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Bone Grease and Bone Marrow Exploitation on the Plains of South Dakota:

A New Perspective on Bone Fracture Evidence

from the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village

Landon Karr

Augustana College

Secondary Authors:

Dr. L. Adrien Hannus (Augustana College) and

Dr. Alan K. Outram (University of Exeter, UK)

A Bush Foundation Research Project

3 November 2005

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Background: The Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village: P. 3-4

Fats and their Prehistoric Significance: P. 4-6

Bone Marrow and Bone Grease Exploitation: P. 6-10

Pemmican and its Importance to Prehistoric Humans: P. 10-13

Identifying Bone Fat Exploitation in the Archaeological Record: P. 13-15

Bone Fracture: P. 15-19

Methodology P. 19-24

Bone Fragment Deposits at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village: P. 24

Context #128: P. 24-30

Context #140: P. 30-35

Combined Contexts: Contexts #128 & #140: P. 35-40

Conclusions: P. 40-42

Acknowledgments: P. 43

Works Cited: P. 44-47

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Background: The Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village:

The Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village represents the remains of a fortified

village of Native American farmers and hunters which existed on a bluff

overlooking the Firesteel Creek Valley in the James River Basin of South Dakota

approximately 1000 years ago. Though the occupation of this site was fairly

short--likely less than 100 years--the extensive collection of artifactual evidence

from this site is especially valuable for advancing the understanding of the

lifeways of the inhabitants of one of the area’s earliest and most well-preserved

Native American village sites.

Today, the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village is recognized and protected

as both a National Landmark and a National Register site. The Thompsen

Center Archaeodome, completed in 1999, encloses both a controlled excavation

facility as well as a research laboratory, and serves as an important step in the

initiation of a new generation of innovative protocols and methodologies intended

to extend the scope of knowledge regarding prehistoric cultural systems on the

northern Plains. The research herein presented represents a preliminary, limited,

and early effort to advance understanding in one very specific realm of

archaeological interest, however, the discussion and analysis presented by this

study are intended to create new inroads to many diverse and distinctive aspects

of Plains archaeology.

The extensive and rich collections of complex remains from this site

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provide ample opportunity for the study of many aspects of life in the village.

Recently collected samples of artifactual evidence from the site demonstrate that

the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site offers abundant collections of

ceramics, stone tools, bone tools, fire-cracked rock, and shell, as well as

extensive microfaunal and microfloral remains. Most important to this study,

however, is the incredibly abundant presence of apparently intentionally fractured

bone deposits in an area of midden between two collapsed earthen lodges.

Through the use of a recently developed scientific methodology for the study of

prehistoric bone fracture and its relation to instances of bone marrow and bone

grease exploitation, this study will advance the interpretation of newly recovered

evidence from the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site. On a preliminary level,

this research also serves to investigate the potentiality of significant efforts in the

field of bone grease and bone marrow exploitation at the Mitchell Prehistoric

Indian Village site, and will forward the results of the recent sample excavations

and analysis of material evidence from the site.

Fats and their Prehistoric Significance:

The extraction of bone grease and bone marrow from fragmented animal

bones as a means of providing an important and nutritional source of fat to the

diets of prehistoric humans is a fairly well-documented and well-understood

practice from both the archaeological and ethnographic records (Binford 1978,

Logan 1998, Stefansson 1956, Munro and Bar-Oz 2004, Outram 2003, Wheat

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1972, Winship 1896, Davis and Reeves 1990). It has long been suspected that

the exploitation of bone fats at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site

represented a critically important subsistence industry, especially for the creation

of pemmican, however, to date, no scientifically sound study of these processes

has been carried out on collections of bone fragments from the site to confirm

this supposition, and there exists a serious lack of academic literature regarding

the seemingly high degree of importance of bone marrow and bone grease to

this particular site.

A millennia ago, the Great Plains of South Dakota offered many abundant

resources to the Native Americans occupying the Mitchell site, however, an

easily obtainable and significant source of fat appears to have been one resource

which, in the absence of bone marrow and bone grease exploitation

technologies, the inhabitants of this site would have lacked. While bison

provided a significant source of meat proteins, and certainly very large quantities

of meat, the meat thereby obtained was very lean, lacking significant

concentrations of fat. Maize and other vegetables provided significant sources of

carbohydrates and caloric content, however, similarly lacked large amounts of

high-quality fat. As such, it appears that critically important amounts of fat--

utilized for a number of nutritional purposes--were obtained through the

exploitation of bone marrow and bone grease from animal bones, as is

demonstrated by this study.

While fat would have been highly valued for its essential nutritional

qualities, the inhabitants of the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site would have

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also understood the very high comparative energy and caloric potential which fat

can offer over other food sources--normally more than twice that of

carbohydrates and proteins (Mead et al 1986; Erasmus 1986; Outram 2003).

Certainly, bone fats served as critically important resources to prehistoric

humans not only at the Mitchell site, but also across the Plains, and in many

other regions worldwide.

Bone Marrow and Bone Grease Exploitation:

The exploitation of bone marrow and bone grease from animal bones

serves as a particularly important tool in understanding the needs of prehistoric

humans and their cultural lifeways, as well as the conditional stress factors which

may have burdened them (Outram 2001). Varying degrees of bone grease and

bone marrow exploitation serve as theoretical indicators of sometimes vastly

different situations encountered prehistorically, such that remaining artifactual

bone evidence can provide insight into the needs of differing cultural groups

based upon the degree, magnitude, and manner of bone marrow and bone

grease exploitation (Outram 2003).

The processes involved in the exploitation of bone marrow and bone

grease and the implications thereof which remain visible from the archeological

record are many and may indicate a number of different practices. Bone marrow

is contained within shaft bones, in greatest quantities within the medullary

cavities of limb bones, and can be easily obtained by simply breaking the shaft in

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any readily available manner, such as striking the bone with a rock, allowing the

marrow to be easily scraped from the remaining diaphysis cylinder (Outram

2000). The marrow thereby obtained is readily consumable, highly nutritious,

and certainly represents the most obvious and most easily obtained source of

bone fat, as is evidenced by numerous ethnographic accounts (Binford 1978,

155; Mohl 1972, 191; Outram 1998, 1999; Wheat 1972, 111; Winship 1896, 597-

8; Dorsey 1884, Culbertson 1952, 44).

Interestingly, marrow types and quality often vary according to the bones

from which the marrow is extracted. This differential quality of bone marrow and

bone grease was realized even in prehistoric times, probably as a matter of taste.

“Red” marrow--a blood producing type of marrow usually found in skulls, ribs,

and vertebrae--is often considered inferior for its higher protein content and lower

fat content, whereas “white” marrow--found primarily in mature long bones--is

more rich in higher quality fat and is considered superior (Outram 2002, 6; Rixon

2000, 11). These long bones were also especially prized for the extraction of the

highest quality bone grease from their cancellous end bone tissue (Outram 2002,

6; Rixon 2000, 11). After being “roasted before the fire, or placed under hot

coals” the femur of bison was considered one of the “most rich and delicious”

sources of readily consumable bone marrow (Dorsey 1884: 293). Enthographic

accounts affirm that a discriminating preference for bone marrow and bone

grease from certain bones was a common practice, and one that can

archaeologically indicate differing levels of subsistence stress, simple matters of

taste among prehistoric groups, or any number of other potential explanations

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(Outram 2002, 6; Binford 1978, 32, 146; Wilson 1924, Munro & Bar-Oz 2004, 2).

While the extraction of bone marrow is a fairly simple and direct process,

bone grease is obtained by utilizing a very different and far more complex and

labor-intensive process (Munro & Bar-Oz 2004, 2). Bone grease is contained

within the spongy cancellous material at the epiphyses of bones (Outram 2003).

In order to extract the bone grease therein contained, this cancellous material

would need to be pulverized to such a point that a much greater degree of

surface area would be exposed than would naturally be available (Outram 2003,

Bar-Oz 2004, 2-3). The freshly comminuted bone fragments would then be

placed in a water-filled pot or pit with fire-heated rocks, such that the water would

boil, allowing the fat trapped within the spongy structure of the cancellous bone

to become free. At this point cold water, ice, or snow may have been added to

the water to allow for rapid cooling, thus allowing the newly freed bone grease to

coagulate and float to the top of the water, where it could be easily procured by

simply skimming it off of the water surface (Munro & Bar-Oz 2004, 2-3;

Culbertson 1952, 44). This process is far more complex than the simple

extraction of bone marrow, and while bone grease extraction may still seem

relatively simple, it was a process which often required many hours to procure

only small amounts of fatty bone grease (Munro & Bar-Oz 2004, 2-3; Davis and

Reeves 1990, 169; Wheat 1972). While significant amounts of high-quality bone

marrow and bone grease are available within the bones of many Plains animals,

the bison seems to have been the preeminent choice among prehistoric humans

at the Mitchell site, likely due to its relative abundance on the Plains, as well as

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its size, indicating large amounts of both meat and fat to be procured from a

single animal. An exceedingly vast majority of artifactual bone evidence from the

Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site, even after sometimes heavy comminution,

is easily identifiable as that of bison. Varying estimates exist regarding the

amount of osseous material required to produce significant amounts of bone

grease, however, many estimates suggest that as many as several bison were

needed to extract as little as 100 pounds of high-quality, pemmican-appropriate,

“white” bone grease (Stefansson 1956; Davis and Reeves 1990, Wheat 1972).

The process of bone grease exploitation, thus, is quite obviously far more

intensive than the extraction of bone marrow, and would therefore likely be

logically considered a process more frequently employed during periods of

greater desperation, however, many other factors which will later be discussed,

especially the production of pemmican, also contribute to the prominence of bone

grease extraction at this prehistoric village site (Outram 2000). The exploitation

of bone grease from bone ends while ignoring the value of long shaft bone

marrow would seem entirely illogical, and would certainly be at least

economically prohibitive if not counterproductive (Outram 2000, 402-3). Such a

practice is not noted ethnographically, a fact which suggests that marrow was

valued prehistorically for its easy accessibility and many nutritional qualities

(Outram 2000, 402-3). As a result of the difficulty of extracting bone grease in

large quantities, paired with the relatively low yield of bone grease as compared

to bone marrow extraction in terms of energy expended, cancellous bone

material was often stored in mass quantities and processed in a near-industrial

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fashion, in order to effectively achieve a higher benefit-to-cost ratio (Binford

1978; Wheat 1972). The aforementioned processes of bone grease and bone

marrow exploitation are corroborated by many ethnographic accounts in other

areas throughout the world (Binford 1978, 32, 158; Wilson 1924; Leechman,

1951, 1954; Wheat 1972, 111; Davis and Reeves 1990, 169).

Pemmican and its Importance to Prehistoric Humans:

The production of pemmican serves as the most practical explanation for

the prominent usage of large amounts of bone grease among the prehistoric

inhabitants of the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site, and one which would

tend not to suggest a significant degree of subsistence stress. The basic

composition of pemmican includes a combination of dried, pounded meat mixed

or layered with animal fat, normally bone grease. Bone grease was considered

the premiere form of fat to be used for the creation of high-quality pemmican.

This combination of dried meat and fat could also be combined with berries and

other readily available goods when premium quality pemmican was desired

(Davis and Reeves 1990, 169). Pemmican served as the most important staple

in the prehistoric diets of many cultural groups around the world, particularly for

Native Americans, who made extensive use ot its many life-sustaining qualities.

Pemmican was a foodstuff which commanded such a degree of respect and

importance among many groups that the labor-intensive and time-consuming

processes involved in its creation were warranted by the benefits which could be

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reaped from it (Stefansson 1956, 198; Wheat 1972). The creation of pemmican

was the result of the culmination of many long-understood practices taking place

as early as 5000 years ago--from the pounding of meat to allow for easier

consumption, to mixing dried meat with fat in order to provide for greater

nutritional benefits, and the eventual but later realization of the advantages of

large-scale pemmican production (Stefansson 1956, 195-6; Wheat 1972; Davis

and Reeves 1990, 169).

The benefits of pemmican were many--it could be utilized during long

hunting, gathering, and trading expeditions, it provided much needed dietary fat

content, possessed a very high trade value, was considered to be nutritionally

one of “the best concentrated food[s]” known to Native Americans and early

settlers alike, and, most importantly, the best prepared pemmican had a potential

stored life of months and even years in some cases (Stefansson 1956, 194-199,

Wheat 1972, 111).

The value of pemmican was noted by many early European explorers in

the New World (Winship 1896; Stefansson 1956). One author notes that “the

Indians had doubtless known for centuries...that pemmican is a complete food,

maintaining full health and strength indefinately...before the Europeans first

borrowed it and made it their bread of the wilderness” (Stefansson 1956, 198).

The most important characteristic of pemmican, however, was that it could be

stored for very long periods of time, often under even the most brutal conditions,

including the frequent and drastic climate changes common to the Plains of

South Dakota (Munro & Bar-Oz 2004, 2; Stefansson 1956, 194-199). While bone

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marrow would likely be considered a much more immediately available source of

nutrition, bone grease possessed its greatest value in its storability--up to three

years if rendered properly--making it the premiere choice in the creation of high-

quality, long-lasting pemmican (Munro & Bar-Oz 2004, 2).

While the creation of pemmican represents one very significant and

important use of bone grease, the possibility of serious subsistence stress factors

should not be overlooked entirely. There remains a great potential in nearly all

cultural settings throughout history and around the world for times of serious

hardship to occur, whether caused by natural environmental changes or through

acts of human intervention, which could and often have led to situations of

desperation in which resources such as bone marrow and bone grease would be

exploited for their absolute maximum potential (Outram 1999, 116; Outram

2003). Any determination of the potential usage of bone grease and the

circumstances which might justify such extensive and labor intensive processes

should be made carefully and with consideration for all situational factors which

may influence such an important choice. There certainly exist many potential

and often critically important usages for the bone marrow and bone grease

exploited by prehistoric humans. Identifying individual and specific usages

through a study of the archaeological record is a complex and often very difficult

process, though these potential usages range from ones concerning simple

matters of taste to complex subsistence stress and nutritional factors. At the

Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site, however, it seems that pemmican

production for normal consumption or trade was likely far more prominent than

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the usage of bone fats in desperate situations of subsistence stress.

The perfection of the processes for the creation of pemmican around 5000

years ago served as a critically important point in the prehistoric development of

Native American cultural systems (Davis and Reeves 1990, 169). In the

possession of a reliable, dependable, and durable foodstuff such as pemmican, it

is possible that Native Americans on the Plains came to possess a far greater

degree of mobility by reducing their dependence on fresh meat sources (Davis

and Reeves 1990, 169). Pemmican may have had many other theoretical

implications, including the expansion of trade relations among cultural groups

which possessed pemmican technology (Davis and Reeves 1990, 169).

Similarly, the development of pemmican may have allowed for greater stability as

a result of its long-term preservation potential, and may have represented one of

the first possiblities for significant food surpluses experienced by prehistoric

Native Americans, as well as serving to signal a significant shift in prehistoric

cultural priorities (Davis and Reeves 1990, 190). It was partially upon the

development of pemmican that Plains Native American culture may have been

ultimately allowed to develop significantly and change rapidly (Davis and Reeves

1990, 188-191).

Identifying Bone Fat Exploitation in the Archaeological Record:

Archaeological evidence of the exploitation of bone marrow and bone

grease can be documented in several different manners. First and most

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obviously, assemblages of bone fragments largely broken beyond recognition

remain in the archeological record, often in midden areas, a supposition

confirmed by many archaeological and ethnographic accounts (Outram 2000;

Leechman 1951, 355-6; Logan 1998, 349-366; Wheat 1972; Davis and Reeves

1990, 170). The presence of these deposits allows for much information to be

gleaned in regard to the locality of bone deposits and their proximity to other

artifacts, their size, the degree of comminution, fracture types, bone types,

dynamic impact scars, and rebound scars, which, as a suite of attributes, serve

to further a sense of archaeological understanding. Also present in the artifactual

record at Plains sites such as the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village are the

remains of ceramic vessels used for the boiling of bone, boiling pits containing

crushed and fractured bone, fire pits, fire-cracked rocks used to heat water to an

adequately high temperature, and tools potentially used to execute the necessary

processes, such as mauls and scrapers (Munro & Bar-Oz 2004, 2, Davis and

Reeves 1990, 170).

The evidence of humanly modified bone is ubiquitous throughout both

bone marrow and bone grease extraction sites, however, the extraction of bone

marrow alone leaves very little evidence aside from the bones themselves in

question. Bone grease extraction, however, leaves far more archaeologically

relevant evidence due simply to the more complex processes involved in its

procurement. This simple fact might lead one to believe that sites exhibiting

evidence of bone grease extraction were suffering from greater subsistence

hardships, as a result of the fact that bone grease, a seemingly less economically

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advantageous product, was being processed. That, however, is not necessarily

the case when one examines the ethnographic record, and the reasons for the

preference of bone grease, such as the aforementioned, critically important, and

extensive use of bone grease for the creation of pemmican. In any case, the

archaeological record provides for many possibilities in forming an understanding

of bone marrow and bone grease exploitation practices in prehistoric times.

Bone Fracture:

In order to understand any assemblage of bone fragments in relation to its

potential usage for the purposes of bone marrow and bone grease exploitation,

bone fracture must be taken into account, along with many other factors which

serve to discern prehistoric occurrences from historic ones. Together, three

important indicators combine to create the “freshness fracture index” (FFI)

designed by Outram. These indicators are:

1) Texture of fracture edge.

2) Angle of fracture to the cortical surface.

3) Shape of bone fragments in relation to understood helical

fracture patterns.

The texture of the broken edges of freshly fractured bones is normally

quite smooth, whereas bones worn by time normally break in a very rough

fashion, especially after they have become weathered and mineralized (Outram

2000). The angle of fracture in relation to the cortical surface of the bone is

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normally at relatively sharp obtuse or acute angles in freshly fractured bone,

whereas weathered bones tend to break at right angles to the cortical surface.

Finally, fresh bones tend to break in accordance with standard and well-

understood helical fracture patterns, whereas bones exhibiting a lesser degree of

freshness will break in straight lines, following transverse, longitudinal, columnar,

diagonal, and/or other patterns which are not consistent with fresh fractures

(Outram 2002, 54). These three indicators allow for a simple set of protocols by

which to judge the degree of fracture freshness, a critically important issue in the

study of any collection of bone fragments purportedly indicating bone marrow

and bone grease exploitation.

Dynamic impact scars serve as another important indicator of intentional

bone fracture. When bones are impacted by a significant force, such as a rock,

club, or hammer, the resulting bone fragments will generally display a conical

dispersion of force (Outram 1999, 105-6; Outram 2003, 123). This conical

pattern of bone fracture is often visible in the archaeological record in both

dynamic impact scars and rebound scars, scars resulting from the use of an

anvil. This type of conical breakage occurs only in fresh bones, which serves as

an indication that bones exhibiting conical breakage patterns were broken

prehistorically, though not necessarily intentionally, while bones affected by other

post-depositional processes would not display the same conical pattern or

humanly-inflicted dynamic impact scars (Outram 2003, 123). Clear cut marks

serve as another such indicator, in that fresh bones would be the most likely to

be cut through the use of a knife or scraper in human hands, directly indicating

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intentional procedures.

Certainly, many other taphonomic factors need to be considered in order

to fully assess the processes involved in the formation of millennia-old bone

deposits. Many different occurrences could serve as disrupting factors in the

deposition of bone fragments, all of which have the potential to significantly alter

an understanding of the bone fragments assemblages in question if not first

considered extensively. The preservation conditions of bone deposits are

perhaps the most obvious reason for initial investigation, in that poorly-preserved

bones will likely exhibit fewer identifiable signs of prehistoric breakage than

would well-preserved deposits. Human, animal, chemical and mechanical

taphonomic factors are all critically important in accurately assessing

assemblages of bone fragments.

The chemical processes of weathering and mineralization are certainly

ones which have significantly affected the artifactual bone evidence from the

Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site. While these processes are easily capable

of destroying large amounts of artifactual evidence, their negative effects are

relatively minimal at the Mitchell site. After 1000 years, a significant degree of

weathering and mineralization is certainly to be expected, however, the bone

assemblages in question at the Mitchell site remain in good condition even after

many years of exposure to the brutal elements of the South Dakota climate.

Mechanical factors are also important in understanding the condition of

these bone assemblages. While factors such as earth-loading and water

transport are scarcely important due to the relatively shallow position of the

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deposits and the hilltop position of the site, other loading factors may have

certainly affected the assemblages. Prehistoric trampling--perpetuated by both

animals and humans--could serve to further break already fragmented bones,

often at a point in time long after the original breakage. This represents an

occurrence which could potentially alter a collection of freshly fragmented bones

to appear as though they had been broken long after their deposition. The

assemblages available from the Mitchell site, however, largely appear to be well-

preserved in their freshly-fractured state, though some bones are certainly in very

poor condition as the result of the combination of any number of taphonomic

factors.

The effects of animals are also important considerations. Perhaps the

most important of these considerations at the Mitchell site are the effects of

bioturbation. Rodent burrows pervade large portions of the site, and have been

known to significantly alter deposits. In the case of the deposits in question for

the purposes of this study, however, it can be ascertained that the assemblages

remained relatively undisturbed by more recent animal burrowing. Animal

gnawing perpetrated by carnivorous animals also has the potential to significantly

alter bone deposits by further comminuting fragments, however, few, if any,

instances of animal gnawing are identifiable in the bone assemblages taken into

consideration by this study.

The taphonomic agencies directly attributable to humans are also

important considerations. The breakage of both fresh and weathered bones by

humans is a sometimes relatively unpredictable process, however, this study

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sets forth many reasons for the intentional breakage of bones by prehistoric

humans, while the analysis of artifactual remains demonstrates a relatively low

degree of weathered bone breakage.

Finally, while most taphonomic agencies are very natural occurrences

which lie outside of the control of modern researchers, one must not fail to

consider the many destructive elements which bones might encounter during

their excavation and storage in modern times--destructive forces which have the

potential to skew the understanding and interpretation of artifactual evidence. In

the case of this site, however, the processes of mineralization and weathering

allow for the relatively simple discernment of prehistorically fractured bones from

very recently fractured ones based upon important, visible, and marked

differences.

Methodology:

This limited study utilizes the methodology recently detailed by Outram to

determine the degree of bone marrow and bone grease exploitation on two bone

assemblages from the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site (see Outram 2000

for the original discussion of this methodology). For the purposes of this study,

several aspects of the original methodology were modified to accommodate the

material available from the Mitchell site and simplify the analytical processes.

Thus, this investigation was carried out in accordance with the following

procedures and protocols:

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First, bone fragments from two separate contexts and excavation units,

but from the same midden zone and approximately the same stratigraphic level,

were separated into five distinct groups:

1) Cancellous (Spongy) Bone.

2) Cortical Diaphysis (Dense Shaft) Bone.

3) Ribs, Jaws, and Vertebral Spines.

4) Whole and Partial Bones.

5) Other (Cranial Fragments, Teeth, Bird and Fish Bones, etc.).

Cancellous material, largely from limb bones, is the most important source

of “white” grease, the important and easily preserved fat which is critically

important for the creation of high-quality pemmican. Dense shaft bones enclose

relatively large amounts of bone marrow, an important source of easily attainable

but lower quality fat. Ribs, jaws, and vertebral spines are sources of very low

quality “yellow” grease, and would be considered much less desirable, possibly

leading to their complete or near-complete preservation in the archaeological

record if neglected or avoided prehistorically. Importantly, it must be stated that

for the purposes of this investigation, the medullary cavity beneath the tooth row

was designated as a “marrow-containing shaft bone,” while the upper portions of

the mandible, largely void of significant amounts of bone fats, were designated

as “ribs, jaws, and vertebral spines.” Whole and partial elements represent

potential sources of bone marrow and bone grease which have not been

fragmented for bone marrow or bone grease extraction. “Other” elements are

those generally either too small to have been desirable sources of bone fats,

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such as fish bones, or are bone types void of significant amounts of bone fats,

such as teeth.

Of these five aforementioned categories, the first three (cancellous bone,

dense shaft bone, and ribs, jaws, and vertebral spines) were sorted according to

their size in increments of 10 mm up to 100 mm. Whole and partial bones were

weighed and recorded as a group, while the remaining category of various

“other” bones was disregarded except for a relative comparison of its size to

other categories, and a general consideration for the source of these bones was

taken into account. Each individual size grouping of cancellous bone, dense

bone, and ribs, jaws, and vertebral spines was weighed separately. Finally, all

dense bones measuring 30 mm or greater were examined individually and

assigned a fracture score of zero, one, or two based upon three separate criteria,

resulting in a total possible score as low as zero or as high as six. Bone

fragments comminuted to sizes of less than 30 mm are exceedingly difficult to

judge on the basis of bone fracture, and for that reason are overlooked in favor of

larger elements which serve as more reliable and accurate indicators of bone

fracture. The three criteria for determining bone fracture freshness were as

follows:

1) Texture of fracture edge (a zero indicating a nearly entirely

smooth surface and a two indicating a mainly rough surface,

while a one indicates a surface displaying both smooth and

rough attributes).

2) Angle of fracture to the cortical surface (a zero indicating an

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angle of fracture which is either distinctly obtuse or acute to

the cortical surface and a two indicating a fracture at a right

angle to the cortical surface, while a one indicates an angle

of fracture which displays both right and acute and/or obtuse

angles).

3) Shape of bone fragment in relation to understood helical fracture

patterns (a zero indicating a pure or nearly pure helical

fracture and a two indicating a transverse, longitudinal,

diagonal and/or columnar fracture, while a one indicates

some characteristics of helical fracture and some of post-

depositional fracture types).

According to this systematic approach, a score of zero indicates a bone

which was broken in a very fresh state, while a score of six would indicate a bone

which was broken after being weathered or mineralized in some manner,

typically a process requiring the passage of a significant amount of time.

Numbers in the intermediary range indicate varying degrees of freshness at the

point of bone fracture. Thus, if a large sampling of bones achieves a very low

average score, then it becomes apparent that the bones in question were broken

prehistorically, and it becomes increasingly likely that the bones were used for

the extraction of bone marrow and bone grease. In the same manner, a

sampling of bones with a high average indicates the effects of taphonomic

agencies which may have led to the breakage of bones long after the death of

the animal or animals in question. Perhaps the most important of these

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taphonomic factors are chemical process of weathering and mineralization.

These are critically important taphonomic agencies which alter the chemical

condition of bones and allow for significant and easily distinguishable differences

between freshly fractured bone and weathered or mineralized bone, differences

which serve as the basis for the methodology utilized by this study. While the

Freshness Fracture Index serves as an excellent indicator of bone marrow and

bone grease exploitation, it does not alone prove that an archaeological bone

assemblage demonstrates the effects of bone fat exploitation. Rather, the FFI

serves as an important and fairly reliable indicator of bone fat exploitation, though

it remains critically important that many other indicators, such as the

aforementioned taphonomic agencies, are also considered in order to form a

cohesive conclusion.

The application of the Freshness Fracture Index through the use of this

method is critically important in obtaining a functioning understanding of bone

marrow and bone grease exploitation at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village

site. Other methods rely heavily upon the numerical aspects of bone analysis

(i.e. counting bones of different size classes to determine the degree of bone

marrow and bone grease exploitation), methods which lead to seemingly obvious

statistical errors in that one bone broken into many hundreds of tiny pieces

receives much more consideration than a single, large, unbroken bone which is

of equal significance in terms of bone fat exploitation potential (Outram 2000,

2003). The consideration given to the “indeterminate” bone fragments serves as

one of the most important contributions advanced by Outram’s method, in that

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the maximum number of bones possible are considered by the study. Under

other methodological practices, many bone fragments which were able to be

included in this study would have been disregarded and ignored entirely,

whereas this methodological process allows for the consideration of all bones,

while segregating and disregarding only specifically identifiable bone fragments

and bone types which have no significant bearing on the type of bone focused

upon by the study in question.

Bone Fragment Deposits at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village:

Utilizing the methods set forth by Outram and other conventions of bone

analysis, two collections of bone fragments from an area of midden between two

collapsed earthen lodges at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site were

studied extensively to determine their potential to demonstrate prehistoric

extraction of bone marrow and bone grease. While the exploitation of bone

marrow and bone grease at the site had long been suspected as the result of

both ethnographic accounts and previous archaeological investigations at the

site, no serious scientific study had been carried out to confirm or deny these

beliefs and suppositions (Hannus, personal communication, 2005). This study

sets forth to determine exactly that: whether bone fragment assemblages from

the site are the result of prehistoric bone fat exploitation, or the result of later

taphonomic agencies. The following analysis will initially discuss Context #128

and Context #140 separately, before considering their combined significance.

25

Context #128:

The excavation record at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site first

recorded Context #128 as an assemblage containing heavily fragmented bone, a

fact which served as important in identifying this specific context for in-depth

examination by this study. In the lack of an academic methodology, any original

interpretations made by archaeologists upon the excavation of bone fragment

assemblages, including this one, cannot adequately serve to analyze this

artifactual evidence. However, in this case, the analysis of the evidence in

question successfully demonstrates that the original supposition was quite

correct--that significant efforts in bone marrow and bone grease exploitation were

likely occurring in this context at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site.

Perhaps one of the most remarkable aspects of this collection of bone fragment

specimens is the near complete lack of whole and partial bones, which is

evidenced by the extremely low mass of whole and partial bones in comparison

to many other size categories as detailed in Figure #1.

26

Total Bone Fragment Mass by Size - Context #128

0100200300400500600700800900

1000

0-20

20-3

0

30-4

0

40-5

0

50-6

0

60-7

0

70-8

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80-9

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90-1

00

100+

Who

le &

Par

t

Size Class (mm)

Mas

s (g

Figure #1

This serves as evidence of a severe degree of comminution of bones, a

fact reinforced by the high proportion of cancellous bone fragments in the

smallest size classes. It is important to consider what size class might represent

the point of diminishing returns and increasing marginal labor cost when

rendering cancellous bone fragments for the extraction of bone grease. The

critical division point in the sizes of recovered bone fragments from the Mitchell

site assemblages seems to occur around 50 mm, in that a vast majority of bone

specimens have been comminuted to a size at or below 50 mm, while few are

present in larger size classes. The concentration of cancellous material in the

smaller size classes is also evident when comparing the relative significance of

cancellous material, dense shaft material, and ribs, jaws and vertebral spines by

mass, as demonstrated in Figure #2.

27

Bone types as Percentage of Whole - Context #128

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

0-20

20-3

0

30-4

0

40-5

0

50-6

0

60-7

0

70-8

0

80-9

0

90-1

00

100+

Size Class (mm)

Per

cent

age

of W

hol

R-J-VSCancellousDense

Figure #2

The dense concentration of cancellous material in the smallest size

classes, especially below the 50 mm level, serves to demonstrate a highly

comminuted level of cancellous bone fragments, while an equally important lack

of cancellous material is present in the size classes at and above 60 mm. The

comminution of cancellous bone appears unequivocal in Context #128. Figure

#2 also serves to demonstrate discriminating preference in the selection of bones

utilized for bone marrow extraction. An obvious concentration of ribs, jaws, and

vertebral spines exists in the size classes above 50 mm, while very few of these

bone elements were fragmented to a size of less than 50 mm. This serves to

suggest that these types of bone were, for some reason, specifically disregarded.

It is likely that these bones were avoided because of their inferior marrow and

grease quality and the relative degree of difficulty required to obtain the bone fat

28

contained within these bones. This is especially convincing evidence when one

considers the relatively high degree of fragility of these types of bones when

compared with other bones (Outram 2000, 409). This is especially apparent

whem one considers the ribs found in this context and considers their high

degree of preservation after more than 1000 years (Outram 2000, 409).

Indeed, many indicators suggest that bone marrow and bone grease

extraction was practiced on the bones contained in this context, a supposition

reinforced solidly by the Freshness Fracture Index (FFI) for Context #128,

documented in Figure #3.

Figure #3

The average FFI score for bone fragments found in Context #128 was

1.63, while 14 of the 237 bones studied for fracture type--6%--indicated obvious

dynamic impact scars. The relatively low FFI score of 1.63 is significant for its

FFI Score - Context #128

0

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50

60

70

80

0 1 2 3 4 5 6FFI Score

Num

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29

indication of fresh bone fracture, and paired with a significant number of dynamic

impact scars, it appears that Context #128 serves a fine example of one which

includes a collection of bones utilized for bone marrow and bone grease

processing. In fact, a significant majority of bones exhibit perfectly or near-

perfectly fresh fracture, while very few exhibit fracture patterns consistent with

weathered and mineralized bone.

For the sake of comparison, one might take into consideration other

studies similar to this one, especially those conducted by Outram himself, which

indicate significantly lower FFI score averages, and significantly higher

occurrences of dynamic impact scarring (see Outram 2003, “Comparing Levels

of Subsistence Stress amongst Norse Settlers in Iceland and Greenland using

Levels of Bone Fat Exploitation as an Indicator” for an excellent example). It

should be noted that the level of bone preservation at the Mitchell Prehistoric

Indian Village site is, for many reasons, not as consistently high as that at the

Arctic sites studied by Outram, sites which were specifically selected for their

incredibly high degree of bone fragment preservation. Several differences

include the fact that the Mitchell artifactual assemblages studied were deposited

in a relatively shallow area of midden, rather than deeply buried, and that the

Plains offers many more opportunities for post-depositional damage.

Additionally, climatic differences between the Arctic and the Plains lead to

differing rates of natural degradation. Also, bioturbation in the upper cultural

horizons of the Mitchell site is a complicating factor in terms of preservation,

whereas the permafrost conditions of Arctic sites lend themselves to far better

30

preservation conditions, to mention only several of many reasons for differing

levels of preservation.

In fact, Arctic permafrost environments represent one of the three best

possible preservation environments for organic material such as bone fragment

assemblages. While entirely wet and entirely dry situations, along with

permafrost environments, represent the highest possible degrees of

preservation, the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village is certainly not the benefactor

of any of these environmental circumstances. Nonetheless, in spite of many

destructive factors affecting bone preservation, the evidence collected from

Context #128 at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site provides a good data

set for the study of bone marrow and bone grease exploitation on a Plains village

site, a combination of events opening the door to rare research opportunity. With

those differing circumstances understood, if the methodology and protocols

suggested by Outram can be effectively demonstrated even under harsh

conditions of Northern Plains preservation, it certainly adds weight to the

importance of the technique across the spectrum of archaeological localities.

Context #140:

The deposit of bones and bone fragments collected from Context #140

exhibits many very similar characteristics to the bone fragment assemblage

recovered from Context #128, however, there are also several notable

differences. Of empirical interest, the sample sizes from these two contexts are

31

very similar (237 and 234 bones studied for FFI score respectively), as well as in

terms of total mass and total volume of bone material.

The first and perhaps most noticeable difference between the two contexts

is the relatively higher concentration of whole and partial bones in Context #140

as compared to Context #128. Whereas only 48g of whole and partial bone

material were obtained from Context #128, over 680g were recovered from

Context #140. While this may seems like a very significant and defining

difference, one must also take into consideration the composition of the many

whole and partial bones discovered in Context #140. A vast majority of these

bones--over 80% by mass--were phlanges, tarsals, ankle, and other foot bones.

While the interpretation of this concentration of foot bones is subject to many

variables, it is nonetheless worth mention that these bones would be quite poor

choices for the extraction of bone marrow and bone grease, both as the result of

a fairly low total content of obtainable material, and for the relatively high degree

of effort which would be required to obtain these small quantities of bone marrow

and bone grease. Though a higher number and proportion of whole and partial

bones would typically indicate a lesser degree of bone marrow and bone grease

exploitation, in this case, due to the types of bone which have remained whole or

nearly whole, it seems that this greater concentration of whole and partial bones

is, to the contrary, an indication of significant efforts in bone marrow and bone

grease exploitation. The identification of these whole and partial bones serves

as a fairly direct and very important indication of discriminating preference in the

choice of bone, as well as an understanding of the potential for counter-

32

productivity when extracting marrow and grease from less optimal bone sources.

Figure #4 illustrates the higher representational mass of whole and partial

bones in this context. Also evident from Figure #4 is a high concentration of

bone fragments at or below 50 mm, a pattern relatively similar to the one

exhibited in Context #128. While the division of bone fragments of this size from

fragments larger than 50 mm is not as obvious, it is nonetheless apparent upon

closer examination that a very serious decrease in mass occurs around the size

class of 50 mm.

Total Bone Fragment Mass by Size - Context #140

0100200300400500600700800900

1000

0-20

20-3

0

30-4

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40-5

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Who

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Size Class (mm)

Mas

s (g

)

Figure #4

Figure #4 also demonstrates a relatively high amount of bone mass in the

size category of 100 mm+. Figure #1 demonstrated a similar prevalence of

bones in this size class, however, one must understand that should this class

33

have been further subdivided into typical 10 mm categories, the 100 mm+

category would not appear as such a seeming outlier, but rather, would naturally

taper off as size increased. Also, it is worth mention of the characteristics of the

bones found within that category, in that a far greater proportion of such bones

exhibit very obvious dynamic impact scars, and, in one case, a very obvious

rebound scar to compliment the original dynamic impact scar, further indicating

preparation for bone fat exploitation. Also, some of these bones would otherwise

have been considered “whole and partial” if not affected by obvious post-

depositional factors, a qualitative factor which slightly skews the data to appear

to be a less obvious example of bone marrow and bone grease extraction, when

in fact, the contexts appear to be of relatively equal value.

The occurrence of dynamic impact scarring on the bone material

recovered from Context #140 is comparable to that found in Context #128, in that

18 of the 234 bones--or 8%--exhibited obvious dynamic impact scars, including

one large bison femur exhibiting an impressive rebound scar.

As with Context #128, Context #140 exhibits an important and significant

concentration of cancellous bone material comminuted into size categories at or

below the 50 mm level, whereas cancellous bone material exists only in small

quantities in the size classes at or above the 60 mm level, as is demonstrated by

Figure #5. A similar prevalence of rib, jaw, and vertebral spine material is also

present in size classes of 60 mm and above, while its presence in the smaller

size classes is markedly low, a fact also apparent in Figure #5.

34

Bone Types as Percentage of Whole - Context #140

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

0-20

20-3

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30-4

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Perc

enta

ge o

f Tot

al R-J-VSCancellousDense

Figure #5

The average FFI score of bone fragments in Context #140 was 1.86, very

similar but marginally higher than the average of the bones found in Context

#128. Slightly fewer bones from this context achieved scores on the lower end of

the spectrum, however, Figure #6 exhibits a significant and noteworthy divide

between bones scoring 0 and 2, and those scoring between 3 and 6. This seems

to indicate a similar degree of bone marrow and bone grease exploitation from

the bones in this context as compared that of Context #128.

35

Figure #6

In all, Contexts #128 and #140 appear quite similar, however, several

marked differences do indeed exist. In order to more fully understand the

significance and importance of the bone assemblages, the data from both

contexts has been merged and Figures #7 through #9 exhibit the complete set of

data encompassed by this study.

Combined Contexts: Contexts #128 & #140:

In order to expand upon the analyses, it seems apparent that combining

the two contexts in question is a valuable tool in the interest of understanding the

artifactual evidence on a larger scale. The two contexts with their respective

bone deposits were in close proximity to one another, separated by only 0-3 m,

and were excavated from approximately the same stratigraphic level. While the

two contexts were excavated from the same general midden zone, it is not

FFI Score - Context #140

0

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30

40

50

60

70

0 1 2 3 4 5 6FFI Score

Num

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ents

36

possible to ascribe the bone fragment assemblages from the two contexts to the

same depositional event. Rather, it appears that the assemblages are most

likely separate deposits, however, they are nonetheless very similar and appear

to be the result of similar processes. Thus, it appears very likely that on a broad

scale, the area in question represents a midden area which was used on a

number of occasions for the deposition of the waste produced as the result of

bone marrow and bone grease exploitation. The combination of these contexts

serves as an important tool in clarifying the implications of similar and repeated

bone marrow and bone grease exploitation sequences at the Mitchell Prehistoric

Indian Village site.

The results of combining the contextual sets of data led to a more

complete and representative set of data and figures which seems to very well

represent the material encountered at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site,

as well as serving to corroborate the suppositions set forth by this study. The

combined masses of bone fragments as represented by size, and illustrated in

Figure #7, shows that the 50 mm size category does, indeed, serve as an

important determining point in the comminution of bones from these

assemblages. While this theoretical size barrier is only an experimental tool, and

while prehistoric Native Americans would have almost certainly been

comminuting bones by only intuition and experience rather than by any

predetermined size benchmark, it seems that this tool is an effective one in

understanding the degree of efficiency to which bone grease was being

extracted. This is apparent in both Figures #7 and #8, though the bone type

37

classification included in Figure #8 is a more appropriate indicator of such

comminution of cancellous bone matter.

Total Bone Fragment Mass by Size - Combined

0200400600800

100012001400160018002000

0-20

20-3

0

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Size Class (mm)

Mas

s (g

Figure #7

Figure #7 additionally illustrates the notably limited amount of bone

material between the sizes of 60 mm and 100 mm, and the low representation of

whole and partial bones, most of which, as has been previously mentioned, are

economically inferior foot and ankle bones. The high degree of comminution

throughout the deposits in question, especially to sizes at and below the 50 mm

level, serves as a strong indication of intentional and fairly complete efforts in the

comminution of bone material by prehistoric humans at the Mitchell site.

Figure #8, as mentioned previously, further demonstrates the high

incidence of cancellous bone material in size classes at or below 50 mm. Figure

#8 also illustrates several other important points. When the data from the two

contexts are combined, the representation of ribs, jaws, and vertebral spines

38

from the deposits is quite obviously concentrated in the largest size categories.

A vast majority of rib, jaw, and vertebral spine material falls into the size classes

at and above 60 mm, a fact which seems to indicate a serious degree of

preference and discrimination in terms of marrow quality as well as labor and

time required to process these bones. This discrimination against the use of ribs,

jaws, and vertebral spines also serves to indicate a functional and working

understanding of the cost-to-benefit ratio involved in balancing the amount of

labor necessary for the extraction of such economically inferior materials against

the possible benefits which might be reaped from them.

Bone Types as Percentage of Whole -Combined

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

0-20

20-3

0

30-4

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0

60-7

0

70-8

0

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00

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Size Class (mm)

Per

cent

age

of W

ho R-J-VSCancellousDense

Figure #8

Also, it should be noted that when the combined data is considered, dense

shaft material is represented in marginally but significantly higher quantities in the

larger size classes, indicating a lesser degree of necessary comminution for

39

bones from which marrow can easily be obtained, and from which bone grease is

only rarely extracted as a result of very low possible bone fat yields.

Figure #9

The combined FFI scores of the two contexts, illustrated by Figure #9,

demonstrates a very obvious and fairly uniform gradient descending from many

fragments with a score of zero to very few fragments with a score of six. This

type of descending gradient is to be expected from any deposit of bones from

which bone marrow and bone grease are thought to have been extracted, and

the results of this study clearly indicate significant evidence of such activity.

While other studies (see Outram 2000 and 2003 for fine representational

examples) have exhibited an even more apparent and obvious divide between

the highest and the lowest FFI scores, it seems that given the present set of

circumstances, especially the relatively high number of potentially disrupting and

FFI Score - Combined

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

0 1 2 3 4 5 6FFI Score

Num

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f Bon

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40

destructive factors at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site, that the FFI

scores obtained are very representative of a fairly well preserved bone marrow

and bone grease exploitation site on the Plains of South Dakota. The Mitchell

site has withstood the battery of taphonomic agencies which are common in the

archaeological deposits of region, including annual wet/dry cycles, rodent

burrowing, and root etching, all of which combine with normal weathering and

mineralization processes to inevitably alter almost any assemblage of bone

fragments on the Northern Plains.

The only significant shift in the natural gradient of the combined FFI score

occurs between the scores of two and three, in that far more bones are present

in the range of 0-2 than are present in the range of 3-6. This is consistent with

previous suppositions, and serves to underscore the extent of bone grease and

bone marrow exploitation at the Mitchell site (Outram 2003).

Conclusions:

From the results obtained in this preliminary study, it is apparent that the

inhabitants of the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site were extensively

exploiting the bone marrow and bone grease resources available to them. This

conclusion serves to methodologically and scientifically reinforce previous

suppositions regarding the site, and agrees with both the archaeological record

as well as the ethnographic record of the Plains Native American cultures as well

as other cultures from around the world.

41

While the extraction of bone marrow and bone grease are sometimes

viewed as indicators of subsistence stress conditions among prehistoric people,

as suggested by the studies of Outram, evidence from the Mitchell Prehistoric

Indian Village site suggests otherwise. Bone marrow at the Mitchell site was

likely used largely as a fatty and nutritional supplement to a diet which consisted

of lean meat products, while bone grease was likely utilized for the creation of

pemmican, a critically important and ethnographically confirmed food source for

the Native Americans of the Plains. It seems exceedingly unlikely that

subsistence stress factors significantly influenced the bone marrow and bone

grease exploitation practices of the inhabitants of the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian

Village site. While it is plausible that an environment depleted in natural

resources after decades of human overuse led to the abandonment of the site,

thus potentially indicating that further and more complete efforts in the field of

bone marrow and bone grease exploitation may have taken place, it seems more

plausible that the artifactual evidence obtained from the site represents the

practices of everyday life rather than prehistoric life under a significant degree of

environmental subsistence stress.

The many reasons and explanations for bone marrow and bone grease

exploitation at the Mitchell site aside, this study serves as the first to definitively

indicate that significant efforts were made to exploit large amounts of bone

marrow and bone grease at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site. A number

of factors have combined to form this conclusion, and it appears that nearly all

evidence strongly suggests an extensive industry of bone fat exploitation, while

42

none significantly suggests otherwise.

Importantly, evidence such as the discriminating preferences of

inhabitants of the site suggest that bone fat exploitation was neither a limited nor

circumstantial occurrence, but rather, that it was a continued, long-understood,

and well-practiced set of processes among the inhabitants of the Mitchell site.

Similarly, the extensive and often near-complete comminution of high-quality

bone material suggests a long tradition of bone fat exploitation, as does the

seemingly advanced economic understanding of benefit potentiality.

This study has explored many different facets of bone marrow and bone

grease exploitation, and has critically examined many avenues of thought in

regard to this topic. The Mitchell site, however, continues to safeguard vast

amounts of significant and very well-preserved archaeological evidence

concerning bone marrow and bone grease exploitation. This preliminary

research serves as a basis to suggest extensive efforts in bone fat exploitation

practices through an important and innovative set of protocols, and it represents

a test case for much more extensive future research in this field. This study

demonstrates the significance of a methodological and scientific approach to

analyzing bone fragment deposits, and serves to justify otherwise uncorroborated

theories regarding the potential for bone marrow and bone grease exploitation at

the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village site.

43

Acknowledgments:

My many thanks are extended to Dr. L. Adrien Hannus, without whom this

work would not have been possible, for his guidance and insights into my work

throughout this project, to Dr. Alan K. Outram for personally communicating the

methodological aspect of this study, overseeing its practice, and his many

valuable contributions, to Augustana College for supporting my academic efforts,

and to the Bush Foundation for graciously funding my work.

44

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