ween the ranks occurred only i n the most (top 10) high pr iced a r t i c l e s . By the 1861)s, horeuer, even these d i f ferences i n consumpt ion betreen the ranks re re less euident, according t o the archiual,records, In the archaeo l og i ca l record, the use o f d i f f erent i a I l y p r i ced goods in both ranks mas qu i te similar because the extremely high pr i ced i t ems re re absent,

>

4 . I n the major i ty o f cases, o di f ference o f a fe r s h i l l i n g s or pence did not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r the quant i ty o f consumption o f a m itern a i th i n, or create greater d i f ferences bet wen, the occupat i ona l ranks. Uhen the proport i on o f income '( i t em wan t it y mu l t i p l i ed by p r ice) spent on the four goods mos compared t o changes i n t h e i r prices, a l l goods examined could be defined as necessit ies, The proport ion o f the income spent on uach good decreased as the p r i ce o f the item decreased and

increased as the pr'ice o f the i tem increased. This pat tern *--L

general 1 y con forms t o the m o m i c t heary o f c~mmodit y demand (Green 1 97J 1.

5. Both a char& i n incoie and p r i ce o f a commodity resul ted i n the l omer i ncome group t rea t i ng the good as a luxury ah i l e the upper i ncwme' group treated i t as a necessi t y .

There i s no doubt that income and i tem pr- i ce changes created

d i f f erences i n use o f goods bet meen the fu r trade ranks, as they

d i d i n ,other paat and contempohsry societ i t s . But there i s alao no

doubt that f o r most it ems, d i f ferences in the use o f goods cannot be

explained e n t i r e l y by var iable p r i ce and incpme. Simi lar %ends

have been documented by et hnoarchaeo l og i s t s i n contemporary soc i et y =%

mho exam i ned t he r e l a t i onsh i p between peop l e ' s garbage and the i r

r a l a t i u e income (Rathje 1971). There i s an anthropoiogical and

sociological theory o f the use o f goods i n societies mhich, although

i t accepts the i mportance o f economic factors i n buying behavior,

a l so acknom l edges lt he i mport once-bf goods t o carry out the

behau i ora l and soc i a I . s t r a t eg i es of contemporary and h i s t or i c

societ ies. Honey i s only the means by mhich t o carry these - s h a t eg i es out. Some o f these factors are examined i n chapter n i ne .

I m L * T - - -

\ 2

' CHAPTER 9 - - -

HATER l AL GOODS I N STATUS 0 l FFf RENT l AT l ON IH THE FUR TRADE

P

c b l e appo i n t r en t s t hrougbout the country have ( t her to been upon much t o o large a The Y scale, f a r exceeding the consumption o f most

. I respectable fami 1 i es i n the c i v i l i r e d world, and I t h i n k you may sa fe ly reduce- the usual supp l i es by 50 per cent - the descr i p t ion t o be o f the cheape3t, v i z t . T i n p l a tes ; E r a r e cups and saucers, no t ab le c loths, uhich w i th towels are considered p r i v a t e property. Ho E ware dishes; a fern tumblers which anser f o r wine glasses. Knives and forks ought t o las t a t l eaat ha l f a dozen years - i n p r i vat e fam i l i es they somet i mes las t 20 (Husaey 1975: 16).

l NTRODUCT l ON

The purpose o f - th is chapter i s t o examine the behavioral and i

soc ia l d i f fe rences tha t ex is ted between the ranks i n the f u r trade,

and whet her they 'are assoc i a t ed w i t h ,d i f ferences i n the use o f

mater ia l goods. I n the last-tmo chapters, i t mas evident that the

use o f mat e r i a l goods by d i f ferent s t at us groups i n f u r t rode ,

soc ie ty i s a funct ion o f d i f fe rences i n t h e i r income and the p r i c e

of goods. But i t w o u l d be wrong t o assume that d i f fe rences i n the

consumpt ion o f r a t e r i a l goods are on l y r e l a t e d t o i ncme and p r i cs. -

Consumption habi ts are also soc ia l l y oriented. For example, .during

the r i v a l r y betmeen the Worth Uest and Hudson's Bay companies, ch ie f 3-

t rader George Suther l and at Buck ingham House in 1797 mas embarassed

by the poor quai i t y o f tablemares fo r h i s rank:

...p robably you may al lude t o the small Box

\ of crockery mare mhich I brought from England some years ago and carr ied up last Summer. I f ree ly confess that t h i s mas a great ,

i innouation on our Inland customs. Yet I cannot help th ink ing i t rather beneath the Oigni t y o f the Honble. Hudsons Bay Company that t h e i r Inland Haster should ask the Gent l emen from Canada who are h i s ne i ghbours t o take a glass'of mine or 9 Cup o f Tea out of a t i n pot more especial ly as when they t reat us me see Siluer, China, and Glass on the Tab1 e . . . (HBCA, B.239/b/6O, f 0s. 36d-37) .

' TKe extent t o mhich goods mere important f o r social r e l a t

throughout the fu r trade i s examined i n t h i s chapter.

i ons 4b

HYPOTHESES

In t h i s sect i 00, hypot hg?es are presented t o account fo r the

. - v a r i a b i l i t y i n the frequency o f use o f cer ta in items o r a t t r i bu tes

- that denote status and rank. Ago i n, as mas stated preu ious l y,

economic factors u l t imate ly l i m i t consumption o f goods fo r status

d i sp I ays. Homeuer, social pressures t o disp l ay status ob t o - -

i ncrsass roc i a i a f f i l i at ion m i t h mat s r i a l can a l so vary from

one t i me t o another or one cond i, t i on t o another, t hut mot i vat i ng

indiv iduols t o use greater or lesser proportions o f t h e i r incomes on

Two categories o f goods mere used to- de_term i ne whet her greater -

social pressures t o display status and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n the l a t t e r

par t o f the fu r brade resul ted i n a greater use o f these items: 1 ) - /

persona 1 i t ems ah i ch are - i mageldppearance r e l at ed, but very cheap ;

and, 2) items which are e i ther the most expensive o f a l l goods or

consist o f the most cos t l y brandlsty le o f a pa r t i cu la r functional

type o f a r t i c l e . Although such a d i s t i n c t i o n i s perhaps too f ine,

the d i f ferences i n t hese t wo groups o f goods are anal y t i ca 1 l y

i .port ant because the f i r s t group i s less dependent on abso l ut e

income dif ferences t o explain var iabi l i t y o f use.

Fo l l om i ng preu i ous arguments and us i ng these d i s t i nct i ons B

bet meen goods, severa l hypotheses can be be f ormu 1 at ed :

1 . I f the consumpt ion behavior o f members o f the same i ncome a groups and ranks i s mor consistent than that bet meen members of L 1 -

d i f ferent i ncome groups and ranks, then : f

HI: the use o f goods i s more s imi la r w i th in each o f +the servant

and o f f i c e r groupa than bet meen them i n the fu r t rade .

2 . I f theuiems, v a l u e s o r e m p h a s i ~ o n imageof indiv iduals

d i f f er bet ween i ncome groups, then :

HI: there should be a di f ference i n the var ie ty or the r e l a t i v e

proport i on o f accompany i ng goods r e l a t sd t o these u i ems,

values o r images, between the o f f i c e r s and servants i n the fur

trade .

3. I f there isb; grcuta need to we goods t o d e n o t e j o c k t

a f f i l i at i on, then as i nequa 1 i t y decreases and c l ass consc i ousness -

i ncreases: - I

C 1

HI: the.-degree o f s i m i l a r i t y o f consumption o f good3 should*

i ncrease r i t h i n the servant a' and o f f i cera ' ranks i n the ear l y rg

periods, and decrcaad bctreen them i n the l a te r f u r trade P -

per i od;

H2 : the use o f cheap a r t ic I es t o promote persbna 1 i mage/appearak

should increase a f t e r 1860 i n the furkrade;

H3: the r e l a t i v e frequency o f a l l items used by the

o f f i c e r s i n the fu r trade should be greater a f t e ~ 1860.

GEHERAL CONSUHPT l ON UAR l AB 1 L 1 TY - - .

I n the f i r s t par t o f t h i s chapter, I r i l l examine rhether the

degree o f consumption s im i la r i t y , measured by the types o f goods, it

r e l a t i v e l y higher r i t h i n each incore group i n the fu r t rade than

bet rsen t hem. For the t i me being, I r i l l not exam i nb the reasons

fo r these s im i la r i t i es , o r differences, ahich could be e i the r

economic, behauioral/social, or. both. I f t h i s re la t ionsh ip does - exis t , i t i s expected that the types o f material goods asooc i ated

mith indiv iduals o f each 'income group 3hould be r e l a t i v e l y simi lo r .

I n Qther rords, i f the goods used by 15 i nd i v i dual s o f the servant

group and 15 indiuiduals o f the o f f i c e r group i n the f u r trade are

- compared, there shou Id a l rays be more s i i l ar i t y i n the uze o f types

of goad3 betreen member3 o f each group than betreen members o f

-

di f f e ~ m t groups. Suck o :ompoi ison was ca r r i ed utrt *hg -&tc fi.m -- - -

the 1817 Athabasca d i s t r i c t debt l i s t s and the 1835 and 1866

Saskat cheman debt l i s t s . *

A' Jaccard S i m i l o r i t Coef f i c i ent (Sneat h and Soka 1 1973) was

computed mhich compared the type3 o f goods used by indiv iduals o f

each o f the tmo major ranks i n the fu r trade. The coef f i c ien t i s C-

calculated by adding up the number o f s im i la r types o f goods used

tmo indiuiduals, d iv ided by the number o f s im i la r types o f goods

p lus thcnumber o f d i f f e ren t types o f goods they used. I f , for

example, they each had f i v e items i n common, but 10 items not i n

common, then the Jaccard Coeff ic ient i s calculated by d iv id ing f i v e

by f i v e + ten, to. obtain a score o f 0.33. 0s consumption s i m i l a r i t y .

increases the coef f i c ien t moues to rard 1 .0 . The resu l t s are Y %

summarized i n Figure 9.1 and the r e s i l t s o f mean s i m i l a r ~ t y

coef f i c i ent s are presented i n Tab l e 9.1 , Append i x A .

The r e s u l t s o f the Jaccard's S im i la r i t y Coeff ic ient support the

assumption that there i s a r e l a t i v e l y higher consumption s imi?ar i ty

among ind iv iduals o f the same income growp than among indiv iduals

be 1 ong i ng' t o d i f fcrent income groups -(F i gure 9.1 1. A 1 though the

si;i l a r i t y coe f f i c ien t i s almays lomer i n the betwee%-group

comparisons than i n mithin-group comparisons, 'the indexes of the tmo \

income groups dd not become r i gn i f i ca"t 1 y d i f ferent unt i l the 1860s

( G b l e 9.10,R). The degree o f mithin-group simi l a r i t y i n

consumpt ion i s not 3 i gn i f i cant l y d i f ferent when the t e r v i n t and the

o f f i ce r groups are compared (Table O.lD,J,P). I n other .ords, the

in ternal war i ab i l i t y i n consumpt ion behav i o r i s not greater- i n the

upper a t a t us group who have cons i derab l y more i ncare f l ex i b ir l i t y .

Figure 9 . 1 . Summary of r e s u l t s obtained from the Jaccard S imi la r i ty

Coeff ic ient computed for the degree of consumpt ion

s i m i l a r i t y r i t h i n each income group and betmeen the

income groups. Data taken from compar i sons i n Table

9 , 1 , Appendix A .

The h v e ~ t ~ t t C f s w e /mpwteRf f o~ t h e bdS&et 'm p r o w

because the .d i f ferences i n consurpt i on d i uers i k y bet msen the t ro

i ncome groups on l y becore d i s t i nct i n the 18603. I t m i I l be

reca I led that the social model predicted that the greatest .

d i f ferent i a t ion betmeen the t r o ranks rou 1 d occur i n the 1860; ahen .

there mas a greater need fo r soc i a l d i s t i nct i on bet meen them. The

greatest d i f ference i n consumpt i on bet meen the t r o groups does occur

in the 1 8 6 0 ~ ~ and the greatest internal consumpt i on cons i s t ency

m i t h i n each group i s also found i n the 18603 compar i son. Homeuer, 4

t quest ion s t i l I remains mhet her there mas a de l i berate attempt bb

the upper ranks o f the fu r trade t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e themaelues thiough * .

s tatus goods, or mhether t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s simply a .

consequence o f more d i s t i nct behav i or and l i,f e-st y l e m i t h i n each

group.

The quest i on that. becomes cent r a l t o t h i s d i ssert at i on,

therefore, i s mhether s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n fu r trade society was

becoming Bore d i s t i n c t due t o class d i s t i n c t ion or simply due t o

economic di f ference. Clbss d i s t i n c t ion imp1 ies more than simply

econom i c i nequa l i t y . I t i mp l i es that each group i s becom i ng

d i s t i nct through more in ternal 1 y cons i s t ent behav i or o r act i v i t i ea - commonly re fe r red t o as ' l i fe-st y l em . I t becomes necessary t o

determi ne mhet her d i s t i nct soc i a l c l asses can be i dent i f i ed by the * -

use o f t e r t a i n a r t i c l es mhich are less dependent on high income. I n

other mords, i t i s not a 1 mays the' more experw i ue goods that

d i f f e r e n t i a t e each class. Also included are goods that are

associated mith d i f f e r e n t forms o f behouior, a c t i u i t i e s , o r outlook +

tomord l i f e o f each rank. I n the remainder of t h i s chapter, each o f

I 'fi these thin i s exmined more ttmroughtg 6th the fur t+

"

documentary and archaeo l og i ca l dot a. \ \ . \

SOC l AL AH0 BEHAU l ORAL CONSUHPT I ON D l FFERENCES

I '

I n order t o examine the dif ferences i n the us; o f goods vhich

are re la ted t o e i ther imagelappet&ance or t o status, the number o f

types o f : 1 ) u t i l i t a r i an goods; 21 i magelappearance r e l at ed goods; l

and, 3) status goods, present i n the o f f i c e r s ' and servants' debt -

l i s t s for 1817, 1835, 1866 mere calculated and summarized i n Table .

9.2, (data are derived from Tables 9.4 - 9.6, Appendix A). Table

9.2 a lbo l i s t s the number o f types o f -goods per maj or category found

i n the o f f i cers ' and servants' areas i n the s i x f o r t archaeo log i ca 1

assemb l ages. Tab l e 9.3 surrar i zes the a r t i faqt percent ages for each

o f the major a r t i f a c t categories fo r the. same s i x archaeological

s i t e s (data are derived from Tables 9.7 - 9.12, Appendix A) . From- /

these data, two major comparisons were undertaken t o examine the G

', reseprch, quest i ons: - 1 ) d i d the i magelappeatmnce r e 1 a t ed a r t i f o c i

categories become r e l a t i ve ly more important a f t e r 1860; and, 2 ) d id -

the s ta t us category o f a r t i facts become r e 1 a t i ve l y more i mport ant

a f t e r 1860?

J maae/A~~earance and C l ass Consc i ousness

I n the debt l i s t s, consurpt ion d i f ferences bet ween the ranks

occur i n the very a i nor commod i t i es such as soap, combs, per fumes,

I / rror~, or at her a r t i c l es that ore alsoc i a t ed u i t h personal hyg i ene

and appearance. I t i s argued that these a r t i c l es are r e l at ed t o

' .> TABLE 9.2

- I

SUHHARY OF SERUAHTS AND OFF i CERS ART l FACT TYPE FREQUENC l ES PER ART l FACT CATEGORY

Y\ ' SERUAHTS OFF t CERS DATElS l TE U t i l . Image Status ~ t i f . Image Status

> (tiumber o f types o f Goods per Category)

H.B.Co. Debt L i s t s 1817 16 2 2 - 19 4 8 1835 2 1 3 5 24 8 8 1866 56 4 11 4 8 15 27 Rrchaeo l oo i cdl Oat a Buckingham H. (H.R.Co.) 17 7 2 17 7 2 Nott ingham H. (H.B.Co.) 11 7 2 6 6 2

'F t . U i c to r i a (H.0.Co.) 20 2 6 22 6 10 Ft.George (ti.U.Co.) 16 10 - 15 6 - Rocky'tIt. H. (N.U.Co.) 16 9 - 15 " 7 - F t . Epinette (N.U.Co.) 17 9 - 10 4 -

4

I

NOTE : The above f i gures represent the ndmber o f d i f ferent a r t i fact \

types that were present fo r each major a r t i fact cotegory ( i . e . , ut i l i t a r i an, i mage/appeorance, and s t at us) i n each income graup in a

the @dsonls Bay Company debt l i s t s , 1817 - 1866, and North Uest 6

I Company and Hudson ' s Bay Company archaeo'l og i ca l s i t es . *

-

- P - - - - - - -A

* . . B - T A ~ L E 9.3

. . C

#- F='

ARCHAEOL~G l CAL ART l FACT FREQUENCY 0 1 STR l BUT l Otis PER ART l FACT CATEGORY, HORTH UEST COtlPANY AH0 HUDSOH ' S BAY COtlPANY S 1 TES

1

, - SERURNTS 1 OFF l CERS S I T E - . FREQ .. X * . FREQ. X

' $

ARCH~EOLOG I CAL DATA . Buck i nahar H .

- U t i l i t a r i a n 416 - Appearance/ l rage 10 - Status 49

Nottinahar H. 1

- - U t i I i tar, ian 791 - Appmrance/ l rage

I ' 24

- ' S t at us 27 F t . U ic to r ia

- U t i l i tap ian 1 70$ - Appearance/l rage . 1 - Status 17

F t . P o r a e - U t i l i t a r i a n 734 - Appearancetlrage 90

+ R Q C ~ U nt . H. - U t i l i t a r i a n 369 - Appeorance[lmage 74 - Status -

F t . Eainette - U t i l i t a r i a n 171 - Appearance/ l rage 16 - Status -

NOTE : The above percentages e y e computed by d i v i d i ng the quant i t LJ per a r t i f a c t category (sag. , status) by the combined t o t a l o f a l l t h r e e cat egoci es (8 . g . , u t i l i t a r i an, appearance/\i rage, and s t at us). Beadr r e w not ihcluded .in any o f the dbove t o t a l 3.

-

4

i

the i mportence o f appearance ~ n d se 1 f - i moge te each o f the ~mks in

t he f u i t rode. red i c t ad1 y J emphas i-s on appearance shou l d i ncrease

i n one o r both $roups as greater c lass amarenest occurs i n t h e a a t e r

fur t rade per iod. Pred ic tab ly also, the d i f ferences between the two 50, -

groups should increase as s ta tus consc coisness reaches i t s height i n

the l a t t e r pa r t o f the fur t r i d e . -

A number o f a r t i c l es den& i ng i mage and persona I hyg i ene mere

present i n the Hudson' s Bay Company debt 1 i s t s . Some a r t i c l es, such

as soap and combs, occurred i n suf f i c i ent numbers t o be

quant i f4&leJ but .others l i k e perfume, mi r rors , o r pomders, r e r e

s i mp l y noted by the number o f t i mes ' they mere present, i n the debt

l i s t s o f s i x seruants and s i x o f f i c e r s (Tables 9 ,4 - 9.6). These

a r t i c l es mere very i nexpens i we, mak i ng t hem equal 1 y access i b I e t o : r

each rank, regard l ess o f i ncome d i f ferences . The r e 1 a t i ve

i mport ance o f appearancelhygen i c goods f o r each t i a t per i od mas

computed by not i ng the number o f types o f commod i t i e? i n the s i x

Hudson's Bay Compony seruants' and o f f i c e r s ' debt l i - s t s that mere % e

sampled (Figure 9.2) .

It i s apparent from Figure 9.2 and Table 9.2 thot icn the l a t t e r

pa r t o f the fub t rade the o f f i c e r s used a r e l a t i v e l y greater va r i e t y

o f a r t i c l es r e 1 a ted t o hygiene and appearance than d i d the servants.

In the 1817, the off-icers used four appearancc.;jhygiene items, as 2 <

opposed t o t r o items f o r the servants (Table 9,4, Appendix A ) . I n

the 1835 sample, the o f f i c e r s used eight types o f t h i s category

whi le the servants on ly used f i v e types (Table 9 . 5 , Appendix A ) . 2 By '-T

\

- 1866, houeuer, the o f f i c e r s used 15 appearancelhygiene items

compared t o four f o r the servants (Table 9.6, Appendix A). .

/Figure 9.2. Suriafiy'of the nurber of a r t i f a c t types for each major

a r t i fact category taken froa data i n the Hudson ' s Bay - Company debt, l i sts (summar i zed from Tables 9 .4 - 4.6,

, Flppend i x Fi) .

In order t o conclusivsly demonst& thbt a r t i c l e s d o t e d to - -

hygiene and appearance mere being emphasized more i n the l a t t e r part

o f the fur trade, and more by the o f f i c e r s than the men, i t i s - .

/

necessary t o shorn also that the r a t e o f use o f other a r t i c les , not U

re1 ated t o hygi ens and appearance, rema i ned equal aliurg the, tmo

ranks t hroughouf the fu r trade. A G-at a t i s t i c mas used two compare \ -. . )

the degree o f associat ion o f a r t i f a c t category (e.g., u t i l i t a r i a n 3

us, i mage/appearance goods) t d rank (o f f i ce rs us. seruant s) fo r the

three major time periods. This s t a t i s t i c mas important t o determine

mhpthen a s ign i f i can t re la t ionsh ip betmeen rank and category o f

goods ma3 present, und in mh ich t i r e period i t mas most eu i dent . , '

The resu I t s o f the G-st a t i s t i c compar i sons bet ween u t i l i t a r i 9" and i mage/appearance prt i c l ek are presented i n Tab l e 9.1 3, f lppe~d i x

fl, w d are only sumrar i zed here. It mas found that there mas no

-3 i gn i f i cant r e l at i onsh i p betmeen rank and part i cu l a r a r t i fact

category unt i l 1866 (Table 9.13C). I n the 1866 compar i sons, t hare

i s a strong assoc i a t ion bet meen the number o f i mage/appearance-

re1 at ed a r t i fact types and the o f f i cers ' ranks. The d i f f erence '-r'

be&epn'*t he t mo ranks i n the use of u t i l i t a r i an gpods does not -

s i gn i f i cant l y change, I n other mords, u t l l i t a r i an goods i ncrease i n

s i m i l o r proport ions bet meen 1835 and 1866 i n both i ncome groups,

mh i l e i mage/appearance r e l at ed goods become more prom i nent i n the

o f f i c e r s ' group in 1866 (Table 9.138,C). There i s a greater J

? m b * emphasis on goods used fo r personal image and appearance as statua, F-

consciousness and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n increased i n t h p l a t e r period o f

the fu r trade.

A s i d l o r comparison o f the tmo categories o f a r t i c l e s i s more

d i f f i c u l t r i t h the archaeological assemblages since -individual 0

far1 l y uni t s rere not avai lable for comparison. Also, a r t i fact

dssemb l age quant i t i es mere d i f f erent bet ween i ncome groups at fo r t s

making i t d i f f i c u l t t o d i rec t l y coupardihe number o f types of -

,= appearance/hygen i c goods. I n order t o conduct 1 PC l at i ve l y ; i i l or 6 &

compar i son as r i th the debt l i sts, the aumber of a r t i-* t y&s for

, each major a r t i f ac t category (o.g., u t i l i t a r t ~ n us. l~,

i mage/appearance) rere noted i n the o f f i c w s ' and servant a '

assemblages for each of the s i x fur trade archaeological s i tes (see ?! ea

Tab l e 9.2). Then the r a t i o of the types of -appearance/hygen i e goods

t o thk types of u t i l i t a r i angoods mas computed (Figure 9.3). I f

appearance/hygen i c goods ' became more i w o r t ant, the r a t i o : 1 ) mou l d

i ncrease through t i me; and, 2) there mould be greater d i f ference i nc

t he r a t i o bet reen the o f f i curs and the servant s i n _ t he la ter fur

trade assemblages. i

The resul t j shop that the r a t i o of hygen i c and ----_ -- --

appearance-re l at ed goods t o u t i l i t a r i an goods i s a l rays h t gher i n

the servant s ' t h n the o f f i cers ' assemb l ages i n the Hort h Uest -

Company (Figure 9.3). I n the Hudson's Bay Company, the same r a t i o '

. i s equal, or higher i n the o f f i ce rs ' than the seruants' assemblages

(F i gure 9.3). The gap i n t h i t r a t i o bet reen the s e w p t s and the /%& : {?

o f f i ce rs i s higher i n the la ter Fort Uictor ia assombl& than at

Buck i ngham House, -but less at Fort U i c t or i a than 'Hot t i ngham House

(F iPe 9.3). These resu l t s are not snt ire1 y conc l us i we regarding

the greater use o f appsarancelhygenic goods i n the la ter period by -

the o f f icer3.

Had, the r e l at i w percent ages o f appearonce/hygen i c goods for

LE- N Sm. M M N m. MAE

f i gure 9.3. Rat i o o f i nage (appearance/hygen i c ) t o ut i l i t a r i an - goods from three Hudson's Bay Company and three Hort h

Uest Company fur t rode archaeo l og i ca I s i t es . (Oat a

taken from Tables 9 . 7 - 9 .12 and summary table 9 . 2 ) . -

-

\

each mjor wt ifact category w r e eumpared betmeen the +me h o m e

(see Tab I e 9.3). I n two o f the three Mort h Uest Company -

f ar t s the re.1 at i us percent age of appearance/hygen i c goods mas a l ways

higher i n the servants' than the o f f icers ' assemblages (Figure 9.1).

The except i on i 3 the more* remote Fort Ep i net t e mhere t a r i f f s mere

much h i gher on a l l the goods the servants could buy. In the

Hudson ' s Bay Company assemb l ages, the o f f i cers a l mays had h i gher

percent ages of appearance/hygen i c goods than t hq servants (F i gure 1 8

9 1 ) . Homever, the d i f f erences i n consumpt i on o f these a r t i c l es

bet me& 1.0 income groups was not greater i n the la ter period

f Fort i c to r ia (Figure 9.4). The reasons for these inconsistencies

between the archival and the archaeological record aSe considered i n --

more detai I- i n chapter 12,

- and Social Di f ferent iat ion

In t h i s sect ion, I examine mhet her there i s a trend toward

del iberate social d i s t inc t ion o f the fur trade ranks with a r t i c l es

t erred 'st at us goods' a f te r 1860 mhen i ncome d i f ferences bet ween the G

rank3 decreased. O r d i d consumpt ion d i f ferences and st at us

d i f f erent i at ion bet ween the ranks i ncrease a f te r 1860 even though

obso l ut e i ncome i nequa l i t y bet meen t hem decreased? -

S i ng t e Uar i ab l e Compar i sons

I w i l l beg i n by redef i n i ng st at us goods and how the document cry -

and archoeo l og i ca l assemb l ages mere organ i zed t o exam i ne the

hypotheses proposed ear I i er . Also i n t h i s sect ion I exm i ne hom

Figure 9.4. Percentage t o t a l o f Servants' t o 0ff icer.s '

appearance/ i mage goods from three Hudson ' s Company and 7

th ree North Ue3t Company f o r t assemb l ages, Percent age

ras comput ed by d i v i d i ng frequency o f appearance/ i mage

goods by sum t o t 0 l o f u t i l i t a r i an, appearance/ i .age, and

s ta tus a r t i f a c t quan t i t i e s . Data have been summartzed 8

from Tables 9.7 - 9'. 12, Appendix A and are shown i n

Table 9.3,

on t y one i ndspendent war iob l e, the degree o f soc i a l d i f ferent i at i on, - affects the use o f status goods, holding income and commodity pr ice

conat ant. e

Statua goods re fe r t o those ar t ic les mhich denote prest ige by .A

being re la t i ve ly less avai lable, or being used i n a c t i v i t i e s that

are less common i n one group than another. They are very v i s i b l e t o

others, and are used e i ther personal l y (e. g., c l othes) or through

snt er t a i nment (e. g . , exot i c foods or dishes). They i nc l ude any @

apt i c les mhi ch are more lav i sh i n t he i r forma l at tr i butes or

characterist ics that dupl icats the functions o f ' simi l o r items*

already extant i n society . They qre not alrays the most expensive

of a l l types of a r t i c l es avai lable, but are generally the re l a t i ve l y

more expenaive a r t i c l es o f any functional group or type (e.g., s i l k

versus cotton hankys) . S t at us goods h e l i nked more strong l y t o

money, thereby making them more acctssi b le t o upper fur trade ranks.

But the c r i t i ca l ,quest i,on that must be ansuered, i s : at mhat per i od

mere pore of these i t ems mere, consumed, and by rho. -- mhen-

econom i c prosper i t y ras h i ghest , or, rhen soc i a l stutus

d i f ferent ia t ion mas most i mportdnt?

Like the previous comparison examining differences i n

appearonce)hygen i c goods, i t i s import ant f i r s t t o est ab l i sh that

differences betreen the t r o major ranks i n the fur trade i n the use

of u t i l i t a r i a n goods changed l i t t l e . ' This mas evident i n t

prev i ous compar i son. F i gure 9.2 i nd i cat es that, a l though

i ncome group mus consln i ng a r e l at i we l y g r w t er number o f types o f

u t l l i t a r i o n good3 by the 1860sJ differences i n consumption rates o f t

these art ic les betmen the income groups remained u i r t w l l y

identical (Table 9.2). The number of types of u t i l i t a r i a n goods --

consumedby s i x members o f each i ncome group mas 16 t o 19 i n 181 7, \

21 t o 21 i n 1835, and 56 t o 18 i n 1867 for the jervants and

off icers, respectively (Figure 9.2; Table 9.2).

Next, items that sa t i s f ied the above def in ' i t ion o f "status

goods' were se l ected from the Hudson's Bay Company debt I i s t for $ the early t o the la te fur trade period from the aame s i x servants

and s i x o f f i ce rs i n each period (Table 9.1 - 9.6, Appendix A ) . The

resul t s o f the 1817 Athabasca d i s t r i c t , 1835 und 1867 Saskatcheman

district-comparisons indicate that the consumption of the number of

types of status goods i ncreases throughout the fur trade reaching a

maximum i n the 1866 Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t debt l i s t s (Figure 9.2;

Table 9.2). I n order t o confirm the hypothssis that the differences

i n the use of s t at us goods become r e l at i ve 1 y greater bet meen the

ranks when s t a t us d i f f erent i at i on reaches i t a max i mum af ter 1 860,

there must be a re l a t i ve l y greater difference i n the consumption of

s t ~ t u s goods by the upper ranks dur i ng that t i me.

A G-stat i s t i c mas computed by compar i ng the number of t ypdP of

status items t o the number o f types of u t i l i t a r i a n goods that

occurred i n the ~ i x ~ o f f i c e r s ' and servants' samples for 1817, 1835,

and 1866 (Table 9.11A - C, Rppendix A). The tmo by 1.0 contingency

tab 1 e compares whet her there i s a s i gn i f i cant r e 1 at i onsh i p bet meen

rank and a r t i fac t category (e. g. , st at us versus ut i t i tor i an goods

in the thme periods o f the f u r t r a d e that mere sompled. .

*y The resu l ts o f t& 6-stat i s t ics indicate that the difference i n

conrumpt ion o f t t o tu r pods betreen the seruants and the o f f i ce rs

mere highest i n 1866 (Table 9.14C, Appendix A). Only the 1866

- -- - -- - - - - - -- --

compar i son showd a s t at i s t i ca l l y b i gn i f )cant r e I at i onsh i p bet ween -

i ncom group and a r t i fact category. The great est di f ferences a

bet ween the ranks alaays occurred i n the status i tem category.

These resu l t s confirm the hypot he3 1s that there was a r e l at i ve l y --m

great er d i f ference bet reen the servants and o f f i cers in the

consumption o f status items i n the la t te r part o f the fur trade.

flore emphasis on s t at us a r t i c l es d id not occur rhen econom i c 1

i nequa l i t y bet ween the servants and the o f f i cers was great sst , but meen 1821 and 1860 -- PO33 i b l y bbcausc status d i f ferences mere

a l ready i nherent i n the econom i c d i f ferences i n buy i ng pbwer of the

ranks.

Examination o f the status hypothesis with archaeological data i s

hampered by the i nsu f f i c i ent number o f fur t rode assemb l a g a

spanning the three major periods outl ined i n t h i s study. Ho

aasemb l age from 1822 - 1860 i s present l y ava i lab l e fo r compor i son t o

post -1 860 assemb l ages. 1 he compar i son undert oken here i s 1 i l i t ed t o

the ear l y [ pre- 1 82 1 ) versus t he post - 1 860 Hudson ' s Bay Company

archaeo l og i ca l assemb l ages . ' I t i 3 expected that the Hudson ' s Bay

Company archaeo l og i ca l assemb i ages w i l l shor that there are - ra l at i we l y great er d i f f emnces bet ween the seruant s and -the o f f i cers

s

i n the use o f status items i n the la ter period than i n the early

per i od . The eor l y Hudson ' s Bay Cowany a r t i fact assemb l ages from

Hot t inghar Home and Ruck i nghaa House mere compared t o the I at er

Hudson's Bay Corpany Fort Uictor ia a r t i fact assemblage t o examine

tho s t a t w di f fsrsncs hypothsda. The gap in the r a t i o of tyges e f

atatua t o u t i l i t o r i o n goods i s "grsater between the o f f i ce r and

Figure 9,s. Ratio of status to u t i l i t a r i a n gooda from three

Hudson ' s Bay Company fur t rode arch~eo I og i ca I a i tea . (Data taken from Tables 9.7, 9.9, 9.12, and summary

Table 9 . 2 ) .

aeruant ranks at Fort Uictor i a than at Buck ingham House, but i s not - - -- - P --

-

d i f farent mhen the same corpar i son i s made betmeen the U i c tor i a and - B

Hottingham House income groups fFigure 9.5). A comparison o f the

--. r e l a t iue percentage3 o f status i t w s that occurred i n the o f f i ce rs ' , - and servants ' asserb l ages at the three Hudson ' s Bay Company fo r ts

mas also carr ied out (F i gurs 9.6). There i s a greater d i f ference in

the use o f status items betmeen the ranks ' in the la ter Fort Uictor ia '81

assemb l ages that; ear l i er Hudson ' s Bay Company assbmb - l ages (F i gurs

f lu l t ip le Uariable Comparisons

I n chapter four i t mas ment i oned that many independent war i ab l ea

often - af fect household consumption patterns. Often these uariables

are inter-related making it d i f f i c u l t , t o determine uhich one of them

accounts for most of the war i ab i l it y i n househo I d consumpt im

pat t ems. I n the compar i sons i nz t h i s chapter, fo r examp l e, only one

independent uariable (e.g., the degree of class d i f fe rent ia t ion) mas 1 '

compared t o the dependant war i ab l e , consumpt i on of I?

appeoroncelhygen i c and s t at us goods, not keep I ng the other war i ab l es

conat ant . Such an approach mas j ust i f i ed because other poss i b l e e war i ab l es that cou l d exp l a i n an i ncrease i n consumpt ion of s t at us

items mere actual ly decl ining (e.g., differences i n absolute income &

betmen ranks). It i s important, homeuer, t o consider hom much of i

the w a r i ab i l i t y i n consumpt i on o f s t at us goods each i ndependent

var i obl e accounts for ahen they are examined toget her.

In the fino1 cowari ion i n t h i s chapter, the relat ionship

Figure 9.6. Percentage t o t a l o f Seruants' t o O f f i c e r s ' s ta tus goods

from three Hudson ' s Company f o r t assemb l ages.

Pepcent age mas computed by d i u i d i ng f r equen~y o f

appearance/image goods by sum t o t a l o f u t i l i t a r i a n , -

oppearance/image, and s ta tus a r t i f a c t quan t i t i e s . Data

have been summarized from Tab l 7 - 9.12, Rppendix A

and are summar ized i n Table 9.

TflBLE 9.15 I *

7

SUHHARY OF COllPARlSON OF TYPES OF STATUS GOODS TO

' J

I NCOHE, OCCUPAT I DH AND SOC I AL ' C O W I OUSNESS

:-

Y . > . 1 %? %3, f -OF TYPES l HCOHE OCCUPOT l OH DEGREE OF

NAflF"/ATE STATUS GOODS ( 6 ) I SOC l AL COHSC I OUS . I

I

1817: - \ i J. Carke 1 300 11 . -1

. C. Thoraa 6 100 4 1 R . t lcl j icam 12 100 1 1

o 35 * a 1 . .,.I;, lab is te r + A. flacAukay * 8 1 00 2

r ' I?

1 J. Brunel l e 1 30 ,+ 4 1 J. *Bte. llagnon 0 30 14 ' 1 .

A. Court ier 1 15 15 . . 1 A. Bouche 0 1s 1 J. ~ o i n 0 1

1835: J. Rorand 3 360 2 J. Harr iet 5. 360 2 H. Fisher ' 4 75 2 R . Grant 14 75 2 2 U. dnnul 0 30 2 J. Bal lent ine 0 30 4 2 J. Flars 0 17 5 - 2 A. Hackland 1 17 1 5 \ 2 ---------------------------------------i---------------------------

SO66 ; U. Chr is t ie 15 260 1 3 R.Hardiaty - 28 260 1 3 L. Cha3telaih 19 100 ' 2 3 U. F l e t t 13 a a -100 2 3 % P . B01~1 ant ine 2 1 . SO 3 3 , H. Groat 10 , SO, \ 3 3

' 6 7 . , J. Bruce +, % 35 1 4 h, 1

3

OF TYPES l NCOHE OCCUPAT l ON - DEGREE OF ' HAHEIDATE STATUS GOODS (L) SOC l AL COfiSC tOUS .

*

J. .Gatwon H, Johnson

I

A . Occupat ion: 1 -I chi sf factors, tradera; 2 sa c l erks; 3 postmasters; '4 = trademen; 5 = labourers.

6 . Social Conscioupness increases from l ( loa ) - 3(high). I

bet k e n the dependent var i ab l e, cdhsumpt i on of s t a t us goods, and

three independent uar i ab les: , 1 i ncome; 2) octupat i m a l prest i ge;

and, 3) level o f soc ia l d i%f f& tn# ia t ion, i s examined. Table 9.15

summar i zas the Hudson' s Bay Company documentary data that ace used

in th is analysis. U a r i a b i l i t y i n consumption o f status goods mas

dct erm i ned by not i ng rfrd the debt l i s t s the number o f types o f r ? < *? e

status goods that each l n d T i v i duo I bought, The income o f each '-,

cr i

individual mas taken either,$rom the company debt l i s t s , or from the

i ncome and pro f i t s the o f f i cers made from company shares.

Occupat i ona l prest i ge m i ranked from one t o f i ue depending on the ;. 2

r e l a t i ve amount .o f aoc i a l prest i ge each rank he I d i n the fu r trade.

The degree o f social d i f ferent i at4 on was also ranked from I om i n

1817 t o high in 1866, o r from one t o three i n t h i s compbrison (Table

fl mul t ip le regression program examined the re la t ionsh ip between A I

the consumpt i on o f s t a t u$ goods and persona l i ncome, .occupat i ona l

rank, and the degree o f soc ia l d i f f e ren t i a t i on . Uith t h i s &ogrm,

i t c m be estab I i shed mhi ch o f the three independent war i ab l es i a-

ro re i mport ant i n pred i c t i ng t he r a t e o f increase i n the dependent b

uaripble, even mhen they are inter-related (Hair e t a l . 1979:35-70). '

Rlthough in terva l or r a t i o data are primari l y used i n mu l t ip le

regression analysis, only r e t r i c data f o r income and status item3

mere owailable. Homeuer, dichotomous variables h g . , sex, race, 3

etc. ) con a 1 m be t reat ed as 'dummy war i ab l es' and coded (Hair e t

a 1 . 1 979 : 32-31, Occupat i ona I rank and soc i a l d i f f erent i a t i on mere -

dummy coded bemuse no metr i c duta f o r these va I uss mere aua i l ab l e . It i t evident i n Table 9.15 that the nunber o f o f s ta tud .

it ems i ncreased t empora l l y . The -degree of assoc i o t i on bet ween t h is

i ncrease and a l'l o f the three independent var i ab l es mas f i r s t

e i t ab l i shed. The re&l t s o f the mu i t i p I e regression analysis are

summar'j red i n Table 9.16 (flppe"dix A) and indicate that the

coef f i c ien t o f dsterminat io i - ( r2) mas ,556. The strength of

assiiic i at ion bet ween the dependent and independent war i ab l ss I s 0.75

out o f a possi b l e 1 .00. These resu l t s suggest that there i 3 a

r e l a t i ve l y j t r ong y l a t ionship between the number o f types o f stotus

goods and the t hrev i ndependent war i ab I es under i nvest i gat i on. The

r e s u l t s o f the F-test g ive an F-value o f 10.032 at three degrees o f

freedom (Table 9.16). This means that the use of the three

independent war i ab l es i s be t te r i n pred i c t i ng var i at i on i n the use

o f status goods than by random chance.

The c r i t i c a l question asked o f the data i s mhich one of the

i ndependent war i ab l es i s most i mport ant t o exp l a i n the var i ab i l i t y

i n consumption o f s t i t u s goods. It i;possible mith mu l t ip le

regression analysis t o i so la te rh i ch independent var iable . i s

r e l a t i v e l y more important i n accounting f o ~ the var iabi l i t y i n ,

consumption o f status goods, even mhen i t i s inter-related wi th

other independent war i ab l es . This i s' donu by comput i ng the part i a l

F-ua l ues f o r each o f the independent var iab I ea. The p a ~ t i a l F-ua l ue

g i ves the cont r i but ion o f an i ndependent var i ab l e above the

contr ibut ions o f the var iables already i n the mul t ip le regression

equation (Hair e t a l , 197g:34).

The r e s u l t s indicate that the p a r t i a l F-value fo r income i s

1 . 3 ( T I 9 . 1 Uhen the p a r t i a l F-value o f the second

independent variable, occupational prestige, i s added, the F-ualue

increases from 1.434 t o 9.311 (Table-9.16). The addit ion of the - +

. t h i r d independent yarioble, the de& o f social di f ferent iat ion,

increases the F-value from 9.311 t o 15.306. The introduction of the - 1 at t er t wo i ndependent war i ab l es cont r i but e more t ornard account i ng

-

for the va r i ab i l i t y i n the consumption o f status goods th3.n only - * the

i income of the individual. These resul ts support the previous

f ind i ngs that on l y i ncome cannot accurate l y prod i c t changes i n the

use of s t at us-,goods. Occupat i ona l rank and the i ncreas i ng degree o f

social di f ferent ia t ion throughout 'the fur trade are also important

uar i ab l as t o cons i der . -7-

I n t h i s chapter, the r e l at i onsh i ps between behav i ora 1 0

di f fe rawes i n social s t ra ta and material cul ture rere investigated. \

These relationships a m often d i f f i c u l t t o isolate from economic

fact o m 'rh i ch cgud d a I so account fo r d i f f erences i n consumpt i on,

The resul ts o f t h i ~ ~ c h o p t e r , and t he i r implications, are b r i e f l g . .

summarized. -. - . ,

1 . The assuwt ion that the consumpt ion o f a.l l goods by pepp l e i s less m i a b l e batawn individuals o f the same stratum than betmeen ind iddua ls of d i f ferent s t ra ta mas supported by the resul ts of thi3 analysis. It mas found that i n t e r m i c ~ t i o n hmgsne i t y become stronger mithin both s t ra ta a f t * 1860, and the differences in t he i r consumption l i fe-sty les m e greater a f te r 1860 as wetl.

2 . The Hvdmn'r Buy Company o f f i ce rs used a greater number o f t(J6es o f goods M 1 ated t o pertono I oppeorancelhygi ene than the wruonts a f te r 1860, These included goods that rere cheap i n

- - - -- -- -

ib pr ice and r e f I ect ed a focus on persona l i mags (e . g . , soap, jemelry, shaving equipment and pomders), Those are the uery items mhich tend to ' indicate that fur trade society mas moving' tomard a c 1-3 system, mhere the members o f the st rata had

-

d i f fwlent ua l uss and stressed d l f ferent aspect s of the i r l i w s , rather than being simply st rata defined solely on income inequality. Fur trade historians haued'notsd the same trend a f t e r 1860 (Sealay 1969:75). The resul ts o f the orzhatio'l og i ca l coipar i aons mere not as cond us i us'.

0 * * i

Dif ferent iat ion mith status goods bezame more prevalent a f te r 1860 i n the fur trade ,hen the need for social differentCotion became more import ant . These goods mere used cons i derob l y

-

rare by the o f f icer3 than the seruants a f te r 186 mhen k absolute income d i f ferences bet meen the t i o ranks mere r e l at i ue l y l omer than beforp 1860 The same trend mas meaker i n the archaeo l og i ca l record,

1. The increased use o f status items from the early t o late fur trade period mas r e l atsd more t o occupat i dna l rank and the need for social d i f ferent i at ion and not only t o i ncome' differences i n the fur trade.

-

DIG IIEN - 0lG HOUSES? THf ARCHITECTURAL REHAINS OF THE FUR TRAM

Uh i l e the nea fo r t [ fdmont on] mas under construction, Rorond and h i s men b u i l t the impsing 'Big House,' o r 'Rorand's Folly,' as some of h i s c r i t i c s cal led it....The Big House, by far the largest rest o f York Factory . . . (HacGregor 1967 : 41 1 .

The purpose of t h i s chapter i s t o examine the h ia to r i c

document at ion and archaeo l og i ca l rema i n3 of the fur trade t o

Bet erdne- &at arch i t ect ura l at t r i but es rere r e l at ed t o occupat i ona l *

rank a i t h i n fo r t s and betwen d i f fe rent ranked fo r ts i n a region.

As gel I, t h i s chapter attempts t o explain why sucb differences

existed and ahy they varied e i ther geographically or temparally in

the fur trade.

I n many h is tor ica l societies, architectural ' remains o f

set t l sment t are sens i t i ve ind i cat or3 o f reg i ona l i nesuaI i t y (Paynt er

1982). Oecisions are mode by individuals concerning the amount o f

l &our and money on ra ter i a I s t o be i nueated i n per3ona l and pub l i c ,

bui ldings t o adequately f u l f i l l the funct ional and social goals of

the community. UuriaBi l i t y i n these architectural a t t r ibu tes d

~ e f Cects d i f f e ~ m c e s in the s tatus uf indiuibCs &kin &e

settlement and the r o l e and>ank o f the settlement i n the larger

reg i ona I set t l ement system.

F i gure 10.1 i l l ust ra t es how both types of- i nformat i on are

important f o r the invest igat ion o f s t r a t i f icat ion i n the fu r trade.

S t atus and prest i ge among the o f f i c e r s and the servants d i f fered

according t o the rank o f the f o r t w i th in the larger regional

set t l ement hi 6rarchy, The f o r t ' s h i erarch i ca 1 pos i t i on may exp I a i n - the d8gre.e o f d i f ference in the arch i tectura l remains o f each 3tatus

group. The condit ions o f the f o r t and the pr iva te quarters o f the

o f f i cers and servants mere large I y control I ed by the upper

adm i n i s t r a t i we component o f each fw trade company. Consequent I y , &

these remains are a good r e f l e c t i o n o f how the o f f i c e r class B

perce i wed t hemse I ues and the i r workers w i t h i n the 1 arger econom i c

andsoc ia l system o f the fu r trade.

Examination o f u rch i tec tu ra l remaihs of the fu r trade

i s re la ted t o the dissertot i$ l problem. Changing

I condit ions may have af fected the qua l i t y o f

ins assoc i a t ed w i t h sach s ta t us group. For

' occupational ranks

economic and socia

arch i t ect ura l rema

example, mould the change o f a f o r t 's rank resu l t i n a change ' i n

w c h i tec tu ra l remains? Furthermore, i s there a greater use o f

arch i tecture t o display status d i f f e ren t ist ion at cer ta in types o f

f o r t s o r a t a 1 1 f o r t s as both r e l at i we and $so l ute sconom i c

inequal i ty decreased a f t e r the 1860s?

In the previous chapters, reasons why the fur trade i s ideal t o

ex- i ne the r e l a t i ctnshi p bet maen runk and arch i tac t w a 1 raw i na mere

out l ined. For example, ir chapters f i v e and six, it was

Figure 10.1. Hypothetical example of horn fort rank influences d i f ferertces i n arch it ect ura l at t r i but as bet reen the officers and serwnta.

the fv r trade, providing a

compar i son. As we l I, some - and the under l y i ng reasons

documented. The data froe

suitable range of ranks and hierarchy for

fo r t s such as Dunvegan, -changed i n rank .

for those changes are a l so we l l e

Dunvegan are det a i l ed enough t o a l l ow

invest igot ion o f how a change i n rank i s r e f 1 ect ed i n change i n the

architectural remains o f the o f f icer3 and servants at the f o r t .

In t h i a section, I m i l l summarize for t and bui lding construction

techniques i n the fur trade. This summary i s based on the

h i s t or i ca l documents, as we I l as the archaeo l og i ca l rema i ns that

hove been recovered from some o f the major fo r ts sxcavat ed i n

meatern Canada. Only those aspects of architecture that are i- *.

relevant for analysis i n t h i s chapter are dealt with. \

Arch i t ect ura l fit t r i but es and Rank

~ l t was noted p r ~ v i o u s l y that those at t r ibutes of material

cu l ture wh i ch are expected t o demonst r a t e d i f f erences i n rank are

the ones mh ich members o f society have unequal access to. Them

at t r ibu tes w e connected t o wealth and power, allowing individuals

t o carry out t he i r social and p o l i t i c a l goals - o strategy which

often consists of converting mealth in to v is ib le, concrete things.

The arch i t ect ura l at t r i but es se l ect ed t o exam i ne occupat i ona l rank

in the fur trade am labour i nt m e i we and require varying mount s of

m l t h for cunetruct ion w t e r i a l s . ' They imlude: 1) bui lding size

a c t i v i t y areas; 3) the degree o f spat ial proximity betmeen the '

o f f i ce rs and sewants; 4) the qua l i ty and elaboratenesf of bui ld ing

construction t&hniques; and, 5) the qua1 i t y o f construction

The brchitectural a t t r ibu tes fu l f i l l primari l y the economic r o l e

o f the fur trade for ts , i n other (10rd3, Iargqr forts, mith larger

bu i l d i ngs for s t o w ; mere necessary because more t rode o f

fura/meat took pJace i n t he i r areas. Homever, such a t t r i butea can

take on a social role, sending social messages about t he i r

- occupants, uhen they begin t o exceed the i r u t i l i t a r i an needs. I

m i l l examine mith the detai led h is to r i ca l documentation such

discrepa& ies between ahat i s needed t o corry out the trade, and

what the chief o f f i ce rs thought they needed t o eatablish and

maintain the i r social prestige.

flag flat er i a l s and Bu I l d I na Feature a *

3

A combination of mood, rocks, and mud, a l l local ty available, \

mere used i n the bas i c l og ma1 I and from bu i l ding construct i on

techniques in the fur trade. Building malls mere constructed o f

l ogs , mh i ch' mere e i t her l e f t round or dressed; the l at tar t echn i que

w a urch m e labour intensive,. M, d x e d mith strarr, w s often w +-. ' -

4 ,, 3

wed t o chink or f i l l craclp betwen or cover en t i re mai I s o f - a

some bui ldings, such dt the Factor's House at For t George (Kidd

1970; Losey dl 'a I. 1978, 1 979) . ~ o b f s a r e covered by spruce

b k , aKh os the bl ldings of the 'early North Uest Co

Rnvep or For t Pel l y (Se l k'i r k Papers 1805; K l i ako 1

l it h sod d d i r t . Bu i I ding foundat ions mere mode of .mood, but at

some forts, such as Dunuegan, rdcks mere a l so used t o support s i 1 1 s '

(Pyszczyk 1 984, 1 985) . F i rep l aces and ch i meys mere constructed of a &b i not i on of .

="

rock, mud and logs. The lower portions o f ' f ireplaces mrre b u i l t o f

rocks, m i t h a c l ay f i rebox and apron. The upper port i ons mere

constructql of a log frame rh ich ma8 mudded. The men often . , *

complained b i t t e r l y about these ch i~neys mhich d id not work in cold

.eat her, or needed const ant repa i r s becausr the mud cont i nua 1 1 y fe l 1 -

o f f the logs (e.g., Fo r t Gaorge, 1792 - H ' t i l l i v r a y 1929); llany .-

houses had cellars, mhich often simply consisted of holes i n the

grwnd, used fur storage, with no cribbing whatsoever; many of the P ce I la in the labourer quart ers at Fort George are typ i cd I examp I us

(K i dd 1970; Losey et a I. 1978, 1979). I n other houses, such as the

factor ' s House at Fort U i c t or i a and Dunuegan, ce I 1 ors mere large

mithwoodencribbing(Loseyet a l . 1976). I n t h e h o s t lavish. , / A

houses, such as the B i g House a t Fort ~dmonion, -ant i r e basements

serwed as cooking f a c i l i t i e s and quartebs for the servants -

(HacGregor 1 967 : 4 1 ) . * I

Bu i l di na Construct i Qn Techn i auea

A post - i n-ground and post -on-s i l l t echn i que were the ma j or

methods of log construct im used during the early fur t r a e period; 4 each i s a s l ight ly di f ferent version o f what i s commonly referred t o

as tha Red R i u w f- 1 og cmstruct i on t echn i que. Both t echni ques

rsre r e l a t i v e l y similar in terms o f labour h u e s t n n t d w t e r i a l s .

The Red R i w fraw qonsisted o f o serier of growed ver t ico l

4

wight logs m i t i o a e d at interv~lp (general 1% 840 fed) oLmg the , -

J

w i l s . The horizontal mall logs were then 'tongued' on each end, b

and these tongues were s l i pped i nt o the grooves o f the uert i ca l 9

wr i ght 3. I n the post - i n-ground t echn i que, uert i ca l upr i ght s mere . t

set some four t o f i ve feet in to the ground, such as at the early fu r

trade s i tes i n Alberta (Buckinghom House, Fort George, Fort Uhite ,

L

- Earth, Rocky Ilount a i n ' House). The post - i n-ground techn lque mas

common be-fore the 1830s at a l l the i n l and posts . I t mas rep l aced 'by ,

the post -on-s i l l t echn i que where uert i cu I * ma l l and corner post s mere a

set on s i l l s or foundat ion logs mh i ch rested d i rect l y on the ground

(e . g., Fort 'Uict or i a). Other techniques, such as the elaborate

dws-t a i l notch i ng found at the la ter Fort Dunvegan (Pyszczyk ' 1984,

1985) and at the la ter Fort Chipemyan (Heitzmann et a l . 19801, mere

unique and mere more labour - and - cra f t ifit ens iue than the Red River

construct i on t echn i que . B

h i l d i n a Size, Part i t ion ina and Arran~emenc \

The size of fo r t buildings i n the fur trade varied considerably

t o house company emp l oyees and t o duccessfu l l y carry out the trade.

There i s a general r e la t i onshi p between overal l 3 i ze and the

f unct i o n of the bu i I d i ng . For examp l e, s t orehouses and morkshops

mers,among the Iurgest buildings a t the forts, as i s qui te evident

from both the F G ~ Chipemyan and Fort Augustus (1) fo r t plan3 (Table

10.1). Rs d l , at many posts the l i u i ng quarters for the servants

cons i s t ed of 1 ong borrocks mh i ch mere part i t i oned into sma l l

suporate l iuing quartsrs.

The data presented i n Tables 10.1 and 10.2 indicate that there

TABLE 10.1

FUR TRADE FORT ARCH l TECTURE SUflflARY

-% FORT CtWmY FVCI( mTE ,PERlCRl OISTRICT FORT WIG. Btffi .BLDG

S t . a H.B.

S t . a ' H.B.

E p i m t t e N.U.

N.U.

D u w q m H.B.

Rrwcgen H.B.

& H.B.

Fork N.U.

St , b y ' s H.B.

notti- H.B.

H.B.

D l s t . H.q.d184U- t l lddlrs

Di-st. H.Q. 1899- La te

'fw 2' 1-23 Em ly

'fur 2' 1805- Ear 1 y

'fur 2' 1821-TT t l i d d l a

D i s t . H.Q. 1878-88 ' La te

' f t r 2' 1887-1918 La te

' f u r 2 ' 1792-18a)Etrly

'fu. 2' 1819-& Early

H i n t e r . P. 1 - a E m l y

Winter. P. 1815-21 Early

Chi- N.U. D i s t . H.Q. 18133-72 E r r l y A t h a . - - 1:

8 8

Chi- H.B. D i s t . H.Q. I=- I IAte rA-=. - 1 0 , m a la

Gmmmich H H.B., 'fur 3' 1- Early A t h a . - 1,255 3 4

Red Deer's

Post H.B. fur 2' 1819-20 Ecr Iy A t h a . - 3,[kEO 3 4

Lac La 0

Biche H.B. ' f u r2 ' 1873-0 La te A t h a . - - 6 5

Lac La ?

B i che H.B. 'fw 2' 1889. La te f t t h a . - 4,728 9 8

Lac La

B i che H.B 'fur 2' 18%- ' La te A t h a . - 3,070 7 6 r Pine F. Con. 'fur-2' 1768-94 Ea-ly %sk. 13,833 - 4 - F. Pe l l y l a H.B. Uintm:P. 1824- H i d d l e Sctsk. 14,400 4,312 4 b

F. Pelly 1b H.B. 'fur 2' 1831- H i d d l e Sask. 32,554 4,933 9 8

F. Pel ~y 2 H.B. 'fur 2' 1835- scl~k. - - 9 % - ' HuQan's H. H.B. 'fur 2' 1778-9 Ecr jy 5usk. 12,100 2,074 4 4 - R i v I we i

T&. N.U. ' fu.2 ' 1791- Ecrrly Sask., 29,W 2 , m 7 > -

F. Gaage N.U. 'fur 2' 1792-11000 b l y Sclsk. bO,= 7,413 Q - -1

, TABLE 10.1 (C0HT.I 1

B u d r i m H.0:

lhi te Emth H.B.

lhlte Emth H.U.

V i c t o r i a H.B.

fkxpstus 2 H.B.

fkqstus 2 H.U.

Auqscstus 4 H.B.

F)uglrstus 4 H.B.

Rodry,ll. H. H.U.

m y n. H. H.B.

~ d d y n. H. H.B.

H. , H.B.

'fw 2' 1792-18110 Early

'fur 2' 1810-13 Early* 'fw 2' 1810-13 €&ly

' fw 3' 18W-98 L a t e

'fur 2' 1801-10 Emly 'fur '2' 180 1- 10 Ear i y

D i s t . H.Q. 1846- n i d d l e

D i d . H.Q. lbl- , L a t e

'fw 2' 1799-1821 Emly 'fw 2' 1799-1821 E m l y

'Tur 2' 183561 lliddle

'fur 3' 1857-90 L a t e

tiotb: The above io ta , and a rch i tec tu ra l data i n othe tables, are

d e ~ i wed from: ., F ladmark 1976; Har r i s 1974; Pyszczyk 1 \ - ,84; Babcock

1984; Arnold 1972; Kark l ins 1983; H . B. C. B,39/b/16; u l tough and 9

llaccagno 1985; T o t t l e 1981;-Kl imko 1983; Clark 1969, 1 tlac0onald

1959; tlacGregor 1967; Hicks 1969; Hicks 1977; Steer

1973;' tlack i e 1968; Ranere ,967; K idd 1970; LOWJ e t a I . I 1 978. 1979, ,

-1 . 3 c

/ . T M t E 10.2

FORT ARCH i TECTURE AND OCCUPAT l ON - SUll t lARY DATA P

FPRT cmPIWfFWP1< CMTE PER100 DISTR. OFF. SER. O F F . SER.

SP. SP. 8 8 SPF\T

FT. FT. FPtS. FUtS. PROX

S t . Jclrw H.B. D i s t . H.Q. 1848- n i d d l e N. Gal . - - 2 1 SW-

S t . &aes H.B. D i s t . H.C. 1899- L a t e N.,Ca. -1,818 341 6 2 =P. E p i n e t t e N.U. 'fur 2' 4833-23 E a r l y . 1,190 294 3 1 Sap.

N.U. 'fur 2' 1-78 E a r l y A t h a . 918 331 4 1 SW.

,H.B. 0 i s t . H . Q . 1878-&5 L a t e P e o c e 1,552 300 S 1 %cp.

C k m q m H.B. 'fur-2' 1 8 9 6 1 9 1 8 L a t e A t h a . 1,552 300 S 1 SeP.

Fork N.U. 'fur 2' 1792-18QO k l y A t h a . 1,050 270 1+ 1 yep.

S t . ncry's t i o t t in#m

Ckdderkfn

Chi-

Grceenrich

Red W ' s

k L a

B i & e P.

Lac La

B iche P.

H.B.

H.B.

H.B.

H.B.

H. B.

H.B.

H.B.

H. B.

'fur 2'

U i n t e r P.

Min t& P.

D i s t . H.Q.

'fur 3-

'fur 2' .

'fur 2'

'fur 2'

P i n e F. GM P 'fur 2"

F. Pe l l y H.B. U i n t e r P.

F. Pe l l y H.B. 'fur 2'

m ' s l-buse H.B. 'Jur 2'

Riuiere

Trem. N U 'fur 2'

F. Ccrleton H.B. 'fur 2'

F. George N.U. 'fur '2'

WinghaP H.B. 'fur 2'

V i c t o r i a H.B. 'fw 3' +tUs 2 H.B. 'fur 2'

+tus 2 N.U. ' frr 2'

W ~ Y Ear l y

E a r l y

L a t e

Ear l y; . . E a r l y

L a t e

L a t e

1768-94' E a r l y

1824-- , H l d d l e

183 1- H i d d l e

1791-98 - E a r l y

1895-80 H i d d l e

1792-181X) EgFty

!792-1800 E w l y

I=-•÷ L a t e

1801-10 E m l y

1801-10 Early

5 1 sep.

1 1 sep.

1 1 a t t .

s 1-2 s@p.

0 0 a t t .

3 1 sep.

613 283 2 1 Sep.

1,120 300 ' 2+ 1 9 2 .

1 ~ 4 3 5 32U S 1-2 sep

365 72 2 1 a t t .

1,117 328 5 1-2 sep

1,m 348 2+ 1 sep.

1,338 389. 2+ 1 a t t .

TABLE 10.2 (CONT.

FT. FT. MIS. Riff. PROX

C

fhxpstus 4 H.B. D i s t . H.Q. 1m1- Late Sask. 5,293 315 9 1-2 sep.'

Aodsy nt . house N . k . 'fur 2' 1749-1821 Earl

RoduJnt. '

ticnu& N U . 'fur 2', 1799-1821 Earl

Rocky fit.

bxse H.B . 'fur 2' 1799-1835 Eml

at t : = att-; sep. = ~ t e

, Note: The above data, and a rch i tec tura l .da ta i n other tables, care

F l admark 1976; Harr i s5i 974; Pyszczyk 1984; Babcock derived from;

1984; Arnold

flaccagno 1985

1972; Karkl ins 1983; H . B . C . BS39/b/16; HcCullough and I

Tctt l e f981; Kl imko 1983; Clark 1969, 1971; HacDonald )

I

1959; JqcGregor 1967; t i i cks 1969; H i c k ~ 9 7 ; ~ ( e e r 1977; Hob l e 1973;

Ranere 1967; K i dd 1970; Losey et a I . 1978, 1979, 1980.

299 * f - - - - - -

i s contidewable w i a b i I i t y i n bo th bu i l d ing s i r e and the amount F- of

part it ioning found mi th in each bui lding. Often one room i n the 'r

bu i ld ing served a host o f functions and a c t i v i t i e s for the employees

h a g . , eating, sleeping, etc. 1. flt other for ts, hornever, 80th i

spec i f i c act i u i t y mas car r i ed out i n a separate room. Rs the degree.

o f i n t e r i o r bu i ld ing part i t ioning o r the number o f bui lding; far

spec i f i c functions increased, cost i n labour and materials also t

i ncreased. Larger bu i l d i ngs mere a I so more cost 1 y t o mai nt a i n i n !

terms o f heat i ng (cut t i ng f i remood) and genera I. ma i n t enance. - \

Arch i t t c t u r a 1 data', gat hered f rom the bar i ous f o r t p l an maps and 1

orchaeo I og i ca I remains dhow f o r t l ayout s and arrangements o f I \

' *

bui Idings (Tab-la 10.2). Jhe servants' quarters me& divided in to

separate compartment j, each conta i n i ng e fa. i I y or a number of s i ng l e

men. The s ize o f these compartmmts and the number o f people that

l i ved i n each var ied considerably. For example, i n 1810, Rlexander * %-.

Henry described the occupants i n each o f 10 houses at *opt Uerm i I 1 ion '

, (Coues 1897). Each house contained from one t o 18 people, the mean , > I

b, -, being 10.8 people per house. Some crowding mat evident af Fort =

A%

, Edmonton i n 1858 mhere i s 1$ separate houses the number of occupants

ranged from tmo t o 10, mith a mean o f 6.8 (RacDonatd 1959:79).

Cromd i ng occurred at Fort George mhere both the popu l at i on f i gures

, and the t o t a l arda o f housing fo r laboursrs are avai lable. -R t o t a l

o f 12 separaie compart ment s have been i dent i f i ed i n the

archaeological record fo r a popu l a t ion o f approximate 1 y 1 SO \

labourers, resu 1 t i ng i n 1 1 . 6 peop I e per comport ment . 1 P--

The men's quarters at 1 omer ' f o r t ttarry mere also simp 1 s, much

smaller than the o f f i c e r s ' quarters and many a c t h i t i e s t o ~ k place i n

one or t wo rooms (Thomas 1976). ' 0t her r e f ekences i n the fur t rode

j ouraa l a a l so i nd i cats t hat the men l i ved i n barracks- l i ke quart ers

ehich quite often had no internal part i t ioning, or only pa r t i a l

part i t i on i ng mark i ng each fam i l y ' s orea (89 l l ant yne 3 1889; Hussey

1975; HcTavish 1963; Code 1913). R t Fort E l l i c e (1860 - 1890) A i

bui lding construction, ' . . . ref lects the social s t r a t i f i c a t i o n between

o f f i cers, c l erks, t rodesum and I abourers' (Hm i l ton d 985: 369).

IlcTav i sh ' s descr i p t ion of the men ' s . l i v ing quarters at Vork Factory t

' r X ,

i s qui ts t yp ica lJo f many fur trirde'fbrts o f the.,period: - * \

\ d

. = = -

. . h i l e the exter0ior i s f a i r enough r i t h i t s \

?

minter porch, protected doors, the inside was >< somewhat o f a maze and more l i ke a rob6 i t warren i s supposed t o be, bath i n excess o f occupants.. . (1963:119).

Apparent l y then, l iv ing condi t ions at many of the fur trade

fo r ts were very crornded . Un f o r t unat e l y , t ha popu l at i on4 f i gurss for

other fo r ts are not avai lable, thus, more detai led comparisons o f

horn much room each parson mas a l l ot t ed are not poss i b l e. I n the

compar i sons undertaken i n t h i s study, i t i s assumed that each I i u i ng

compartment housed a minimum of one family. I

The proximity of the o f f i ce rs and servants t o each other also

var i ed cons iderob l y (Tab l e 10.2). The men and o f f i ce rs e i thsr l iued

i n one ma i n bu i l d i ng wh i ch mas part i t i oned or i n separate houses.

The de@e of separateness of the fo r t employees from aach other

.ou l d cart a i n l y have af fect ad the ovsra l l cost and labour i nuest ed

in f c t bu i l ding cbnst ruct ion and ma int enany; fo r examp l e separate A

kr i l d i ngs are .ore coat l y t o construct than bar~acks- l i k t

;+ 2% P - -- -

7 stwct urea . I . To &or j ze, a great dea l o f +ar*ch i t ect ura l construct i on

v a r i a b i l i t y can be&t r ibu tsd t o dif ferences that existed i n

occqmtional rank. Archi tectural v a r i a b i l i t y i s e i ther labour

i n t ens i we, m a t a r i a l cos i i n t ens i we, or ma i n t enance cost i n t ens i ve . These at t r ibutes, and t h e i r r o l w as status indicators t o denote

dif ferences butreen the occupational ranks are examined in a much

. - broader comparat i we context i n the fu r trade.

i- ARCH l TECTURAL UAR l AB l L l TY AND OCCUPAT I ONAL R A M

I n t h i s sect ion, I m i l l compare the arch i tectura l a t t r i bu tes of

the d i f f e ren t occupational ranks i n the fu r trade. I m i l l L

investigate how the r e l a t i v e rank o f the fu r trade f o r t a f fec ts

d i f ferences i n arch i tecture betmeen the o f f i c e r s and servants. I

m i l l a lso examine how r e l a t i v e dif ferences i n inequal i ty between the

o f f i cers and sewants af fected archi tecture by compar ing the housing

condit ions o f the t r o major fur trade co;panies. F ina l ly , I m i l l

exam i ne rhet her decreas i ng i ncome i nequa l i t LJ bat ween the o f f i cers -

d and servants i n the Hudson's Boy Company a f t e r 1860 had any,effect

on the arch i t ect ura l rema i ns . Y '

haeoloaical and H is to r i c Ouont i t a t ivc Datg

. The orch i tac t ura l quant i t a t i we data used t o exam ine the

hypot hesus regard i ng the r e i at i onsh i p bet ween occupat i ona 1 rank and

material cu l tu re in t h e - f w t r a d e a r e presented i n Table 10.2. 4

g Often, h o a w e ~ , theat data are insu f f i c ien t t o conduct s t a t i s t i c a l

t eat s of s i gn i f i cance mhen compar i sons are undertaken . Bu i l d i ng or

room d i wna i on3 from many s i t as are approx i mat i on8 s i nce there i s

I error i w o l ved in bu i l d i ng measurement from o ld h i s tor i c mops and

from the archaeo I og i ca l data. As me I I, the amount o f space for the

o f f i ce rs warms the seruants mas d i f f i c u l t t o determine pmcisely.

It mas assumed that each compartment i n the seruants' quarters

housed one fami ly, and that the o f f i ce rs ' quarter3 housed only the

chief trader or factor and h i s family. It i s apparent from the

h i s tor i c documents that the labourer quarters .ere almays more ti

c~omded and, therefore, the dbgree o f i mqua I i t y bet ween the ranks I

i s . 1 i kb l y much graat er than t hese f i gures suggest . Another major problem mith calculat ion of l h i n g space and

number of rooms i &O 1 ued i dent i f i cat ion o f one and t mo storey

buildings at the for ts . R t some of the mell documented fo r ts

(Dunvegan, Chipemyon, Edmonton, anduictor ia) , twostoreybu i ld ings ,

mere noted i n the records. A t other forts, such as Fort George, the

Big House arm probably a tmo storey bui ld ing judging from i t s size

and construct ion rema i ns. Uheneuer there mas any dobbt rhet her the

bui lding mai. one or tmo storeys, only the square footage and the 4

ntubsr o f rooms for one t torey mere calculated.

A l l the fw trade fo r ts used i n the compar i sons mere ranked

according t o thuir re la t iue importance in the fur trade. This

ranking syat em mas baaed on the funct ion o f the posts. . Four ranks

o f f o r t s mere recognized from ti18 h i s t or i c I it erat ure. They

include: 1 ) regional heudquarters, sewing important administrative

functions md contro l l ing the ac t i v i t i es posts

i n the region; 2) MIOF f u ~ trade and

q

operated by ch ie f traders i n the Hudson's Bay Company and by

l inter i ng partners i n the Mort h Uest Company; 3 l i nor -permanent P

outpo3ts ('fur 3') run by clerks; and, 1) wintering posts which mere

o f t en very t emporqry and very sma I I.

The di f ference between the ' fur 2' and 'fur 3' poats, however,

i s very minimal and, in most cases, the are t reated as the same

ranked fo r ts . T b d i s t i nct i on mas made b cause the ' fur 3' posts

mere inor i n importance and mere merely \ o tp03ta o f the larger

regional headquarters, such as Edmonton, i n the I at er fur trade

per i od. A more sens i t i ve measure o f the r e l ut i we econor i c

importance o f euch post i s the t o t a l bui ld ing area, This ranking of

the f o r t s i s less a rb i t ra ry and r e f l e c t s t h e i r economic r o l e i n the

fu r trade much more precisely. I n other mords, large fo r t s l i th

many b u i l d i n g s c a r r i e d o u t the t r a d e o f a l a r g e d i s t r i c t andmade +

large p r o f i t s , The t o t a l bu i ld ing area o f each f o r t should r e f l e c t

the i r econom i c r o l e and i mport ance .

L i v ina S ~ a w

The mean I i v i ng space (measured i n square feet ) mas est i mat ed by

ca lcu la t ing the auerage l i v i n g space fo r o f f i c e r s and servants from

a number of f o r t s i n eachbcategory. It i s qu i te evident that the -

di f ference i n the mean l i v i n g space betmeen the o f f i cers and the I-

sesvants i s considerable (Table 10.3). There i s also a strong ,&

%

re1 a t i onship bet ween f o r t rank and the r e l at ive amount o f d i f ferbnca 1

i n hous i ng cond i t i'ons . bet meen the o f f i cers and the servant 3. The

results indicute t h e the t o t a l living area for both the s9rymts

and the o f f i c e r s increases as f o r t rank increases (Table 10.3;

T F I B L E ~ ~ O . ~ I

1C- - -

COtlPARi SOH OF L lUlHG SPACE TO OCCWAT I& AH0 FORT RAHK = -. \

A. HEM 8. flEAH HEAH TOTAL OFFIC. SPWE SER. SPACE BLDG. SPACE

FORTRW(KIPER100 (Per Family) (Per FaaiIy) A - B --

A l l fo r t3 1 ,207 274 6,678 933 Uintering posts 207 137 2,161 70 fll l ' fur 2' posts 1,044 276 1,815 769 D i s t r i c t headquarters 2,653 373 18,624 2,282 H.U.Co. 'fur 2' posts 1,133 300 4,423 834 Early H.B.Co. posts 944 275 3,471 700

Hote: A l l measurements o f l i v i ng space are i n square feet.

. - Figure 10.2). U i t h the except ion o f ' fur 2' t o ' fu r 3' f o r t -

compor i sons, o f f i cers ' quarters are cons i s t ent l y l arger at h i g h e ~

ranked than at the h e r rank t s (Table 10.3).

Uhen the amount o f l i v i n g space fo r the servants and the o f f i c e r s

i s compared at the uar i ous ranked M s , the d i f fe~ences i n l i u i ng

space o f t hq t mo income 'gF'oups i ncrease as the rank o f the f o r t .--- --- , 5'2

increases; again, the dxcepfions are the 'fur 2' t o ' f u r 3' I

comparisons (Table 10.3; Figure. 10.2). Although the ~ s i z s of. the

men's quarters a l so increases as f o r t rank ,,i ncreases, the degree o f +

s i ze increase i s propor t ional ly less than i n the o f f i c e r s ' quarters

(Table 10.3; Figure 10.2). . ,

The s ize d o f f i c e r s ' quarters mas compared t o t o t a l f o r t size,

as expressed In , t o t a l bu i l d i ng area (F i gure 10.3) . The Pearson ' s

c o r m lat4 on co*f f i c i ent equa I I ed 0.89, and ind i cat es there i s a * 1

l inear re la t ionsh ip between the s ize o f the officers' quarters and

the r e l a t i v e s ize o f the f o r t . I n other mords, as f o r t s ize

increases so does the s ize o f the o f f i cers ' quart ers, regard less o f

f o r t rank (Figure 10.3). From these resul ts, i t i s tempting t o

suggest that I arger f o r t s needed more o f f i cers, exp l a i n i ng the .Q

increase i n the s ize o f the o f f i c e r s quarters; but the h i s t o r i c

record3 'i nd i cote other. i se . '3

The reon number o f separate rooms i n the o f f i cers ' quarters ma8

greater than in the seruants' quarters (Table 10.4). Such

d i f f erences bet weun the o f f i cers and seruont s . cont l nue t o become

greater as themnk o f the f o r t increases from mintering posts t o

acUmlIQ)#L - F i gure 10.2. Cornpar i son o f the mount of l i u i ng space per househ&

for the of f icers and the servants in the three major

fort ranks o f the ~"dson ' 3 Bay Company ond Hort h Uest

Company. Oat o o r e taken f r o i Tab l c 10.2.

Figure 10.3. Comparison o f f u r , t r a d e for t t o t a l bui ld ing area

t o the l iv ing space of the o f f i c e r s . I t should be

noted that when the o u t l i e r (c i rc ied ) i s e l i r inoted t h e

" R-uai ue drops t o 0.69 and the r e l a t i onshi p becomes 2 s l i g h t l y curvi 1 inear (data are derived from Tables 10.1

and 10 .2 ) .

a TABLE 10.4 P

COHPf4R ISOW OF HUI'IBER OF ROOHS AH0 SPAT l AL O i STANCE BY OCCUPAT IOH

OFF I CERS SERUANTS HEM HE AH SPAT I fU PROX I H l TY

A flHK 8 OF ROOHS OF ROOHS (Off i cers to Seruant s)

* All forts 3.6 1.5 24 separate - 5 attached All 'fur 2' posts 3 .2 1.5 12 separate - 3 attached District headquarters 5 .4 1.5 5 separate - 0 attached

I H.U,Co. 'fur 2' post3 3 .5 1.5 7 separate - 1 attached H.B.Co. 'f* 2 ' , eorly 3.0 1.5 4 separate - 2 attached Dunvegan 1 1 4.0 1.5 separate Dunvegan 2 5 .0 1.5 separat e

-r - - - --

- I , % '

d i s t r i c t headquarters (F i gum 10.1). F u r t hermore , mhdn sma l l - --

m i nt er i ng posts are cornpored t o the large d i s t r i c t headquart erd, the Y \

meon nwber o f geparote rooms i ncraases substont i a l,l y for the

o f f i c e r s but only minimally f o r the seruants (Figure 10.41. C

- S ~ a t i a l Proximity

fit the major i ty o f for ts, o f f i c e r s ' qwrter:, mere separate from

se rwn t r ' quarters (Tab l e 10.1) . The degrue o f &parat mess bet meen

the t mo occupat i ona l ranks i ncreaaes as f o ~ t rank i ncreasea [Table 'w

10.4; Figure 10.5). The se rwn ts ' quarters mere never attached t o -. the o f f i c e r s ' quarters a t the d i s t r i c t headquarters, attached 20

I

percent of the $ i r e a t - the ' fur 2' for ts, and approximately 66 0

percent o f the time at the minor wintering posts.

Hudson ' s Boy Comanu Usrws tior t h Uss t Com~on y %.

The above resu l t s support the hypothes i s that there i s a pos l t i ua

r e l at i onsh i p bet meen occupat i ona l bank and the quh l i i y' o f

arch i t ect ura l re ra i ns and l abour i w e s t ed i n donA ruc t i on. I n t ha

next comparisons, dif ferences i n the l iu ing conditions o f t h e -

occupat i ona l ranks o f the t r o fu r t rode corpan i as are exam i ned .to

determ i ne mhet her there i s a r e l at i onsh i p bet mean the degree of

inequal i ty and the r e l a t i u e di f ference i n the qua l i t y o f material

cu l ture. There should be a r e l a t i u e l y greater difference, in the ,

housing condit ions o f o f f i c e r s and seruants i n the Worth Uest Company

than i n the Hudson ' s Bay Company p r i o r t o 1 821 because d i f f erences i n 3

r e I a t i us arrd abso l ut e i ncame i nequal i t y o f the o f f Ccera ahd servants

mrs greater in t heL Hort h Uest Company. F i r a t , hoaeuer , the gene& l

F igurq 1 0 . 4 . Compor ison o f . the mean n u ~ b e r of rooms for t h e servants

and - 3 he o f f i cers by f o r t rank i n the Hudson ' s Bay

Company and the North Uest Company. Data bre taken

' f r m TabJes 10.2 and 10.4. j'

Figure 1.0.5. a-

A p m p a r ison of the number of t i k s (expressed

peficentagc) that the o f f i cers' quarters mere separate *

f r o m the geruonts' by ranks of al,>l fo r ts . -s,

~ b t a token from Tables 10:2 and 10.1.

- * --

d i f ferences i n l i v i ng cond i t i ons bet reen the ranks are exam i ned.

A comparison o f the o f f i ce rs ' and the men's'quarters i n seven

Hort h Uest Company f o r t s and teven ear l y ( pre- 1 82 1 Hudson ' s Bay

,Company forts, a l l of the same rank, was conducted. The mean house

3 i ze o f the' o f f i c e r s i s r e l at i we l y greater i n the North Uest Company \

(Table 10.3). A Student's t - test ' ras computed t o determine rhether i

the means &re si gn i f i cant l y d i f ferent . I t mas found that the mean I .

of f i cers ' l iv ing Apace i s not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t betmeen the tmo - fu r t rode compan i es (unpa i red t -ua l ue equa l l ed ,095) . The f i gures

a l so show that the mean s i zs o f seruant s ' quarters i s s l i ght ty larger

iv the Hart h Uest Company; t h i s may ,be more a r e f t ect ion o f C

density tffan rdnk. Rgain, horever, the resu l t s o f a, i

t - tes t comparison indicate tht these f igures are not

s i g n * f i c o n t l y d i f f e ren t (unpaired t-value equal led ,439).

The o f f i curs i n the H o ~ t h Uest Company had s l i ght l y more room;, i ere no

Xumbers

& the average, than t h e i r Hudson's Bay' CompayAounterpart s ( ~ a b 1; ' '

Horeuer, the resu l t s o f the Student '3 t - tes t shorn that t h e ~ e

s ign i f i can t dif ferences (upairedbt-ualue equalled ,258). The

The

bet reen

than in

o f rooms f o r the ~epuants o f the t r o companies mare the same.

degree o f d i f ference i n the s ize o f the l i v i n g quarters

the o f f i c e ~ s and the men i s greater i n the Nort h Uest Company

the Hudson's Bay Compony (Table 10.3). The di f ferences i n q

the numbers o f rooms betreen- the o'f f i cers and men i n the North Uest

Company are s l i ght l y higher t hon i-n the Hudson's Bay Company. Thc

data mere i nsu f f i c i en t t o carry out any s t a t i s t i c a l t es ts o f , r

s i i n i f i c m c e ( l o b i s 10.4). In the major i ty o f cases (seven out df - ,

eight t imes) in the Horth Usst Company, the o f f i c e r s ' quarters mere

separate from the men. ' They re re attached 50 parcent o f the t i me i n

the Hudson's Bay Coapany f o r t s o f the same rank (Table 1 0 . i ) . a

Therefore, o n l y these l a t t e r r e s u l t s v e r i f y the hypothesis that the

r e l a t i v e l y greater inequal i ty and dif ferences betmeen the o f f i c e r s

- and servants i n the Hort h Usst Company are represent ad i n the qua l i t s ~ . A

o f l i v i n g quarters, or degree o f separat ion between t ham.

Based upon the compar i sons, the assurpt i on t hat r e l a t i ue l y , *

a. ai

greattw occupat i ona l i nequa l i t y betheen the ranks 'in the Mort h Uest

Company i s represent dd i n l i v i ng cond i t i ons i s t enuous . Hosewar, the

trends i n the dot6 are consistent with t h i s in terpretat ion, although

they cannot be unequi voca l l y "shorn t a be beyond chance occurrence ilup - \ A ,

t q 3.0 l I' somp l e s i zes : These resu I t s a l so have some 'i mp l i cat i ons fo r

the next sect ion -- name l y, t hut t o t a l d i f ferences i n mea l t h bet-meen ,

t h i occupat i ona I-, ranks do not a l rays man4 f est t hemaa l ues i n

d i f ferences i n arch i t ectura l rema i ns bet reqn those ranks. l fi other

rords, the need f o r ' the ~f f icers t o display d i f ferences< i n rank i n

the Worth Uest Company mas m i n i ma I .

B

E C Q ~ O ~ ~ C bnd Social Trends

In the previous section, i t mas demonstrated that r e l a t i v e l y Bore- '

-7

t i r e and money ma3 spent on the construct i on o f the o f f i cars '

- quarters as the rank o f t Re f o r t i ncreasad or as the d i f f arences

betreen the ranks became greater. Thus, not on l y i s the r e l at i we

l, i .port ance o f the post r e f l ect ed 'i n the separut e occupat i ona l \

a rch i tectura l remains, but the r e l a t i v e importance o f those

indiuiduals in charge i 3 also re f lec ted i n the orchitectune o f the

f o r t s . Hoaever , the compar i sons bet reen the Hort h Usst C~mpany and

the Hudson ' s Bay Company l i u i ng cond i t i ons i nd i eat ed that d i f - f e?emes -

i n the abso l,ut e degree o f i nequa l i t y bet reen the o f f i cers and

aeruant s were on l y meak l y l i nked t o arch i t ect ura l d ! f ferences . Th i s

topic i s pursued further t o inuestigate theundertying reasons for - 0

t h i s uariabi l i t y .

The f i r s t propos i t ion t o be i nueat i gat ed s t at es that economic I

factors (wealth and p ro f i t s ) are responsible for differences i n the

arch i tect ura l rampins bet men the occupat i ona l ranks. Based on t h i s z C <

propos i t ion, i t i s expected that at the Hudson's ~ a ~ ' ~ o r n ~ & ~ . inland

forts, thedi f ferences inhous ingcondi t ionsbs en t h & f f p o n d . 'T the men should be greater bet mean 1821 - lo60 (because income

'

inequality mas the hi-ghest then) than a f te r this-period. The secdnd

propos i t i on st at as that soc i a l -pa i i t i ca I fact ors are respons i b l e for

d i f ferencss i n the arch i t ect ura l rema i ns bet metn the oc&upat i ona l 0 3

ranks i n the fur trade. Based on t h i s propos i t ion, i t i s expected

that the d i f ferences i n houa i ng condi t ions bet meen the o f f i cers and

the .en should be greater a f te r 1860 (because o f greater social i

di f ferent iat ion) ihan p r i o r t o t h i s date.

It mas very d i f f i c u l t t o f ind enough data t o examine the abow

prop03 i t i ons thorough l y . Arch i t ect ura l dot a mere co l l ect ad from : 1 )

s i x Hudson ' s Bay Company posts represent i ng the ear l y ( pre- 1 82 1 ) 'I

4

per i od; 2) three Hudson' s Bay Eompany post s represent i ng the i dd l e t

(1821 - 1860) period; and, 3) three Hudson's Bay Company posts

represent ing the - late period (1061 - 1900); these data are summari zed B

i n Tebles.10.5 and 10.6. The ~ e i a t i v e importance o f the fo r t s mas rr

I" kept con~tant by e l h i n o t ing both d i s t r i c t headquarters and mintering *

po9ts from the mspie. Fi rs t , the size of the o f f i ce rs ' and I S

TABLE 10.5

PER I OD, SOH OF HEAH LIU IHG SPACE BY T lHE MDSOH ' S BAY COHPANY FORTS

A B . C MflH HE AH HE AH

PERIOD BLDG. AREA OFF IC. AREA SER. AREA c + B B + A

I 2-

3

a EARLY 3471. 924 282 .31 i_ -27 n! DOLE 8262 1153 264 .23 . r t - LATE 3337 1020 191 .19 -31 DUNUEGFIN

(pre-1878) 6945 1240 33 1 .27 . l 0 DUNUEG AN

(po3t-1878) 7728 1552 300 .18 -20

, Hote: A l l ca lcu la t ions o f t o t a l area are in square feet .

TABLE 10.6 x . 5

C O A P ~ ~ R l SOH OF ROO~"%U~BER AND SPAT l AL PROX I A I TY, HUDSON ' S BAY COAPfiNY FORTS

6

OFF I C ~ S ' SERUAHTS ' OFF I CERSISERUANTS PER loo ~ E A N Roons ~ E A H ROOHS x QUARTERS ATTRCHED

II

\ A t

EARLY . 2.7 1 33.0 4

n I DOLE 3.0 1 00.0 LATE 3.5 1.3 00.0 OUHUEGAH ( pre- 1 878)" ' 5 . 0 1.5 00.0

DUHUEGAN 1

(pod - 1 878) 5.0 1.5 00.0

servants ' quarters i n the three per i ods mas compared by ca l cu l at i ng

the r a t i o o f the s ize o f the sewants' t o officers' quartarb for

each f o r t (Table 10.5). As t h i s r a t i o approaches one, the I iu ing

space o f the o f f 1 d ers and the servants i s becoming more equal.

The resu l t s o f the above compar i son i nd i cat e that the mean r a t i o

o f servants' t o o f f i c e r s ' l i v i n g space progressively becomes smal l e r

from the ear ly t o the l a te fu r trade period (Table 10.5). These

f igures suggest that the difference in the amount o f l i v i n g spoce

bet meen the o f f icers and the' servant s i ncreuses from the ear I y t o

the l a t e fu r trade period. Hornever, these resu I t s ara t ant at i va

since 'the sample sizes o f each period are r e l a t i v e l y smal I, and no

st'at i s t i ca I tes ts can ba comput ed t o det ern i ne mhet her the T

differences i n the r a t i o s by time period are s i g n i f i c a n t l y

d i f ferent . 7

' Comparison o f the percentageof the s i z e o f t h e o f f i c e r s '

quarters t o t o t a l f o r t bu i ld ings i n ' t he three time periods mith the

same f o r t sample also s u y o r t e d the above resu l ts . The highest mean

percent o f o f f i c e r s ' 6u i l d ing area t o t o t a l f o r t bu i ld ing area f //

pccurs i n the post-1860 f o r t sample, followed by the e d y and

b /\- middle periods, respect ively (Table 10.5). Even though the t o t a l

:( mean f o r t bu i I d i ng space decreased from the i dd l a t o the l at e R

4 period, the o f f i c e r s ' l i v i n g space remained r e l a t i v e l y the saee; Rs

' i n the former comparison, s t a t i s t i c a l s igni f icance tes ts could not

.be s a r r i eQ out.

4 The other tmo indicators o f housing qua1 i t y , t o t a l number of .I

rooms and degree o f pro@ m i ty, mere 0130 used t o axom ine the tmo

hypotheses mith the same sample o f f o r t s os i n the praviou? , - a - GZ

- * . - -fP -

compar i sons (Table 10.6). ' Them dot a, however, are i ncolq l el8 g t d - * of ten d i f f i c u l t t o compare and evaluate. The avai lab le f igures do

suggest that o f f i cers ' d n d ssrvant s ' quarters are a l ways teparat e i n

the middle and l a t e periods ond are attached more o f ten i n the ear ly

period (Table 10.6). The data suggest that there were r e l a t i v e l y

more room3 i n o f f i c e r s ' quartera' i n the r i d d l e and l a t e periods

(Tabla 10.6).

Ounvegan

'i

Dunuegan i s d i acussed i n more detai l becaum so much l nfornat ion *

and controt o f the arch i tectura l data are avai lab le f o r t h i s s i t e .

As we l I , Dunvegan represent s a un i que and perhaps idea l s i t uat ion t o

exaai ne the above hypotheses because it chansed in rank .., a f t e r 1877, i ' 1

from a fu r t r o d i ng and prow i s i on ing post t o the regional

headquarters o f the newly formed Peace Fliver 0 i s t r i c t . The f o r t mos /

almost e n t i r e l y r e b u i l t as a resu l t o f t h i s increase i n importance.

Such a rebu i I d i ng phase a l so occurred at Fort Edmonton i n the ear l y

18303, when it became the headquart era fo r the Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t e -

( flacbegor 1 967 : 4 1 ) . But un l i ke Edmonton, Dunvegan became a

d i s t r i c t headquart era when f u r t rode prof i t s mere o l ready beg i nn i ng

t o decline. Thus, increasing p r o f i t s from the fur t rade are not

re la ted t o i n eases i n expenditure i n archi tecture. Unlike the -

hey-day y e a ~ s 1821 - 1860s) o f the fu r trade, the investment o f

cap i ta l i n to the f o r t a t t h i s time would be p r imor i l y because o f i t s

nem l y acquired rank and status.

The compar i son of the arch i t ect UFO 1 rema i ns f roe Dunvegan before ..

and a f t e r i t became regiona I headquarters indicates that - the a i r e o f

the o f f i cers ' quarters increased by approx i mate I y 20 purcent , wh i l a - -

the men's. quarters decreased by about n i ne percent a f t e r 1878 (Tab l e

10.6). Uhat i s perhaps more i n t ere^ i rig i s tha t ~ u n v e ~ a n ' s ne.

prominence d i d not see. t o have made any d i f fe rence t o the q u a l i t y

o f the men's qu"art,ers, which remained on the o r i g i h a l i o r t s i t e , in 2

paor condit ion, wel l away from t h e new fac to r ' s house.

The s i ze o f the f a c t o r ' s h o u ~ e r e l a t i v e t o the t o t a l f o r t

bu i I d i ng area was 18 percent ' p r i o r t o 1877, but i ncreased t o

approx i mat e I y 20 percent ahen the f o r t becare reg i ona I headquarters

(Tab l e 10.6). The data a t For t Dunvegan are a l so adequot e t o *

examine hoa the fact o r ' s house s i ze increased r e l a t i vc t o other 1

..= new l y cons'truct ed i nd i v idua l bu i l d i ngs . The ney warehouses at the

, \

f o r t pepresented an increase o f approximately 15 percent i n s ize

(Table 10.6). On the other hand, t h t o t a l area o f the f ac to r ' s 9 !.

house increased by more than 20 percent - a d i f fe rence o f over f i uc

percent. These resu l t Sddmonst r a t e that more erphas i s mas p laced on

const ruc t ion o f the f a c t o r ' s house, l i k e l y because i t served as the

major s ta tus marker denot i ng the new import once o f Dunvegan and the dr

f ac to r . Therefore, flcDougall's Fcason f o r

bu i l dings a t the f o r t (because the o l d ones

whi l e not e n t i r e l y false, ray only be revea

Apparent l y, Rowand used the same reason i n

Edmonton (lacGregor 1 967 : 4 1 ) .

const ruc t ing new

r e r e i n d is repa i r ) ,

l i n g par t o f the s to ry .

1830 t o reconstruct Fort

A compur i son o f the qua l i t y o f the construct ion and bu i l d i ng

mater ia ls between the o l d and the new f a c t o r ' s houses at Dunvegan

cannot present l y be undertaken. I t i s possible, hoaever, t o examine/

the la ter w i o d factor 's house and othur f o r t buildings. .The --

qua1 i t y of construct ion i s madi l y apparent because the factor 's

house i s s t i l l stonding today. It i s a unique bui ld ing because,

un l i kq w s t o thw Hudson's Bay Cornpony buildings, it has dwe-tai led +

cornor notch i ng i nst sad ' of the vert i ca l post -on-s i l l t echn i que

trod i t i ona l l y uaad by the company. Th i s type of construct i on

t echn f que required mch more sk i l I, t im and l d o u r invest rent , b

4

Horeuer, no d i s t i nct ion mas made bet mean the factor ' 9 house l og

construct ion technique and the other new bu i l d i ngs at the f o r t .

Wchaeo logical i west i gat i ons conduct ad on the l at c r fo r t

warehouses and around the per i ra ter o f the factor 'a house indi cata

that more emphas i 3 on data i 4 and qua l i'ty i n construct ion are p l aced

on the factor's home, Four courses of sandstone for the mbrehouse I

foundat i on mere p l aced i n a trench about 30 c r be l om the surface

(Pyszczyk 1 986) . The sandst one f oundat i ons of the fact or ' s house,

howeuer, were at I east 75 c r deep, -being placed i n a trench that was

roughly 50 c r below the surface. A t least seven t o nine couraes o f .

s t one mere used, a l though s l i ght l y f emer mere used near the center

o f the r a l l s; homeuer, even at the center, the foundat ion was s t i I l i . of super i or con3t ruct i on t o that of the rarehouse.

To surrar i re, the archaeo log i ca l and docu~ent ary arch i t ect ura l

data from Dunvegan support the second hypothesis, that is, that the

additional investment of capital into for t bui ldings mas a d i rect

consequence o f the social and p o l i t i c a l atmosphere i n the la ter part

of the fur t rode, i n part i cu lor, the increased corpet i t i on bet meen

the o f f i c e r ~ o f UW~OUI for ts . The inuestmmt o f capital, pr imar i ly

in to the f o c t o r ' ~ residence, care at a t i r e mhen the fur trade maa

Qcl ining. - Additional inw;tment - mat ce r ta in ly not due t o m i n c rw te i n the p r o f i t s of the region. The same pattern i s euident

a t Fort S t . Janet, mh i ch mas a l so rebu i l t much more e l ab&t s l y ot a

time .hen the fur trode .ns declining (Harris 1979). A t Fort Pol ly

'overbu i l ding ' occurred dasp i t e the poor prof i t s that mere made . i n

1832, Simpson hod t o j u s t i f y keeping the post open t o the London

comm i t tea, a I t hwgh he mas not p l eased about the exce3s i we

expenditures by the o f f icurs :

. . . fr$m being merely a temporary Post, i t hos

3 " s ince then gqadually become one o f the most expen? i us permonent Est ab l i shment s i n the ~ount( .~, the d i f ferent Gentlemen mho have been \ n charge thereof exhaus t i ng the i r i ngenu i ~JJ and mast i ng means in elbe l l i shrent s and fanci fu l improuerents (HBCR, PAM, 0. 4/99, fo. 47d).

Sinpaon's 3tatement imp1 ias that regional p r o f i t s or fo r t function

mere cart a i n l y not the reasons for t h i s l au i shne3s

Horeuer, the Dunvegan bu i l d i ngs mere not as e l aborae as e i t her

Chipemyan or Fort Edmonton, for the simpl e reason that the new

. . d i s t r i c t mh i ch Dunuegan control led mas much sra l l ar and less 1

important. Thus, the size o f the factor 's house not only re f lec ts / the increose i n status a f te r 1877, but also the rank of Ounuegan

re la t i ve t o the other major d i s t r i c t headquarters - a rank rh ich mas

r e l a t i ue l y I omer and i n mh i ch l ess surp l ua mas i nuest ed t hon at the

large d i s t r i c t fur trade for ts . ,

%

The resul ts of t h i s chapter indicate that a l o t o f the

arch i tsc twal v w i a b i l i t y present in the l i v i n g quarters of ' the

d b f ferent company emp l oyeas could be accounted for by the

occupat i m a l d i f ferences and for t rank, The present study d

f i r s t a p p r o x i ~ t ' o n tomrds ident i fy ing theas re l a t ionships. U i th %r .ore archaeo l og i ca I i nuest i gat ions and co i l ect i on of ' rore raps o f

fo r ts i n restern Canada, these resul ts m i l l l i k e l y be refined. The

i mport once and s i gn i f i cance of the archaeo log i ca l arch i t ect ura l fur

tradd data i n par t icu lar are c lear ly evident i n t h i s study, since

these data make up most of the available data of the early period of .

the fur trade in meatern Canada. 'i

The major resul ts o f t h i s chapter include: * *

1. The number5 o f people are pr imari ly responsible for the amount of l i v i ng space required (Naro l l 19621, but. d i f ferences in insqua l i t y are w r y i rportant i n space requ i rerent s . f!ny

. accwate eat imates o f I iv ing space must therefore enaupe that the sample dram covem a l l soci oeconom i c groups m i t h i n the par t icu lar culture.

\

2. There i s a pos i t i we r e l at i bnh i p betmeen an i ncrease i n f o r t - rankandaproport ionol lygreoter investment o fmeal th i n t h e

4 .

bu i t d i ngs of the upper actupat i ona l ranks, regard l ass 'of , whet her those ranks mero considered t o be equal . The l i u i ng ( quarter3 qf o f f i ce rs from di f ferent sized f o r t s also are d i f ferent i n $ is . Homeuer, the qua l i ty a t t r ibu tes (e.g., l iv ing space, part i t ioning, construct ion. qua1 i t y ) o f the l abourert ' quart ers i ncreased on ! y s l i ght I y , regard l ess of t h e rank o f the fort.

3. The r e l a t i on& i p bet meen the degree o f econom i c i nequa l i t y and *

d i f f w w c e s in wchi tectwe betmeen the incoro groups i s meak. C.

There mere diff,srences I n the l i v i n g ccmditiona o f the two - --

ranks o f t& t i i o f u r trade companies but; on a large scale -

cpmpar i son, they meri, not subat ant i a I . . I bh quest l onab l e whether the mean d i r e ob the o f f i c s r s J quwters i n the Worth Mest Company'mas almays s i g n i f i c a n t l y larger. Simi,lar resu l t s a r e evident mhen compiw ing the number o f r o o m and the degree o f proximity between the l i v i n g quarters o f the ranks."

1. There mas a meak r d l a t i onsh i p betwen the need t o *

d i f f e r e m i a t e ;tatus and the dif ferences in l i v i n g condit ions * betmuen t h e ' i n c o k groups ut thd fu r trade forts: The

d i f f erencd i n l i u i ng space be t ween the 't mo ' i ncome groups i n the Hudson's BayaCompany mas.kelativelg- greater in the ' late per i od. Thu- conpar isons'of nlmber: .of +tiom and degree o i ' LL

prox i l it y bet meen t hp s e r ~ a n t s. arid o f f i cers' i n the three p&iods also yietdedaeak resul ts .

* . . D

5. A t . Dunuegan, even i n a dec l i n i ng fu r trade dcono my, there qas general l y g ~ e a t a r di s t i nct ion i n archi tectura B rema i n8 betreen o f f i c e r s and#& i n the l a te r fu r trod; than. a,t any ,

other time. These pesults'support the soc ia l / po l i t i co l compet i t ion mode I , but i t rema i na uncert a i n whet her t he38

+ d i f ferences indicate a need fbr .the o f f i c m s t o d i s t i ngiri sh- t hemse l ves from the men, or whet hew they i nd i cot e internal ,

I regional competit ion between the of f ice& o f d i f f e ren t f o r t s and d i s t r i c t s .

- CHAPTER 1 1

UAR I AB I L 1,TV I H THE STRUCTURE OF IlATER l AL CULTURE

, .: there i s. a far-reach i gg s i l i l o r i t y bet meen the members o f the speech community, not only i n t he phonemic system, the uocabulary and * t he grammar, but a l so 4 n the fre-y n / mc o f pa r t icu 1 o r phoneme;; l ex icon i tens (mords ) and pa r t i cu l o r grammat i ca i forms and structures; i n otherwmords, a s i m i t a r i t y not on ly in &t i s used, but a lso i n h w often - i t i s used (Herdan 1966:lS; emphasis mine).

w-'

I NTRODUCT l ON

4 \

the l as t fem chapters, I h a w argued that I

under c,er t a i n

past cu l t ura l soc ia l and economic condit ions, mater ia l goods i n

systems abe de l i berate l y and consc i ous 1 y chosen t o ca r ry out soc i a+ -

(.

s t r a teg i es. The goods used t o per form such r o l es can d i f f er i n type

. o r i n funct ion, b u t o f t e n they d i f f e r i n t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s ta tes .

The amount o f constra i n t o r f ree cho i ce i n the s t l ect i on of any t 0

p a r t i c u l a r a t t r i b u t e state, b y 4he maker and/or user, could d i f f e r

betreen u t i l i t a r i a n versus n o n - u t i l i t a r i q n a t t r i b u t e s . Suppose, fo r I

example, t ha t the frequency o f choice o f men's s u i t -s ty lesa i n 1970

mas corput ed Xrom a cross-sect i on o f the popu l at i on and

manufacturer% I n a l l l i ke l ihood : 1 ) one or two s t y l e s (o f t en the

nemest r ou l d be chosen frequent l y by consuiers ; 2) one o r t wo su i t

s t y l e s wau i d be chosen -very o f t en by many s u i t manufacturers. 23n 2 the other hand, the frequency of'manufacture o r consumpt ion o f more - ut i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s (e.g., va r iab i l i t y i n s ize) o f s u i t s mould %. .L ,

show less purposeful se lec t ion an'd greater v a r i a b i l i t y . L

.+

I t mould be p r a f i t a b l e then t o invest igate mhether such a a . 7 2 .<.. 2 ; .

, se lec t ion process o f a t t r i b u t e states, used i n soc ia l 'commun-ication, * U f

> i", L *

d i f i e r ~ from those a t t r i b u t e s chosen t o ca r ry out p r i mar i l y '

4 *

u t i l i t a r i an funct i ona l ko l es . Such poss i b l e d i f ferences bk t ieen . - 4/

C

Z '

. u t i l i t a r i a n and n o n - u t i l i t a r i ~ n ( n i b u t e s i.p~ies that $eY each .

. ".* .- may have a d i f f w e n t 'qbant i t 0th ve s t r uc t ure . Th i s s t r u c t w e may

V - have very - 1 it; l e t o do .with how sany d i f f e r e n t a t t r i b u t e s are used

- - but r a t her horn o f t en they are used -- a concept t ha t i s r i m i l o r t o

s > pr i nc i p 1 es der i ved f rom i n f ormat i on theory (Shannon 1 949 ) ond

U stud i es .conducted i n ant hropo l ogy and archaeo 1-pgy (Kroeber and

+ Richardson 19$0; Clarke 1%68:165-183; Justeson 1973; Hoyden 9 and '

Cannon 1 98+) . This chapter m i l l explore the possib le d i f fe rences i n the

s t ruc tu re o f u t i l i t a r i a n versus n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s o f -- -

mater ia l c u l t u r ~ . fl great deal o f the r e s e a k h i n t h i s d i sse r ta t i on - .

i s based on the assumption tha t s ta tus goods are used i n soc ia l

communication; Their a t t r i b u t e s should, therefore, bear some of. the

same s t ruc tu ra l c h a r a c t e r i s e as language i n terms o f 'choice' or

'chance' i n t h e i r frequency o f use (Herdan 1966) p r i m a r i l y because: c.

1) u t i l i t a r i a n versus symbol i c a t t r i b u t e s should funct ion i n

d i f fe ren t ;ays; and, 2 ) soc iq l s ta tus var iab les are more se lec t i ve

'and, theref&e, more redundant i n the system. I n the remainder o f

t h i t chapter, informat ion theory, wh i ch can be used t i examine the .

quant i ta t ive s t ructure o f each t@e d f a r t i f a c t at t r ibute; i s I

h i s t 0.r i c European c l ay p i pea. appl'ied t o

TO STYLE

basic character is t ics and pr inc ip les o f informatidn \

introduced. t o demonsirat e hom they can be app l i sd t o the theory are

formal and

pipes.

n o d forma I ' va6 i at i on found i n. European h i s t or ic c l ay

. I nformot i qn theory i nvest i gat es the quant i t a s t ruct "re o f

, commun i cat ,. i onP(Shonnon 1949) .- 1 nformat ion theory5 was app I i ed t o F---

language t o establ ish mhether language hod--a complex coding syster

that can be expressed mothematicaily, alloming missing parts o f the

message t o be occurat e l y predi c t ed (Herdan 1 966 : 259 . Commun i cat i on and i nformat i on mere not cons i dered t o be a random

, coabinat ion o f l inguist i c uni ts, but have a predictable structure.

tnf ormat i on theory exam i nes how much and hom we l I potent i a I ' 1 .

d i v e r s i t y and information i s u t i l i z e d . As such, the theory i s ideal

t o determine mhether u t i l i t a r i a n and non-ut i l i t a r i a n a t t r i bu tes

d i f f e r .in s t ructure i n theird;oding system by observing both the '.

d i v e r s i t y of, and constraint in, the s l l e c t i o n o f o t t r i b u t e 'states.

Entropy and redundgncy measure bof h d i vers i t y and coast r a i rit i n

-? -selection o f a t t r i b u t e states. They are analogous t o conscious or

deter i n i s t i c choice o f some elements over others, as opppsed t o t random var i ab i l i t y or chonce select ion o f elements . According t:b

& - - - -- - -

The convent i ona l i n t erpret a t i on o f , information-theoretical concepts e A- l i k e &,, en F

Y and redundaticy i s invar iably i n terms o f t h e i r importance for guessing at missing

0

par ts o f a message.. . .As far as thed .. components o f o physical' system are separate,

- , e I , in act ion o r posit ion, me speak o f an

'o&d state' o f the system; as fa r as they ore mixed or shuffled, me speak o f the entropy o f the system. Entropy i s the legi t imate measure of,the,degree o f mixing of - the components, 06 o f t he rondom e l ement

" . ( H e r d a d 966 : 264) .

~edunddnc~ i t, ' . . . the property ah i ch enab l es us t o use the

s t a b i l i t y of the r e l a t i v e frequencies for making guesses as t o I

B i ss i ng par ts of the message m i t h a reasonab l e degree o f expectat i on

t o be correct ' (Herdan 1966:263). a

1

Uhen these concepts mere app l i ed t o the s t ructure o f the

frequency o f l e t t e r s i n the English language, fo r example; i t mas - found that Engl i sh exh ib i ts entropy, a l loming d i s t i n c t ion or good

t

mixing i n vocabulary. It also hm redundancy, a l loming a cer ta in

degree o f p r e d i c t a b i l i t y and an increased e f f i c iency o f the

informat ion code (Herdon 1966:278). R high degree o f entropy - $>.P -

indi catss the equal probab i t i t y o f any e l event occurr f6;i.g, or a high

degree o f rondom v a r i a b i l i t y o f elements i n the s t ructure o f the -

subsystem. A greater amount o f redundancy, there fore, i nd i cat es -- i.

t h e i r occurrence. The c h o k e o f a t t r i b u t e states i s

yobob i l i t y gradient or de l i b w a t d se l ect ion o f some

o f ten than others. I introduce h e a t h e basic calcu \ \

entropy H , and i t s ornosite, redundancy 'R':'

.ore choice o f ce r ta in elements and thus a higher p red ic tab i l i - t y ' o f I - , A

governed by a

a t t r i b u t e s more - -

' R ' - 1 - H +

The ca 1 cul at ion o f entropy i s based upon a b i nary cod i ng system - -

(Herdan 1966:261) . The funct ion 'H" measures " the amount o f -% a'

uncertainty there i s in acquir'ing information i n the %stem based - upon the binary gode. 'H" measures information content assuming

b

that each o f the elements has an equal p robab i l i t y o f occurrence,

tkerefore, being more or ,less r a n d o m i ~ d i s t r i b u t e d i n the

0 * i

C 4 . . .we may say that fl' i s a measure of

uncertainty . in the choice o f phonemes i f a l l the phoheres arc equally l i k e l y . I n 'other

& words, 'i f there i s no constraint what soever

e * i n choosing a phoneme t h e i r uncertainty is

* . given by H' ( ~ d d a n 1966:263).

11

t F " *

"Based on the dyadic logarithm, or log base 2 : . H' = ( I d r )

rhere r = the length OF r a x i r u r rank of the series, and

I d = the dyadic logqr i th r .

The average actugl amount o f information per symbo - -&-

"? - the r e l a t i v e f requenc i i~ - -d f symbols, expressed as H, i s

I, base$ on

based gri the - k

sum o f the average negat i ve dyad i c l og o f the r e l at i ve frequendi4es

o f each symbo I: I I I

b

ihere: I d = the dyadic logarithm,

pi = the pel at i ve frequency of the i t h symbol . (3

The sum o f 'pi I d p i - o f a l l symbols i s the raximum average I

G..

information. H.measures the amount of uncertainty i n the se lec t i on -

o f any element bosed op the fact, i f :

, . . soae phonemes are used cons i s t ent I y mom 9 - o f ten than others, mhich i s ids t o a grbdient

. -T o f - Grobab i 1 i t i bs character i s t i O for%a g i ven I anguage, then the use o f phonemes i s, apart from chance f I uctuat ions, governed by that gradient o f probabi l it ies, and the uncertainty attached t o any one phoneme i s nom measured by H (Heidan 1966 : 263).

_ - The r e l at i ve ent ropy 'h' i s comput i d by d i v id ing the average

amount o f information, 'Ha, by 'Y", or : " ' - 1

. 5 h = H + H 9 . -%,

Re l at i ve &tropy (H + H ' ) measures t o .hat extent e uncertainty i n

the use o f elements has beem reduced through the gra ient o f F: / P

probab i l i t i es act i ng a? a coastra i n t up5n t5e free chance o f :A

e 1 ement s (Her'dan 1 966 : 263) . The i nuerse o f r e i a t i ve entropy, redundancy, i s measured by:

- -

R - 1 - h -

and measures the stab i l i t y o f the r e I at i ve frequencies fo r mak i ng

guesses at the i ssing p a w the message. *

e -

I f , fo r example, 20 ceramic design elements re re found a t an

a r c h ~ i c a l s i te , the amount o f potent i a l uncertainty o f # . I

information, given no constraint i n choice or assuming ,that each

design element has an equal p robab i l i t y o f occurring, i s H ' = 1.32."- li a r:

b x t , "H i s calculated t o determine hos much uncertainty in choice o f " -

elements mas present, based on the actual frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n of

e t m n t s . In t h i s example, H i s equal t o 4.22. The r e l a t i v e

entropy (1.22 + t . 3 2 ) isaequal t o ,9769. This f igure indicates tha t

- - -- - -- -- -- - - - k .. --

I

t h e a m o u n t o f u n c q r t a i n t y i n t h e u s e o f e l e m e n t s h a s n o t b e d n I . -+ -

reduced very much. There i lC;, t t 1 e constraint or consc i ous cho ice .;

, 2 o f some elements more s f tan than others, suggest ing a high degree o f

mixing and random chpice o f csrbmic design elements.

To s u r a r i ze, e 1 a t i ve entropy (h) and redundancy (R) are .i sefu l t o examine t e s t ructure o f u t i l i t a r i a n and non-u t i l i t a r i an .

--

li t t r i but es o f mat em/ a l goods. Re l a t i ve entropy measures the amount

o f mixing and dy~amics o f a t t r i b u t e states o f material goods i n any %

system. A low 'h' and high redundancy indicates a high amount o f

const r a i n t p t aced on chance use o f

redundancy i s an ind icator o f h igh

chance use,of elements.

elements. -A high 'h', and lorn

dynamics! and iiix i ng ahd high ,

APPL I CAT I ON AND RGULTS P

' .? d

i

The f i r s t quest ion t o be consfdered i s horn the structure $f --

material cu l tu re used i n social strategies d i f f e r s from other '.".

a t t r i bu tes o f material cu l tu re , I f some a t t r i bu tes of items are

re la ted t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o be used as au i ' d ib le social la~quage .to "AP '!

express dif ferences i n status, then the range o f v a r i a b i l i t y i,." ' 7

the i r form or des i gn i s l ess dependent on funct i on. U3 i ng /

i ,

pr inc ip les o f informat ion theory: r * a * - ' : *fZ--4 - , *1 - L.

HI : the quant i t o t ive s t ructure o f status-related nan-ut i I i tac lan

clay pipe a t t r i bu tes should be more s imi la r t o the d r u c t u r 4 -

o f language than u t i l i t a r i a n --- - c lay bipe a t t r ibu tes ;

- - H2:Xhe non-functional a t t r i bu tes o f h i s t o r i c c lay plpe; (em$, -

-

. - * -

pipe stem. length) should haue a ~ r o p o r t i o n a l ly-greater range B

of uar iabi l i t y and character ist i cs o f informat ion structure, -

r e l a t iue t o funct ionatp-tpe a t t r ibu tes . --

- - Next, what fact ors i n the cu l t&a l system are respons i b l e fo r

an increase o r decrease i n the use o f such dttr i butes o f ,some , \

mate^ i a l goods by members o f society? I f members o f soc i et y a t - tempt

t o more c lea r l y define t h e i r role; and ranks through v i s i b l e forms - -

o f coimun i cut ion, then the ut tr i but e range o f mat e r i a l goods a i l l I >

correspond c lose1 y t o the number and importance o f ro les and ranks. -

Given t h i s r e l a t ion3hip:

HI: as class consciousness increases i n the l a t t e r part o f the fu r

= I trade, long stpmmed pipes should be used-lace frequently by

the o f f i ce rs . #

I V

1

net hod

It i s d i f f i c u l t t o apply information theory t o h i t t o r i c

a r t i f a c t s and a t t r i bu tes because mass-production el iminates a l o t o f -

the var ia t ion i n a t t r i b u t e choice. Homeuar, h i s t o r i c si;teenth t o

n i net eent h century European c l ay p i pes mere mass-produced f rom mo l ds

made by each craftsmen (Osmald 1975). E a c h m m o l d and the

consequent p i pe form and des i gn ma? created by i nd i v i dub l p i pemaker , \

- a l l o a i n g c h o i c e a n d u a r i a b i l i t y inmanypipeat , t r ibutesouer t i l a -

and spocl. This uar iabi l i t y i n sty1 i s t i c a t t r i bu tes i s q u i t s I

evident when the aany types o f h i s t o r i c pipes produced in England

are examined. I n t h i s analysis, o sample o f c loy pipes was selected '

r -- --

v * . t h a t 'represents 'as many i nd i u i duo l p i pemakers as poss i b l e . Th I s was

f%

acoompl ish.b5by eeferr ing .to ~ s w o ~ d ' s (1975) study o f Bcit ish c lay i. 7 *

pipes manufactured f r o r the sixteenth- t o the nineteenth-centuries i n '

Eng l and.

Next, the u t i l i t a r i a n qnd non-u t i l i ta r ian c lay pipe a t t r ibu tes ' I

were se lected from t h i s sample. Oswald i l l uatrates the pipe bowls r

f o r u a ~ i o u s B r i t i s h makers ( t o scale) and notes t h e i r design

at t r ibutes; these data a l low the quant i f icat ton o f both design v-

element f r e q u e n c i ~ . a n d pipe bowl s ize a t t r ibu tes . The d i f f i c u l t y 6 .

w i t h mass-producedb eot s, howeuer , I i es i n the cho i ce of

a t t r ib i r tes that t r u l y r e f l e c t a u t i l i t a r i a n function, g s opposed t o . 9

those t hot are pure l y non-ut i l it a r i an i n n%t ure . A l though numerous -- pipe a t t r i bu tea exist , only three u t i l i t a r i a n and three

non-ut i l i t a r i a n pipe a t t r i bu tea were selected.

The u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i bu tes chosen are: 1 ) pipe bowi aperture

width; 2) bowl Iengh; and, 3) pipe bowl heel width (Figure 11.1).

These p i pe bow l s i ze at t r i but es have few knoan symbo l i c,

i con0 1 og i crr I connot a t i ons h i s t or i ca l l y . They represent pr i mar i l y

u t i l i t a r i an purposes - fo r carny i ng out amok i ng, a l though sgme of

the s i z e ~ v a r i a t i o n may be due t o other factors (as, fo r example, in 5

c lay pipe stem length which w i l l be examined ,later i n t h i s chapter). 0

? -

The non-u t i l i t a r i an a t t r i bu tes chosen are: 1 ) pipe bor l 'hes l shape;

2 ) bowl shape; and, 3) cartouche (aaker ' s mark) design element -

(Figure 11.1). Uariat ion . in these a t t r i bu tqs represents no other . . 8.

funct ion bes ides a symbol i c on o r t o carry i n format i on about the 0, - indiv idual maker and h i s prpduct ; the cartouche or maker's mark

-

Aper t ure

CARTOUCHE DES l GN

B o d Heal Uidth (mm)

i s especial ly iaportant f o r t h i s purpqse. -- - _ _ -

The frequency d i s t r i but i ons o f the p i pe bom I aperture m i dt hs, L- - .

, boml .lengths and heel midths, taken from70smald's (1975) survey o f - -

differen t . rakersU pipes, are presented i n Tables 11.1, 11.2, and

11.3&pendix A) . These a t t r i bu tes mere measured i n mil l lmetres,

and then grouped in to one l i l l imetre c lass i nterva 1 s. Bo th H ' and H

mere computed and the r e l o t ive entropy (h) and redundancy (R) mas ~

G

0

calculated. (Tables 11.. 1, i 1.2, 11.3, Appendix A ) . The r s l a t ive

entropy i n a l l comparisons mas high (ranging from ,8445 t.o ,8993) b

and the redundancy mas 1 om (ranging from ,1007 t o . l S W ) (Tab 1 es '

11.1, 11.2, 11.3, Rppendix A). -

A s i r i l a r procedure mas used t o exam i ne t hi6 a t t r i b u t e states -

for boml shape, heel shape and cartouche design (Tables 11.4, 11.5, a

The nimbers o f bom I and heel 'shapes, as me 1 1 as

lements are almost t n f i n i t e . Only the very basic C

three $i$ensions of boml and heel shape mere F4o Q

selected ( s e e ~ ~ i g u r e 11.2).' I n a s imi la r f a ~ h i o n , only the very

b ~ s i c cartouche design elements, consipt ing o f c i rc les , 1 ines, or x.

t n ~ m r i ~ f o r m '(e.g., stars, anchors, be1 Is, e tc . ) mere selected

(Figure 11-.2). %

Ca l cu l a t ions o f r e I at i ve entropy and redundancy on the 4 P

non-u t i l i t a r i an pipe bowl a t t r i bu tes d i f f e red from thq u t i l i t a r i a n *

- a t t r i bu tes (Tables 11 .4, 11.5, 11.6, FTppendix A ) . The r e l a t i v e

0

entropy i nd i ces (h ) for, a l l t h r e e p t t r i but es mare I oaer t hati t hoae

of the u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r ibu tes , ranging A from ,6497 for the cartouche

Figure 11.2. Cloy Pipe 8081 Heel Shape, B o ~ l Shape, and Cart oucke Des i gn E l eaent ~ ~ ~ e ; : Oat a t aksn

h &

from Oama I d ( 1 975 : 44-89) . i*' %

f * v .

% - Ti

- - - - - *:;

designs t o ,6996 "for the p i pe hee l shapes. - The redu dancy fo r each . 2 of these a t t r i bu tes mas higher than'the u t i l i t a r i a n a t t F i b u t K +-

&

ranging from ,2009 fo r t h bbrf shape at t r ibutes, t o ,3503 for the -- d

4

cartouche design a t t r ibu tes . Only a fsm non-u t i l i to r ibn design

elements mere selected more often, resu l t i ng i n a steeper \

probab i t i t y grad i ent .and r'ml a t i ve I y l omer

constraint on chance use and select i on o f

language, the semant i cs o f those elements

t h e i r syntax ( the quant i t a t ive d t u r e )

from non-formal pipe boa l

ARCHAEOLOG S CAL

&

entropy, *There . . i s more

these a t t r ibu tes . As i n .

have no rea l meaning ,. but

has a pat tern d i f ferent #

at t r i but es (Chomsky t975) . I ' '

l HPL l CAT l ONS AND RPPL I CAT I ON

- -

3 The i mp l i cat ions that i nformot i on theory: has fo r mat er i a l

cu I t ure concerns the add i t i ona l embe I l i shment and de l i berate cho i ce

o f a r t i c l es mh i ch are used fo r soc i a l messages. The one feature '

v

that a l l var ia t ions i n formal a t t r i bu tes o f material cu l ture have-in

common, regardtess of the purpose fo r which they are used, i s that

some a t t r i bu tes states are selected more of ten than others. This i s

one o f the underlying p r inc ip les o f s t y l e as opposed t o a r e l a t i v e l y

more random select ion o f a t t r i b u t e states found i n purely

u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e states. ,

Information theory i ! lustrates th'is d i f ference in the j tgucture

o f the tmo types o f a t t r i bu tes found i n materibl goods. The

se lect ion o f some formal a t t r i bu tes i s r e l a t i v e l y mom constrained

than the u t i I i t a r i a n - o t b i b u t e s , ihus potent i a l l y a l l o r i ng the

I

i con0

mat er

logicol a t t r i b u t e &c$csused i n communicat ing . in format im i n - ,

$ . .- , t

i a l cu l ture t o b e i d e n t i f i e d archqeolpgicafly ( ~ r i e d r i c h - 1970).

I t olso confirms th&status items and iconological s t y l e yere being

used2bas part o f an e f f i c i ent commun i cat i on' system. These resu l t s e

ore d i f f erent %&om ~ u s t eso" ' s ( 1973) use bf i nformat i on t he&y

app l i ed ;o t~ dcs i gn e t e k n t 5 of-\pot t ery recovered from ihe Jai n t , *

Site, TI w e h i s t o r i c Pueblo i n east central Arizona.' + + *f - - 4

\

According t o Jmt eson, i n f o r i a t ion i s ' . . , measured formal l y on - - -

the basis o f a t t r i b u t e contrast ' (1973i.131). Jus teso~uses the . . dc

entropy fynct i on tvasur;e the amount o f i nformat i on i n Puebl o-' -&-

p o t t d y design elements, + d imglying that the higher the r e l a t i v e

entropy, the greater the amodnt.of information i n the design . ' b ' k

eleasnts or 'dynamics' o f the system. High entropy simdlY i m b l ies - -

equa 1 probab i I if y i n the &currence o f d l 1 e l ement s. Thus, Ju teson * 9 has shomn a more or less random select ion o f pot tery e l ement s m h w - '

rea l l y hawe no under l y i ng quant i t a t i we structure; they may on 1 y

3 i gn i fy random processes at mork i = Q

9

' ADD / i cat i ons . '7 - !94

!nformation theory should apply t o other a r t i f a c t types (e.g., - - B

buttons, s h i r t designs, s i luermore, cera-mics, e tc . ) mhich have o va'ri-ety of . u t i l i t a r i a n - and npn-u t i l i t a r i an a t t r i b u t e s t a t e s . 1,rill

conc l udc t h i s khapt er by app l y j ng i n f ormat i on theory- t d e l ay p i pes ,\

i n a h j s t o r i c and archaeological context. Unfortunately, because o f a,

the precis ion of the data, t h i s analysis m i l l be prel-iminary. I

ri l l examine the wbconscious choice a f i a t t r ibu te states versus

consc i ous cho i ce and the poss i b I e archaco 1 og i ca 1 corre 1 a t es m i t h

c lay p ipe stem length from f u r t rade assembl6ges~

If m i l l be reca 1.1 ed t ha t c l a9 pipe s t ems became almost o metre

long by the end o f the e i ght eent h century (Pyszczyk 1983). A1 though "

p ipe stem length became shor ter a f t e r t h i s date, longer stemmed ye

pipes mere s t i l l used, and as before, mere associated mi th s ta tus g m -

d i f fe rencss i n Europe as w e l l bs no r th Rmerica. ~ n f o r t u n a t e l y , 'clay

p ipe stem lengths mere not r e ~ r d e d by Osia l d (1975) or Udl ke r C

(1977), making i t impossi-ble, f o r example, t o conduct an information - anal ys i ;' compar i n9 s t em l engt h frequency d i s t r i but i ons before - a and-' "

a f t e r stem length became s ta tus \ O re la ted . Conceivably, however, i f

the range i n p i pa- stem length a t r i b u t e s ta tes ' changed, o higher H ' ? and H mou I d occur,

The d i f ferenees tha t mou l d occur i n entropy and redundancy mhen 4

3 - e 1

p.ipe stem length changes from a u t - i I i t a r ion Po a non-ut i,l i t o r ion P

r o l e are i l l u s t r a t e d .ith a hypothet ical example (Toble l C 1 . 7 ) . The

frequency d i ?t r i but i o n i i n u t i l i t a r i an p j pe s t em 1 engt h 'mou l d be r'

,." more. o r ' less rando i l d i s t r i but ed arpund the mean. Such a f requericy

&tr i but ion would have a h i g/l r e 1 a t i'ue entropy and a -1 om a

I P S

redundancy, showing l i t t l e quan t i t a t i ve s t ruc tu re o r coding

s f f i c i ency; - Greater ss l ect i on o f some p i pe st2;. l engt hs over others

. shou l d resu l t i n the frequency d i s t r i but i on becom i ng skemed (Tab l e

1 . 7 There i s grebter const ra in t i n the se lec t ion o f pipe

a t t r i b u t e s ta tes . Such cons t ra in ts i n the a t t ' r i bu te s ta tes m i I I *n

r e ~ $ / ~ m a s long as the p a r t i c u l a r a t t r i b u t e i s recognized os co r ry ing l, -

in format ion about s ta tus i n soc ie ty . . %

Uhan the a t t r i b u t e s ta tes o f pipes from tmo d i f f e r e n t s ta tus

groups are examined, f o r example, these - - are p rec ise ly the two types

HPOTHET I CAL CLAY P l PE STEfl FREQUENCY 0 l STR l BUT l ON - /

d l L I T F I R I m FIOI F JmtU?lLIT#rl#1 - Lengtfifmm) n, - - P Pi IdPi Lengthfmm) n. P P i ldPi

285 4-

T

I %- - - - pp

o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f p ipe stem lengths that are expected.

comparison o f p ipe remains mithin a s i t e , u m e frequent '9

of longer stems by upper s ta tus i nd iu idual s aould create a skemed

f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p ipe stem lengths. A l t h o u g h ~ i u i d u a l s

mho buy the' p i p e t do nbt make the., they se 1 ect p ipes from a u'ar i e t y I

o f poss ib le p ipe s t y l e s a u a i l a b l t t o them. I n an archaeological -

sample, conscious se lec t ion and const ra in t i n choice o f a feu

a t t r i b u t e s ta tes could be i den t i f i ed , r e s u l t i n g i n a lomer r e l a t i v e

entdopy and higher redundancy than be for: p ipe length mas t

status-related..

archaeological c lay p ipe remains t o

- o r p ipe stem-length d i s t r i b u t i o n s , It

the r e l a t i v e . - entropy or

redundancy o f p ipe stem lengths r k t h these data. Homever, the r a t i o

% o f p ipe stem fragments t o p ipe bowl fragments m i l l shom mhether

there mas a greater se lec t i on o f long stemmed pipes i n the f u r

t rade. This p a t i o i s based on the assumption tha t there m i l l be I a

more stem fragments rhen p ipe stems are longer. T studies hove

demonstrated tha t the degrees o f p ipe boml 4 A' s t fragmentat ion Q

are r e l ats; we l y un i form; the r a t i o JPou l d be sens'i t i ve t o changes i n

L stem lengths (Pyszczyk 1983, 198$; J u j t i c e 1983). I t mas found that

the mean stem t o boml r a t i o decreases i n archaeq4ogical asse~blages i

represent ing the ea r l y i e , l a t e eighteenth century) t o l a t e r

( l a t e 1800s) fur t rade periods, corresponding t o the h i s t o r i c a l l y a

documented decrease i n p i pe s t em Iengt h . t

A comparison o f c lay p ipe boml fragments t o stem fragments from.

four f u r t rade archaeo I og i ca I awemb l ages i a summar i zed i n Tab l e

11.8. Ths rut i o o f pipe stem fragrcwts t o b a d fragllsnta dmraases

temporal ly,

&during the

House, Fort

stem t o bow

as i s expected since the longest pipe stems shou I d occur

ate aiphteent h century a t git us such as %It . P - ? . i ngham

George, and Buck i ngham House (Tab1 e 1 1 - 8 ) . ' The p i pe C

r a t i o o f the o m c e r q at Buck i ngham House, Hot t i ngham -,

- Y

House, and Fort Uictor ia, i s higher than that o f the servants (Table .

1 1 .8 ) : The except i on i s the Uort h Uest Company Fort George, where - the servants' pipe stem t o b o d r a t i o i s higher than the o f f i c e r s ' .

Rs mith most other comparisons o f material goods and rank, the North

Uest Company does not' f i t the r u l e . The naj or reasons fo r these

consumption s i m i l a r i t i e s probably involve the Horth Uest Company's

p o l i c y o f providin&the servants wi th a greater var ie ty o f goods,

and i nduc i ng them t o spend a l l the i r moges on 'goods at the i n l and

posts (Fleming 1918).

The c l ay p ipe s t em t o bow l fragment r a t i os from the Hudson's Bay 1

Company f o r t s were\corpared t o determine whether the o f f i c e r s used

r e l at i we l y more l ong s t e k d p i pes than the servants i n the l at er - -

period. The di f ference i n the pipe stem t o bowl fragnefit r a t i o , .

between the o f f i ceqs and the servants i n the l a te r per iod Fort

U ic to r ia assemblage i s not larger than i n the ear ly period

assemb 1 ages (Tab l e 1 1 . 8 ) . The Hot t i ngham House resu I t s are somewhat

' suspect, especial l y the o f f i cers' stem t o bow l r a t i o, because o f the

very l o r sampl* s ize. This hypothesis mas not ver i f ied , l i k e l y

F- because the cu I tu ra l trend may not be suf f i c-i ent 1 y strong enough t o 1

show o change i n strength o f associ a t ion i n the archoeo l ogi ca 1 - -

record. 7

PIPE STEtl TO BOUL FRAGtlENT RATIO Y

FORTS STEn FREQ. L BgUL FREQ. (stems + bomls)

3 Hott ingham H, - 0 1 l 108

F t . George -a1 I % 335 -seruant s - 284 -of f icers 5 1 -

Buck imgham H . - a l l 41 2

182 ' -seruant s -of f icers 230

Ft: Uistor ia .

-at l 308

\ U .

The purpose o f t h i s chapter was t o examine the potent ia l that

informat ioh theory has t o invest igate d i f f t k e n t types o f a r t i fact ---

s ty le . A summary o f the resu l t s o f t h i s chapter follows;

1 . Non-u t i l i ta r ian a t t r i bu tes o f material cu l tu re have a quant i t a t ive structure more l i ke e l ement s in language - a structure which shows constraint or the conscious choice o f ' s t y l i s t i c a t t r i b u t e states, as opposed t o a s t ructure which shows r e l at'i ve l greotm chance occurrence o f a t t r i b u t e states. - -

2. The resu l t s i n t h i s chapter d i f f e r from Justeson's study of - t lri quant i t a t i ve s t ructure o f ceram i c des i gn e l ement s whose

high r e l at iue entropy was i nterpreted as represent i ng a very 'dynam i c' cu l t ura l syat em; such resu l t s cou l d equal l y be interpreted as represent ing random or chance choice ~f design a t t r ibu tes .

3 . The a t t r ibu te , c lay pipe stem ,length, was sensi t ive t o status d i f ferences i n an archaeo l og i ca l context a t the Hudson ' s Bay Company s i t es . However, the di f ference i n the use o f long uersus short s t erred p i pea bet meen the o f f i cers and the servants d i d not s i gn i f i cant l y change from the ear l y t o the la te fur trade per iod as was expected.

In t h i s dissertatiort, I have examined the r o l e va ter ia l cu l ture

played i n the social s t ructure o f fur trade aociety i n restern - Candda. The resu I t s from these i nuest i gat i bns not on 1 y shed I i ght

on material consumption habi ts i n the f u w r a d e , but also have

furthered our know l edge concern i ng many t heoret i ca 1 and ' -

rethodological issues relevant t o the 3tudy of material cul ture. I n I

t h i s chapter I r i 1 l d i scuss the t heoret i ca l and met hod0 l og i co l

issues examined i n t h i s d isser ta t ion and appl icat ion o f consumption

theory t o - a r c h l o g c soc i et i es .

+.

THEORET l CAL flND tlETHODOLOG 1 CAL 1 SSUES

l Adapt i we 'Uersus 1 deat i ona 1 A ~ ~ r o a c h e s

The i ncorporat i on o f an i deat i ona l concept ua l apprgach and

soc i a I -act i on 'theory i n t h i s d i ssert a t i on mas i n t ended t o coip l ement

the more popu 1 ar adapt i we approach t o exp 1 a i n i ng soc i o-cul t ura l

phenomena and the consumpt ion o f r a t e r i a 1 goods. Cu 1 t ure i s

t hak,an adapt i ue system -react i ng t o techno 1 og i ca I , eco I og i ca I 7.-

demographic processes. I t i s a 1 so a system rhere commun i cat i

takes p I ace, o f ten i n symbo 1 i c form, and rhere soc i o-cu l t ura l

more

J or

on

phenomena are best understood (but nor necessar i l y exp l a i nsd) by = . / aenta l i st i c fact or3 created and shared by people. Each qpproach has

pass i b 1 e behav i ora l corre l at es; these o f t en have r a t e r i a I

- -

- consequences . I

.The i deat i ona 1 and adapt, i ve schoo 1 s ''of ant hropo l og i ca I thought

have been so strong l y opposed i n the past that, general 1 y, e i t her - -

one o r the- other mas chosen t o account fo r soc i o-cu! t ura I

uar i ab i l i t y; rare ly- have both been used t o explain patterning and

r a r e l y have they been shomn t o be related. But the components o f \

cu 1 t ur+cons i s t i ng o f the h i erurch i ca l pyram i d o f subsystems

o r i g i n a l l y bostulated by Uhite (19591, are interrelated, each having -

u o r y i w f f e c t s on the res t o f the cu l tu ra l system, No pa r t i cu la r . ,

approach i s dor i nant over the others; therefore,- no one - approach . cab

account for a 1 l soc i ocu I t ura l and behau i oura 1 war i ab i 1 i t y i n any

cu l tu ra l system (Hayden and Cannon 1981:201). -

Some o f the above s t atement s reuea I the may that i nequa 1 i t y mas m.

exam i ned i n t h i s d i ssert at i on. Concepts such as 'personal i rage' o r

.C I ass consc i ousness ' are rent a i constructs o f hom i nd i u i dua t s '%

perce i ve themse 1 ues i n r e 1 a t i on t o a 1 1 others i n soc i sty; these

concepts ex is t i n t i nds o f the people, They can, i n conjunct ion

mith economic uariables, explain more .- o f the uar iab i l i t y i n

consumpt i on - hab i t a bet meen the fu r trade ranks. But i t i s i w o r t ant -

t o remember that i h i I e social factors are the d i rec t 1 ink t o

consumpt ion behaui or, they too are i n f 1 uenced by the under 1 y i ng

econom i c s t ructure o f soc i et y , For examp l e, . 'c 1 ass consc i ousneszP

became more prevafent i n fu r trade society during the l a t t e r part o f

the .nineteenth century, mhen economic inequal i t y began t o dec,l ine.

A t t h i s level o f inquiry, then, major enuironnental and economic r

factors i n the fu r trade Kg., the decl ine i n fu rs and markets)

brought about changes i n i deat i ona l u i ems, o r how i ndi v i dual s

perceived t h e i r soc ia l re la t ions.

R general i deat i onal opproach t o cu l ture, i n ah i ch peop l s shbrs -

"",

viers, par t i c ipa te and communicate, must also be re la ted t o the

s t ructure o f r a t e r i a l goods. I f some cu l t ura l i nst i t u t i ons and

f orms o f behav i o r act as symbo I i c forms o f commun i cat i on, then sore

types or par ts o f material goods may also serve such a purpose. Rs

I have argued, m i t h a pure l y adapt i ve approach t o cu l ture, or

economic determinism, i t mould be d i f f i c u l t indeed t o explain f i r s t

mhy these i t ems are &cessary i n soc i et y and, more spec i f ica I l y, mhy B

in fu r trade society as economic inequal i ty mas declining, status

i t ems mere used i n proport i ona l l y greater quant i t i es t h m

u t i l i t a r i an i t ems, espec i a I l y by upper i ncome groups. Resources, i n

the form o f honey, become the means by mhich indiuiduals carry out

t h e i r soc i a l .. strategies; based upon the i r percept ions and ua l "es i n &

t h e i r cultural 'system. B

- a l luchhasbeenmrit tenabout l i m i t a t i o n s o f an ideational -

* approach t o contemporary cu l t ure (Cohen 1968 : 93-4; H i sbet 1 965 : 15; b

Kap Ian and llanners 1 972 : 1 1 5- 1 27; Turner 1 964 : 27; -

and Dauis

1964:160; ~ a r r k 1968)'. o f ten it i z v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o 0

operat i ona I i r e i deat i ona I mode I s and concept a. For examp l e,

concepts such as 'personal i mage' can on1 y be dev i sed as "

>

hypot het i ca l constructs i n archaeo l og i ca l i nqu i r y . ln t h i s

dissertat ion, i t mas demonstrated by an independent set of data,

i . e . , document ary data, that these concepts mere present, be fore

t h e i r mater i a l correlates mere examined, Because the fur trade , \-

documentary dot a are so r i ch, many o f these , concepts cou l d :be shomn - ~.-'

t o ex is t independent l y from the dot a base under i nuest i gat ion. , ,

C r i t i c s o f symbol ism have also l eg i t i i a t e l y questioned - 5hy .s ; ;

+mop l e do not use a more d i rec t means o f = r u n i cat ion (Kap I an and -1 '-p -*,"

I r' 1

5 - f

flanners 1972 : 124-25; Hort on l968).. There are, , g m t p d , more d i rec t -- *

aays o f commun i cat i ng one ' s v i ems or -va I ues i n sot i e t i t i s --.

debat ab l e uhet her they are any bet t c r than symbol i c rea& . '~~3~mbo l i c

forms o f comrvnication are e f fec t i ve fo r the folloming'rsosons: 1 ) ' 1 1

they are more cons is tent and constant i n meaning; 2) they 'we a1 mays

present or u i s i b 1 e, cont i nua l I y send i ng lessages; 3) they are 1

concrete forms o f $end i ng messages mh i ch -are d i f f i cu t t t o avo i d and

ignore. r

flct hodo I aa - i ca l I ssues - "- 1

Schuy I e r ( 1970) s t a t t d that h i s t o r i ca I archaeo l og i s t s re-exam i ne

h i s tory us i ng a d i f ferent - parad i gm from that t r o d i t i ona l I y used by

h i s ta r i ans. He be l i eued that archaeologist s use a less -

part i cu l ar i s t i c and o more ho 1 i s t i c parad i gm -- name l y, an -

anthropological approach t o study h i s t o r i c societ ies, with e i ther rJ

h i s t or i c documentary dot a or archaeo 1 og i ca 1 data aua i l ab I e - to them.

His remarks i den t i f y a d i lemma fo r h i s t o r i c a l archaeologists i n

terms o f t h e i r iden t i t y , t h e i r objectives and a s , and the types

o f data they use i n research. The d i l e n a i s qu i t e apparent i n th i s

d isser ta t ion mhere some o f the most useful r e s u l t s come from

h i s t o r i c documentary data, not archaeo Iogica 1 data. The use o f only - an archaeological dot a ba3e, homever, i s f a r too l i l i t i ng fo r the

type8 o f

The

approach

quest i ons that mere i nveat i gat ed.

the d i 1 emma i nvo l ves how ant hropo l og i s t s

horn h i s t o r i c societ ies funct ion, mhy

-- - 'Q

These are not quest ions and object i ues about the past that are o f t en ,'

undsrst and i ng o f the phys i ca l corre 1 a t ep and paromet ers o f &J l t ura l

war iab l es i n the archaeol ogica l record, and t o the procedur;es that

- mork beat f o r the in terpret at ion o f past cultures? Th i s i 3 a task

fo r h i s t or i ca l archado 1 ogy . H i s t or i ca l archaeo 1 ogy can further our knom l edge about t he

va l i d i t y of anal ogy or the r e 1 a t i onsh ips bet meen bdrav i ora l forms

and archaeo 1 og i ca 1 pat tern i ng . I t i s a form o f e t hnoarchaeo 1 ogy - mhere behavioral and cu l tu ra l factors are of ten me I l documented and

can be compared t o empirical data t o see hom they appear i n the

material cut t u re record, But perhaps most important, there i a of ten

an accompany i ng archaeo 1 og i ca l record mhere these system i c fact or3

can be examined.

THE DATA AND APPL ICAT l ON .

Data and L imi ta t ions

Trigger (1985:1) stated that as archaeologists begin t o ask

more comp I ex -quest i ons about past cu 1 t ures, they must co l l ect and

organize addi t ional data t o f u l f i l l t h e i r object iues. The h is to ry

o f the f u r trade i n - mestern - Canada has those qua l i t i us mhi ch make* i t

a very su i tab le area t o study the re la t ionship betreen inequol i ty i

. and consumpt i on; homeuer, both the documentary and archaeo l og i ca l

dot a current l y auo i l ab l e fo r i nuest i gat i on are l ess then i dsa I.

Hany fu r trade a i tes mhich are necessary t o represent the ent i r e

--d ~. - ex - +

"<.

- - -_) r 1 I.' '

- geegroph'icel aFwz ond t e m p o d jpoa -initidla orrtlined in this

' d isser ta t ion have not been excavated. Furtheryo&, only a f rac t i on

o f the fur trade s i t e s that have been invest i g a t t d contain su i tab le ,I

archaeo log i ca l assemb l ages that represent "the war i ous i ncome groups.

The ideal data needed i n an invest igat ion o f t h i s sor t haue been

descr i bed i n deta i I i n chapter f i ue, and there i i no need ' to 1

belabour the point here. But i t i s important t o note that

regard less o f horn many more research quest ions are proposed, o r - ho_.

much more complex or sophist icated those questions become they a l l

must invar i ab l y r e l y on basic data that are representat i ue t ough *$ h

t i me and space. These data have been, and m i f 1 rbma in, o f foremost

analy t ica l impor$ance fo r the invest igat ion o f broad cultu'ral

prob I ems, - S i r i 1 a r prob l ems o f data co I l ect i on are encountered m i t h the

h i s t o r i c documents. The archival fu r trade data are immense, and i t

l i l l take many years before they are proper l y examined . Present l y,

the documentary data are more r e l i ab l e than the archaeo l og i ca l data,,

at I east represent i ng the maj o r geatjraph i ca 1 range and t erpora l

,per i ods t h a t are necessary fo r cornpar i son. The data gener d

r e f l e c t the basic cwmwpt ion patterns evident i n the fu r trade. O f & course, the amaj or gap i n these records, and one that can on 1 y, be'

f i l l e d with archaeological data, occurs i n the ear ly ~ e r i o d ; .

hspec i a l l y a i t h the tiort h Uest Company records.

I t i s apparent fro. the resu l t s obt cl i ned i n t h i s d"i s s e k a t ion

that a comb i not i on o f p r i maryhh i s t o r i c documentary dat a and - ~ ~ c h a e o l og i ca l data i s not o n l y the host complete, but the best f o r

the inquiry in to the. social s t ructure i n the fu r trade. The debt i)

- - l i s t s are I imited t o the acquisit ion:,of per3onal good3 used* the - . --

company emp 1 oyees at . the posts. They say not h i ng about the goods a r . .

that the compan ies gave t h e i r employees at th6 i n land posts. k

a l though other documentary &at a are away 1 abal e t o ouercome these 7 - i -

/ -

- def i c i enc i es, The debt I i s t s more accurate I y r e f 1 ect the p e r ~ o n ~ 1 t

F

needs and rants o f indiv idual s working i n the fu r trade. The

r ) .

urchaeo log i ca l reco~d , on the other hand, bes i das be i "g a r e c o ~ d of

i nd i u i dw 1 needs and preferences, .a 1 so r e f 1 ect s .hat the company

gave ' the i r employees, and what those i n power thought of, their - -

employees' r x t , i u e pps i t ions i n the fu r trade syste;. 4' issue re la ted t o the above discussion concerns how .

data r e f l e c t material cu l ture i n the h i s t o r i c

context, -t=rrabsolute terms, there are l i k e l y some types of h i s t o r i c

r a t e r i a l goods r issing that mere used throughout the fur trade ,sg

because not a l l the debt 1 i s ts ' have been examined. Uh i I e thorough

d e ~ c r i p t i u e information about the fu r trade i s a desired objective, I

-- i t i u unnecessary i n order t o undertake- research u i i ng a comparat i ve - -

anal y t i cal approach. ln other mords, for the d i ssertat i on prob l em,

it does not so t te r i f o l l or only a few items are present i n the

sa?plled documentary apd archaeological data, or even .hat kinds of

o b j e c t s x e y are. It is-more important that the. data are su f f i c i en t

t o meafure changes or )i f f e r q c e s i n consumpt ion hab i t s that took

i -- place in fu r trade society. Such a method also gets away from a

part i cu l ar i s t i c v i em o f consumpt ion hab i t s and moues t oward ., -

answering a much broader range o f research quest ions.

Howwer, there mere other types o f informat ion that mere

obso l u t e I y necessar'y i n order t o exam i ne the d i sser,t at i on prob 1 em.

- - - P P - -- - -

These i nc l ude i nformat i on regarding changes i n mages gr other forms A

of mealth mhich mould monitor changes i n economic inequal i ty. fl

great deal has also been m r i t t e n about the hierarchical ranking

~ys tem i n the fu r trade, which i s complemented by a mealth o f Q \

. h i s t o r i c data. Such deta i led information made i t possible t o go

beyond proving the obvious mith material cu l tu re remains,-- that

ual i t y existed i n the fu r trade -- and t o advance addi t ional

regard i ng changes i n i nequa I i t y and r e l at i onsh i ps t o

other social variables.

t \

Def i n i t ion3 and APPI icat ion .

" A number o f concepts and variables are important i n the

archaeo l og i ca l i nqu i r y o f i nequa 1 i t y and app l i cat i on t o the phys i co 1 - ' &

p% L'. :mar rema i ns- of past soc I et i ds . Foremost among these i s i nequa 1 i t y a

i t s e l f . Inequal i ty i n fu r trade society re fer red p r imar i l y t o the 59 4

unequa lad id r i bu t i on o f mealth and mas measured by income. To a

1 arge degree, i nequa 1 i t y a l so measures s t at us, .a l t h o ~ h other

a t t r i bu tes are a l ~ o l ike ly involved i n status d i s t i n c t ion (e.g.,

sex, age, k inship). It i s important t o remember that i t mas income

that measured the r e l a t iue and absolute amounts o f economic

inequal i ty i n the fu r trade, not material goods. The resu l t s o f -

1 't t h i s d i s k r t a t i o n hove also shomn that the ca lcu lat ion o f abso u te

SI

- inequal i ty i s fa r more valuable mhen examining i t s re la t ionship t o

mat er i a I cu l t ure paramet e r d Abso l u t e %qua l i t y ensured the

prec i s i on that mas necessary t o exam i ne det era i nant s respons i b l e fo r

the d i f f e r e n t i a l acquis i t ion o f ha ter ia l goods by the fu r trade

ranks,

4

Since inequa l i t y aloag a mealth gradient it a- c w

uariable, the decis ions as t o hor t o d i v i de economic ranks, and at

ahat level t o combine them i n t o - a n a l y t i c a l un i ts , ore d i f f i c u k . I f \ . ,

there are too many d i u i s ion j , general trends in the dot9 may become I

obscured; i f too fur u n i t s are used, informat ion pay equal ty be

obscured. Hornever, the i ncome ranks aerd i re l at i ue l y me l l de f i ned i n

the fur trade. J t mould h w e been o f considerable in terest t o

d i v i de the s e ~ v a n t s and o f f i c e r s i n t o the sma l les t income groups ,

poss ib le and then compare the w t e r i a l goods used by each group, and

t o cont i nue t o i ncrease the i ncome s i r e $anges unt i l s i gn i f i cant

di f ferences i n mat e r i a l consumpt i on began t o on rgeQ Horeuer,

because o f both t i me and space const ra in t sc such a dcta i led ano l y3 i J

mas nqt possib le.

CQHPAR l SON AH0 flEASUREflEHT

The presence o f a docuaentary .record, pa r t i cu l a r l y one that

o f t en c~ i nc i des m i t h an archaeo l og i ca l r e c o r t , represent i ng var i ous -"*

econom i c groups i n the f u r t rade i s ;cry va l uab l e f o r <he .

examinat ion o f the archaeological- n a t e r i a l i nd ica to rs o f inequal i t y

and how they can be measured. Such a set o f dnt a 'are .capab l e o f -- examining not only ~ h a t types o f a r t i f a c t s end up, i n thki r

archaeo log i ca l record, but a l so mhet her the quant i t a t i ve t endenc i es

shorn i n the documentary record are s t i l l present i n the

archaeological context .

- - - ---

I General Hater i a l 4ndicators o f Rank 1 I

The &t i .port ant mat er i o 1 'ind i cc/t ors of i nequa l i t y are i nco& 0 . I

or labour-related. This fact i s not z/urprising since the concept.bf

inequal i ty i s defined largely-by d i f f t rences i n mealth betmgen C' - .

p e o ~ l e . I n the documentary data, the most expens i ve a r t i c l es 1 *

tpnmw//y mere correlated w i t hY the h i gbest i ncome group. I n the P

%4- .. * archaeo l og i ca 1 :record, homevht, - t%$&.trend mas not ev i dent . Even i f

t h s d a t a mere p o i lable t o i den t i f y the most expensive goods, they

mould be a-poor indicator o f r e l a t i v e economic pos i t ion. r'

- The4 compos i t e i ndex o f I uxury s ta t us goods was a be t te r P

indicator o f r e l a t i v e hierarchical pos i t ion, Items o f be t te r

qua l i t y mi th in iony functional groups o f goods, i n c l l i n g food, or ,

i t ems mh i Eh mere not s t r i c t l y u t i l i t a r ian, mere more frequent 1 y

assoc i ated m i th the upper ranks of the fu r trade. Because pr ices o f

goods mere avd i l ab l e, l uxury goods cou l d be d i s t i ngu i shed f rom

u t i l i t a r i a n goods with r e l a t i v e ease. Comparison'of d i f fe ren t s

income groups in the archaeologi t a l record using t h i s index mas

r e 1 at$ ve l y more e f fec t i we than compar i ng on l y the most expens i ve

goods. The assoc i at ion mas strong enough t o predic t r e l at i ve

hierarchical pos i t ion only in certa,in s i tuat ions. ,

Arch i t ectura 1 at t r i but es -such as l i v i ng space; the nuhber b f

rooms,snd t hbdeqree o f spat i a l separateness bet ween the .of f i cerb,

and the seruant s, mere dl so e f fec t i ve i nd i cat or3 o f i ncome rank.

They mere more v i s i b l e i n the arckological record than some

mot e r i a l goods s i nce they ddergo f e k r changes i n archaeo l og i cc l - _ - - s i t e formation. Homeuer, indicators o f inequal i ty such as l i v i n g

.- space, fo r exomp l e, , qre govern&! l a r g d by dopu l at i on r a t her than

incame, althaugh t he l a t t e r mas c e r t a i n l y iepo~ten?. In a? C

3. -

arc eo log ica l s i tua t ion , i t mould be uery d i f f i c u l t t o separate \

-.&se two uar iab les when rank and popu l o t ion are unknown: - \ L

i

One o f the most i vpor t ant arch i t ect ura l ind icators o f i nequa I i iy ' . . i

may be the number o f ~ooms, o r the number o f spec ia l ized a c t i u i t y

areas per household. Loaer income groups eat, s 1 eep, and en te r ta in

i n re 1 a t i we l y fewer rooms than upper i ncome groups.

Rrchaeological ly, t h i s index ray be easier to .dea l with than l i v i n g

spbce, because pa r t i t i on i ng o f l i v i ng space i s more apparent i n t h e b

1

archaeologi co l record. It may a lso be less dependent upon t o t a 1 b

popu I a t i on than I ,i u i ng space. -

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s d i sse r ta t i on suggest that a composite index

o f a r t i c l e s r e l a t e d l o personal appearance/hygiene can mark the

r e l a t i v e h ie ra rch ica l p o s i t i o n o f members i n society, a t least .hen + .

the t m ~ most ex t re re income groups are compared i n the documentary

record. I n the archaeological record, these difference. ore less

pronounced and t h e reasons f o r t h i s can only be present 1 y specu I a t ed

upon, since many o f these items mould not be curated. Some a r t i c l e s

(e.g., toap) haue no associated archaeological correlate., .hi l e

ot her3 may have a very long use l i fe (e. g., combs) and may be . %.

zn

under-represent ed i n the archaeo l og i ca I record. I f the r e 1 a t i we

frequencies o f a l 1 such goods combined mere computed and compared-by

income groups, they may be more important i n the upper income

groups.

tleasurement o f Contum~t ion U a r i a b i l i t y

goods t o h i e rCch i ca l l y rank i nd,i u i dua l s : 1 ) quant i t at-i we f~equency 2)

- - -

o f goods; and, 2 ) the d i ve rs i t y o f goods. The resu l t s o f these - -

measures i n examining the honsumption habi ts o f d i f f e ren t income ---

I groups i n the fu r trade mere mixed. The item d i v e r s i t y index mas - m c h s t r inger i n d i f ferent i at i ng the i ncome grotips than the abso l u t e

freguenc i es o f i t ems. This mas also t rue mhen material goods mere

divided in to more discrete categories (e.g., u t i l i ta r i an versus -/

luxury) . The upper ranks a l mays bought a great,er war i et y o f

a r t i c l es i n each category . Ar t i f ac t d i v e r s i t y ma%s an important archaeological index o f

- *

inequal i ty. I t ma? meastired i n th is analysis by examining the slope

o f the - l i ne mhen the same frequency o f goods o f two d i f f e ren t income 2

groups mas ompared t o d Fuep i t y o f goods. That slope. mas a 1 ways t + . . -6 great er for?tKe o f f i cers , i nd i cat i ng that they had more d i f ferent - 8

items per t b t o l a r t i f a c t quant i ty than the servants. Uhether - . .- f

a r t i f a c t di;ersity differenc&'batmeqn the two income groups mould . - be s t at i s t i ca l l y s i gn i f i cant mas not exam i ned . Homever, j udg i ng

1 from the divergence o f the two slopes i n each o f the ranks i n the

Hudson ' s Bay Company, a r t i fact d i vers i t y mas s i gn i f i cdnt.1 y .

d i f ferent . But, i n the Hort h Uest Company compar i sons, a r t i fact

d i ve rs i t y fo r the o f f i c e r s and the servants mas less d i f f e ren t than e

i n the same ranks o f the Hudson's Bay Company. 1

The d i ve rs i t y o f items used i n indi u i d ia l ' households mas also

used t o eiam i n e consumpt i on s i l i l ar i t y 'i n househo I ds . The ~ a c r o r d .

coe f f i c ien t examined the simple question o f whether buylng behavior *

w i th in ranks i s less var iab le than between them. It mas found that #- +

-Wx

only i n the l a t t e r part o f the fur trade, as soc ia l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

increased, mas there more s imi la r i4y i n buying b e h a u l ~ r within the -

ranks than bet ween them, us i ng, a l l the i tams that each househo l d

- bwgh t . The resu l t s also indicated that the amount of u a r i a b i l i t y -

- - L i n consumpt ion b e h p i o r m i tki m each i ncome &oup mas not

s i gn i f i cant l y d i f ferent . I t mas expected that s i nce the upper

i ncore groups mere I es,s const r a i ned i n consumpt i on behau i or, because

they had a higher i ncore, they r i g h t d i splay more consumpt ion

uar iabi l i t . ~ . 1

In t h i s dissertat ion, i t mas found tkot the quant i t ies i n which

some goods mere consumed l i l I not d i f ferent Fate i ncome groups very

me l I. Goods mh i ch are necess i t i es for both iencome groups were be i ng

consumed at the i r opt i r o C l ewe l s, regard 1 ess o f i ncome d i f ferences . Accord i ng t o marg i no 1 econom i c theory, consumpt i on o f great er t han

necessary quant i t i es o f these goods reduces ouera l 1 consumpt i on

u t i l i t y . flny v a r i a b i l i t y t h a t occurs i n the consumption of

netess i t i es i n hou3eho 1 ds i s reasur i ng houaeho 1 d s i ze r a t her t hon - P

income dif ferences. Al ternat iuely, the quant i ty of use of luxury

^i terns i s very sent i t i we t o i ncome d i f ferences, increos i ng or

decreasing m i t h income or i tern p r ice . I n on archaeo l og

these categories o f goods may a 1 I oa a d i s t i nct i on t o be madfietween

househo 1 d s i ze and/or i ncore d i f ferences . k

I rent i oned t hot upper ranks genera l 1 y bought the - h i ghest p r i ced

i teas, according t o the documentary I i s ts . I t was a l so found that

the strongest Pelat jonshjp betaeen the consumption o f high pr iced

a r t i c l es and. the upper ranks occurred mhen abso l ut e i nequa l i t y

( i .e. , absolute di f fered&& i n wages) mas the highest. Thus, at a

. comparat i we 1 ewe I, i t l i ght be poss i b I e t o det e r r i ne mhen econoa i c

- - - - pp - - -- - -

i nequa l i t y bet mean ranks i s great eat by est ab l i sh i ng ahen . d i f ferences i n the. consumpt ion o f the highest pr iced a r t i c l es are

great estt. Homeuer , i t i s quest i onab l e rhet her t h i s index aou l d be

archaka I og i ca I l y sens i t i ue . Such a r e l at i onsh i p may 'be ev i dent i n

bur ia ls, o r i n arch i tectura l remains. -

Abso lu te income i -qua l i t y bet meen the o f f i n r s and servants o f

the tmo major fu r trade companies mas considerably d i f ferent , but

the qua l i t y o f a r t i f a c t assemblages mas e i ther s im i la r - or s l i g h t l y

h i gher for the servants i n the more unequa l l y ranked North Uest

Company. The reason fo r these d i f ferences i s me f l documented -- Hort h Uest ~ o m ~ a n y servants mere pa i d i n goods and encouraged t o ' &

buy; Hudson's Bay Company servants mere not. These resu l t s imply ,

cornpar i sons o f i nequa l i t y i nd i ces der i wed from t mo systems,

each . i t h d i f ferent degrees o f access t o mat er i a l goods, can be very

misleading i n terms o f hom accurately they are measuring economic

i nequa l i t y be!aeen t mo or Fore i ncome groups.

On the pos i t i ve side, the a r c ~ e c t u r a l remains

d i f ferences i n rank i n both companies reasonably me l

l i v i n g quarters of the o f f i c e r s vessus the servants

Ucst Company mas s l i ght l y greater than i n the Hudson

l i d express '

. The s ize o f

n the North

s Bay Company.

Those differences, homeuer, mere very minimal and could not be

confirmed s t a t i s t i c a l l y . The number o f times the o f f i c e r s ' and

servants' quarters mere separate i n the Hort h Uest Company ranks mas

also greater than i n the Hudson's Bay Company. The s ize dif ferences

betmeen the o f f i c e r s ' an-d servants' quarters i n the fu r trade also ...

re f l ec ted the s ize or the rank o f the f o r t . I n most cases, homeuer,

bu i ld ing s ize olso indicated r e l a t i v e changes i n the regional

importance o f the upper ranks, who l i ved i n i ncrea3i ngl y l argsr a

quarters and f o r t s , as they increased t h e i r occupat i ona 1 rank from

-- .traders t o chief ' factors

The. compos i t e i nde;; o f l uxury i t ems eau l d genera l l y p l ace

i nd i u i duo l s i n t o appropr i ate occupat i onal ranks, but cou l d not

measure changes i n. abso l u t e i ncome d i f f erences bet ween ranks,

Luxury i t e r s were used i n fa r greater quant i t i es i n the l at er part

o f the fu r trade, when i ncome d i f ferences bet ween the upper and 'I

lamer fur* trade ranks mere already r e l o t i ve l y smal l e r than before.

Theae a r t i c les are more o f an indicator of conscious social

i nequa l i t y once econom i c i neqw l i t y i s accounted fo r . The

arch i t ectura l rema i ns showed a s i a i l ar trend t award greater

dif ferences i n luxury a t t r i bu tes when p o l i t i c a l and aocial tensions

mere more preua l ent , a l though the assoc i at i on. was weak . However,

the archaeo l og i ca l quant i t a t i we trends i n the compos i t e l uxury

a r t i f a c t group and i n a few o f the rank-retated arch i tectura l

remains were much weaker than the documentary changes i n consumption

trends. flany o f the l uxury goods evident i n the debt l i st s aou l d

not suru i we i n an archaeo l og i ca 1 context . ""r

- To conc lude, the archoeo l og i co l pat t ern i ng o f cohsumpt i on

war i ab i l i t y i 5 a l ways weaker than the docurent ary pat t e rn i ng . The d

r . '

nature o f the archaeo log i ca l record i s l arge l y respons i b l e : I ) !very , * *a.

expens i ve a r t i c l es are curat ed, never reach i ng an archaeo l ng i ca ,, % 1

cant ext ; and, 2) many goods that i ght denotd con3uapt i on -t ri +,

di f ferences do not surv ive i n the archaeological record. Therq i s .Fi

l i t t l e that can be done t o ouercome these problems. But the t dpes

o f goads and nethods o f measuring d i f ferences i n consuapt i on that

P

304 --

- A - - - - - - - - -

archaso l og i s t s use a l so cont r i bute t o the much meaker archaeo l ogi ca l

pot t ern i ng : 1 ) archaeo log i s t s shou 1 d 1 ook fo r d i f ferences in

behau i o r and a t t i tudes o f war i ous i ncome gnoups mh i ch are r e I ated t o

aqmr ie ty o f cheap goods that read i l y f i n d ' t h e i r may in to the

archaeo 1 og l ca 1 record; and, 2) much more e f f i c i ent and sens i t i ve

reasures should be used or developed t o examine

dif ferences,

consumpt i on

The Effect o f Commod i t u P r i m and 1 ncore on ConsaVmi on

bn the open i ng remarks of t h i s chapter I ment i oned that

econom i c const r a i n t s onv con5umpt i on of some goods cons i s t ed

the main

of z

- u a r i a b i l i t y i n the p r i ce o f items and d i f f e rences - in mages'betmeen

the ranks. These factors account fo r a great deal of the - - - war i ab i l i t y and consumpt i on d i f ferences o many goods tha t mere used

i n the fur t rode. As i n most h i s t or i c and contemporary 3oc i e t i es,

where i nequo 1 i t y i s l arge 1 y econor i ca 1 1 y det erm i ned, these factors

p l ace maj or 1 i l i t a t i ons on consumpt i on behaui or, but they s t i I 1 do

not comp l at e l y, and o f t en not d i rec t 1 y, account fo r a 1 I consumpt ion

var iabi l i t y .

Although changes in costs o f goods of ten af fected i h e i r r a t e of

consunpt ion more i n the l omer than the upper ranks, they had no

d i rec t e f fec t a t a l l on the amounts o f more heavi ly taxed goods

bought. I ment i oned a l ready that i f these goods wece necess it i es a

r i s e i n cost mould not a f fec t the r a t e o f consuaption. The nor th

Usst Company archaeological record shows that some o f the more

- -

heav i 1 y taxed goah r e r e consi derad impwtant ~k to be cormnet3

i n consistent quant i t i e ~ , but the consumpt i on o f other it ems,

p r i mar i l y l uxury i t ems, consequent l y decreased. These resu 1 t s i mp 1 y -

that i f the d i f ference in the use o f l uxury goods i ncreased b ~ t meen

the ranks i n an archaeo 1 crg i ca I context, where causa I fac iors ra re

p o o r l ~ understood , me 8 i g h t i n fe r wmngl y that an increase i n the

p r i ce o f luxury i tems mas responsible. A 3 i s ew ident i n chapter 8 -

seuen, uar iabi l i t y i n the use o f luxury-related a r t i d e s can be

i n d i r e c t l y re la ted t o other economic uariables -- that is, an

increase i n the cost o f necessit ies might resu l t i n a necessary

reduction o f luxury items. L

The r e s u l t s o f the i nuest i gat ion in to horn change i n cost o f

goods mas r e l at ed t o consumpt i on behau i o r mere uerg i ncons i s t ent . Somet i mes i ncreased cost produced d i f f erences i n consumpt i on,

decreasing use o f tho3e goods i n the 1 ower ranks, and thus

increasing consumpt ion d i f ferences bet ween the t mo ranks. But, '

again, i t mas ohvious that other factors mere involved i n purchases: a

1 ) either+ the change i n p r i ce mas too small t o be o f any

s i gn i f i cance i n consuqpt i on; or, 2) t hese goods were necass i t i es

that were not af fected by p r i ce change. Huch more research on

var iab le cost i s needed fo r the fu r trade data ba3e i n order t o --

underpt and consumpt i an.

It mas not a 1 mays possible' t o examine horn the combined changes

o f income and cost af fected consumption. The comparison that was

undertaken t o shom how changes i n both p r ice and i

consurpt ion mas an e f fec t iue means of d ig t inguishi'

nccesa i t i es and 1 uxur i es , I t ems cons i dertd l uxur i

ncome a f f ect ad

ng bet ween

es by the seruants

pp - - - - - - -- - --

=d m. . r e r s necessi t ies t o the o f f i c e r s . The economists' def - in i t ions o f * T

and luxur ies often exp la in the inconsistencies found in . necem i t i es

consumption

consuapt ion

necess i iy. 4

bet meen d i f ferent income groups. The r a t e o f

Mgependent on whether on a r t t c l e i s a luxury o r \

M c o n c e p t expla ins mhy the r a t es o f consumpt ion o f -

some goods i n one income group* d i d not change as p r i ces changed,

rh i 1 e consumpt i on di d change in the I orec income group.

Tee above resu l t s i nd i cote tha t need mas more o f t en a - - const r u i n i ng fac t o r i n consumpt i on than p r i ce, but t o - what degree i s ;

t " ?

debat ab 1 e. Th i s observat i o n cont r ad i c t s sonerhat the i n f erence t ha t

the fewer the cons t ra in ts on the acqu i s i t i on o f objects, t he more

var iab le t h e i r consumption w i i l be.(Hayden and Cannon 198t:192). I n

other rords, the lo res t p r i ced objects should shorn the most

var i ab i l i t y i n consumpt i on behau i or . The 'cansumpt i on ra tes o f goods a 4

that are necess i t i es rema i n s tab le even mh$ p r i ces change. The - r e l at i onsh i p between the degree of* uar i once i n consumpt i on and the

o f the a r t i c l e in the f u r ? F d e was no tevery good. The most

expensive goods (e.g., s u i t s ) always had a lower uariance than the

cheapest goods (e.g.,? cot ton hankys), but the r e s u l t s were mixed

between these extremes i n p r i c e .

Soc i a 1 Det e r r i nant s o f Consumot i on Behav i o r .

A growing body o f l i t era t ure has emerged i n recent years i n

sociology and anthropology tha t begins t o address t h e soc ia l

imp 1 i cat i ons o f consumpt ion. I t i s 1 arge l y based on t he premise

that mater ia l goods are sources o f in format ion i he everyday

soc ia l r e l a t i o n s o f people. The use o f mater ia l l t u r e i n t h i s Y

P

manner indicates s iap le o f f i l i a t i ~ n er d i f f e ~ s n t i m t i o a botwssn - - - -

members o f society. Such a v i e r o f material goods i s appl icable

inequa I i t y s i nce there are c i rcumst ances when consc i ous

d i f ferent i a t ion and a f f i l i a t i on are more pronounced.

Yet, t o many invest i gators, pat terns i n the use of r a t e r i a l *

goods are only an ind i rec t consequence of other act i w i t i es and - -

behavior. It i s those ac t i u i t i es , not the material goods, mhich

d i f f e r e n t i a t e betmeen, or define a f f i l i a t i o n of, members o f society.

For examp l e, South ( 1977 broposed' a t hat i n front i er soc i et i es the

tea dr ink ing ceremony by the o f f i c e r s mas the means t o axpress power

and rank. Increased tea dr ink ing mould be u i s i b l e i n the = C

archaeo l og i ca 1 record by more porce l a i n t ea-wares . The exp l anat i on

fo r t h e , r i t u a l t o enhance porer pnd enforce rank i s cer ta in ly ual id,

but i n t h i s ,form i t f a i l s t o explain mhy high qua1 it3 - porcelains ape

needed; why not u,se cheap t i nmares? I f the ti t ua l i s the on l y . i .port ant component o f enforc i ng pomer , then the qua l i t y of mat er i a l

remains thou l d be o f no consequence. But there are many examp l us

that indicate that the elaborateness o f material goods i s pos i t i ve l y

re la ted t o the importance o f the r i tua l - ; the goods also serve as a

source o f informat ion t o emphasize power and rank. Th i s was evident -- i n the fu r t rade also.

I n some respects, Ueblen's (1953) theory o f conspicuous

consurbtion i s coapatible mith the uiem taken here of the social

r o l e o f material cu l tu re in inequal i ty. For Ueblcn, material i s

objects mere the most u i s i b I e means o f d i f ferent i at ion bet ween

members o f aoc i ety . They mere as important as the r i t u a l t o define

ue r t i ca l membership i n society; t h e i r very existence and v a r i a b i l i t y

i n f ocm m a l l y served no s t h e r purpose. However , Ueb I en be I i eved

' that on! y the most expensive i tems were used i n con$i cuous

conjumption which,'of course, b+ were only auai labje t o the very r i c h

' in society. His theories d id not include, nor explain, -. /

non -u t i l i t a r i an formal v a r i a b i l i t y o f materiut objects o f lesser

worth that equal l y f u l f i l led social ro les at -a1 1 h ierarch ica l 1eueI.s

of society.

I n ros t s o d o l og i ca l and ant hropo l og i ca l theory , t cns i on mode I s

(e. g . , compet i t ion, stress and uncertainty), have a I way3 %een the w

m s t prevalent mays t o explain why people begin t o emphasize I

a f f i l i a t ion or d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and, invariably, ahy v i s i b l e means o f , - express i on; such as mat er i a l goods, become more preua l cot. Tens i on

or s t ress occurs because o f economic uncertainty. It also occurs i n

societ ies .here status c rys ta l izat ion i s poor and s tatus i s not

ascribed (sag., by sex, age, k inship). I n the ear ly par t o f the fu r 6

trade i n western Canada, rank and status were largely ascribed i n

the company h i erarch i ca l st ructure . pos i t i ons were .--

given t o indiv iduals on the basis o f a f t e r the 1800s..

No h $ e r mas the status o f the rank enough" t o c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e f groups, and tens i ons over pos i t i ons, who got them, and in ternal

f

co&t i t i on fo r resources cer t a i n I y became preua I ent i n t-he l a t e r '

\

part o f the fu r trade. The use o f money and wealth t o v i s i b l y

d i spl ay pos i t ion and 3 ta t us a 1 so became more common . To cone l ude, my ma i n t hes i s throughout t h i s d i tsert-at i on s t at es

that u o r i a b i l i t y i n the use o f material goods i s both economically

and soc i a l l y det ere i ne oney i s the means fo r social expression.

Luxury . i t ems o f e v e ~ y conce i vab l e f unct ion can be soc i a l i nd i cat ors

and can provide i nformat ion ahwt a hast of social c0ndi-t Lowr

Certainly t h e i r acquis i t ion i s re la ted t o income. But income cannot

exp l a i n o r predi c t rhen more emphas i s r i l l be p l aced on the

conympt i on o f l uxury goods, even rhen mom money i s av.a i l ab le . Uhen emphasis on such goods occurs, social factor3 may be

responsible. I can th ink o f no be t te r r e f w e t o support t h i s

v ier , than the one found i n the Edmonton Bul le t in , 1906, describing

rhy a new par l i ament bu i l d i ng (a very i mpos i ng, grand i ose, and - expens i ve s t guct ure) was erected i n Edmunt on :

b - -

Uhi le it i s r i t h a degree of pr ide and p I eopure that r e note the changed cond i t ions from the f u r traders ' l i f e t o u prosperous, modern c i u i I i zat ion, r e must adm i t the fee l ing that r e are, a f te r a l I , aiming only t o estab l i 3h fo r our peop l e the most

- - important and imposing s t h c t u r e i n the ' Prowince .... -

From the observat i ons and resu l t s der i wed from the ana 1 ys i s of

consumpt i on i n the fu r t rode,, i t i s ev i dent that a comb i nbt i on o f

econom i c and bhys i ca l charact er i s t i cs o f mat c r i a i goods, soc i o I, and

demograph i c var i ab l ep account fo r consumpt ion, and 'rhy i ncome and

consumpt ion are not a l mays more h igh ly c o r m I at ed:

1 ) The type o f item (necessity'or luxury) i s a very import ant' fact or i n the r o t e o f consumpt i on. I f an a r t i c l e i s a necessity, nei ther an increoae nor a decrease i n income m i l l a f fec t i t s consuqption frequency. Rn increase or decrease i n the p r i ce o f a necessity r i l l not o f fec t i t s consumpt i on r a t e e i t her, but i t r i I l rgqu i r e more income t o - -

- - -C---

buy the same a r t i c l e . Al ternat ively, the r a t e o f consumption of luxuries, a l l other t h i w being equal, is lore sensi t ive t o f luctuat ions i n income and pr ice.

2) u a r i a b i l i t ~ i n household s ize and composition (e.g., s ing le versus fa. i l y households) .of fect hor much i ncome i s spent on goods, These factors rere d i f f i c u l t t o control in t h i s d i s3ert a t ion and l i k e l y are part o f the regson rhy only income and t o t a l consumpt ion are not a l rays very r e l l corre l ated.

6. Q

3) Sav i ng versus spending behavior var i es from one i hd i v i dua l or group t o anothe~. b rea te r savings r o u l d ~ a f ~ f e c t the consdmpt ion o f l uxury i t ems and decrease the budget consideratily. fllso, the investment o f income on land, education, church or p o l i t i c s i s a d i f f i c u l t var iable t o contro I . However, many o f these factors mere not ueEy important u n t i l l a te r i n the fur trade,'

- -

1) Soc i a l factors . i nvo l u i ng otcupat i on and the cansumpt i on hab i t s o f peers ( l u rk 1960:?). Indiv iduals enter ing a new occupation and rank r i 1 1 consume according t o that *rank even ah i l e t h e i r income ,level i s s t i . l l l o re r than the mean income o f that occupat i ona 1 rank. This mas eu i dent i n the postmasters' and vrpprent ice c l erks ' deht I i s t s . ~ o t h prdups consumed i n a

, 'manner~closer t o the o f f i c e r s than rhat the ip i"c0.e allowed, resu I t i ng i n a poor cprre 1 a t i on bet ween income and consumpt ion. There ras a much bet t er f i t betaeen the genera t rank o f occupa't i ona I prest i ge and consumpt i on, than bet ween

- - *

income and consumpt i on,

5 ) Social factors involv ing consumption fo r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n or a f f i l i at i on. There i s an i ncreased emphas i s on l uxury i t ems . , even rhen income remains the same or decreases. A comparison o f income t o total. consumption i n the t r o periods rou ld resu l t i n a.poor cor re la t ion betreen the t r o uaricablea. This trend mas ev i dent i n the fu r trade.

Each o f the above factorsaccounts fo r someof t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i n -

consurpt i on. I n other aords, 'fidequat e theor i es o f consumers'

* purchase and consumption cannot-be ach' ued by a s i ng le concept'

(Stern iha l and Craig l98O:M). e . --

. . 2 -

flFITERIRL CULTURE - STRUCTURE AND STYLE **

;. $ r c t * 1

*

%

na ter i a 1 goods par t i c i pate i n the ma i n t enance o f r o 1 es and 0

statuses as wel l as re f l ec t - the behavioral d i f fe rences betmeen r o l e s

(HcGuire 1983:102). I n other words, mater ia l cu l t u re ac ts"

symbolical l y i n the soc ia l dimension and i s the end product o f

behau i ora l r o I es such as occupat i on. 1

The s t ruc tu re o f mater ia l cu l t u re i s composed i n such a manner

as t o def ine people uer t i c a l ly ' (s tatuses) and h o r i z o n t a l l y ( r o l es ) .

Howeuer , the s t ruc tu re - o f mater i a 1 cu 1 t ure i s somewhat more comp 1 ex -

because r o l e s and statuses o f t en ouerlap. This overlap o l s ~ ~ ~ ~ l i e s

t o a p a r t i c u l a r mater ia l object which may serve t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e not I

only' the ro l e , but a l so the s ta tus o f the person. - Tcadit iono l ly ,

a rchaeolog is t t - have thought o f funct ional i t e m ( typewri ters,

hamrers, o r stethoscopes) on1 y as r o l e i nd i cotors . But, i n many

saci e t i es occupat i ona l r o l es are ranked, and the behav i ora l end

p rodues o f r o l e s must a I 30 car ry i nformat ion regarding the rank.

I n t h i s sense, funct i ona l i t ems such as bus i ness su i t s and mgrk

pants can be ranked,and; i n the ma jo r i t y o f cases, m i l l a lso mnk

. the a ta tus d f t h e i r owners.

, The, aboue statement i n f e r s t ha t ) formal uar i a t ions o f funct ional

mater ia ! c u l t u r e mark r o l e s b e t t e r than ranks, and B

- a t t r i b u t e s o f

archaeo l og i ca

o f r o l e s and

I 1 y wou I d prow i de more i n f o r m ~ t ion abbut the d i v e r s i t y d

less about ranks. Howeuer, i n * the f u r trade,$* f o r . -- ..

2

. d

example, objects such as soaps and perfumes, may be more re la ted t o L

the d i f fe ren t ro les -o f the o f f i c e r s and the servants thon t h e i r

ranks. This example also b r ingsou t the dua l i t y o f materiol cu l tu re

,to serve more than one purpose even wi th items which are seemingly

r e l at ed on l y t o behav i ora l r o l eJs. - I mage or appearance mat t ered more e.

t o o f f i c e r s than servdnts, thereby explaining the dif ferences i n the

use o f such objects . ~ u t mhy mere such- i t ems used more o f t en

through time? I have argued that these goods are, t o some

also enhancing the s ta 7 us o f the r o l e or, i n other words,

i t much more c l e a r l y thon before.

There are good examp l es o f funct i ona l obj ect s acqu i r i n g symbo l i c

meaning t o define the status s f ro les. It i s l i k e l y that such-items

m i l l be l o r more f mportant i n soc igt i es where s t 6uses- and r o l es

overlap and qhere t e ~ s i o n s , t o constantly def ine ro les ex i s t . ' I"

rest ern soc i et y, where r o l es 'and s t at uses over l ap cons i derab l y,

business s u i t s are worn more of ten by executives or high level - government o f f i c i a l s than-casual wear. These garments are -

' funct ional items or necessit ies fo r each profession. But these I

e

garment a are also morn more frequent l y on occasions mhen the status

of the r o l e i s t o be defined (e.g., when h i r i n g or f i r i n g

ihdi v i d ~ a l s) and thus take on a more symbol i c funct ion. A

funct i ona l theory expl a i rk the d i ve i n formal v a r i a b i l i t y of

mater' ia~ cul-ture t o define roles, b $ +

quant it at i ve var iab i l it y , or vary i ng degrees o f emphas is, of these '

u t i l i t a r i a n , functional objects. Only a symbol i c theory o f material -

cu l tu re can account for t h i s increase i n emphasis o f these types-of +* goodsJ ~ n d t h c i ~ r e f l e c t iorrof status d e f i n i t i o n . Thus, the

statuses o f r o l es are enhanced by us i ng some goods tha t sgmbo l i ze +.

r o l e more o f ten.

a 3 'Uhen the ana l y t i ca l u n i t s o f mater ia l c u l t u r e are reduced t o - - -

a t t r i'butes o f a r t i facts, there are some a t t r i b u t e s that are L

pr imar i l y funct iona l and some tha t p a r t i c i p a t e symbol i c a l l y .in the

B c u l t u r a l system. The n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n formal v a r i a b i l i t y o f many .

ob jec ts becomes the major means o f s ta tus d i s t i n c t i o n . But,. again, C

most ob jec ts such as sh i r t s , trousers, o r hankys perform

u t i I i t a r i a n r o l e s i n the f u ~ trade. The a t t r i b u t e s ta tes o f these

a r t i c 1 es are o f t en arranged h i erarch i ca l l y by the i r degree o f /

e l aborat eness and qua l i t y, denot i ng vary i ng amounts 'of s t a t us as \

regulated by the r e l a t i v e access t o them wi th money. The d i v e r s i t y

o f these non-ut i l i t a r i an a t t r i b u t e s ta tes se l don def i nes r o l es i n

soc ie tg but i s more sens i t i ve t o s ta tus d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . T

This b r ings r e t o horn soc ia l needs a f f ec t the quan t i t a t i ve

s t ruc tu reJ o f mater ia l gu l tu re . Communication i s purposeful act ion,

even i f i t i s c a r r i e d o u t by symbolicmeans such as i n mater ia l .

ob jec ts . a The app l i ca t i on o f in format ion theory t o examine the

quant i t a t i ve s t ruc tu re o f u t i l i t a r i an versus non-ut i l i t a r i an forma l

v a r i a t i o n ind icated tha t each type o f v a r i a t i o n shored a range o f i

d i v e r s i t y . That range mas a l rays r e l a t i v e l y higher i n

non-ut i l i t a r i a n than u t i l i t a r i a n a t t r i bu tes , a l lowing f o r a greate

po ten t i a l mix ing o f expression; t h i s property rakes the a %

non-ut i l i t a r i a n a t t r i b u t e s r e l a t i v e l y md6t s i r i l o r t o the s t ruc tu re P ;% $

q f language. .But, i t i s the quan t i t a t i ve gradient o f tha t r i % ~ n g o & - ' r

expression r h i c h d is t ingu ishes u t i l i t a r i a n from n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n <

fgrmal v a r i a t ion o f moter ia l ob jec ts . R t t r i bu tes funct ion ing

p r i mar i l LJ as symbo l s i n cu l tu re show a quant i tat, i we st ructure o f uae

and manu facture that i nvo l ues r e l at i ve 1 more consc i ous cho i ce and

select ion than u t i l i t a r i a n at t r ibutes, and less random oar iabi 1 i t y -

-- -

o f choice o f those a t t r ibu tes .

The quant i t at i ve s t ructure o f r a t e r i a.1 cu l tu re that i s B

predom i nant l y symbo 1 i c i s more character i s t i c o f other commun i cat i ve

devices i n society. Uhether t h i s coding s t ructure becomes more B

preva 1 ent i n more complex soc i et i es, mhere symbols might be nore a

- --

A necessary for soc i a l express i on, i s an interest i ng queat i on. f o r

f u t u ~ e analysis. Host l i ngu is t s agree that the structures o f -

languages have changed, const ant 1 y react i ng t o needs i n cul tu re fo r

e f fec t i ve social expression. The analysis conducted i n t h i s

d i ssertat i on has only exam i ned mhet her there i s a d i f ference i n the

structure o f material cu l tu re form. Hot only i s addi t ional research

required t o examine t h i s d i f ference more thoroughly, but a lso a more

t borough exam i nat i on o f i nformat i on theory and mat e r i u l cu I t ure at

d i f f e ren t levels o f cu l tu ra l complexity i s needed. -

FUTURE 0 l RECT l OHS AH0 RESEARCH PROBLEtlS ,

The preced i ng d i scussi on and the ana 1 yses o f prev i ous chapters *. 'A,..

have PO i n t ed out mhere mor; research i s needed regard i ng f m u a I i t y

and material c u l t u r e - i n archoeologic~ l inquiry:

1 . Hore research it needed t o det erm i ne hom mat er i a l goods take on social meaning and mhere i n material objects that meani ng .

rea i ties. T--

2. nore rdearchp i s needed t o examine hom d i f f e ren t levels o f

i nequa l i t y between s t r a t a are re l a ted t o v a r i a b i l i t y i n soc ia l " act i ons o r ua l ues . 2.

-2

-' . 3. Research shou l d focus on whet her d i f b e n t econom i c c l asses a lso have d i f f e r e n t soc ia l views o r vatues (e.g., fu tu re

- uersus present o r i ented, personal appearance and i mags) and how these d i f ferences are expressed i n mat e r i a 1 cu l t ure .

3

1. The use. o f the f u r t rade archaeo I og i ca l record t o determ i ne more p rec ise ly the e f f e c t s o f cu ra t ion on the archaeological - inuest i gat i on o f i nequa l it y i s very necessary. q

" 5. tlore research i s needed t o exp I a i n why a great e r d i uers i t y o f a r t i fac t s i s assoc i a t ed w i t h upper i ncome groups archaeo l og i ca l l y . Uhen does t h i s archaeo I og i ca l i ndsx measure economic o r soc ia l ua r iab i l i t y , o r does t h i s index simply measure a shor ter use- l i fe o f objects o f the supper ranks?

'I

6. Re I a t iue frequency counts o f a r t i fac ts are common l y used i n archaeological i nqu i ry , I n t h i s study, there was o f ten a good assoc i a t i on bet ween f requenc i es i n the documentary records and archaeo l og i ca l records t o measure cu 1 t ura l uar i ab I es . flore research, howeuer, i s needed t o det e r r i ne hor ua l i d a r t i fact frequenc i es are f o r measur i ng cu l t ura l t rends archaeolo&cal'ly. t p

7. flare research i s needed t o det e r r i ne hor uar i a t i ons i n p r i ce o r i ncome , a f fec t consumpt i on uar i ab i l i t y i n househo l ds and i n t,he types *o f ob jec ts consumed. This index holds much promi ss as a measure o f i nequa l i t y .

/

-

8 , nore research i s necesswy t o determ i ne how set t I ement rank a f fec ts consumpt i on o f goods o f i ncome groups.

9. The po ten t i a l o f in format ion theory t o examine formal uar i a t ion o f l a t e r i a l goods i s consi derab I e. f l o r t research regard i rig the quant i t a t i ue s t ruc tu re o f 3oc i a l and technological a t t r i b u t e s o f mater ia l goods i s essent ia l .

I

CONCLUO l HG RERARKS

I n t h i s dissertat ion, I examined the s t ructure o f materia \

cu l ture and the r o l e it played i n the social s t ructure o f the I

uestern Canadian fu r trade. Some o f the resul ts, and t h e i r

impJications, are h igh ly in fe ren t ia l and m i l l l i k e l y requi re

cons i dsrab l y mire research before they are ver i f i ed or r e j ect ed . Htverthe - l ess, they are i mportant t o point t o some nem possible

avenues o f research fo r the structure and r o l e o f material cu l tu re

in other cu l tu ra l systems.

It i s ay hope that the resu l t s o f t h i s d isser ta t ion help t o

fur ther estab l i ah the i mportance o f h i s to r i cal archaeology fo r

met hod and theory bu i l ding i n ant hropo l ogy and archaeo I ogy . His tor i ca l archaeology should be perhaps one o f the most

soph i s t i cat ed types -of archaeo l ogy because o f the corp I et eness o f

the dato base (Schuyler 1970). 1 mould add that while h i s t o r i c a l

archaeo l ogy i n mest ern Canada has become more soph i s t i t a t ed, i t

cannot i gnore some fundament a l prob l ems that s t i l I pers is t -- namely; the large gaps i n the archaeo logical d ~ t a base, ' and equal l y

important, the analy t ica l gaps that are present mhen attemptirig t o - . i nvest i gate cu l t uro l phenomena r i t h archaeo l og i ca l dato.

I n closing, Clarke's quotat ion i n beginning o f t h i s d isser ta t ion

st ressed the need t o invest i gat e the symbo l i c r o l e o f r a t e r i a l

cu l ture. Af ter a l l those years since Clarke made that statement,

t h i s r o l e i s s t i l l poorly understood, not only because o f the subt le

funct ion i t per forms i n soc i et y, but because more archaeo l og i s t s

h o w not conducted research on the subj ect . Hopefu l l y f

archaeo l ogi ca l research over the next 20 years . i l l demonstrot e tbs

i .port ance of the symbo l i c .not ure of consumpt i on as has been dons i n (I

&her soc i a l sc i ences deal i ng m i t h consumpt i on i n cont emporbry .5

-gociet ies!

REFERENCES C l TED

t

Adams, G. F. 1981 Fur Trade Archaeology i n

Eva l uat i on and B i b l i ography . 2:38;.$2.

Uest c rn Canada: A C r i t i ca l Saskat cheman Archbeo l ocy - -

--

fldams , Gary, ' and Kev i n Lunn 1985 Searching f o r Soc i p l Organ i r a t ion: Examples from York ,

Factory. I n Status. Structure and S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , ed i ted by llarc Thompson, flar i a Teresa Garcia, and Francoi s Kense, pp. 371-378. CHACHOOL. The Archaeological Association o f the Universi ty o f Calgary, Calgary. -

Arnold, K e n 1972 The H i s tory and Archaeology o f Fort Fork. Hs. on f i le, .

The Prow i nc i a l Huseus and Arch i ves o f A l ber t a, Edmonton. -

\

Axt e l I, Jarea 1975 The Uhite Indians o f Colonial America. U i l l i am and H,arq

DUQP~ e r 1 q 32 : 55-68.

Babcock, Doug l as R. 1984 Fort Dunuegan: fl Structurai Synopsis and Archival

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~arnqd/., U ic tor 1979 Ant hropo l oay . The Dorsey Press, Homemood, I U . i

\ -

P

Betokriniceu, 0, ,

1983 The Fur Trade i n Uestern nida, Ceram i cs - Cost, Transport a t i on and S t a t us. P r presented a t the XU I Annua l Canadian Archaeological A s s x i a t ion Conference, Ha l i fax .

Bened kt, Ruth 1934 , Patterns o f Cul ture. Hcntor Books, Hem York.

Berreran, .G. D. (ed.) 1981 Socio-t- I m a u a l i t u . Academic Press, Hem York.

Binford, Lemis R. P

1962 Archaeo l ogy as &it hropo I ogy , Amer i can Ant i ciu i t y 28 : 21 7-225.

I968 Archaeol og i ca l Perspect i ves . I n Hem P e r s ~ e c t i ves i n Archaeoloay, ed i ted by Sa l l y R. B in fo rd and Lemis Binford, pp. 5-32.' Aldine, Chicago.

1982 --8ehav i oro I flrchaco l ogy and the 'Porpe i i Frem i se' . ,Journa l o f flnt h r o ~ o l oa i ca t Research 37 : 195-208.

Blake, Judith and Kingsley Davis .

b 1964 Horrs, Ua l ues, and Sanct ions. I n Handbook o f nodern Sociology, ed i ted by Robert E. L . Far is, pp. 156-101. Rand flcHal lq, Chicago,

Blau, Peter tl. 1 7 7 Ineaual i tuandHeteroaeneitu: - - A P r i m i t i v e T h e o r u o f

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APPEND I X A ;

TflBLES AND FIGURES OF PRlflfiRY DATA,

gUAHT l TAT 1 UE AND STAT 1 ST I CAL RESULTS

CHAPTER 7 ,

TABLE 7 . 9

COHPRRISOH OF SASKATCHEUflH AND flTHABASCH

I809 - 1822 Comparison of Alcohol(shi1 l ings)

1817 Comparison ( i n shi l lings) ,-

DF X Count Y Count. Mean X Mean Y Unpa~red t Value

1820 Cornpar i son ( i n sh i l l i ngs

68

OF X Count. Y Count. Mean X Mean Y Unpa~red t Value

0005 p L 005

23 944

Data from HBCA IH 437 B.39/d/2; Ill 437 B.39/d/6; I H 467 0 . 6O/d/l; l f l 467 B,6O/d/10.

*

2 963 33

443

DF XCount. YCount M e a n X . Hear, Y Unpa~red t Value

37 43 106

1 ( p L 375

2 167 2 929

327

6 1 1

2 167 1 1

7

7 I 1 2 323

0 I STR I CT COnPRR I SONS OF 1

- -

i o

COUNTRY

--

BADE GOODS BY OCCUPATION .

A. 1017 Comparisons (in shillings)

8 . 1821 coapari;ons'(in shillings)

DF X Count: Y Count: Mean X: Mean Y . Unpaired t Value: ,

DF X Count Y Count. Mean X: Mean Y: Unps~red t Value

12 B 6 17.5 12 f l 12.804 I .005 < p 5 0 1

C. 1826 Comparisons (in shillings) /'

7 667 3.833 .735 10 6,

. I p i ,375

6

Data from HBCA IH 437 B+39/d/2; I H 437 Bm39/d/6; t tl 437 B . 3 9 I d j 3 .

DF X Count. Y Count. Mean X Mean Y , Unpa~red t Value.

- 114 13 20 00 l 20 921 7 8

/'

B TABLE 8 .1

<

sunnewt OF REGRESS I ON ANALYS I S: TOTRL CONSUIIPT I 011 TO TOTAL I NonE

Compar i son o f i ncome -and consurpt i on -of Hudson ' 3 Bay Corpany employees i n the Saskatchewan d i s t r i c t between 1009 - 1866. ~ d a t t e r ~ r o m of these resu l ts i s shown in Figure 8.1 ,' i n Text.

DF. R-squared: Std. Err Coef Ver

30 1.194 1 8.055 169 358

Beta Coefficient Table Parameter el&. Std Err Varrence T-Value

Anaiys~s of Variance Table Source DF Sum Square3 Mean Square ' F-test

2 645

, SLOPE , 0 9 8 037 , 001 - 3 643

5 925

6 906 01 ( p i 025 =

2.434 INTERCEPT

2 l Rosrdwl tnfprmrbon Table SS(e(1 )-dl- 1 I] e 1 0 e ( 0 W test

1845 47 1 113 118 1981

6 439

453 188 .

64 875' 453.188 188 1 386

2334 575

REGRESSIW

RESlWAL TOTAL

1

23 30

Comparison of t o t a l income t o t o t a l .item & i v e r t i t y o f employee; in the Hudson ' s Bay Company, Satkat cheman d i* t r i c t , 1809. The scat t ergrom .of t hb resu l t.s i s shorn i n F i gure. 8.2, i n the tex t .

i

~ i j m - Y : ~)09:~un&.divmr. - All X : 1809:Wagms -All

W: . R-squared: Std. Err.: Coef. V w . :

19 1 -387 14.013 1 30.794 Bela Coefhclent Table

Parameter Valuo Std Err Vwrance T-\ aiue

1 TOTAL 119 1472.95 1 1

1

Source DF * Sum Squares: Mean Square F-test.

Restdusl lnformat~on Table S S e - 1 e 2 0 e i O DW test

718 428 112 18 1 2 478 1 , e

,-

Ooto from HBCA Ill +67 8.60/d/l. 'U

Analysts of Vsrrance Table

r

INTERCEPT

SLOPE

183.02 1

16.107 183.02 I 289.929

REGR€SSIW RESIDUAL

5 388

015

1 1.363

,000 1 ( p i ,005

1

18

2 513 3 371

5 834 4 1

2 321

122 *

TABLE 8.6 - *

COflPAR l SON OF flEFUi UAR l ETY OF GOODS BETUEEN IHCOflE GROUPSe

d. Comparison o f 1809, t o 1822 servants ' d i v e r s i t y o f @ i d s . - \

Unpaired b l e s t X : 1809: Diversity. Sask. Sewants Y : 1822:Diversity. S ~ s k

W: x count: $count: ~ e a n X. Meen Y , + Unpalred t Vslue .. /

13 7 8 9.57 1 15.125 - 1 667 1 . 0 5 c p r 1 i

j.

I,

1

here i s no s i gn i f i cant d i f ference bet meen t h e means. . P

B. Comparison o f 1817 t o 1826'seruants1 d i v e r s i t y o f c~oods.

Unpaired t-Test X : 1817: Diversity. Aths. Sqwmts Y > 1826: Diversity Athn Ssrvmt!5 d ' A

DF X Count. Y ,Count Mean X. Bean Y Unpaired t Value " 12 6 . 8 3 333 14 375 -6 656 1.

.. p s 0005 '

* .

* T h i r e i s a 3 i @ i f i cant d i f ference' bet meen t h e neant . .

C . Corparison o f 1853 ' to 1866 o f f i ' c e r s ' d i u e r s i t y . o f goods. Y . ~

Unpal rd . ., t-Tmst X : l p % 3 : ~ i v ~ r s i t ~ ; ~ . s t . Officers Y : 1866:Dkmrslty. Smrk. Officers

OF. X Count: Y Count: , Neen X: Mean Y Unpaired t Value -. - 20 10 . 12 9 8' 48 083 -9 635

? .

the means.. *There i s a s i gn i f i cant: di f fehence

< . ._. I e . %

'#. 1 i

i h - . L

t 0. Compar,ispnof L. 1826 t o 186.6 of f icers ' d i & r s i f y i f p o d s 4 * L L

r' I

S

x ~ a p & $ l ?-~&i <1826: Divp-rsity. A U u Officers Y : 1866: Diversity Atha.. -- - P C -: %- L . - ;o W i c o r s

i m e W '- : X h u n t ; Y Count: - Meari'tx: flean Y: . Unpaired t Value: 3 "' 7 "

J L 0 - i

0

i , ~ 1 ~ ' !$a a t . l o _ a .235

\ L L - - c u - p ' .4 * " . ,

- . " 6- * . ,' 4 3 Q ,

, * -" f' , & .

3 V *{he& er i d I& s ign i. f i cant d l f f erenee bet meen t.he aeons. . A

" 0

a . 0 4 I . . V 5

99 . . p E . ' ~ o r n ~ a c i s & bf 1822 se&antsS ,to o f f i c e r s ' d i v e r s i t y o f goods.

> a. - . C s

4 4

. - - + 1 7 D

OF' ' X ~f&unt: Y Count: ' " Mean: X: - .Mean Y : Unpaired t Valuq: ' - 12 "8 - 6 " 13.125 r 1 1 7 . ~ 3 - 74 , *

. i il L .1 < p i .375 b e

J r is.

.0,

*There ei j no s i hn i f i cant d i Yerence vt been the means. < .

- 0 . $ . F . Compor i son of 18% squcmt s ' t o o f f i cer$' d i uers i t LJ of, gopds. *

*

br " . &..*

!&he& i s a s i g n i f i c a n t differencspbbtmeen thp means.

m 1 I

P . . Unpmired t-Tost X : 1834:Diwrsity. S W - S@rvrp& 1 I334:~fwrsity. Sast. 1 I* Officmk,

r i

Y . d DF : X Count: Y'Count: Mgan X : Meen Y P ' " Unpaired t Value:

7.714

*

. : G'. ' Compor ison o f 1 853 seruont s ' t o p f f jeers ' d i vers i t,y o f b o d s . iI ,ea P

b * . \

P P I

b p & i r o d t-Test X .: 1853:Divrrsity. Sa$.Sewonts f ': 1853:Divsrsity. Srsk. > - * 4 BFficmcs

a #F ? ."

X Count Y Cou"t. M e a ~ 2: yea;, Y . ' Unpaihd t V a l u l

1 7 '-.005 c p i .Ol b ,

4

I ' *

14.125 ",

J

-2.812

d , , r,

9 . = * P i 4

1 ' i

d , ' . -.. f a

'i . *There i s no s i gn i f i cant" df ie rente beheen the means. . I P

d I < I o c - - . I

- 7 i * J r ' , 4

a 9 e

, " b i . *

P 07 1 - 7

1

t6 17' 10 ' " 10 L . , { 9 8--

H. ~ o m ~ a r ' i s o n of ' 1866 servants' t o o f f iqer*' d i v e r s i t y of goods. -

k

Unpaired t-Test X : 1866:Diversity. Smsk. SerSantc Y : 1866:Diversity. Sask. Officmrs *

*There i s a s i gn i f i cant d i f ference bet ween the means. {

DF : X dwnt: Y Count: Mean X: , Mean Y-: unp+d t Value

*There i s a, s i gn i f i cant d i f ference bet seen the means.

46 083 I -3 394' '

I. Comparison o f 1817 serudnts' t o o f f i c e r s ' d i v e r s i t y of goods.

Unpaired t-Tast X : 1867: Diwryity. Atha. Servants Y : 1817: Diversity. Athm. w f i ~ ~ s

DF : X Couqt: Y Count: Mean X: Mean Y Unpalred t Value .o 1

J.6 Comparison o f 1826Lseruants' t o o f f i c e r s ' d i v e r s i t y o f goods 5

0005 p r. 005

24

d 3

, . lJ&\'ed F T e s t X : 182& Diversity. AthnOfficers Y : 1826; Diversity Atha Servmh A

8 .

12 14

-2 628

' DF: X* Count: Y Couht: Mean X: Mean Y : .Unpaired t Value 3 1

32 .07 1

' O l ( p s O 2 5

3.333 18.6 9

'i

*There i s n o s i gn i i f ference bet ween the mean3. 1 * D

,> * ' 0

1 - 2 .. .a

6 5

TRBLE 8.6 (CONT,

K . Comparison of 1866 serua"tsl to officers' diversity of goods.

*There i s no.significant difference betmeen tkie.nean3. \

\

Data from HBCA I D 467 B,60/d/lJ10; I t l Q7fl !3,-60fd/46; Itl 473 8 , ,

60/d/107; In 478 8 . 60/d/165; In 437 BO39/d/2,226; Itl 445 8 , ;

Unprirod t-Test X : 1866: Diversity Athr. S e w i n b Y :- 1866: Diversity Athr. O f f i c m

DF. X Count. Y Count: Mean X: Mean Y: Unpaired t Valw:

-1.781

..025 p i .05

19 6.714 5 3 1 28

F' COnPRR l SOH OF OFF l CERS UERSUS SERUflNTS t TEH CONSUHPT I OH' TO PR l CE

l tem

18% OFF I CERS

P r i ce Rank SERURNTS I tem" Price Rank

t i n porr inger P

t i n pan p l a i n blanket bu f fa lo parchment b.b. shot pomder gun f l i n t s pomder horn pack saddle brass r i r e i ron horse f e t t e r s f i resteei car t ouche kn i fe s a l t bu t te r I

grease der. rum plug tobacco m i l led cap bu t fa lo sk in Indian shoes blue -c lo th r h i t e flannel scar l et garters s t i t ch thread brass thimble

- r e t a l coat but tons 6d r ibbon b o l l buttons

27,s japanned pot 29.5 29.5 , t i n ket ' l le 25.5 - 16 tmine * 20 21.5 2.5 p t . blanket 5 34.5 duff- le bldnkct 4

28 @ lead bal,ls 34.5

38 9. ' o Id- gun 9 i 9 scalping k n i f e 3J 21.5 b r i d l e . ? . 5 25.5 dag 21 -5 6 carrot t abacco 21.5 33.5 r o l l tobacco 26.5 33.5 red deer sk in 21 .S 37 f ine plated hat .3 30 s i l k hanky 13 36.5 i n fan t ' s s h i r t 27.5 1 1 leather trousers 10 26.5 f ine coat 1 .' 24 c l o t h capot 2 18 scar l e t be1 t 15 33.5 colored be l t 22

7.5 gi ' l t earrings 32.5 25.5 cock feathers 17 36.5 gla3s beads " 33.5

8 enamel beads 25.5 39 tobacco h x 33.5 32.5 white d u f f l e 13 34.5 blue stroud 12 35 s t r iped cotton 2 3

- -

Data from HBCR I t l 470 8.6O/d/46.

TRBLE 8.7 (COHT. )

Resu l t s o f tlann-Uh i t ney U Test ,

b

Hmnn-Witney U X : 1834. Sorvurts Item F. R& Y : 1834. Offic. Item F. Rank Y

I 12 cor&cbd for ties ( -2.864 1

TABLE 8 - 8

TEST OF'TEH HIGHEST P R I c ~ D RRT1CLES,1817,1835,1866

A . 181 7 flt habasca 0 i st r i ct Corpar i son

SERUHNTS ' OFF t CERS l t e i Price Rank neon Purchase tlean Purchase I *

I

str iped blanket 1 0 . 5 I I

.09 . S I cordoroy trousers 2 scar l e t r a i stcoat 3 .02 . -5 - -

' f i n e hat canad i an be I t 3 pt , blanket 6 COB'^ shoes 7 c lo th t rousers 8 flannel sh i r t 9 cotton sh i r t 1 Q

Data from HBCA Ill 437 8 . &/d/2. /

Wilchxon signed-rank X : 18 17 S.n.nts Y : 18 17 Officers

Number : , I Rank. Hem Rank

5.5 4

+ Ranks -Ranks

10

0

55 0

TABLE 8 .8 (CONT .

0 . . 1 &35 Saskatchewan D i st r i ct Cornpar i son

SERUAHTS OFF l CERS Item - Price Rank flean Purchase flean Purchdse

f i ne coat horse blue chief coat 3 cloth capot 4 rum 5 f ine plate hat 6 duf f le blanket 7 3 pt . blanket 8 blue duf f le & 9 2 . 5 " p t . blanket 10 0 , 4 4

Data from HBCA Ifl 470 Bm60/d/46. 4

Z corrected for ties 1-2.84 I

Number: 1 Rank: Mean Rank:

I tied groups 1 1 I

+ Ranks - Ranks

10 0

55 0

5.5 6

A TnBLE 8 . 8 (COHT. 1 % -

C . 1866 Saskat cheaan D i s t r i c t Compar i sons *

t

SERUANTS OFF 1 CERS 1 t e n P r i c e Rank t lem Purchase tlean Purchase

gray capot 10 .64 - 3 3 c l o t h t r o r s e r s 9 . Qt . 17 t h , gr . b lanket 8 .39 .92 pa i n t c d casset te 7 . 0 4 0 c l o t h capot 6 . 04 0 f n , b l u e c a p o t 5% ,39 . 5 ' b l a n k e t i n g capot 4 . 1 0 , i n f , d ~ k , t reed

s u i t 3 p i l o t c l o t h jac -

k e t " 2 com'n Ind ian

t rade gun 1

Data from HBCA Ill 478 8,60/6/165.

Wilcoxon signedrank X : 1866. Servants Y : 1866. Officers

Z corrected for ties 1 -.358 I

Number 1 Rank. Mean Rank

( * tied groups 1 1 1

7 75 + Ronks

- Ranks ,f3 124 4 :

4 131

TABLE 8 . 9

* U I LCOXOH - - S l GH TEST OF ARCHAEOLOG I CRL DATA

s

Fort U i ct or i a, I&$-98

SERUANTS OFF l CERS . I tem Pr ice Rank Re l at i we Freq. Reo l t i ve Freq.

gun par ts 1 axes 2

' k e t t t e s 3 . 5 spoons 3 . 5 kn i ves f . 5 sc i ssors $ .,5 cerar i cs 5 met a l buttons 6 p i pes 7 . 5 eorr i ngs 7 . 5 thimbles 8" beads 9 ,005 -16

Wilcaxon signod-rmk X : Ft. Vic.. S.rvmts Y : Ft. Vic.. Officers ,'-

Number: E Rank: Mean Ra&: E + Ranks

- Ranks

note 1 cases eliminated for difference = 0.

5 6

23

43

4.6 7.167

TABLE 8 .9 (CON1 . )

0 . Fort George, 1792-1800

SE RUflHTS OFF KERS I tern Price Rank Re i at i ve Freq . Relat ive Freq.

* I

gun parts 1 .PO7 ,006 axes 2 0 0, ket t I es 3 , 5 .003 ,002 spoons 3 .5 0 0

4 .5 .003 kn i ves a 002 sc i ssors 4 .5 . 0 0 +

=ram i cs 5 . O 1 .008 metal buttons 6 .O1 ,009

p i pes 7 . 5 . l Y .08 earr i ngs 7 , s .004 ,0009 thimbles 8 .0005 .0009 beads 9 . 42 . 0 3 '

Wilcexan signed-rmk X : Ft. 600.. !hwnks Y : Ft. 6re.. Officers

Nwnber: 1 R&-k: t%an Rank: 1 I 1

+ Flanks

- Ranks

Z

Z corrected for ties

tisd'Qroups

note 3 cases eliminated for difference = 0.

, 1 Cl

-2.547 -2.549

1

1 44 ,

1

5.5

TABLE 8 .9 (COHT . )

C . Buckinghar House, 1792-1800

SERURNTS " OFFICERS *

Item Price Rank. Relatiwe Freq. R e l a t i u e f r e q .

gun por ts i axes 2 ket t l es 3 . 5 3poons 3 . 5 kn i ues 9 . 5 se i ssors 9. S ceramics S ret a t buttons 6 p i pes 7.5 earr i ngs 7 . 5 thimbles 8 bead3 9

Wilcormm signod-rmk X : Buck. House. %rvmts Y : Buck. How.. Officmrs

Nwnber : 1 Rank: Flem W: + R ~ k s -Ranks

Z corrected for ties:

+ tied groups

-.235 1

7 S

42 38

6 7 2

- - - - - pp ----r-- *. C TfMLE 6.9 (COHT.)

. D. Fort Epinette, 1799-1823 .

SERUANTS OFF 1 CERS Item P r i cc Rank Relatiwe Freq. ' Rcio t iue Friiq.

gun par ts axes k e t t l e s m i

spoons kn i ues scissors -

ceram i cs met a 1 buttons p i pea earr i ngs thimbles beads

Wilceren signmd-rmk X : FT. Epinetb. Snvclrts Y : Ft. Epinotto. Otticws

Z corrected for ties . I-1.513 ----I

Number. 1 Renk. Hqan ~ i ink .

I tied groups 12

+ Ranks

- Ranks

note 1 case ellmlnated for difference = 0.

2

9

16

50

8 S .5!5

I

J

E. tiuttingwhar House,

SERJ~HTS OFFICERS Price Rank. Re lat i we ireq. - Re I at 4 ue Freq.

gun parts 1 - C

0

2 e

axes B

ket t l es spoons kn i ves 3c i ssors cerar i cs net a I-ut t an3 p i pea earr i nga thimbles

\

beads

I I" 1

Number : I Rank: tlean Rank: > '>

'+ Renk,

note 5 cmes eliminated fw di f ferme - 0.

2 A .,

- Rmk9 ,5 8 4

20 4

F. Rocky nt . House ,.

L + c .

+ SERURNTS - . ' OFF I ~ ~ R S ,,, '

item Price Rank- Re l at i ve Freq . de l cti i ue Freq .

gun parts axes ket t l e3 spoons kn i ves sc i ssors cerar i cs met a l buttons p i pes earr i ngs t h i rb j es beads

Wilcoxon signad-rat X : R. Clt. H w u . S#vrrts Y : R. Ht. Heuso. Officors

note 4 cases eliminated for difference = 0 .

Number: I Rank: bar M : +Renks - Ranks

Z corrected for ties

+ tied groups

-1.402 .

1

8 4

1 '

"7

i

8 28

COl lP f l~ l& .~ f llOaSE SK IN PRICE CHANGE RHO COHSUHPT l ON RATE 4 '" ' P .* 7

Unpaird t-Tast X 1 1622: Sn. CI..u st. Y : 1834: Sor . Hwsr s t . C

Unpaired t - T d X : 1 8 2 2 : W. H o a o sk. Y : 10.34: O f f . h s m s t . +*

DF X Count. Y CoWi Mean X. flem Y UnpairedLValue .

*

14 7 9 5 444 -3 52 I

Unpaired t-Test X : 1634: Sor. noose sk. 1 : 1433: Sar. rloesa st': /

Ihp8ir.B t-Tlst X : 1634: bff. Ck.w st. Y : 1853: Mf. floesa Et . <

QF . X Count. Y Count. Mean X. b a n Y . , Unpa~red t Value

DF: X Count: Y Cwnt: Mean X : tlem Y . Unpatred t Value r - 1 I I I I 1

2 565

X Count Y Count b a n X Mean Y Unpalrod t Value

0 0 5 ( p r 01

20

P, 9 - 10

2.9 10 1 25

J 5 444 ' 2 2 427

.025 < p c .OJ . I P .

,.

d

Uhpeirmd t-Test X : 1855: Smr- Hwsm st. Y : 1653: Off. Hwsm st .

Oata from HBCA I t l 467 B.60/d/10; Itl 470 B.6O/d/46; I t l 473 B.6O/d/lOi'.

fnp%rred 1 Value

-1 .lo5

OF XCount Y Count Hew X . f'lm Y

2 20 12 10 1.25

P R I CE CHF~WGE AND CotisunPT ION RRTE COHPRR I SOH OF

!If. X Cm?: Y C w n t Mssn X: M Y. Unpard t Value

19 1 0 1 1 .6 1 82 1 472 I 0 5 c p r 1

Unprirad t-Tort X : 1 6 2 2 : ' ~ . S t r i r h Y : 1834f W. Shirts >

Ww X Count: Y Count: flew X: FIem Y . ' Unpatred t Value ,.. ,

15 6 1 1 1 273 1 739

hp8i r .d t-Tast X : 1834: Sar. Shirts Y : 1853: Sor. Shirts

-rid t-Tost X : 1834: Off- Shirts Y : 1853: Off. Sbirts

DF : X Count. Y Count. Mean X. Hew Y Unpa~red t Value

ff X C.od: Y Count: Mean X: t l a l Y . Ltlpak-ed t Value r I I I I ' I 1 \

Shirts Y : 1822:Oi f .Sbi r ts

- ,667 ! < p i 375

,364 20

DF. XCount: Y C o w t : 'flm X . h Y . Unpnred t Value

1 1

1 -.764 1 14

1 1

' , 1 < p r 375

,182

10 , *

6 b

r 3 TABLE 8.11 (CONT.) -.y= .Prp

*d t-Tad X : 1634: Sor. Sbkts V : 1834: W. Skirts - .

Of. X C m t Y Count: Hem X: Mem Y:

?O u 1' ' . 1 1 182 .2?3

Oat a from HBCA I H 467 B. 6O/d/ B.60/d/107. .

Jnpaired t Value-

-488 I 'a.

DF X Count. Y Count. Ptem X . t k m Y. Unpaired t Value

. l < p s .375 Y

! - Unpmrd t-Tost X : 1853: Ser. Shirts Y : 1653: OFf. Shirts-

19 1 1 364 1 --

964

. 1 < p i 375

COflPRR ISON OF 1 OBRCCO PR l CE CHRHGE AND COHSUflPT l ON RRTE \

6 UApairod t - T w t X : 1822: S.r. Tebuca Y : 1834: Sar. Tob.rto

.Y

DF: X Cwnt: Y . C w n t : Ftem X. Mwm Y: Unpaired 1 Value:

19 1 0, 1 1 . - 4.35 1 182 2 157 - 01 < p i 025

Unpaired t-Tost X : 1 8 n : Of f . T o b m r Y : 1634: Off. Tebacco

DF . X Count. Y Count. Mean X: flean *Y. Unpaired t Value , ,

14 17 19 3.804 3.187 1 364, I

Unpaired t-Test X : 1853: S w . ToBuca :Y : 1 : Sar. Tobacco

DF: + X Count: Y Count: Mean X: Msm Y: Unpa~red t Value

23 1 1 14 4.545 9.518 -2 .25 '

01 < p i 025

rad t-Test X : 1853: (MK Tekcce Y : 1866: Off. Tobacco . *e *

L t - c

Df " XCount. Y C w n t : Meen X. Msan Y - , ,$-Inpalred t Value h

20 -10 12 3 35 5.563 - 934 1 I ( P i 3 7 5

Umpired t - T d X : 1822: s#. T.)uco Y : 1822: Off. Tehcco

W: X CQunt: Y C m t : Mean X: h Y: hpa i r sd t Value: , i

15 10 7 4.35 3.804 251 , I ,

DF X-Cmt: Y C O U O ~ t l e s n X : - - ^ Meen Y: Jnpaired t ~a l i t s : . I 18 1 1 9 1 1 1 ~ 2 3.167 - 1 .%3

G , *

. . Unpaired t-Test X : 1853: Sur. Tobwrm * Y : 1853: Off . Tob~cco - 8 ? . - *

' Unpaired t-Test X : 1866: Ser. Tobacco Y :, 1866: Off. Tobmcco

DF . X Cowt. Y Count". Mean X: M m Y : ' Unpaired t Value:

19

Data from HBCA B.60/d/10; I H t70 B.60/d/46; I H 473 ~.~60/d@07; I n 178 ~ . 6 0 / d j 1 6 5 . - ,

DF . X Count: Y Count: Mean X: ~ n p a ~ r e d t Value: ,

I 1 1 10

24

4.545 3.35

O S < p i . l

14

.713

12 19.518 1.522

TABLE 8 . 4 5 3 '

i -

CtJnPAR l SOB OF~~RLCOHOL PR'I CE CHANGE AND COMSUHPT I OM R* -- - - 4' " * -

*. 0 as'

Unpaired €-Test X : 1 W : W. A l c o h j Y : 1834: Off . Alcohol *

DF: ~ ~ m t : ~ i ~ o u n t : i l u s n ~ : Ftsan 4: Jnpsred t Value:

Uspaired t-Tost X f 1834: S.r. Alcohol Y : 1853: Sor. Alcohol

4.398 I -. 14 7

M . X Count: Y Count: Mean X: Nean Y : Unpaired t. Value. ' .

DF: X Count: Y Count: Mean X: Mean Yf, Unpaired t Value.

18 9 -1 1 1.66 1 13.067 C 3 ~ 1 -.865 65 - 1

p r .0005 % - - n 5

?

b 19.821 1 1.861' -

1 1

Off i t e w mean alcohob consumpt ion mas 1 .2S i n 1834 and 0 in - 1853, A t-Teat for these means cou Id hot be computed.

/'

URpird t-Test X : 1822: S#. A l c o b l Y : ' 1822: Off. k l c d w l

I d

.025 ( p r .05

6 7

DF: X Catmt: Y Count: M m X: ttem Y: Jnpaired t Value.

9.875 2.178

6 , 19.821 9 875 1 574 1

1 1

0 5 < p < 1 -- 7

G . The Seruants' mean consumption of alcohol mas 3.07 i n 1853, and the Off icers' mean consumption o f alcohol mas O in 1853, A +Test fqr these data could not be computed.

Data from HBEA il l 467 ~ . 6 0 / d n 0 ; Ill 170 B1.60/d/46; I l l 473' '

8.60/d/107.

TABLE 9.1 -

SUI'II'IARY . OF JACCARD ' S S l ll l LAR I TY COEFF I C l ENT OF GOODS

A . Servant Summary St a t i s t i ca o f U i t h i n-Rank Compar i sona, 181 7 .

18 1 7:A~m-nts Jmccmrd Comfficiont Mean: Std. Dev.: , Std. Error: Variance: Coef. Var . Count:

%

B . O f f i ce r in-Rank-Comparisons, 1817. '

flinimum: Maximum: Range: Sum: Sum Squared: Missing

15 \

.I21

C. Seruant -Of f i cer Sum~ary Stat i st' i cs o f Bet meen-Rank Compar i sons,

.005 60.794 .074 .019

? -

If3 17: Officers Jmccard ~omff ic ieni Mean. * Std. Dev.: r Std. Error: Variance: Coef: Var . . Count.

1817. - -

18 17 Ser/OTf Jaccard Coefficient I

4

1.82 .297 .27 0

15 1 ,

Minimum: Maximum: Ranqe : Sum. 2 Sum Squared. * Miss~nq . -

0 1.29 . .29 p3 1.31 .J98 . 1 6.

I I I

b P

0. Servant t o Off i cer Between-Rank Compar i Son,,, 181 '?

.27

- . Mem : Std. Dev.: k t d , Error: Variance: Coef. Var.: Count:"

Unpaired t-Test X : 18 17: S a n m t s . Jaccrrd Coafficirnt Y : 18 t 7: Mf ic r rs Jaccerd Comfficiont

Minimum: Maximum: Range: Sum : Sum Squared. Missmg

,087 . ,

115.012 .029 .I48

,734

s-

DF : X Count: Y Count: Mean X: Mom Y: Unpaired t Value: '

2.22 .03

.077

.17

.006 .02

-.S57, .

.044

.56

88 .532 115~

I I p i ,375

. 1#

.53

.12 1 15- 15

-a - Y

'E. Servant U i th'imRank t o Servqnt - Off icer Betseen-Rank .. . , . .-

Compar i sons, 181 7 . * . . - . G

" f . a QI

1

F . ~ e & a n t - ~ i t h i n - nk t o 5eruan t - O f f i cer 6et ieen-~agk

. > f C

. -)i

' Unpired t-Test X : 181 7: Officers Jrccrrd Coefficient Y : 18 17- Ser/Off e ~ a c c r r d Coeffic$ht

DF ' X,Count. YCount: Mean X: Hean Y: Unpaired t Value: ,

28 15 15 .I46 .087 1.257 I '

G . Servant U i t h i n-Rank Summary S t a t i st i s, 1839. /" Mean. . Std. Dev.: Std. Error: - Variance. Coef. Ver .: ' Count:

164 .00 1 .02 1 .007 49 .58 15

Mlnimurn . Maximum: Range : Sum : Sum Squared: * Missing:

.07 .4 .33 2.46 .4% ' i 1

*

H . Of f icer Uithin-Rank Summary S t a t i s t i c s , 1835.

. 1835 Officers &card Coefficimnt . " mean: Std. Dev.: Std. Error: Variance: Coef. Var.: Count:

,139 .OS 1 .O 13 .003 37 .06 15

Minimum: Maximum: Range: Sum: S'um squared: + Missing:

.07 _ 1 \

.22 . f5 2.08 .325

--- -

I . Servant t o 0 f f i cer Bet reen-Rank Summary S t a t i s t i c3, 1 835.

J . ' Servant U i t h i n-Rank t o Off i cer U i t h i n-Rank Corpar i sons, 1835.

*

Unpaired t-Test X : 1835 ~ & v a n t s Jaccard Coefficient Y 1 1035 Officmrs Jmccrrd Comfficient

Mean : * .Std,- Deg.. Std. Error: Variance. Coef Var . Count:

.I31

,' 1 o p r ,375 , -

S

K . Servant Ufi t h i n-Rank t o Servant - Off i cer Bet reen-Rank Comparisons, 1835. , ,

.076 .02 ,006 158.174 1 15

DF: X Count: Y Count: Mean X: Mean Y. Unpa~red t Value

, - 3

, Unpaired t - ~ e g t X : 1835 Servants Jrccrrd Coefficient Y : 1833Sar/Off. A % Jmccrrd Coafficiant

Winimwn: Waximwn: Range: Sum: ~ " r n squared: ' M~sang. - .04 1 .28 1 .24 I .96 1 337. I 1

1 02 28 b5 , 1 15

C 1 ( p i 375

L . Of f i ce r Uithin-Rank t o Servant,- O f f i ce r Betreen-Rank

I

0k X Count. Y Count: Mean X: Mean Y * Unpa~red t Vdue

Comparisons, 1835. -

.I64

-

.I39

,'

Unpaired t:Test X : 1835 M f i c r r s J a c c ~ d Coefficient Y : 1035Ser/Off. Jaccmd Comfficiant 1

W: X punt.' Y Count. Mean X: Mean Y Unpalred t Value

28

28

131 1 t6 15

1 /

r

I < p d 375 ff

338 15

15 164

15 - . 139 131

R . Servant Uithin-Rank Summary S t a t i s t i c s , 1866.

Minimum: M a x i m i h q e : Sum: Sum Squared: " + .Missing: %

.26 .53 .27 5.28 1.948 ,

Meen : Std. O w . : Std. Error: Varience: ~ o e f . , Y a k Cw~t:

. tl, O f f i ce r U i t h i n-Rqnk Sunrary Stat i s t i ca, 1867. 2 's

. 3 5 2 L " I

.006 .08 '02 1

k

I867 W t c e r s Jaccard Coefficient #

+ tlean: Std. Dev.: Std. Error: - Variance: Coef. Var.: Count:

0. Servant t o O f f i ce r ~e tmeen-~ank Sunnary S t a t i s t i c s , 1867. 6

. ' r*

22.732 15 .

34 1

Ph~rnum: Maximum: Rangal- Sum : Sum Sqtmed; Missing:

.056

- .26 .4

1867 ~ e r ./Of< J u c r r d Coefficient Mean : Std: Dw.: Std. Error: ' Variance: Coef. Var.: Count:

Servant Uithin-RaTifi'to O f f i c e r Uithin-Rank Comparisons, 1866 - . 1 867, ., s

.25 1 I .OSS flinimum: Meximum: Range : Slim : Sum Squwed: Missiqg:

t

~nbaired t-Test X : 1866 S e r v ~ t s Jaccrrd Coefficient Y : 1867 Officers .-- Jaccrd Coefficient

.O 14

.I9

DF: XCount: Y Count: Moan X: Mean Y: - unpaired t Value:

.O 18

5

.17 .4 1 ' \[.24

.003

5.12 1.792

.005

3.76

16.419

1.009 .

15

27.452 15

t o Se~van t ' - o f f i cer' Bet meen-Rank 1867.

. Servant U i t h i n z ~ a n k Comparisons, 1866;-

Unpatrmd t-Tmst X : 1866 S m m n t s Jaccrrd Comff'icimnt Y : 1863+Smr./Off. Jmccmrd Coemcimnt

DF: XCqunti Y Count:' Mean X: Mean Y : ' Unpired t vatus: ' A-

2B ' 15 15 ' -352. ,251 3.719

p+ 00051 *

I

O f f i c e r Uithin-Rank t o Servant. - D f f i c m Betseen-Rapk

~ n ~ i r & k ~ n f X : $1 867 Officers J ~ c a r d C o e f f i i m t L % Y : 1867, Ser .f Off? a

Jakcrrd Coafficiant , DF. fount: Y Count. Mean X: Mean Y Unpa~red t Value,

28 -15 15 341 . 25 1 3 957 •÷

P' p r 0005 " d

I

4

TABLE 9.4 - . *

USE OF UT I L I TAR I RH, I ~IAGEKPPERRRHCE R H ~ STRTUS RRT I CLES, 1817 ATHABASCA D I S T R I C T *? i , i

T ~ P E SERURHTS OFF I CERS-

- - - . , yew handled k n i f e

t u i n e f l i n t s A

c a r r o t t $acco hat

\\ R

A

c o t t o n s h i r t \ \ + . hanky sham l duck t rousers 'i

h '0

cordoroy t rouse rs ?_ . t,l *

2 cap =.* 0 p i pea , .

J + 1 &.

1 p t . b lanket - be 0 3 p t , b lanket '2 f i r e 3 t e e l s 0 a u l s 1 1

-

moose s k i n 3 2 p l a i n 4 0 t h 1 1 r h i t e * c l o t h , 1 1

6"

th read ' 6' 2 e e - needles 2 0 sc i ssors 1 1 0

1 3 i

a l a s p k n i f e ' I-

1 " j apn ' d t obocco box 3 C

181 7 ATHRBRSCR 0 I STR I CT \ *

SERURNTS OFF l CERS

I ~IAGE/APPEARAH~E :

soap , . .

cbmbs '4

razor beads

' s i lvek earbobs

STRTUS GOODS: - $ ch in0 scor l ety1 egg i ngs

f l anne l / i i nen s h i r t s ca r l e t r a i s t coa t cloth/cordoroy t rousers 2 f i ne shoes - 0.

Hote: The above a r t i f a c t type l i s t s fo r each income group r e r e der ived from a sample o f # s i x servants. and s i x o f f i c e r s taken from the Hudson's Bay Company debt l i s t s f o r 1817 (HBCR Ill 437 B.39/d/2).

'

USE OF UT I L I TRR I AH, I HAGE/APPEARRNCE RHO STATUS ART I CLES; 1835 SRSKRTCHEURH D l STR l CT

..

l TEfl SERUANTS OFF 1 CERS

UT l L l TAR1 AN GOODS e - japn 'd pot 1 t i n k e t t l e 1 i 0

0 t i n p p r r i nger - 0 0 0 t i n pan"

E

t i n pot 0 0 twine . 0 1 Y

p l a i n blanket 1 p t . blanket

2,5 p t . blanket b u f f a l o robe b u f f a l o parchment lead ba i I s lead shot powder o l d gun gun f l i n ts porder horn sca lp ing k n i f e pack saddle brass &re horse f e t t e r s t urnscrew f i r e s t ee l .

cartouche k n i f e - axe f i te

po l i shed f i r e s t e e l i nd i an.'aa l

TABLE 9,s (CONT,

H I TEtl SERUAHTS OFF l CERS

UTlLlTARlAH (COHT.) crooked kn i fe s a l t red 6 i ver f 1 our grease dem. rum t w i s t tobacco c o r ' n wool hat cot ton hanky cot ton s h i r t leather t rousers indian shoes + moose skins red deer sk ins b u f f a l o skin 2nd c l o t h thread thimble i need 1 es j apn'd tobacco box

I tlAGE/APPEARANCE : combs looking glass soap ear r i ngs f i nger r i ngs

' co I ' d cock feat hers f ox ta i l feathers beads v e r r i l l i o n

I TEH S E R ~ A H T S OFF lS&~sL . 3

STATUS GOODS: 0 - f u r n i t u r e co t t on 1

\ f i n e wool worsted hat 0 , 2 - s i l k hanky 0 1 \

t f i n e b lue vest 0 1 bound shoes 1 0 f ine coat 0 1 c l o t h capot 2 1 oar ro r SCQP 1 et b e l t .1 3 gar te rs " 1 4 s i l k f e r a s r - 1 0

L

Note : The a r t i fact types f o r each i ncome group were der i ved from the comparison o f s i x servants and s i x o f f i c e r s from the 1835

'

. Hudson ' s Bay Company debt l i s t s (HBCA 1 tl, 470 B.6O/d/46).

TABLE 9 .6

' USE DF T I L I TAR I AN, I HAGE/APPEARFINCE, AND STATUS GOODS, 1866 SRSKATCHE~AN:D I ZTR I CT in

I TEfl SERUANTS OFF l CERS &3

/

4 " 2 -- 2 " 2 ; .

I / ' * $" 'j

0 2

9

UTILITARIAN: japn'd t i n pot

, t i n por r i nger t i n k e t t l e i r o n t i n k e t t l e t i n pan f r y i n g pan tablespoon t inned i r on teaspoon tq nned i ron tab l espoon earthenmare mugs earthenmare basins/saucers ca r t henmare j ugs earthenmare soup p la tes earthenmore p la tes ld ishes t i n soup toureen brass soup lad le ear t henmare dessert p at e dinner forks and knives 3.5 p t , b lankets rood scrers ye I i om rax stone b lue red sea l ing sax com ' n t rad i ng gun hook?, and eyes s i ng le cod l i n e

-3calping k n i f e s t i r r u p s t raps s t i r r u p leathers b r i d l e

J >

I TEII'" SER@ITS . ' OFF I C E R S i

YT I L I'TAR I AN (CON1 . : horse be l l s 0 0

0 0 . 6-

dog be l l s ba I i ng rtope - 4 < 1 r u l e d paper 0 3 + ,

& l r

l ead penc i l s 0 1 I

paper p i ns (. 2 spe l I i ng book 0 %

crushed=. sugar 6 6 -

s a l t I , ( . . 0 t ea 6 ' 6 - cof fee 3' 5 ,

t u r l ington b a k a r 1 0 essence o f pepperr i n t 1 1 blades bu f f a l o sinem 1 " * .O negro head tobacco 6 4 t h r e s h w ' s f e i t hat 3 4 c l o t h foraging cap 1 0 I

t a r t t i n moo1 sham1 4 5 5 5 cot ton hanky .

common yaht s h i r t 5 - 4 #

b rorn leather b e l t 1 1 i nd i a rubber shoes 3 com'n gray capot 2 gray moo I ha l f hose 2 mhi t o cot t o n hose 1 , '

i n f e r i o r t reed t rousers 2 bound 1 2 beavert een t rousers f 4 long large drawers 3 , 0 i nd i a rubber su3penders 2 0 p r i n t e d cot ton 5 6 con ' n gra? cot tan 1 4

2 a m ' n b l u e s t r i p e d c o t t o n 4

- - -- --

.' TABLE 9,6 (CONT. ) x

- /

I TEn ' . SERUANTS OFF l CERS , e

UTlLlTARlAH (CONT; 1: -. - - 1 1 drab "go I esk in ,

r e e l co t ton ind ia rubber r ed , r i v e r c l o t h

' b a l l r i c k cot ton , b u f f a l o sk i n

h.b, strouds

". 2nd b lue c l o t h c lasp k n i f e , - - brass s tee l thimble

.; thread need I es mixed p ins 1 t a i l,ors sc i ssors 1 hunters c lay p ipes 6 mire p ipe cover

I tlAGE/flPPEARAHCE : - t oo th brush 0

.- combs 8 per f ure Q hand scrub brus 0 cased razor 0

h shauing box 0 looking glass 2 head bru*! cG' 0 smooth h g i pons 0 honey soap 0

-ye 1 l o r goap ', 6 paste b lack ing 0 but l e rs porders 0 ear r i ngs - - 0 beads 2

#

- - l TEfl SERUAHTS OFF 1 CERS I

STRTUS GOODS : 0 1 co lor, 'd soup toureen .

vace 0 1 dessert kn i ues 8 forks 1 1 f u rn i t u re cot ton . I * 5 j ordan a l ronds 0 2

2 6 r a i s i n s currants 0 1 r i c e 1 4 choco l ate 2 3 sp i ces 0 3 hyson tea 0 1 f i g s 0 6 s i l k hat 0 1 t a r t an moo1 shawl 4 5 cashmere sham1 0 t i l k hankys (var ious brands) 8 f lannel s h i r t s - 3 c o l ' d b e l t 1 cravat a ma l I. i ngt on shoes 0 - boot een shoes 0 gabroon t rousers* 0 f i n e b lue capot 4 f i n e c l o t h vest 1 f i ne c lothes (var ious

2 types 6 6

dark t meed su i t 0 2 f i ne gray c I o t h t rousers 0

Hot e: The a r t i fac t types f o r each i ncome group mere der i ved from the compor i son o f s i x servants and s i x o f f i cers from the 1866 k-, /-' Hudson ' s Bay Company debt I i s t s (HBCA I fl 478 B060/d/165).

TABLE 9 .?'

UT I L I TAR I AH, I tlAGE/APPEARANCE AND STATUS GOODS, BUCK I NGHAfl HOUSE,' 1792 - 1800 i

I TEfl SERUANTS i > OFFJFERS ,

7 2 -

UTILITARIAN: gun parts bai I s shot f l intslapal I s f i sh hooks axe pol I /wedge 3 Q W

chi se l C

awls need l es kn i ves fork ket t l es p in thimble sc i ssors f i resteel hook spoon p l a i n buttons buck I e

+,j pipes 304 30 1 f i l e - 2 - 9

TOTAL = 416 TOTAL = 526.

TABLE 9 . 7 (CONT,) . .*i"

"'?+ .% , r ,

SERUANTS OFM~RQ?. * .- lTEfl ._ _ . _ - - % - - C4- I -. Tot a l Total * - -. -

. \

4HAGE/RPPEARflHCE: -. '.

beads 1499 474 1 4

r i ngs 8

.O t ink1 ing cones r , . , T 5 ye l l or ochre x verr i l i on 0 brooches 1 1 earr i ngs 2 1 . *

l ocket 0 pendant - 1 - 0

Total = 1509 498

- STATUS GOODS : ceramics (at l types) 46 decorated buttons - 3

Total = $9

Hote: x = preaent.

TABLE 9 .8 ,

J

UT I L I TAR 1 flH , I HAGE/APPEARANCE AND STATUS GOODS , t

1792, - 1800 FORT GEORGE -

- I '

SERUANTS OFF I CERS ITEf lS Total Tot a l

r

VTILITARIAH: gun f l in ts $2 . 2 9 gun par ts 16 - 9 bat I s 2 1 10 shot 16 ? kn i ues 8 3 f i l e s 12 3 punch , 2 1 -

SOU 4 1 chisel 1 1 gimlet 4 2

need l e 2 p i pea 539 p l a i n buttons " $1 thimbles 1 a r t s , - 19

Tot0 1 = 734 I llAGE/APPEARAHCE : stra ight razor

-9

3 i r r o r 1

combs 6 t i n k l i n g cones 4 i earr i ngs 8 pendants r i ngs s i l u e r bands 4 cufhf 1 i nks 1 beads x brooches - 0 - - 1 \

Total = 90 @ 8 - "

A-

.a -. TABLE 9.9 &

il",~r"l -

UT 1 L l TAR l pH, I ~A~E)~~PPEHRAHCE, RHO STATUS GOODS, '1802 - 1805 HOTTI HGHAH HOUSE

6

\ - -SERUANTS OFF I CERS l TEtl Total Tot a l

- p l a i n buttons 19 .

p i p ~ s 156 thimbles 1 cant a i ners 2 gun pa r t s 2 gunf 1 i n t s i 4 ba 1.1 s 3 shot 59 1 (Ti;! hooks' 1

1 g ~ r l e t s - 1

Total = 79 1

IHAGE/fiPPERRANCE; c u f f l i n k s beads t ink1 ing cones

. siluer brooches - f iw rJngs

eacr i ngs pendants v e r r i l l i o n

- ochre X - Total = 776

.. 392 I '

-- - -- - I

u

* - - - I

T A R E 9 . 9 (kti~.) O

7 r . . ."

U

a SERUAHTS OFF I CERS I TEfl t o t a l t o t a l

STATUS GOODS : Y

\ . decorated met a 1 butt ons 1 1 5 decorated cuf f I inks 0 2 gal l i p a t ceramic frogs. - 16 . Q

Total = : 27

I Hote: x = present.

l TAR

393 B Y

- - r _

TABLE 9.10

I AH, I HAGE/APPEARANCE, AND STATUS GOODS,

! 1799 ROCKY .llOUHTA I N HOU E'

n

SERURHTS OFF 1 CERS I TEHS- Tota I Tot a l

UTILITARIHN: 1

gun' pa r t s ' f l in ts /spa l I s ba l I s shot f ish hook kn i ves amls s t r i ke -a - l igh t sc 1 ssors need l es conta iner p a r t s p i pes p fa i li but cons thimbles f i les punch 30. *

Tota l = I HAOFA3PPEARfltiCE :

, razor combs pendants r i ngs I

s i l u e r armbands s i 1 uer brooches t ink l i ng cones beads wig c u r l e r s i l ue r ' locket

1

8, 7 4 1 1

1 1 156

'B 43

4 * Z 18

2 0 - 369

1 1 9

22 1

15 24

X

0 1 -

Total = 74

- - - -- -

TABLE 9.1 1 3

, UT I L I TAR I AN, I tlAGE/APPEARANCE, AND STATUS GOODS, FORT EP l HETTE

' SERUAHTS OFFI CERS I TEns - Total Total

2

UTILITARIAN: gun p a r t s 6 14 f Id n t stspa l l s 37 2

2 1 5 b

ba l l s / sho t need l es 3 0 c h i s e l s 1 2 , axes 1 0 awls 3 0 v

f i les- kn i ues sc i ssors 2 th imbles 2 pdain but tons 2 3 p i pes .32 cont a i ners I 18 spoons 1 f a rks 1 skewer - 1

Tota l = 171 IflAGE/APPEARANCE; razo r 1 beads 192 finger r i n g s 2 ea r r i ngs 4 combs/brush 0 p i n/brooch 2 pendant 2 rcda l i on 2 m i r r o r g lass 13 ochre , - x

Total = 218

TABLE 9.12 /

fl UT I L I TAR I AH, I flflGE/APPEA E AH0 STATUS GOODS, FORT U l C T O R l A

SERUANTS OFF i CERS - I TEHS ".. Total .. P-.. Tot ia l

U T I L I T A R I A N : spoons bat I s ' shot gun por ts gun f l i n t s awls g imlets r e t o t conta iners kn i ues forks pot hooks axes "

' f i l e s - sc i saors s t r a i gh t p i ns safe ty p ins screwdriver scrub brush need 1 es thimbles buck 1 es s l a t e board s ta te penc i l s c loy p ipes p l a i n but tons earthenware dishes

Total =

- TABLE 9 ,12 (CONT . I

- SERURNTS - OFF t CERS -

1 TEnS Tot a 1 Tota I-

beads . combs

-- brushes brace l et earr i ngs -1 pendants - 0 - . -

Total a 1

STRTUS GOODS: -

i ronst.ones/st onemarc 2 porcelains 2 s i l v e r spoons 0 g ~ a tumblers 2 c o g L seal 0 t i nned foods x decor, metal buttons 1 porcelain pipes 0 watch r rig 0

. ~

percuss i on caps, c a r t r i dges, shot she1 I s - 10

Total = 17

Hot c : x = presint .

397 -

T A ~ E b , 1 3 1 -

COflPAR l SOW OF UT l L l TAR l flW TO 'I HAGE/flPPEflRRtlCE GOODS j ~uoson s BAY cpnPflnY @ 181 7, 1835, 1866 DEBT L I STS

18 1 7 Ut i i i t a r i an t o i mage/Appearance Goods.

Cmntinyancy Tabla Analysis .

Summary Statistics

OF :

Total Chi-square:

I -

319 .50 ( p i .70

B Statistic:

I Chi-square with continuity correction:

1

.326.

Contingency Coefficient:

Phi :

G = ,326, is not s igni f icant ( G > 3 .81 for signif icance) and, therefore, indicates that there i s no re la t ionship between rank and type of goods (ut i l i t a r i an us i rage/appearance) .

I .088

,088

Contingrncy Tablm Analysis

MATERIAL CLASS -

Column * 1 Column -2

U t i l i tar; ~ m a q e / ~ p ~ e a $ ? " l ~ :

. Of f i ce rs h w . 2 lax: 82.61 IRX: 17.30 1 56.1%

I

C X : 54.29 I C X : 66.67

Totals: 35 6 . 41

" "

TABLE 9.13 (CONT.) .

8 . 1 835 Ut i l i t a r i an Goods t o I rage/Appearance Goods - Cqtingmncy ~ a b l o Analysis &

Summary Statistics

-- -

DF : 1

Total Chi-square: 1.358- 20 < p s 30

G Statistic: 1412 --

Contingency Coefficient: 154

Phi : .I56

68 1 Chi-square with continuity correction. 3 0 ~ p L ,50 ' , %

G = 1.912, i s not s i g n i f i c a n t ( G . 3.69 f o r si$ni f icance) and, therefore, i nd ica tes t ha t the re i g , n ~ r e l a t i o n s h i p betreen rank and type o f goods (u t i l i t a r i an us i mage/appearance) .

Contingency Table Anrlysis

MATERIAL CLASS

Column - 1 Column -2

Servants R o w e l

/

- O f f i c e r s Row *2

ar . Totals: I I 24 I .

42.66%

Totals: 45 11 56

TABLE 9.13 (CONT.)

C . 1866 U t i I i t a r i an Goods t o I rage/Appearance Goods . -

Cantingmncy Tabla Analysis

S u m y Statistics t 4

1 DF:

I T O L I Chi-square:

8 Statistic: 7.326

Phi : 1 237 I I

continbcy Coefficient:

I Chi-square with continuity correction: 15.665 .O1 ( p i .02 I

.23 1

"XI,-

G = 7.326, i s a l g n i f l c a n t ( G > 3.84 f o r s ign i f i cance) and, there fore \

indicates that there i s a r e l a t ionship betreen rank and type o f goods (u t i l i t a r i an us i rage/appearance).

I I

Servan ts

. - O f f i c e r s

4

* Contingency Tabla Analysis

MATERIAL CLASS

C o l m -1 Column *2

U t i 1 i t a r . ~ m a q e / ~ p p e a r I sa 14 . 60

63

Totals: 104 19 123

- Data f ~ o r HBCB ltl 137 8.39/$/2; Itl 470 ~.bO/d/t6; In 478 8.6O/d/16Sg

COtlPAR I SOH OF UT I L l TAR l AN AND STATUS ART I FACT TYPES, HUDSON'S BAY COtlPANY E B T L l STS -

- -

1017 Comparison o f Ut i I i t a r i a n t o Status Good$. /---

C o n t i r t p ~ y Tmbla Analysis

Sufihsry Statistics

Total Chi-Squbre: 2 .143 .10 < p i .20

1 Contingency Coefficient: 1.213 1 Phi : 1.218 I

I C * - h l u r . w l U l n t i n u i t v correction:

2;3, i s not s ign i f icant ( G > 3.84 for signif icance) and, therefore, indicates that there i s no re la t ionship betmeen rank and type o f goods ( u t i l l t a r l a n us status) .

Contingency Table Analysis

MATERIAL CLASS

Columir - 1 Column -2

Uti 1 i tar. ImaqeIAp~e

Servants Row * I P++ R : 8 . 8 9 RX: 1 1 . 1 1

C X : 45.71* C X : 20 laa 1 -

o f f i cers Row *2 RI: 70.37 [RX: 29.63 CX: 54.29 I C X : 80 I

8 , 1835 Comparison of U t i l i t a r i a n t o Status Goods. >

Coatingwrcy Table Analysis

. Summary Statistics

Total Chi-Square: 1.275 S O < p 1.70 I

8 Statistic: 1 .277 1

. . I ~ h i - ~ & r e with continuity corraction: I .043 .80 < p J .go -

G ,= 277 , i s not signif icant ( G > 3.84 for significance) and, there fore, indicates that there i s no r e ! at i onsh lp bet reen rank and type of goods ( u t i l i t a r i a n us status). "

P Contingancy Tabla Analysis

. 7

MATERIAL CLASS

U t i 1 i tar. IrnageIAppe

Of f i ce rs Row02 IRX: 75 ~ R X : 25 I C X : 46.67 I

24

Totals: 45 13 58

CX: 38.46 8

TABLE 9 -19 (CONT*. ) *

1866 ~omp&ison of Ut i l i t a r i an and Status Goods.

Contingency Tabla Analysis

DF:

Total Chi-square:

B Statistic:

Contingency Coefficient:

Phi :

Chi-Sqwre with continuity correction:

L

f

7 1 1 7 , i s signif icant ( G > 3:84 for t l g n i f lcance) bnd, therefore, indicates that there i s a r e l a t ionship betreen rank and

.a type of goods (ut i l i t a r l an us --. status).

Contingency Tmblm Analysis

MATERIAL CUSS a

U t i 1 i Bar. IRage/Appear Jotals: 1 5- I11 67

Servants ROW * l RX: 8j.s~ I R ~ , 16.42

75

o f f i cers ROW - 02 - RX: 64 52.82%

Totals:

-

Data from HBCA I H 437 B.39/d/2; I H 470BO60/d/46; IH 478 B.6Q/d/165.

-- - >

#" 403 -

\i ' TABLE 9

SUtlHARYS OF flULT I PLE REGRESS I ON RESULTS : RELffTlOHSHl P BETUEEfl ~ U ~ ~ B E R OF STATUS GOODS TYPES AND

I tiCOflE , OCCUPAT I OH, AH0 SOC l AL AFF I L I AT I ON t

Holtiplm - V : Y - Typos of S b t w Goods Thrm X v r r i ab l .~

DF: R-sqwod: Std. Err.: Coof. Vsr.: - - 127 1.556 1 5.234 1 87.234

Beta Coefficient Table

Analysis o f Variance Table Source DF : Sum Squsres: k a n Square: F-test:

Data f ~ c k HBCA I fl 437 8.39/d/2; Itl 470 B. 6O/d/46; I t l 478 B e 60/d/16S1

1 0 .032 .OOO,l < p i .005

Darmeter : Value: Std. Err.: T-Value: Partial F:

274.838 27.395

824.5 15 657.485

REGRESSION RESIDUAL

,

1 482

3 24

, TOTAL

1.434 9.31 1 15.306

- 27

1.705 -1.196 -3.05 1 3.912

INTERCEPT X I - I N C W X2 - OCCUPATI .. X3 - SOCIAL A...

9 .007 -.019

. -3.393 4.593

5.283 .016 1.112 1.174

CHAPTER 11

TABLE 1 1 ,1

FREQUEHCY 0 l STR l BUT l OH OF BOUL flPERTURE U l DTHS OF BRITISH CLAY PIPES

J

Uid th (mm) Frequency - Proport i on Pi I d PI r~ '

8 - 8.99 1 .01 ,0664 10 -- 10.99 1 .01 ,0664 11 - 11.99 4 - . 04 1858 12 - 12.99 7 -07 ,2684 13 - 13.99 15 - a 15 . 4105 14 - 14.99 6 .06 ,2435 15 - .1S.99 , 11 . I 1 p ,3503 g

16 - 16.99 11 . I 1 3503 17 -. 17.99 10 . l o ,3322 18 - 18.99 8 ,08 0 e .-29 1 5 19 - 19.99 5 - ,05 ' 9

/ - ,2161 20 - 20.99 4 .04 .1058

B 21 - 21.99 6 .06 .2$35 22 - 22.99 3 .03 : 1518 23 - 23.99 1 ,01 ' ' ,0664 24 - 24.99 3 i ,1518 26 - 25.99 - 1 1Q66$ D

Total = 97 ti - 3.6473

t * - Dot a taken from 0s.a l dw ( 1975 : 44-89) . ' Y

, FREoljENCY DISTRI BUT I ONS OF BOUL LENGTHS ' .P - * OF BRIT1 SH CLAY PIPES

, . . +

+ = Length (r4) Frequency Proport i on \

Pi Id Pi - \ ,

Oat a taken from Osaa l d ( 1975 : 44-89). n = 25

- - -

TABLE 1 1 .3 -- ' >

- , - - FREQUENCY D l STR t BUT l OH OF BOUL HEEL U l OTHS

i OF BRITISH CLBY PIPES

r - - Width (ma) Frequency Proport i on PI I d PI

/

6 - 6.99 2 ,027 . 1 407 - 7 - 7.99 3 , 04 t .18W

8 - 8.99 9 - ,054 ,2273 . 9 - 9.99 10 ,135 ,3098 10 - 10.99 14 ,189 .45$0 11 - 11.99 '18 .- ,293 a ,4956 12 - 12,99 12 ,162 ,4252 13 - 13.99 5 % ,068 ,2644 14 - 14.99 1 ,014 ,0869

2-.

" f5 - 15.99 3 - ,04 .I850 16 - 16.99 1 ,014 . oe69 17 - 17.99 - 1 ,014 - ,0869

- Total = 74 ti '= 3.0277

Oat a taken from Osma l d ( 1975 : 44-89),

TABLE 11. .4

. r.

F FREQUEHCY D l STRl BU OH OF BOUL

OF BRITISH f LAY PIPES HEEL SHAPES Y

w - -- Shape Type Frequency Proport ion Pi Id Pi

- .

w 3 ,038 ,1990 4 5 ,063 ,2520 5 10 ,125 ,3750 6 4.1 , ,513 ,4947 7 Q ,075 ,2803

1 ,0822 8 ,013 9 1 ,013 ,0822

j 10 8 . l o ,3322 - -

1 1 2 ,025 1330 . -

12 - 1 A . ,013 ,0822 -

Totol =, 80 H = 2.2928

Data are taken from Oarald (l975:$$-89).

TABLE 1 1 - 5 ?

/

FREQUENCY D I STRl BUT I ON' OF BOUL SHAPES OF BR I l l SH CLAY P \PES --

Shape Type Frequency - Proport ion PI I d PI b. /

2 - Total = 96

Oat a are taken from Osaa I d ( 1975 : 44-89),

-- - -

TABLE 1 1 .6

FREQUEHCY 0 l STR I BUT l OH OF BOUL CARTOUCHE .DES l GH ELEMEHTS FROfl BR I T l SH CLftY P l PES

*

Shape Type - Frequency Proport i on , - Pi I d P i -- -

9

I

\ L;

1 - Total = 163

Oat a ore taken f cbm Osma l d ( 1975 : 44-89).

PR l CE L l STS OF GOODS FROH 'SAHPLE YEARS,

SASKATCHEURN AH0 ATHABASCA D I STR ICTS

The f o l l om i ng p r i c e l i s t s do not represent I goods used between

1809 -. 1867, nor do they represent a l I the f o r one

par t i cu l a r year by the o f f i cbrs and the servants. The years mere

samp l ed and so mere the seruant s ' and o f f i cers ' debt I i s t s i n those -

respect i ve years. These l i s t s are, however, a r e I a t i ue l y good

i nd i cat i on o f the types o f goods the company emp I oyees mere buying and - the costs o f t hose goods. They repre$ent a s u m y r y o f the bas i c

documentary dot a used i n t h i s d i ssert a t i on,

The l i s t s are a lso incomplete mith r e s p e ~ t $0 the p r i c e per item -.

ah i ch, because a f t i me const r a i n t s o r d i f f i cu l t i e-s encountered r it h S

4

- i ncons i s t en{ p r i ces. o f i t ems, mere somet i me$ unava i l ab be. I n other . t'

instpnces,' costs o f a r t i c l e s mere i n i ' ivres ( ind ica ted by ' 1 ium.),

b e a t i ng some rob l ems m i t h convers i on t o the Eng l i sh pound system. B ' During the l G e 1700s t o ea r l y 1800sJ roughly 24 l i v r e s equal led one

L

1

pound. The costs o f a l l other a r t i c l e s are i n pounds, s h i l l i n g s , and

pence ( i . e . , 12 pence equal one s h i l l i n g , and 20 s h i l l i n g s equal one QL

pound) 6

PRICE LlST OF GOODS. 1809-10: SASKATCHEHflI1 n~srh tu

r :, flRCH I TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD

' J A. K i tchen P r i ce 0 . Bedding

' L. t i n pans O J 3 J o L , blankets japn'd pots ( 1 p t . ) 0,1,6 ' 1 po in t blanket japn'd pots (1/2,1/1) OJ1 ,O 1 1/2 po in t blanket t i n k e t t l e O J 3 J o 2 po in t blanket t i n pot I O J 3 J o 3 bo i n t b ' m k e t spoons 0,6,0/pr yew hand I ed kn i fe OJ1,O/pr

C , t l iacel laneous twine f i n e twine

I I . TECHHOLOGY/COHtlUH I CAT l ONPTRANSPORTAT I ON

A . Cor run ica t ions Pr i ce 1 w r i t i n g paper OJ2JO

r' I I I , FOOD AND DRUGS

A . Foods P r i ce B. Beveraaes sugar I oaf 0J1,6/ lb ' gr&n tea @

sugar, moist OJ1 ,O/lb hyaon tea c o r ' n brandy french brandy

%

C . Druas Pr i ce tobacco 0J2,0/ lb

I U . CLOTH I HG/ORHflflEHTS/PERSONfiL \

. Tai lored C lo th ing bandana hanky l i nen hanky s i l k hanky sma I l hat co r ' n hat f i n e hat sham l cot ton s h i r t s t r i ped cot ton s h i r t white cot ton s h i r t f lannel s h i r t '

ca l i co s h i r t check- ah i rt f l anne l r a i s t coat b lue ra is tcoa t duck t rousers f l anne l drawers stockings, r o r s ted h o e s

B Clothina Hate r ia l co r ' n c l o t h / co r ' n b lue c l o t h f i n e c l o t h duck f rocks garqer i ng f l ann i l

-.hi t e bojze b lue b a i z k d u f f l e \

ca l ico

C . Cloth ina - tlanufacture *3$ needles thread b l ue thread sc i ssors sleeve but tons

D . Personal Pr i ce E. Recreation/Leisure P r i c e h o ~ n combs 0,0,6 japn 'd tobaccoboxes 0,1,0 ivory combs O A O tobacco pipes O,O, Sldoz l ook ingg lass . 0,1 ,o roach k n i f e 0 ~ 0 , 6 soap I 0,l ,O/lb c lasp k n i f e 0,1,0

Data from HBCA I fl 467 B.60/d/1 a

PR l CE L 1 ST OF GOODS, 182 1 -22 : SASKRTCHEUAN D 1 STR l CT

r

I . ARCH I TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD

&'

A . K i tchen ~r i ce B. Bedding Pr i ce copper k e t t l e 0 3 ~ 6 L. blanket 0,22,9 - japn 'd pot - 0,1,6 embossed b l anket 0,17,0 t i n pan 0 ~ 2 ~ 4 3 po in t blanket 0,18,0 t i n pot O J V 2.5 po in t blanket O,l?,O

1 , s po in t blanket o m , b u f f a l o robe 0,12,6

C. f l i sce 1 l aneous Pr i ce green cord c l o t h O , l l , lO/yd t r i n e 0,3,10/sk 0 , Furn i tu re Pr i ce ho l land tmine 0,5,3/sk f u r n i t u r e ca l i c o 0,3,3/yd

B E . - Construct i on Pr i ce axe . OJ2, 6

I I . TECHHOLOGY/COtltlUN I CAT I ONS/TRAHSPORTAT I ON

A. Hunt i n a / T r a ~ ~ i n q Pr i ce porder 0,2,0/lb i n d i a shot 1,2,0/1b. b.b. shot 0,0,6/lb ba l I s 0,0,6/lb f I i n t s O,O, 1 porder horn 0,2,8 gun pipes OAJ8 s tee l tsap 0, 16,8 sma l l bayonet 0,3,6 sca lp ing kn ives oJ8,o

8 . Transportat ion dog be1 I s b r i d l e horse

C , Other f i r e s t ee l s hat $et yew k n i f e 14' f i l e 12' f i l e 10' f i l c

A , Foods sol t f 1 our sugar 1 oaf r a i s i n s

r o l l tobacco car ro t tobacco

$1 5 -

C . Other (COHT.) 9' f i l e 8' f i l e crosscut f i 1 e t ennon f i l e ward i ng f i l es

I I I. FOOD AND DRUGS

A , Tai lored C lo th inq c o r ' n wool hat f i n e hat cot ton s h i r t f i n e s h i r t ca l ico s h i r t ( i n fan t ) s t r i ped cot ton s h i r t f i ne c a l i c o s h i r t canad i an be l t s ra l 1 sors t ed be 1 t worsted be l t sham l carl let b e l t co t ton t rousers cordo60y t rousers

Pr i ce 8 . Beveraaes Pr i ce 1 ,O,O/lb green, tea 0J5,10/1b 2,9,0/? black tea 0,3,0/lb O,l,O/lb PUB 1,4,0/gal 1,10,0/1b jamaica rum 0,16,O/gal

s p i r i t s 1,4,0/gal h igh mines 0,16, Olga 1

Pr i ce 0,5,0/lb 0,3,8/lb

l U . CLOTH I tiG/ORNAllEHTS/PERSONAL

8 , Clothina t la te r ia l L . moose s k i n s. moose s k i n bu f f a l o s k i n deer sk i n red p l a i n c l o t h red cord c l o t h b lue p l a i n c l o t h scar le t c l o t h green c l o t h

O,5,2 - cord c l o t h b7,O f i n e green c l o t h 0J9J4 grey c l o t h 0,6,1 s t r i p e d cot ton 0,19,6 p r i n t ed cot ton

. A . Tai lored C lo th inq shoes, bound women s shoes hanky loose hanky co t ton hanky madras hanky s i l k hanky capot scar l e t capot cordoroy j acket b l ue capo t jockey caps smansdomn ma i s t coat qui l t e d oaistcoat s i l k hat cover

C . Cloth ina tlanufacturc P r i ce p l a ted coat but tons metal but tons brass vest but tons

* ,p la tad vest but tons metal coat but tons thread co l ored thread net thread need l e g 1 over ' s need 1 es brown needles

E . Ornaments/Jerelry v e r m i l l i o n C O ~ ' n beads agate beads enamel beads china beads brass f i nger r i ngs c lasp k n i f e

- -- rl - i- -r-p- iiC - - 8. Clothina Ha e oT b r o p cot ton morst e d cot ton b r i g h t b lue cot ton com ' n s t rouds red strouds com'n b lue strouds f e r r e t i ng d u f f l e f lanne l A

r h i t e flanne russ ia sheet b lue baize p l a i n gar ter l ing .

scar l et gar ter i ng s t r i p e d 'garter ing h i gh l and gar ter i ng nar ro r gar te r ing b,b. ga r te r ing red cock feat her r i bbon

9. Personal sma l l horn comb horn:' comb ivory comb looking gloss Soap shau ing box

F. Recreotion/teiw.wc P r i c q hunter 's pipes 0, 1 , Oldor p l a i n tobacco box o,oJ8 roach knives 0 ,s ) 3/doz book looking glass &9,0

Data from HBCR I H 467 B.dO/d/lO. ,

--

PR l CE L l ST OF GOODS. 1834-35 : SASKATCHEUAN D l STRICT - - -

I . ARCH I TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD

f l . Kitchen P r i ce 8. B e d d i n ~ P r i ce japn'd pot O A l 3 po in t blanket ' 0J13,0 cou. copper k e t t l e 0J4J3 2.5 po in t blanket 0J11,3 t i n k e t t l e 0,2J 0 1 poin t blanket O J ' h O t i n porr inger 0,1 16 p l a i n blanket oJ5,o t i n pan O , ? J ~ d u f f l e blanket 0,13,3 t i n p i n t pot o,o, 7 b u f f a l o robe O J W

C . Furn i tu re P r i ce f u r n i t u r e cot ton -----

r 0. H i sce l l aneous P r i ce buf f a l o parchment o A 3 twine

>1,

I I . - TECHHOLOGY/COfltlUN I CAT I ON/TRANSPORTAT I ON .

R . Hunt i na/Trbop i np bal I s b.b. shot powder o l d gun gun f l i n t s porder horn scalp ing k n i f e

8. Transport a t i on horse b r i d l e pack saddle brass w i r e i r on horse f e t t e r s

C. Tools t urnscrew f i r e s t ee l cartouche k n i f e po l iahed f i r es tee l indian awl

da9 crooked kn i f e f l a t f i l e axe

I I I. FOOOS AND

A . Foods P r i ce s a l t OJ0,2/qt r e d p i ver f l our 0,1, 3/keg b u t t e r O,O, l l / l b grease 0,0J3/ lb

.. . - DRUGS ,

s .- ( I

8. Bewenages dem, rum rum

C . D r w s car ro t tobacco tmis t tobacco

\ i r i s h r o l l tobacco p lug tobacco

" I U . CLOTH I NG/ORNAflEHTS/PERSOHAL

A . Tai lored C lo th i ng Pr i ce Qcom'n wo~ol hat worsted hat grey m i l l e d cap f i n e wool hat f i ne p la ted hat s i l k hat cover co t ton hanky s i I k bahdana hanky s i l k hanky i n f a n t ' s s h i r t f i n e cot ton s h i r t leather t rousers sranskin vest- f i n e b lue c l o t h vest f i n e coat Indian capot c l o t h copot b lue ch ie f coat mrmw scar 1 et be 1 t narrow worsted be l t n a r r m colored b e l t

B. Cloth ing Rate r ia l moose sk in embossed sk in red deer sk i n b u f f a l o sk i n scar le t c l o t h blue c l o t h mhite d u f f l e blue d u f f l e colored morated worsted H,B.Co. b lue st roud H.B.Co. red st roud f i ne red f l anne l mhite s t roud- f i n e s t r i p e d cot ton whi t e f lannel s i l k f e r r e t s H.L. ga r te rs army lace garters scar l e t g r r t c r s 2nd c l o t h

A . Ta i l o r e d t h i n q indian shoes men's bound shoes--

D, OrnamentdJeuelry brass earr ings ,

com ' n g-i l t ear r ings brass f i ngar r i ngs s i 1 ver f i nger r i ngs co 1 ored cock feat her fox ta i l feather ogate beads cut glass beads aquarar i na beads bar ley corn beads*

I beads b l ue beads

enam = com'n

verm i I 1 ion J

- 419 ' - I

Pr i ce 0,8,6/pr --*-- C . Clothina Hanufacture

- s t i t c h thread Pr i ce dark b l ue thread 0,0,6/pr brass th imble 0, O,7/pr metal coat but tons 0, O,7/dor co lo red t hreod 0,1,0 9d r ibbun &4,0 6d r ibbon 0,2,3 b a l l but tons 0,3,O/bundle metal vest but tons 0,0,6/string thread needles 0,4,O/bundle !

0, 1 ,7/bund 1 e E . J Persona 1 0,2,0/lb ivory comb 0,1,6/lb horn comb 0,s) O/ 1b looking glass

ye1 low soap

E . Recseat i onILe i sure P r i ce +.

j apn ' d tobacco box 0,0,6

Data from HBCA I H 470 B.60/d/46.

PR l CE L l ST OF GOODS, 1 853-54 : SASKATCHEWAN O l STR l CT - -

d )

I

I , flRCH I TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD /

A. Kitchen & D in i ng japn'd p i n t pot --

copper ket t l e t i n Rett Ie, #10 ,

t i n pan t i n por r inger i r o n t inned spoon kn i ves k i l ve r stem

rs

8. Beddinq 2 , s po in t blanket p l a i n blanket

" r uss ia sheeting r h i t e sheeting

C , H i sce l I aneous sk in tent leather parched moose sk in

em

I I . TECHNOLOGY/TRAHSPORTAT 1 ON/COHHUN I CAT I OH -

percussion caps b.b. shot powder gun f l i n t ba l I s scalp ing k n i f e t r o u t hook f i# i "ng l i n e

-4

ic

A. Hunt i ndTraoo i n q Pr i ce - 8. Transportat ion P r i CQ

0 ~ 1 ~ 2 hawk be 1 1 3 O , l ; U ~ O Z 0,0,3/lb ca r t horse 2,0',8

. ' OL, 0, 1 O/ l b pack horse ----- 0,0,2/doz 0,0,4/lb oJoJ6 C. Too ls . P r i ce 0,1,8/.5 doz f l a t f i l e O J o J 5

0,0,$/I ine oval p o l ' d f i v e s tee l 0,0,4 +

I l l . FOOD & DRUGS

A . Food f l our grease but t e r

/

rheat

Pr i ce 8. Beverages ' Pr i c t 2,S,O/bag congo tea * 0,1,5/lb

r 0,0,6/lb rum OJl8,0/gal . 0J0,9.5/ lb 0,+,6/keg \ t

L _ - - $21 *

- - ,

R. Food (COHT.) , P r i ce 4 .

A sugar a % OjOJSflb- C,Druas I ,

dr ied meat . - 0JOJ2/l'b tobacco . . f i ne pear i can 0, 0J6/bag canad i an t w ibt t obaccq

f isal tad b u f f , tongues 0J1,6/? p l ug tobacco'

41h0gs, head

' OJSJl/keg . I

I U . CLOTH I NG/ORNRHENTS/PERSONAL

A . Tai lored C lo th inq Pr i ce .ha i r r ibbon d----

bandana hanky OJ2J8 cot ton hanky OJO,5 *

fancy muslin hanky, O J l J $

cot ton s h i r t 0 ~ 3 ~ 0 canadian shooting coat 0,18,4 canad i an be l t OJ15,8 worst ed be l t OJO, 11 c l o t h 'capot 0J13,2 beavert een t rousers 0J6,8 cordoroy t rousers 0J7J l P t rack ing shoes 0 ~ 0 ~ 6 bound shoes 0,8,0 *

p o ~ t age s t rap O J s J O

c .C lo th ina tlanufacture Pr i ce sc i ssors I'

s tee l capped thimble co l ored thread

8 need l es

D . Ornarents/Jewelrq enamel beads bar ley corn beads

-

8. Clothina t la te r ia l moose sk in L , r e d deer s k i n S. red deer sk i n cabr i s k i n b u f f a l o s k i n I

s h e p s k i n deer sk i n s i news scar le t c t o t h p r i n ted cot ton h.b, b lue s t roud h.b. r ed st roud , b lue s t r i p e d cotton b lue c l o t h com'n s t r i p e d cot ton whitp d u f f l e 0,3,10/yd c o r ' n r h i t e s t r o u d O,lJO/yd whi te f lanne l OJ1, 3/yd s i l k f e r r e t t ing 0J0,1.5/yd

o t a r t an 0J1,5/yd gar ter i ng O J O J l / yd h.L . gar te r ing O J O J .5 l yd army lace ga r te r i ng - FJOJl /yd scar l e t gar t e r i ng O J O , .67/yd

11

O . Ornaments/JemeIry Price E. Personal cut glass beads O,l,S/string horn comb

ivory comb fine dressing comb

F. Recreation/Leisure Brice L. dressing comb 0,0,3/doz clasp knife- - ciay pipe,

Dot a from HBCA ' l fl 474 8,60/d/l0i'.

I h

GOODS PR l CE L I ST, 1 866-67, SASKATCHEUAN D 1 STR l CT

+

I . ARCHITECTURE AH0 HOUSEHOLD

A . Ki tchen & D in inq P r i ce

japn'd t i n pot 0JOJ5.25" copper k e t t l e (cov 'd) 0J3,0

t i n por r i nger g J a J 5

t i n k e t t l e (cov'd) 0J4, 1 1 i r on t i n k e t t l e 0J17,8 oval t i n pan 0J5J4 r o r a t i n pan 0) 1 J7 i r on f r y i ng pan O J J 3

tab I espoon ----- b r i t a i n metal teassp. 0,2,5/dor b r i t a i n metal tablesp, O J S J l/doz t inned i ron teassp. O J O J l l / d o ~

>

t inned i ron tablesp. 0J2,3/doz eart henmare mugs OJO,2.25 eart hen. bas i ns, sauc . 8,5,9/dtz ca r t henmare jugs O J O J 1 1 ear t hen. soup p la tes 0J$,6/doz " c o l ' d t i n soup toureen 0,10,8 brass soup lad le O J I J l t uace ----- dessert forks 8 knives 0J5,0/doz fdine japn'd pots O J O J

p o l ' d f i n e tea pot IP

OJ5,8 earthen. dessert p l a t e 0J3,9/doz '3

d ~ n n e r knives & forks 0J10J3/doz t in, candle mould 0J3,5 -

car t henmare d i shes ----- i vory t ob 1 e spoon -----

0. Beddinq .-

t h i c k g r . blanketa ' $ p t . green blanket

3.5 p t . blanket bromn russ ia sheeting worsted cor f o r t e r

C . Furni t ure '

f u r n i t u r e cot ton f i n e f u r n i t u r e c l o t h

D . fl i sce 1 1 ancous boxes r a t ches wood screws ye l l o r lrax f i n e sponge stone b lue f i ne turkey sponge bromn head brush red sea l ing wax

Price.

5 I I . TECHNOLOGYITRANSPORTAT I OH/COflHUN I CflT ION

A . Hun t indTrapp ing Pr i ce percussion caps 0,5, O/ c o r ' n t m d i n g gbn 1,15,3 ind ian t r ad i ng gun 1,15,3

c

hook3 & eyes - O,O, .5 s i n g l e cot3.l ine O,1,$ c o r ' n sca lp ing k n i f e % 0,0,5

--*-- b u f f a l o sinew blades

> C . Corrunicat i on r u l e d paper b lack lead p& i l s paper p i ns w e l l i ng book

- f l . Food crushed sugar

ba r ley sugar poland s ta rch s a l t j ordon a 1 ronds tu rkey f i gs muscatel r a i s i n s d r i ed cu r ran ts ca ro l i na r i c e candy sugar f o re i gn choco l a t e paregone lozenges pepperm i nt I ozenges c l oves c i n n a ~ o n carroray b lack pepper

OO?

do2 >

8 . T r a n s ~ o r t a t ion s t i r r u p s t raps s t i r r u p 1 eat hers s i n g l e r i n g b r i d l e round horse b e l l s open dog be l l s b a l i n g rope

I I I . FOOD 8 DRUGS

Pr i ce 8 , Beueraaes 0,0,3.5/Ib congo tea

ram co f fee 0,1,0/lb hyson tea 0,0,5/ l b 0,2, Olga 1 0,1,6/lb C. Druw 0,0,5,25/box tu r l ington balsam 0,0,5jbox essence o f pepperr i nt 0,0,2.75/tb negro head tobacco 0,0,2.25/1b 0,0,7,5/lb 0,0,9/lb O , l , lO / lb O , l ,S/ lb 0, 0, l /oz O,O, 2.5/02 0,0,8/lb

- 0,0,6/lb

<

Pr i ce 0,1,1,5/lb 0,0,8/lb O,S,O/lb.

A . Food ICOHT . I durham rust a rd tu rkey f i g s ----- paregone lozenges -----

- --

67n l U . CLOTH I HG/ RHA EHTS/PERSOHflL

R . Tui l a rsd C lo th i ng P r i ce 9. *C lo th ina ?a te , r i a l P r i ce .

threshers f e l t hat 0J2,9.5 zom'n grey c l o t h 0, 0 I 5/yd patent leather cap pks O J O J 5 p r i n t e d co t t on OJOj4.5/yd l eat her cap peaks 0JOJ5- 2nd l i g h t b lue c l o t h OJSJO/yd c l o t h foraging cap O J ~ J 4 drab r o 1 eak in O J l J 1 .3/yd grey' s i t k hat OJSJO huckabuck O J I J l / y d t a r t a n wool shawl 0 J l J 1 . 5 s o f t pora tur 0JOJ7.3 / r l p r i n t e d co t ton shawl O J O J 11.5 b lack r ibbon O , ~ , ~ / P C b l k , cashrere shawl 0J3,7,3 whi te d u f f l e 0J4,0/yd roo1 shawl ----- f i ne hard t a r t an 0J l J4 .3 / yd fn. t a r t a n wool shawl 0J4,2.5 ga la p l a i d t a r t a n O J l ,l V y d c o r ' n go t ton hanky 0J4J2 t h i c k whi te d u f f l e 0, 4, 0/yd b lack s i 1 k hanky 0J3J6 t h i c k b lue d u f f l e 0, 4 , 5/yd r us l i n hanky 0JOJ5.5 b l u e s t r i p e d d r u g g e t 0 J l J 8 / y d s i l k. hanky. ----- b lue drugget , O J O J 1 t / yd *

corah ban. s i l k hanky 0J2,4 b I ack drugget OJ'OJ 1 l / y d palent gebra hanky O J 1 ,5.25 bleached huckabuck O, l , l / y d b a a e d s i I C honky

, ----- whi te f lanne l 0 J l J 2 / y d '

i nd i a ban. s i l k h a n k 0,3,4 r e d f l anne l 0 J l J 3 / y d p a r i s ban. s i l k hanky 0 J l J 5 . 5 8d b lack r i bbon OJ3,9/pc co r ' n yacht s h i r t 0J2, 10 b lack si , Ik f e r r e t 0J3,6.5/ r l c o r ' n b l . s t r . s h i r t L 0J3,0 nar . c o l ' d wors. b r a i d 0JOJ9.5/gr *

r ed f 1 anne l sh itrt oJ6J6 f i n e b lack c l o t h 0J7,6/yd whi te f l anne l s h i r t 0,8,1 dark i n f e r i o r tme& ----- red s t r , co t ton s h i r t 0Jt2,8 ' gerran hessins O J O J 1.3/yd sca r l e t worsted b e l t 0,1,5 f i n e whi te co t t on 0JOJ5,5/yd brown 1 eat her be 1 t O J 2 J g f i n e b lack f l anne l o J 1 ,2/yd broad l ussonphon be I t O J I O J 0 f i n e whi te f lanne l O J 1 ,2/yd i nd i a rubber sboea OJ2J2 f i n e gray bath coa t ing 0,1,4 b l k . lus. Oxonion b e l t 0J12,0 f i n e whi'te bath coa t ing 0,4,10 c o r ' n gray capot 0,1$,6.25 f i ne -purp le ver ino

. - O j O j 1 l / y d graymool h a l f hose 0,1,2.5. f i ne b lack o r l eans 0,0J91yd mh i t e co t ton hose oJ1 J $ f i ne bromn hq 1 l and 0,0J9.3/yd c l o t h capot l J 1 J 9 % f i ne shepard t meed

. g . 0 j 5 j l / y d .

J.

A . Ta i lo red C lo th inq A grey ro r s l ed hose

wh, guern. wool f rock 0,3,5 co l ' d worsted cravat 0; 0,l in fer , , t reed t rousers 0,5,2 mel l ington shoes 0,4,8 boteen shoes . 0,3,9 bound shoes 0,6,2 gabroon t rousers 0,9,9 beavert een t rousers 0,8,9 long forge drawers 0,4,10 l ong smansd . drarers 0,5,11 ind ia rubber suspenders0,2,0

f i n e 1 i ght 'shoes 0,4,3 f i n e b l , c l o t h capot l fJ2,6 f i n e b l , c l o t h uest 0J8, 1 f i n e g r , c l o t h t rous . D,14,8 i n f e r . drk. t reed s u i t 1,3,4 p a r i s gambroon t rous , 0,9,P

fancy roo l en vest W 4 6 breasted tseed uest 0,8,6 drab cordoroy t rousers 0,13,9 p j l o t c l o t h jacket b lanket ing capot indian white capot grey c l o t h t rouser

D . Ornaments/Jcwclry g lass drop ear r ings colored seed beads round necklace beads

-

8 . Clothinct g i ngham ,

f i ne g i ngham checked gingham 24 oz, r ibbon dark b lue r ibbon ree l co t ton ind ia rubber f i ne red f l anne l f i n e b lue f lannel duck sheet . tent ( l0 Ib ) brorn ho l land coch i nea l narrow Ho l l and tape mid. hot land tape b l eached d i aper army lace aors, gar. scar le t wool gar ter red r i v e r c l o t h "

colored f r inge b a l l s i sk cot ton b u f f a l o sk i n h,b, white strouds

p r i n ted .cot ton com'h greg cot ton com'n b lue s t r , c d t o n drab moleskin 2nd b lue c l o t h scar le t c l o t h

,dark b lue l i nen

C . Clothina flanufacturc brass s tee l t h i mb l cs

P r i ce 1 i nen thread 0,0,3,5/pr c o l ' d l i nen thread b, 0,4/bund l e cot ton wh , thread ----- r o l l e r buckles

rh. chapel .needles pear l s h i r t buttons g lovers needles

f . , P r i ce C , C lo th ina Hanufacture P r i c e . saoot h i ng i ronv 0 J L 3 g i t t bat t u vest but tens -- '

i vo ry handled penkni fe 0J2,6 mixed p i ns O J O J 1/02

f i nc k o r y comb OJOJ6 honey 3oap O J 1,3.25 F , Recreat ion/Leisure P r i ce ye l l om soap 0JOJ3/ lb s t i t c h l i n e n thread 0,3,O/Ib paste b lack ing O J l ,O/box b lock s i l k thread 0,1,6.75/oz b u t l e r s powders f i ne t oo th brush f i ne dress i ng comb roma looking g lass stone j a r perfume hand scrubb i ng brush paper cased razor shaving box mood r i m . , look, g loss pa in ted casset te f i n e c lasp kni. fe

0J2,1.5 a t a i lprs sc i sso rs O J I J 1 . 5 0,0,7 hunters c l ay p ipes OJOJ2/doz 0JOJ5.25 v i o l i n s t r i n g s 0J1,3

----- r i r e p ipe cover O J o J 3 b

OJ0,3.75/jor O J 1 , 2 . E OJOJ 1 1 O J 1 , 1 O O,L3 1?0,0 4

0,2J 0 c lasp k n i f e 0 , 2,O K

Data from HBCA Ill 478 8.60/d/165. \

GOODS PRICE LIST, 1817: ATHABASCR D ISTRICT

U E -

I . RRCH I TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD

A . Ki tchen & din in^ P r i ce 8. Beddinq chino ? ----- 3 po in t blanket yee handled k n i f e 0,9, OYdoz s i r i ped b I anket

1 po in t blanket C. ~ i s c e l l a n e o u s P r i ce t r i n e 0,4, 7Isk

L c-

I I . TECHNOLOGV/COflflUNICRTIOH/TRRNSPORTRTIOH L

A . H u n t i n d T r a ~ ~ i n q P r i ce 6. Tools f l i n t s

A . Foods ,, " 9

mo l asses

P

C . Drugs ' ca r ro t tobacco

0 , 2 l i u f i r e s t e e l s am l

I l l . FOODS AND DRUGS

P r i ce 8 . Beveraaes ----- s p i r i t s

rum scotch

I U . CLOTHING/ORHRllEHTS/PERSOHAL '

A . Ta i lo red C lo th inq hot f i ne hat 3 i l k hat cover scar l e t cover l i nen check s h i r t co t ton s h i r t serge ah i rt

8 . Cloth inq t l a t e r i a l moose sk i n gar t era p l a i n c l o t h montreal sca r le t c l o t h mi-xed c l o t h embossed c l ot h

Pr ice 1S ,O 1 i u

O,U, lO/pc 0J13,9/yd

#

429 -

P r i ce C.. . Cloth ina - f lanufacture

ped co t ton s h i r t $flirt sham l canadian b e l t scar1 e t r a i s t c w t sransdown ma i s t coat duck t rousers cordoroy t rousers c l o t h t rousers r o r s t ed stock i ngs common shoes women's shar'es leather shoes r a t tan j acket scar l e t l egg i ngs g l oves gray" capot

cap r a t tan jacket

E . Recr,eat i on/Le i sure p i pes

F . Ornament s/Jeae l r q common beads enamel bead3 s i 1 uer ear bobs fancy beads

white c t o t h p r i n t e d co t t on f e r r e t s t r i p e d co t ton c l o t h f i n e b lue c l o t h f l anne 1 s i l k braces i r i s h l i n e n green gauze co l ored thread r h i t e thread need l es r i bbon sc i ssors g i l t bu t tons

0 , Personal soap horn comb razor i vo ry comb ,

c lasp k n i f e

P r i ce 0,1J9.3/ lb

OJOJ9 10,O l i v - 0; 1 ,+

j apn'd tobacco box \ ----- shaving box ---- oval lookivng g lass -----

,Data from HBCR Itl $37 8.39/6/2.

GOODS PRICE LIST. 1820-21: ATHAEASC~ D I S T R I C T

A. K i tchen $ Dininq PP i ce 8 , Beddinq P r i cc japn'd pots copper ket t 1 e

k e t t l e t i n pan f i n e t i n p4ate

- soup p la tes per te r bas i n tablespoons k n i f e yew hand 1 ed kn i f e

0 . Furn i tu re f u r n i t u r e c a l i c o

o;-3,10 --2$,0, 1 i u

0,s;lo .0,2,6 8,O l i v 10,O 1 i v - - ,- -- 2,O I iu ----- 0,O) 10

Pr i ce -----

1 po in t b lanket 4 poin t blanket bu f f a l o robe s t r i p e d blanket 1.5 po in t blanket 3 po in t blanket

C, f l iscellaneous lodge sk in t r i n e

i

A . Hun% n d T r a o ~ i ng po rde rho rn gun poader shot b . b , shot bal I s foul ing piece common t rad i ng gun s ra I l 8 1 arge bayo'net

6

8 . Tranwor t at i on dog c o l l a r i rons

6,O 1 i v C, Corrunicat ion

6,O l i v , / l b paper p i - 6,11,5 180,O 1 i v 18,O 1 i u 0 . Toolcr

hot chet s brass i n l a i d k n i f e hoe f i l e anv i 1

P r i ce ' 4

431

0. Tools (COHT.) - v i ce p i ncers

I I I . FOODS flHD DRUGS

R . Foods s a l t fa t bu t t e r braad r a i s i n s

Pr i ce 0 . Beueraaes 16,O l i v . / l b rum 2,O l i v . / t b h igh rum 5,10 l i u . / l b is land rum 2,3 l i u , / l b

C . Druqs tobacc6 r o 1 l tobacco tw i s t tobacco car ro t tobacco

I U . CLOTH i HG/ORHAflENTS/f ERSO!IAL

3,O l i v

A , Tai lored C lo th inq double r i l led cap beaver hat grey worsted cap common hot ch i l dren ' s hat

? p la ted hat hat cover cot ton n ight cap sham l cot ton sham l bu f f & purple sham1 canad i an scar f grey scarf ca4 i co s h i r t atripad cot ton s h i r t checked sh i rt

- r ed f l ~ n n e l shirt .

P r i ce 8. Clothina f la te r ia l 0, 1,J 1 -pr i r e o t t e r 1, lJ0 moose s k i n 0~3,8 deer sk i n 0,7,9 caribou s k i n 18,O l i u - embossed c l o t h O,t6,8 2nd grey c l o t h 6,0 l i v ruas ia sheet ing ----- p r i n ted co t ton

0,17,6 ,fine b r o i n c 1 o t h 0,8,9 p l a i n grey c l o t h 0 ,Y,11 cock i neo 1 -----

r- swansdown 0,15,$ super fn . green c l o t h O,ll,S super fn. b lue c l o t h 0, 1 In, 0 super fn, grev c l o t h

0,9,6 f ancy l ace gar te r i ng 0 ,13 ,3 hlghlond gar te r ing

A . Tai lored C lo th ing i r i s h I i n k s h i r t f lannel s h i r t g l owes cordoroy jacket cordoroy t rousers mol ton ~ a p o t l ad i es s l i ppcrs capot scar le t waistcoat grey r a t tan capot super fn.' c l o t h capot cordorpy wa i s t coat common c I o t h* j acket russ i a kapot span i ah. vest b lue cot ton haqkg fancy a i l k hanky black s i l k hanky s i l k barce l ona hanky roma l l hanky beragoss hanky s i l k k imal hanky canad i an be l t crimson be1 t drab leggings ,

l egg i ngs indian shoes cot ton hose norrocco shoes . imported shoes A

?? C . Ornarents/Jerelry Pr i ce china beads 0J22,0/bun g i l t r i n g s o J 1 ,3 a i l uer ear l obes 0,6,0/pr s i l v e r r i n g s

> O J S J O

0: Clothina Hater iot white sheet in3 i r i s h l i nen red c l o t h blue p l a i n c l o t h red p l a i n c l o t h r o l l f u r s t r i n g $1 k s t r i ngg b Iue i t r o u d s bath coat i Rg k

C *

common ca l i GO .

h: b , red stroufls h.br b lue strouds

. b

p l a i n c l o t h - '0,15,3/yd "ebb gar te r ing ' 0J0,9/yd

C. Cloth ina tlanufacture Pr ice f i n e sc i ssors co l ored t hreod

' g i I t coat buttons g i I t vest buttons pewter vest buttons

vsewing s i l k w.co needles t h i mb l es pewter coat buttons r ibbon white thread qui It ing needles brown thread

0 . Personal eng l i sh soap looking glass horn comb wh i t e soap

agate beads 4,gJ2/bunch dutch l ook i ng g l ass b l ue f ox ta i l feathers 0, 15,8 ivory comb *

cock feathers 0, 10J4 c lasp k n i f e

P r i ce 0,1,8/? ----- 6

O J O J 10 0,1J8/ lb o,o, 10 5,O l i v . ojo, 10

+

E , Recreat i on/Le i sure p l ay i ng cards book laok ing glass jews harp roach kn i fe steel tobacco box japn'd tobacco box

Dot a from HBCR i tl 437

GOODS PR l CE L I ST, 1835-36 : *'ATHABASCA D l STR l CT

I . RRCH I TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD

A , Ki tchen 8 Oin inq Pr i ce japn'd p i n t po i oJ 1 J 1 copper k ~ t t l e 0J4,8/lb ( ova t t i n pan ' O J 3 J 4

round t i n pan 0J2,4 *

t i n . i r o n k e t t l e spoon OJOJ3 tab le k n i f e and fo rk 0 J l J 8

8, Beddinq, p l a i n blanket A

. 5 poin t blanket

'7 rbos . s t roud b l anke't ine s t r i p e d blanket

reindeer robe 3 po in t blanket 6

2.5 p l a i n blanket 1,s p l a i n blanket

k

C . Construct ion Too l s Pr i ce .%

handsam f i I q 0 ,'OJ 4 t

crooked kn i f e O J o J 9

A . H u n t i n d T r a p ~ i n g Pr i ce 8. Transport at i on Pr ice gun pomder 0J1,,8/lb1 s led dog O J I O , O shot 0,QJ5/lb s led oJo, 4 gun f I i n t 0,0,1 f o r 5 o i r on rod dog col tar3 0,1,0 o l d gun I J 5 J 0

brass snaring mire OJOJ2/oz h.b, shot 0JOJ5/ lb s k i n scraper O J O J ~

scalp ing k n i f e 0J0J7 net thread twine 0,2,6/Ib co l net thread twine 0,2,6/l'b bal l shot 0JOj4/ lb

C . Tools d

car t ouche kn i f e bastard f i l e ova I f i r e s t ee l f i res tee l

. - I

A . Fodd but t'br

- --. 435

-- -- - - - - -- =

I LI . FOODS ~ H D , DRUGS e - - -

5 " , I

Pr i ce B, Bevera~es .. P r i ce O J l l 1 ' co f fee 0,1,2/1b

grease '! 0,0;5/lb crushed sugar 0,0,6jlb

%.. C , bGu9s - P r i ce . . t w i s t tobacco O J l , l l / l b

- car ro t tobacco 0,3,7/car . - i r i sh tobacco 0,9,1/.05

i

- - bale * I

A . f a i l o r a d C lo th ing Pr i ce 0 . Clatbina t l a te r i a l P r i ce ha i r r ibbon 0,0,5/yd r e i n' deer sk i n 0,1,6'

\ grey i i 1 led cap 0,2,2 moose s k i n " 0,6,0 cot ton sham1 0,3,6 red ' strouds

i

O , l l J lO/yd hanky f 0,.12 mh i t e s t rouds

I I 0,7,6/yd . . cot ton s h i r t , @ 0,5,10 " s i l k f e r r e t 0,0,3/yd s t r i ped cot ton s h i r t 0,3,10 comion strouch 0;-10,ll/yd - /

" blue cot ton s h i r t , 0,5;1 O~ @lue .c l o th * 0,13,6/yd '

' - mh'ite f lonnpl s h i r t O,7,j ' sca r le t - c l o t h 0,12,!lO/yd _'- narrom ;ma i s t ed be 1 t O m 3 f i n e p r i n t e d cot ton 0,0, 1 l / yd

, sca r le t ro rs ted b e l t 0,12,6 ". blue l i s t c l o t h 0,8,0/yd fn.. b lue c l o t h t rouser 0,14,0 . grebn c l o t h 0,12,8/yd c l o t h capot,, 1 I b oJ6,@ bpomn c l o t h ! Oj l+jO/yd blue c l o t h capot, 4 Ib 1,2,6 - ,-, co 1 ored morst ed 0,7,8/1b

1,2,10 0,2,8/yd grey capot . white f lanne l a

rgrey morsted hose 0,3,6. - , f i ne punted cot ton o,oJ Wyd i n d ~ a n thoes 0,0,6 embossed s t roud b 1 anket 0,17,0 bor t agec s t rap 0 ~ 4 ~ 0 ' A army lace gar te rs 0,0,'1/~d .

' c l o t h capot, 3.-5 l b lJ0 ,0 highland gar te rs . OJO, 2/yd , mixed p ins . 0J0,3/oz assort Cd gar te rs ' 0, 0;21yd

h ~ i ~ r ibbon 0,0,5/yd . Isqther U,t,Q/? s t c l l end thimbles -0,0, .5 I c&'n b l . s t r , co t ton 0,1,9/yd

, - s t r i p e d cotton

I .0,1,2lyd L a i r i t a t ion sheet ing O, l , W y d t

h .

I

i

i r :

.-- $36

- - - -

A . Ta i lo red C lo th i nq Pr i ce 6d r i bbon 0,0,3/yd 10d r i bbon* OJ0,5/yd D. Ornaments/JereIry P r i c e need 1 eh ----- cormon round beads Oil, 10/1b

P s t i t ch i ng thread . 0 , l ) Otoz enamel beads 0,2,$Wl b metal coat bu t tons . 0,0,8tdoz bar ley corn beads 0,2,0/bch s t ee l top th imbles 0,0,6/doz t

mercers l i ned sc i sso rs 0,1,2 E. Personal Pr i cc i r o n buckles o,o, 2 ye I 1 om soap .O,O, _l t / l b

horn comb oJo,?

> .

C . Clo th inq ha nu facture^ P r i ce t.

assorted needles . 0,0,2 f o r 10 metal vest bu t tons @, 0,3/doz

6 co lored thread 0,0,5/oz F . Recreat i on/Le i sure Pr i ce

f I roach kn i f e o,o, 3- hunters q lay pipes O,O, 5/doz t in tobacco box O,O, 8 japnld t i n tobacco box 0,2,6

Data from HBCA I tl 441 B. 39/d/52

$37 -

S000$ PRICE LIST, 1054-5: ATHABASCA DISTRICT

i

Y 5 " 3

I , ARCH I TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD

-, * t

A , Ki tchen & D in i ng Pr i ce 8. Bedding - Price + - japn'd p i n t pot O J O J ~ s t r i p e d b lanket 0, 10,8 copper ket t l e 0,1 J9 p l a i n b lanket O$J5 3

- cups and saucers 0, ?,8/doz O J J k e t t l e , covered

t i n q t , tea pot 0,6,0

I I . TECHNOLOGYLTRAHSPORTRT I OH/COl'tHUN I CAT I ON i

f l , Hunt i n d r r a m i nq p r i c e - 8 . Transportat ion Pr i ce h

sca lp ing knives oJo,9 dogs . O,l,0 shot gun pomder

C . Tools bastard f i l e f i r es tee l

A . Foods s a l t I p

grease r e i ndeer tongues

0,0,5/lb hark bet I s 0,1,8/doz , 0,1,3 po r t age s t rap O J 4 J o

I I I . FOODS AHD DRUGS

Pr i ce B . Oruas Pr i ce 0,0,6/qt tm is t tobacco 0,IJ9,/ lb 0,0,6/1b canadian tmist tobac. 0 , t J9 / t b 0,0,9/tongue i r i s h tmist tobacco O J 1 ,Sl/lb

- -

- I U . CLOTH I NG/ORNAtlEHTS/PERSOHflL

R: Ta i lo red E l o t h i n q P r i ce 8 . Cloth inq t l a f e r i a l P r i s t :$rey m i l l e d mors, cop 0,1,10

- muskrat ? k i n 0,0,6

t a r t a n sham1 -' O,S,S deer sk i n 0,6,0 moo1 sham l 0 8 3 ~ 8 large moose sk i n 0, 10,8 co t t on hanky ,-- o,o, 8 large re indeer s k i n ' 0,6,0 . common co t ton s h i r t 0,3,3 'green c0.t t on ga r te r ----c ,

fn. s t r . co t t on s h i r t 0,4,9 p r i n t e d co t ton O,O, 1 l f y d b e l t 0 ~ 2 ~ 8 h o b . r h i t e strouds O,7,S/yd cor$roy t rousers 0,12,0 h. b , red stroud3 , 0,9,9/yd fus i on t rouaers 0,6,9 white d u f f l e ' " 0,6,0/yd beauert een t rousers 0,8, 6 dark b lue c l o t h 0,6,6/yd b lack h a i r - r i b b o n ' O,O, 3/yd f e r r e t s + O,O,a/yd

- . . green g w z e F 0,0,6/yd ga r te rs O,O, 1 /yd

C C l o t h i m - t lanufacture P r i ce sheet i ng 0,2,5Pyd bd r i b b m . 0,0,3/yd r h i t e f l a n n e l r t 0,2,2/yd jacket b u t t ~ n s O,O,S/doz 2nd b lue c l o t h 0,6,3/yd co l ored thread O,O, 7/yd a. I , g a r t e r s 0,0,2/yd co lored r i bbon . 0,0,3/yd h ighland ga r t e r i ng O , O , l / y d t a i l o r s sc issors ' 0,&1 p r i n t e d co t ton 0,0,9/yd

h o b . h lue s t roud 0,9,3/yd E . Personal Pr i ce B

horn comb o,o, 4 F , Recreat i on/Le i sure P r i ce ye l I 08 soap 0,0,5/lb c l ay p ipes - -0,0,1 f p r 4 shauing box/glass 0,2,4 - roach kn i fe 0,0,6 -

r a zo r s 0,6,8 . p

soap 0,0,7/lb 0,1,6 " T'mork i ng key

0

Data from HBCA 443 BS39/d/102. -

GOODS PR l CE L 1 ST, 1 865 : %THABASCA D I ST-R I CT

t , ARCH 1 TECTURE AND HOUSEHOLD

A . Ki tchen & D i n i n g - A - Price B. Bedding t i n p i n t po r r i nger ----- 1 , s poin t blanket i ron t inned tab 1 cspoon -----

a z

4 poin t blanket

C . Furn i ture , P r i ce 0 , f l iscellaneous !urn i t ure cot ton ----- l inseed o i l

f

I I . . TECH~OLOCY/TR~~HSPORTRT l ON[COllflUN I C A T (ON

A . H w t i na /T ra~o i ng Pr i c e 8 . 6 0 1 s hand d ' b l e bor re l gun ----- . pol i shed f i res t ee 1 :

powder horn ----- I I

gun porder ----- c- , +

&@'. i

shot ----- fn , sing-le f l i n t gun ----- t

s i ner b l odes

Pr i ce -- Beueraaes OJ0,5/tb J c o n g o t e o ,

0,0,5/qt,;. ,

A . Food3 grease s a l t reindeer tongues crushed sugar ,

r ed r i uer f I our

----- ----- C . Druas ----- t u r l ington balsam

pa in k i l l e r r o l 1 t o h c c o .+

I U , CLOTH I H6/ORHAnEHTS/PERSOHALt

J

ft. Ta i lo red C lo th ing Pr i ce fn . b lue s h i r t ----- red*. co t ton s h i r t ----- common yacht s h i r t

Y wool shawl

0 . C i o t h i n ~ h a t e r i a l large moose sk in deer sk i n s i new 4

red r i v e r c l o t h cot ton p r i n ted moleskin blue s t r i ped cot ton f i ne red f l anne l mhite d u f f l e blue c- loth

t a r t a n wool shawl f i ne sham l s i l ko hanky

' b lack s i l k hanky l eat her be l t glozed leather bet t scar l e t morst ed be l t cordoroy t rousers tweed t rousers draaers b-eavert een t rousers f i n e t reed t rousers t rack i ng shoes black h a i r r ibbon co l or6d-g i l k thread colored l i nen thread assorted need l es cot ton thread morst ed cravat

h .b . b lue strouds h.b. red strouds h o b . white strouds f i ne b lue c l o t h co I ' d gar ters s i l k f e r r e t s blue druggets 2nd scar le t c l o t h colored morst ed o i l c l o t h p r i n ted cot ton white cot ton f i ne f lannel

0 , Ornaments/Jewelry seed, beads

P r ice E . Personal '

f i n e clasp k n i f e large horn comb soap

Pr ice

Data from HBCA IH 445 0 . 39/d/135,

The l o c a t i o n s o f t h e s p e c i f i c f o r t s most o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o ih . 0

t h i s ana l ys i s, and from mh i ch most archaeo l og i ca l and document a ~ y

data used i n t h i s s tudy are der ived, mere shown i n F igure 5 . 1 . A

h i s t o r i c and archaeo l og i ca l summary o f each s i t e f o l 1 oms; each

d e s c r i p t i o n i s extremely b r i e f . The summary i s on l y intended t o 7

fami l i a r i z e t h e reader with some o f t he more important - c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f each s i t e mhich are considered t n ha most

re levan t t o t h e study problem; t h e data use from each s i t e ore /./ descr ibed i n much more deta i4 i n chapt e rC f i ve o r i n other chopt c r ~

"

mhen each s p e c i f i c problem i s considered.

THE ATHABASCA ' 0 l STR l CT

F o r t Ep ine t te

8 The f o l l o w i n g summary i s taken from Flodmark (1976). Eor t

Epi net t e ( o r Fo r t S t , John's). i s l ocoted on the n o r t h bank o f the

Peace Riper, near t h e conf luence o f the Beatton R ive r i n b r i t i s h 4

Columbia (F igure 5 .1) . The f o r t mas cons t ruc ted by the Hor th Uest

1&6 as a means t o expand the f u r t rade f u r t h e r msst i n t o .

i a ( p a r t s o f t he i n t e r i o r o f present-day B r i t i s h

Compahy- i n

Hem Caledon

Columbia).

Bay Company

A f t c r 1821, For t Ep i net t e mas y t h e Hudson's I I

u n t i / I * 1823. The f o r t mas not very lfip o r very .

i mport ant , - f u n d i on i ng p r i aar i l y #as a t r o d i ng A+- s t f o r bo th

companies.

L i k e many f o r t s o f t he per iod, For t Ep ine t te mas constructed on

, the f i r a t r i vcr t errace near the edge' o f the Peace R i uer . Although

no h i s t o r i c sketches o f the f o r t p lan remain, invest igat idons by

Fladmark (19761 ind icate that the f o r t mas constructed i n a t yp i ca l

barracks- l ike fashion. Unfortunately, pa r t s o f the f o r t ' have been

destroyed by r i we+ erosion, but those bu i l d i ngs t ha t are s t i l l D

present include a large cent ra l bu i l d i ng and por t ions o f two other

bu i l d i ngs on e i t h e r s ide o f i t . Based on both h i s t o r i c and

archaeo log i ca l ev i dence, the l arger bu i l d ing was i n t erpret ed -as the

ch ie f t r ade r ' s and c l e r k s ' residence i~ lad;aik .l976: 135). The i C *

b u i l d i ng on the mest side contained u f i r ep lace and sgb-f loor f b

storage p i t s ; i t l ikel 'y servedsas a men's quar tersJ whi le the

bu i l d i ng on t east s i de m c s probably a marehouse-'storage foc i l i t y . An archaeo l og i l assemb l age mas co l l ect ed from a I1 areas of the

s i t e , al loming omparisons o f a r t i f a c t s betreen areas t o be 1

under t aken .

Fort Runueqon

,The fo l loming informat ion i s summarized from Babcock (19841, J

Pyszczyc ( 1984) and Pyszczyk and Sm i t h ( 1985). Fort Ounvegan ( 1805 1 i

- 1918) mas s i tua ted a t the southernmos? extent b f the Peace River

(Figure 5 . 1 ) . It mas a very impor tant* fur t rade and p rov is ion ing . P-

I

post fo r both the North ' l es t Company and the Hudson's Bay Coepany , . = . * * '

f o r many yeam. Ounvegan became the reg i ona l headquarters f o r ' the -

y m 1 y formed Peace River d i s t r i c t i n 1878 ( F l e i i n g 1910, f l inutes o f . -.+-

Council, Northern Department~, 1878) and continued t h i i r o l t ( u n t i l G

8

the l a t e 1800s rhen i t began t o dec lzine in importance both as a f u r /

t r o d i ng post and as adm i n i s t r a t i we headquarters . Our i ng the ear l y

t SS k

- - - - - - - -

i od, i t produced large q"ant i t i es o f dr i ed meat and ueget obl as

imri ty potatoes); although the wild gtme rtso;rees d i m , -

vegetable crops s t i l . 1 f lour ished a t the post, f u r n i s h i ~ g ~ t h e - B

other posts i n the Athabasca d i s t r i c t and New Caledonia w i th S

produce. B

The long occupation per iod o f Fort Ounvegan was character ized by

considerable changes t o the f o r t p lon and layout. nany o f these

changes are documented h i s t o r i ca l l y on m ~ s . However , very l i t t l e

i s known o f the ea r l y North Uest Company occupation o f the s i t e , The

long documentary record o f t h i s f u r trade f o r t i s a lso qu i t e usefu-l

i n order t o examine how the r e l a t i v e importance ( reg iona l l y ) of t h i s

f u r t rade errtabl ishment i s r e f l e c t e d i n it; a rch i tec tu ra l

cha rac te r i s t i c s ( e . g . j s ize, bu i l d i ng . . qua1 i t y , e t c . ) . The

archaeological inuest igat ions and a r t i f a c t assemblages gathered thus

- fa r from the s i t e hove provided add i t iona l information regarding the

l ocat ion and hab i t at ion o f both the ear l y per i od and l at'er per i od

s i t es ; however, these invest igat ions are very pre l iminary i n nature.

present.^, they con best serve as a supplementary source, to the

documentary data f o r inuest igat ing the use o f mater ia l c y l t q r e i n U

f u r t rade soc ie ty . c . k L*..s, h

. . L

I I

Hottinaham House *

The establishment o f Hotti,ngham House on the shores o f Lake

Athabasca by Peter F id1 e r i n 1802, mas an at tempt by the Hudson's

Bay Company t o break 'the Hdrt h Utst Company's fu r t rode monopdl y of

the reg i bn (F i gure 5 . 1 ) . That at t enpt was not successfu l because of

the-North Uest Company's st rong arm tac t i c s , r e s u l t i n g in the

c l oaure o f the f o r t i n 1806 XKark l ins 1983: 13) : -Not t i nghas House .

mas a very minor outpost, possib lb cons is t ing o f four bu i ld ings .

The flain House mas the most important of these bu i ld ings, and mas

par t i t i oned i n t o a number o f rodms for the work i ng men 6nd f o r

F i d l e r . Good arch i t ect u ra l i nformat i m and an a r t i fac t sample from

each area o f the s i t e have been recovered. (Kark l i ns 1983) .

hrt Georue

Fort George mas constructed i n 1792 by Angus Sham o f the North 9

Uest Company on the nor th bank o f the North Saskatcheman River --__

(Figure 5 . 1 ) . I t served as a p r i nc i pa l p rov is ion ing and f u r trade

post dur i ng the const ant mestmard expans i on a l ong the, Nort h

Saskbt cheman R i ver ( f lor t on 1929) . The f o r t mas abandoned i n l8OO

because o f the dcp 1 e t ion o f fu rs i n the, reg ion. Although not me 1 l \

documented h i s t o r i c a l i y , Fort George i s .ell documented

orchaso l og i ca l l y (K i dd 1970; ~ o s e ~ ' et a I . 1978, 1979, 1980) . By any

standards, Fort George mas I arge , 'I t cont a i ned many bu i 1 dings and

again, l i k e other fo r t s , these bu i ld ings represented separate

quart e r s f o r morkers,

c l e r ks ) . flt one time

(norton 1929:41). A

been cot lected f r o r ' a

tradesmen and the off i cers (ch i c f t rader and

, the f o r t hod a populat ion o f 160 peaple " I

i arge asserb 1 age o f archaeo l og i ca I r e r a i ns has '

I I areas o f t h i s s i t e ,

Buck ingham House i s 4wa ted some 400 yards mest o f Fort George

and was i t s p ' r inc ipa l compet i tor i n t h e r e g i o n (F igure 5.1) . The 1

f o r t was a l s o occupied from 1792 t o 1800, abandoned because o f t he

constant westmard expansion o f t he companies. I t a l s o served as the

p r i n c i pa l f o r t i n the new mestern r c g i on f o r t h e Hudson ' s Bay

Company, a t t empt i ng t o compet e aga i ns t t h e Hor i h Ue,st Company (ti i cks

1969; l l o r t on 1929). However, Buck i ngham House mas i u c h 3ma l l e r than

F o r t George (Nicks IgK'), The popu l a t i on dur i ng the min ter mont hs

mas approx i mate l y 80 peop l e, and cons i derab l y l ess i n the summer ' - 7

mhen t h e men shipped t h e f u r s down t o York Fac tory and re tu rned r i t h

p rou i$ ions f o r t h e min ter (HBCA Ill 16 8 . 24/a/) The anchaeologtcal

p l a n dap bf t h e s i t e indicat$JFthat t he f o r t was smal l e r i n s ize , I

'. cont o ilp i ng femer quar te rs chin For t G,corgc (ti i cks 1977). As me l I ,

t h e o f i ce rs and t h e men may have l i ved under one r o o f i n t he '0 i g b but i n separate sect ions. Both good s t r u c t u r a l and a r t i fact

e a v a i l a b l e from t h i s s i t e .

F o r t U i c t o r i a 4

F o r t V i c t o r i a mas a minor Hudson's Bay Company outpost, located

approximately 65 m i les domnstream along the Nor th Saskatchesan R iver

from F o r t Edmonton (F i gure 5.1 ) . The post r a s cons t ruc ted on the

n o r t h bank o f t h e Soskatcheman River and occup i cd b e t mccn 1863 and

1898, being c losed betaken 1803 and 1888 (C lark 1971). R map o f the

f o r t , drawn by Hard i s t y ( l 8 7 l ) , shows the l ocat i on of the most

important b u i l d i n g s a t t h e s i t e , The c h i e f c l e r k - & i s fam i l y

re3 i dcd alone i n t h e la rges t house, .hi l e t h e m o r k e r ~ and t ~ade=men

l i ved i n separate bu i l dings. A great deal o f archaeo l og i ca l

s t r u c t u r a l , a r t i f ac tua l and faunol dot CJ a r e avo i l ab le f%om {hi t 3 i t e

Rocku flount a i n House e

I I

The h i s to r y and f o r t sequence o f Rocky flourit a i n H o k e i s bu i t e I

complex (Smyth 1976; Steer and Rogers 1978) and i s

summarized here. By 1799, both the Hudson's -Bay

North Uest Company, i n t h e i r cont inuing q u p t f o r 1

reached the foot h i l l s and mount a i ns and the end o f the nav i'ga l e 1 4 por t ions o f the Saskatchewan River . I n the same y,ear, /Acton youse

1

was constructed by the Hudson ' s Bay Carpany and ~ o c k " dount a i r/ House I 1 . I -

was constructed by the Nort h Nest Company, near the conlf I uencd o f I

t he C l earmat e r and Hort h Saskat cheuan R i vers, (F i gure 5 . \ ) . 0oIt h

posts mere abandoned and re-opened numerous t i m s bet r e n -1 7991 and a I

%1821 because o f the poor t rade w i th the Indians ( e .g . , a

1801-02, re-opened in 1805-06; *abandoned 1806-07, re-odc

I abandoned i n 1812, re-occupied- i n 1819) (s teer

Folloming the merger i n 1821, one o f the posts

1823. From tha t per iod on, there again occurred numerohs f o r t *

c l otures and re-becupat i ons unt i l 1875 (Steer and Rogers 1978 :

The documentary dot a* and the t *o orchaeo l og i ca l assemb l aged " ,

I

considered t o be most important in t h i s study, come from the '

1 799- 182 1 Hort h Uest Company Rocky Ilount a i n House (Steer and Rogers

19%) and from another Rocky b u n t a i n House s i t e (Hudson '3 Bay '

Company 1, dated somewhere bet ween 1799- 1839 (Hob l e 1973) . Both

s i t e s have been almost t o t a l l y excavated, but by f a r the beat data

ore from the former s i t e . There e x i s t s a gbod f o r t b u i l d i n g plan,

b o v i d i n g good de ta i l ed informat i about l i v i n g condi t ions, both i n "%h

,' I $48

s Y

, t c r ~ of construct ion data ond material cuf ture.