BUILDINGABETTERTEACHER

HowTeachingWorks

(andHowtoTeachIttoEveryone)

ElizabethGreen

W.W.NORTON&COMPANYNewYork•London

Formyfamily:parents,brothers,andDave.

Contents

Prologue:HOWTOBEATEACHER(PartOne)

1 FOUNDINGFATHERS

2 ATEACHERISBORN

3 SPARTANTRAGEDY

4 KNEADANDRISE

5 ANEDUCATIONALSTART-UP

6 LEMOV’STAXONOMY

7 THEDISCIPLINEOFDISCIPLINE

8 THEPOWEROFANINSIDEJOKE

9 THEHOLYGRAIL

10 APROFESSIONOFHOPE

Epilogue:HOWTOBEATEACHER(PARTTWO)

AcknowledgmentsNotes

Index

BUILDINGABETTERTEACHER

Prologue

HOWTOBEATEACHER(PartOne)

Openthedoorandwalkin.Remainstanding.Ormaybeyoushouldsitdown?Thiscrowdedrectangularroomisyours.Rightnowithastwenty-sixchairs

withattacheddesks,achalkboard,andearly-afternoonsunlightpouringthroughwindowsontothetabletops.Inamoment,theroomwillalsohavetwenty-sixfifth-graderswhosenamesareprintedontheattendanceledger:Richard,Catherine,Anthony,Eddie,Varouna,Giyoo,Awad,DonnaRuth,Tyrone,Ellie,Enoyat,Leticia,Charlotte,Karim,Shanota,Messima,Saundra,Dorota,Ivan,Connie,Illeana,Yasu,Reba,Jumanah,Candice,andShahroukh.Yourjob,accordingtothestatewhereyouhappentoliveandtheschool

districtthatpaysyoursalary,istomakesurethat,sixtyminutesfromnow,thestudentshavegraspedtheconceptof“rate.”Specifically,ifacarisgoing55milesperhour,howfarwillithavetraveledafter15minutes?Howaboutafter2hours?Bytheendoftheyear,yourstudentsshouldalsohavemasteredfractions,negativenumbers,linearfunctions,longdivision,ratioandproportion,andexponents.You’realsosupposedtoteachthemtobecomegoodcitizens,subtlyknittingintoyourlesson(yes,thismathlesson)theprinciplesofdemocracy.Inwhatevertimeisleft,remembertohelpthechildrenvaultoveranyhurdleslifehasthrownthem—racial,economic,parental,intellectual.YoumustbendrealityclosertothedreamoftheAmericanmeritocracy.Ready?Thedoorburstsopen.Withtheresidualenergyofrecess,theysurgethrough

thecoatroom,rearrangingtheirclothesandjostlingforsipsfromthewaterfountain.HerecomesVarouna.SheisfromKenya,litheanddarkskinned.GiyooisfromJapan.Heis4feettallandbarelyspeaks.Catherineisstudiousandhasherhairinbraids.Eddie,frecklefacedandhyperactive,takeshisseatinthe

back.TyronejustmovedfromSouthCarolinaandprefersnottopayattention.Hesitsclosertoyou,inthefront.Don’tjuststandthere.Teachsomething!Richardsitsnearthefront,nexttoTyrone.They’rebothnewtotheschoolthis

year.Onthefirstday,Richardintroducedhimselfandvolunteeredthatmathwashis“worsesubject.”Halfanhourlater,thestudentsareallaskew,murmuringandchattingwith

eachother.They’vebeenworkingonamathproblemyouwroteonthechalkboardwhiletheywereoutatrecess.

Condition:Acarisgoing55mph.MakeadiagramtoshowwhereitwillbeA.afteranhourB.after2hoursC.afterhalfanhourD.after15minutes

Considerhowtogeteveryonetoquietdown.Nexttoyou,onatable,isasmallbell.Doyouringit?Perhapsyoushouldraiseonehandandputtheotherhandoveryourmouth.Orwhataboutthatoldline?Whenmyhandgoesup,yourmouthsgoshut.Yougoforthebell.Thankfully,itworks,andyoulaunchadiscussion.Soon,fifteenminuteshavepassed,andclassisalmostover.Sofar,the

studentshaveworkedontheprobleminsmallgroupsoffourtosix.Youhavecirculatedaround,peeringovershouldersattheirvaryingdegreesofsuccess,decidingwhentotalkandwhentonodandwhentoholdinalaugh,lettingitshakeinsideyourchestwhenastudentdoessomethinghilariousandadorable.Andallofyou,together,havereasonedyourwaythroughA,B,andC.Onthechalkboard,you’vedrawnastraighthorizontalline,withdistance

representedontopandtimeunderneath.Onthefarrightisacrosshatchfor110milesand2hours(B);halfwayinthemiddlethereisanotherfor55milesand1hour(A);thenthere’sonemore,smaller,crosshatchhalfwaybetween0and55:27.5milesand½hour(C).Itlookslikethis:

Pointtotheboard.Ask:CananyoneshowwherethesolutiontopartDshouldgoonthediagram?Handsshootup.Then,rightinfrontofyou,Richardaddshis.Youknow

enoughabouttheotherstohaveanideaofhowtheyunderstand“rate,”oratleastanideaofwhattheywillbeabletodowiththeproblem.Richard,though,issomethingofamystery.Afterthe“worsesubject”speech,youcollectedhismathnotebookattheendofeachweekalongwiththeotherstudents’.Buthewroteverylittleinitandonlyrarelyraisedhishand.Nowhe’svolunteeringtoanswerthemostdifficultpartofthequestion—andyouhavenoideawhathe’llsay.Whatdoyoudo?Lookattheclock;only10minutesleft.Doyouhavetimetoriskawrong

answer?WhataboutRichard?Whatifheisn’tevenclose?Ifhe’swrong,willhe,anAfricanAmericanboyinaraciallydiverseclassroom,shutdownandhesitatetoparticipateagain?Ontheotherhand,whatmessagedoesitsendtotheothersnottocallonhim?“Richard,”yousay.Hestandsup,turninghisnotebooksohecanseeitfrom

theboard,andwalksslowlytothefront.Everyonewaits,silent.D:Showwherethecargoing55mphwillbeafter15minutes.

Reachingforthemilessection,ontop,hereststhechalkhalfwaybetween0and27.5.“15minutes,”hewrites.Below,between0minutesand½hour,hewrites,“18.”Theboardlookslikethis:

“Ummm,”hesays.“Eighteen.”Huh?Notonlyhasheputtime(15minutes)wheredistanceshouldgo,buthe

hasalsoproposedanothernumber,18,thatmakesnosense.Acargoing55milesanhourcouldnottravel18milesin15minutes.Andwhatreasonablecomputationwouldgetyouto18?Notdividing27.5by2,or110by4,certainly,andnotanythingelserelatedtothenumbersontheboardeither.Whatdoyoudo?Youcouldquicklycorrecthistime-distancereversal,notdrawingtoomuch

attentiontothemistake,ontheassumptionthatitwasacarelesserror.Butwhatifitwasn’t?Youdecidetoassumenothing.“Eighteenmiles,”youventure,“oreighteenminutes?”Clarify:“Youwrote18nexttominutes.Didyoumean18milesand15

minutes?”Richardnods,erases,andrewrites.Nowthenumbersareflipped:18miles,15minutes.Butthere’sstillthatmystifying18.Whatdoyoudo?Shouldyousay,simplyanddirectly,That’swrong?What

doesRichardmean,anyway?Lookattheclass.Ask:CananybodyexplainwhatRichardwasthinking?Anotherjoltofhands.Trytomemorizewhoisaskingtospeak,andwhois

makingafanoutofhispencils.Remember,youaren’tjustteachingRichard;theothertwenty-fiveneedtobeeducatedtoo.Whataretheythinking?Aretheylearning?Checkthetime.Justafewminutesleft,butthiscouldtakemuchlonger.

Maybebettertogiveup;there’salwaystomorrow.ButlookatRichard,whostill

believes18makessense,whodoesn’tknowwhathedoesn’tknow.CallonstudiousCatherine.“Ummmmm,”shesays.“Idisagreewiththat.”

Shepauses.Then,“Ummm...”Think.Shewantstogivethecorrectanswer,yetyousaid,cananybody

explainwhatRichardwasthinking,notcananybodytalkaboutherownidea.Catherineseemstoknowshe’soutoforder.That“ummm...”—she’seyeingyou,lookingforpermissiontodisobey.Doyougrantit?Maybeyoushould.Nod,andtherightanswerwillcome—

clearandconcise,knowingCatherine,andjustintimefortheendofclass.ButlookatRichard.IfquickCatherine,awhitegirl,jumpsinwiththesave,whateffectwillthathaveonhim?Ontheotherhand,ifyoudon’tletCatherinecontinue,howwillthataffecttherestoftheclass?Ineithercase,whatwilltheclasslearnaboutrace,gender,and—ohyeah,math?OnMonday,November20,1989,MagdaleneLampert,astoic,watchful

womanwithstraightblondehairclippedtothebackofherheadandmorethanadecadeofteachingexperience,madeasnapdecision.Shepointedtothe18.“Doesanyoneagreewiththisanswer?”sheasked.

Thecommonviewofgreatteachersisthattheyarebornthatway.LikeMichellePfeiffer’sex-marineinDangerousMinds,EdwardJamesOlmos’sJaimeEscalanteinStandandDeliver,andRobinWilliams’s“carpediem”–intoningwhistlerinDeadPoetsSociety,legendaryteacherstransformthugsintoscholars,illiteratesintogeniuses,andslackersintobardsthroughbrutecharisma.Teachingistheircalling—notamatterofcraftandtraining,butalchemicalinspiration.Badteachers,conversely,areportrayedasdeliberatelysadistic(aswiththe

SueSylvestercharacteronGlee),congenitallyboring(BenStein’snasaldronerinFerrisBueller’sDayOff),orludicrouslydim-witted(Mr.GarrisonfromSouthPark).Thesearethetropesofacommonnarrative,astoryI’vecometocallthe“MythoftheNatural-BornTeacher.”Evenintherarecaseswherefictionalteachersappeartoimprove—ashappens

inGoodbye,Mr.Chips,thenovel-turned-film,inwhichablandschoolteachernamedMr.Chipscomesto“sparkle”—thechangeisanuglyduckling–styleunmaskingofhiddenpizzazzratherthantheacquisitionofnewskill.OthersthinkMr.Chipshasbecomea“newman,”butinfact,wearetold,hehasonlypeeledbacka“creepingdryrotofpedagogy”torevealthe“senseofhumor”that

“hehadalwayshad.”Theideaofthenatural-bornteacherisembeddedinthousandsofstudies

conductedoverdozensofyears.Againandagain,researchershavesoughttoexplaingreatteachingthroughpersonalityandcharactertraits.Themosteffectiveteachers,researchershaveguessed,mustbemoreextroverted,agreeable,conscientious,opentonewexperiences,empathetic,sociallyadjusted,emotionallysensitive,persevering,humorous,oralloftheabove.Fordecades,though,thesestudieshaveprovedinconclusive.Greatteacherscanbeextrovertsorintroverts,humorousorserious,flexibleorrigid.Eventhosechargedwithtrainingteachers—theoneswho,bydefinition,

shouldbelieveteachingcanbetaught—believethenatural-born-teachernarrative.“Ithinkthatthereisaninnatedriveorinnateabilityforteaching,”thedeanoftheCollegeofEducationatChicagoStateUniversity,SylviaGist,toldmewhenImetwithherin2009.Theconsensusseemstobe,youeitherhaveitoryoudon’t.BeforeImetMagdaleneLampert,Iascribedtothisviewaswell.Myteacher

friendsseemedbornfortheblackboard.Icouldseeitintheirpersonalitiesandinhowmuchtheycared—one’searnest,unabashedsensitivity;another’sconfident,playfuldevotion.Gregarious,charming,andtheatrical,theycommandedattentionwherevertheywent.Nowondertheydecidedtoteach,whileI—shamefullyserious,allergictogoofiness,pronetoskepticism—becameajournalist.Theyhadthemagicalqualityof“teacherness”—whatJaneHannaway,thedirectoroftheNationalCenterforAnalysisofLongitudinalDatainEducationResearchandaformerteacher,describedtomeas“voodoo.”WhenIfirstmetMagdalene,hertalentwasobvious,anditdid,atfirst,look

likevoodoo.Itwasthewinterof2009,twentyyearsaftershetaughtfifth-grademathtoCatherineandRichard,andshewasnowaprofessorattheUniversityofMichigan’sSchoolofEducation.Wesatinhersun-soakedoffice,atthefarendofalongtable,lookingattheworkofafifth-gradernamedBrandon.Inthecourseofsolvingaproblemaboutthepriceofpartyribbons,Brandon

hadmistakenlydeclaredthat =1.5.What,Magdaleneaskedme,couldhavemadehimthinkthat?ThiswasprobablythefirsttimeMagdalenereadmymind,whichiswhatshe

doesafteraskingaquestion.Shelowershereyelidsslightly,pursesherlips,andpeersintoyoursoul.IhadnoideahowBrandoncouldhavecomeupwith1.5,andsheknewit.Butinsteadofgivingmetheanswer,shewantedmetothinkaboutwhatmight

makesense(justas,backin1989,shehadwantedRichardtothinkabouthisanswer,18).Shedrewalong-divisionsign,that“house”thatIrememberedfromfifthgrade.Sheplacedthenumbersinthewrongspots:12underthehouseand7outsideofit,totheleft,asifwewereaskinghowmanytimes7wentinto12ratherthanhowmanytimes12wentinto7.Putting7into12,astudentwouldfindthatitwentinonce,witharemainderof5(12–7).“1R5,”hewouldhavewritten,inthelanguageoffifthgrade.WhenwelookedatBrandon’spaper,thatisexactlywhatwesaw:ahouse

over12,with7ontheoutside,andthen“1r5”writtennexttoitingreenmarker.Brandon,Magdaleneexplained,musthavemistakenlytranslatedhis“1r5”into1.5.(Theanswerisactually1and .)Itseemedlikeamagictrick—howquicklyMagdalenemovedfromnoticinga

problemtodiagnosingitssource.Insteadofjustlookingatthefinalwronganswer,shehadtranslatedBrandon’snotes—almostnonsensicaltome—intoalogical(ifflawed)path,skippedbackwardthroughhisthinking,andlocatedtheoriginalpointofmisfire.Ittookhernomorethanaminute.AndwhataboutalltheothererrorsBrandoncouldhavemadeashestruggled

tofindthepriceofthoseribbons?Whataboutthemistakesscatteredthroughhisclassmates’papers,nottomentionalltheonesthatweren’tthere,butcouldhavebeen?This,afterall,wasjusttheworkofoneclass,takenfromonedayoutoftheyear,inonegradeandonesubject,byonestudent.Iwatched,captivated,asMagdaleneworkedthroughmorepapers,readingbackwardthroughthemindsofthechildren,eachpronetohisownuniquemistakes.ButthemoreIlearnedaboutMagdaleneandherteaching,themoreIsawthat

whatlookedlikemindreadingwasinfacttheresultofextraordinaryskill,notinborntalent.Hersuccessdidnotdependonherpersonality,which—inward,pensive,andmeasured—wasinmanywaystheoppositeofHollywood’smythicteachers.Instead,Magdalene’ssuccessreliedonabodyofknowledgeandskillthatshehadspentyearsacquiring.Teaching,asshepracticedit,wasacomplexcraft.Magdaleneshowedmethattheillusionofthenatural-bornteacherisatbesta

politeversionoftheoldadageattributedtoGeorgeBernardShaw:“Hewhocan,does.Hewhocannot,teaches.”Byimaginingteachingasa“voodoo”mixtureofpersonalcharismaandpassion,wearesaying,essentially,Hewhohasintelligence,does.Hewhohascharm,teaches.Ihavecometothinkthatthisisadangerousnotion.Bymisunderstandinghowteachingworks,wemisunderstandwhatitwilltaketomakeitbetter—ensuringthat,fartoooften,teachingdoesn’t

workatall.

“Aha!”MagdaleneLampert’sdecisionnottocorrectRichardhadpaidoff—partly,anyway.Hisnonsensicalanswer,thatthecartravelingataspeedof55milesperhour

wouldgo18milesin15minutes,remainedontheboard.ButafterMagdaleneaskedtheclasswhetheranyoneagreedwithhisanswer,enduringanuncomfortablepausewhennobodysaidanything,Richardfinallybrokethesilence.“CanIchangemymind?”heaskedher.Insteadof18,hewantedto“put

thirteenandahalforthirteenpointfive.”Better!Thecalculationheshouldhavemadeisthat,since55miles

correspondsto60minutes,andhalfof55miles,27.5,correspondsto30minutes,thenaquarterof60minuteswouldbehalfagain:13.75.Hewasclose.ButMagdalenestilldidn’tunderstandwhyhe’dfirstsaid18.Sheneededto

knowexactlywhathadgonewronginsidehishead.PointingtotheplaceonthechalkboardwhereRichardhadoriginallywritten“18,”sheaskedhimwhyhe’dchangedhismind.Hewasbackinhisseat.“Because,”hesaid,“eighteenpluseighteenisn’t

twenty-seven.”“Aha!”shesaid,permittingherselfaminorcelebration.Hehadit—atleast,mostofit.Keepingherhandontheboardsothatit

covereduptheoldwronganswer,18,MagdalenepivotedsothatherbodyfacedRichardandtherestoftheclass.Shewantedeveryonetohearwhatshehadtosay.Richardhadgonefromstumblingtocomingupwiththebeginningsofaproof—amathematicalargumentforwhy18couldn’tbetheanswer—andshewantedtodraweveryoneelse’sattentiontohiswork.Thisiswhattheboardshowed:

Whatevergoesinthisspot,shesaid,hastobeanumberthat,whendoubled,comescloseto27.Inthebackoftheroom,studentsstartedmurmuring.“Notclose!”oneshouted

out.Anotherstudentthrewuphishand.Magdalenetooknotebutdidnotmakeamovejustyet.Shethoughtabout27.

Theboard,ofcourse,saidthecorrectnumberofmilesthatishalfof55—27.5,not27.Ifhehadbeenshootingforprecision,Richardwouldhavetriedtofindanumberthat,whendoubled,equaled27.5,not27.Butiftheyweretalkingaboutarealcar,makingarealtrip,woulditmatterifhecalculatedadistanceof13.5miles,ratherthan13.75?Itmight,anditalsomightnot.Still,learningtomakeapproximationswasanimportantskill,andMagdalenewashappywithRichard’sperformance.Hewasestimating—proving,even—thinkingmathematically.ShedidnotwanttomakeRichardthinkhe’dmadeamistake,butshealso

wantedtohelphimandtherestoftheclassreachtheexactanswer.Afterall,ifshehadn’twantedthestudentstodealwiththetrickymatterofhavingtodivide27.5intotwopieces,shecouldhavepickedarounderspeed,like60milesanhour.Thenthemathwouldhavebeenniceandclean.Butoneofherobjectivesfortheyearwastohavestudentslearntoconvertbetweendecimalsandfractions,andtodivideeachofthemintheirheads.Shehadpicked55becauseshewantedtheclasstostrugglewithexactlythisproblem,inexactlythisway.HowtoacknowledgeRichard’sgoodworkbutalso,atthesametime,correct

it?Shesurveyedthegrowingfieldofraisedhands.Anthony,asmallboywhomMagdaleneknewlovedtotalk,waswavinghishandintheair.Awad,aquietboywithneat,curlicuehandwriting,hadhishanduptoo.Whowouldkeepupherambiguoustone:acceptingRichard’sanswer,butexpandingonit?Shechose

Awad.

Paradoxically,theinstitutionmostsusceptibletothefallacyofthenatural-bornteacherisourcountry’spublicschoolsystem.Andthat’sdespitethefactthatalarm—alwayshigh—overthedisappointinglevelofournationalteachingqualityhasrecentlyreachedafeverpitch.“Fromthemomentourchildrenstepintoaclassroom,”BarackObamasaidin

2007,“thesinglemostimportantfactordeterminingtheirachievementisnotthecoloroftheirskinorwheretheycomefrom;it’snotwhotheirparentsareorhowmuchmoneytheyhave.It’swhotheirteacheris.”Obamawasthenapresidentialcandidate;inoffice,hispositiononlystrengthened.Today,thankstopoliciesthathisadministrationhasadvanced,schooldistrictsacrossthecountryareundergoingambitiouseffortstoreinvigoratetheirteachingforce.Thedebateaboutthesereformsisfierce;manypeople,includingmanyteachers,opposeObama’sefforts.Buttheirobjectionisnotusuallywithhispremise.Theyagreethatteachersmatterandthatthequalityoftheirworkshouldbeimproved.Whattheydisputeishowtoenactthechange.Oneargument—Obama’s—prescribesimprovementbywayofaccountability.

TheproblemwithAmericaneducation,thislineofthinkinggoes,isthatwehavefortoolongtreatedallteachersthesame:theygetthesamepayraises,thesameevaluations,andthesamejobprotectionswhethertheyinspiretheirstudentslikeRobinWilliamsorstultifythemlikeBenStein.Butthefactisthatsometeachersaregoodandsomearebad.Somehelpchildrenlearnwhileotherssetthemback.“Theyhave300,000teachersinCalifornia,”Obamaexplainedinaspeechin

2009.“Thetop10percentare30,000ofthebestthatareoutthere.Thebottom10percentare30,000oftheworstoutthere.Theproblemis,wehavenowaytotellwhichiswhich.”This,hewenton,“iswheredatacomesin.”Bymeasuringwhichteachersaresuccessfulandwhicharen’t,wecanrewardthephenomsanddiscardtheduds,therebyimprovingtheoverallqualityoftheteachingforce.FollowingObama’sprescription,revampedteacherevaluationsystemsarenowbeingrolledoutacrossthecountry,alongwithrewardsandpunishmentsthatwillaffectteachers’careers.Theotherargument—callittheautonomythesis—prescribesexactlythe

opposite.Whereaccountabilityproponentscallforextensivestudenttestingandfrequenton-the-jobevaluations,autonomysupporterssaythatteachersareprofessionalsandshouldbetreatedaccordingly.Likelawyersordoctors,they

willimproveonlyiftheyaregiventhetrust,respect,andfreedomtheyneedtodotheirjobswell.Lately,proponentsofthisargumenthavebeendrawingcomparisonstoFinland.There,arecentreportbytheChicagoTeachersUniondescribed,“teachingisarespected,topcareerchoice;teachershaveautonomyintheirclassrooms,workcollectivelytodeveloptheschoolcurriculum,andparticipateinsharedgovernanceoftheschool.”InFinland,thereportconcludes,teachers“arenotrated;theyaretrusted.”Asdescriptions,botharguments—accountabilityandautonomy—containa

measureoftruth.Teachersdolacksomeofthefreedomtheyneedtoteachwell,andtheyalsolackadequatefeedback.Butasprescriptions,actualsuggestionsforhowtoimproveteaching,theargumentsfail.Neitherchange,onitsown,willproducebetterteachers.Basicmathmakestheproblemwithaccountabilityclear:Discardthebottom10percentand,asObamasaid,that’sthirtythousandteacherswhowillneedtobereplaced.Andthat’sjustinCalifornia.Nationally,thenumberismorethantentimesthat.Autonomy,meanwhile,isanexperimentthatmanyschoolshavetriedforyears,andstillseenteachersstruggle.Neitheraccountabilitynorautonomyisenough,inotherwords,becauseboth

argumentssubscribetothemythofthenatural-bornteacher.Inbothcases,theassumptionisthatgoodteachersknowwhattodotohelptheirstudentslearn.Thesegoodteachersshouldeitherbeallowedtodotheirjobsorbeheldaccountablefornotdoingthem,andtheywillperformbetter.Botharguments,finally,restonafeeblebet:thattheaverageteacherwillfigureouthowtobecomeanexpertteacher—alone.Thisbetisespeciallyaudacious,consideringthelargenumberofpeople

involved.MorepeopleteachinthiscountrythanworkatMcDonald’s,Wal-Mart,andtheU.S.PostOfficecombined.InNewYorkCity,whereIlive,acorpsofteachersseventy-fivethousandstrongmakesupaworkforceroughlythesamesizeasApple’sglobalemployeebase.AsAmyMcIntosh,theformerchieftalentofficerofNewYorkCity’sDepartmentofEducation,pointedout,inallthefiveboroughsthereisnobuildingwhereallseventy-fivethousandteacherscouldgatheratasingletime.NotevenYankeeStadium(capacity50,287).Ofthefieldstowhichteachingiscommonlycompared—thosethatrequirea

collegedegreeandareconsideredofreasonablyhighsocialvalue—nonecomeclosetomatchingthenumberofemployeesthatteachinghas.ConsiderabargraphdisplayingthenumberofAmericansindifferentprofessions.Theshortestbarrepresentsarchitects:180,000.Fartherover,slightlyhigher,come

psychologists(185,000)andthenlawyers(952,000),followedbyengineers(1.3million)andwaiters(1.8million).Atthetopstandthebigthree:janitors,maids,andhouseholdcleaners(3.3million);secretaries(3.6million);and,finally,teachers(3.7million).Anongoingswellofbabyboomerretirementsisexpectedtoforceschoolsystemstohiremorethanthreemillionnewteachersbetween2014and2020.Asthedepartingteacherswavegoodbyetotheirstudents,theywilltakealltheirexperienceandskilloutthedoorwiththem.Thesenewhireswillhavetoreplacethem.OneDecembernightin2009,Iwatchedashundredsofthepeoplehopingto

becometeacherspackedanauditoriumatChicago’sCulturalCenter,homeoftheworld’slargeststained-glassTiffanydome,tohearfromthecityschoolsystem’sdirectorofrecruitment.Therewerenoseatsavailable,andtheseaofhumanitywasasdiverseasitwasvast.Therewasacross-eyedwomanwithwhitehairandadisheveledlook.Therewasadreadlockedrecentcollegegraduatewithhairdanglingbelowhisbelt.Thereweremanydozensofyoungmidwesternladieswiththeirmothers,takingcarefulnotes.TherewasasmallwomaninaChristmassweaterwithornamentssewnintoquadrants,includingaVelcronameplatestuckonherleftbreast:RACHEL.Butevenifeveryoneintheauditoriumhadsigneduptoteach—themothers

alongwiththeirdaughters—thecrowdstillwouldnothavefilledalltheavailableteachingslots.Eachyear,thecityofChicagohirestwothousandnewteachers.Thatyear,theeconomicdownturnhadloweredthenumberbelowitsaverage.Butthedistrictstillneededsixhundrednewteachers.Nationwide,nearlyfourhundredthousandnewteachersstartworkatpublicandprivateschoolseveryyear.Whenallthesepeopletaketheirplaceinfrontofclassroomsacrossthe

country—fromtheovercrowdedtrailersinQueens,NewYork,tothehumid,ranch-stylespacesservingAlabamaNativeAmericanreservations,tothebreezy,open-airclassroomsofCerritos,California—whatwilltheydo?Whatshouldtheydo?Andhowcanwemakesureallofthemdothebestpossiblejob?Thecoldtruthisthataccountabilityandautonomy,thetwodominant

philosophiesforteacherimprovement,haveleftuswithnorealplan.Autonomyletsteacherssucceedorfailontheirownterms,withlittleguidance.Accountabilitytellsthemonlywhethertheyhavesucceeded,notwhattodotoimprove.Insteadofhelping,bothprescriptionspreservealong-standingcultureofabandonment.StevenFarrofTeachForAmericadescribedthisculturebytellingmeaboutthefirsttimehisassignedmentorcametoobservehisclass.The

mentorwasjustdoingherjob,butwhenshewalkedin,sheapologized,asifforsomevoyeuristicintrusion.Teaching,shetoldhim,is“thesecond-mostprivateact.”She’drathernotbecaughtwatchingsomeoneelsedoit.ThesociologistDanLortie,inhisclassicworkSchoolteacher,describesthe

teachingprofessioninthelanguageofVictorian-erasex:aprivate“ordeal.”Lortietracesthefundamentallonelinesstothedaysoftheone-roomschoolhouse,whenteachersworkedinisolationbecausetheotheradults(andsomeofthechildren)werebusyfarming.Thesedays,therearemorepersonnelandmorestudentsassociatedwitheachclassroom,buteachteacherstillfacesaroomfullofpupilsalone.Whatdoteachersdo?Theydowhatanyofuswoulddo.Theymakeitup.

ThatdayinNovember,MagdaleneLampert’sgambletocallonAwad—carefullycalculated,inhercase—paidoff.Awadplayedexactlytheroleshehadhoped,correctingRichard’simprecisionabout13.5withouttramplingoverhisaccomplishmentingettingthere.“Ummm,”Awadhadsaidwithhistypicaldeliberation.“Ithinkit’sthirteen

pointseventy-five.”Richardkepthiscomposure,andintheminutesthatfollowed,Magdaleneuntangledaseriesofteachingproblems.ShecalledonAnthony,whohadbeenwavinghishandintheair,butdidn’tlethimgoontoolongandevendistilledaclear,conciseideafromhisconfusing,ifenthusiastic,speech.Shethengavethefloortoagirl,Ellie,balancingthegenderofspeakersand

therebyminimizingtheideathatonlyboyscandomath,whichpavedthewayforanastonishingperformancebyanothergirl,Yasu,whoconstructedasophisticatedlogicalproofthatrecalledRichard’soriginalinsightabouttherelationshipbetweendoublingandhalving.Allthishadhappenedinjustafewminutes.Butnow,itwasbeyondtimeforclasstoend.Theteacherwhowastotakeovertheroomaftermathendedstoodatthebackoftheclassroom,givingMagdalenealook.“YouknowwhatIthink?”shesaidtotheclass,noddingattheteacherinthe

back.“Ithinkthatwearegoingtoschedulealittletimeonremaindersanddivision.’CauseIthinkwearegettingalittlemix—Wearemixingupalotofideashereandwedon’thavetimetogointothem.”Shepausedagain.Shewantedtogiveanyonewhomightbedeeplyconfused

onelastchancetoaskaquestion.Thestudentssatbeforeher,theirmath

notebooksstillopeninfrontofthem:Richardinthefront,Awadintheback,Catherinetoherright.Allofthemwouldbetheretomorrowtoo,andthenextdayandthenextandthenext,untilsummer.“Okay?”Magdaleneasked,turningthestatementintoaslightquestion—a

doorjustonitswaytobeingclosed.Noonesaidanything.Okay.

Bothsidesofthe“teacherquality”debatetendtodepictthechallengeasatransferproblem—howtohelpunsuccessful,oftenlow-incomestudents(liketheonesIcoverasareporterinNewYorkCity)toaccesstheexperiencesenjoyedbytheirmoreaffluentpeers(liketheonesIhadattendingpublicschoolinthemanicuredWashington,DC,suburbofMontgomeryCounty,Maryland).Theaccountabilityargumentholdsthatsuburbanschoolshavethebest

teachersbecause,withrichcoffersandnewer,prettierbuildings,theyareabletoluretoptalent.Torebalancethisunequaldistribution,Obamahassupportedmeasurestotempthigh-qualityteachersbacktoschooldistrictsservingpoorerpopulations.Proponentsoftheautonomyargument,meanwhile,contendthatteachersworkingwiththepoorhaveparadoxicallyreceivedtheleastfreedomandthemostrestrictiveworkingenvironments.Maketheirschoolslookmorelikethoseenjoyedbythechildrenofthewealthy,andtheywillbeabletoprosper.Again,neitherdescriptioniswrong,butasprescriptions,bothareincomplete.

Teachersataffluentpublicschoolsdoenjoy,onaverage,betterworkingconditionsandmoreflexibility.Buttheyarealsovictimsofthenatural-born-teacherhypothesis.Indeed,themoreIlearnedaboutsuccessfulteaching,themoreIrealizedhowrareitis,evenintheschoolswiththemostresources.Notlongago,exploringtheclosetofmychildhoodbedroominMaryland,I

discoveredapink,cardboardfilingcabinetthatheldmyelementaryschoolpapers.InthebestclassroomsIvisitedasareporter,childrenwerereadingandwritingbykindergarten.Mypinkfilingcabinetdidnothaveakindergartenfile.WhatwouldIhaveputinit?Thatyear,Ididnotknowhowtoread.Thefirst-gradepapers,meanwhile,borelittleresemblancetothecarefulwork

Isawinclassroomsrunbyexcellentreadingteachers.Thefilecontainedwordscopiedfromworksheetsandnotmuchoriginalwriting.ByJanuary,Ihadreachedmypeaklevelfortheyear:Iwasabletofillacollectionofconstructionpapersheets,stapledtogetherandlabeled—inanadult’shandwriting—“Writing

Journal,”withlifelessone-sentenceentries:

Waterisfun.Iha tcoldweather.Iliketoe s.IlikeSarah.Ilikesissors.Itwasfunattheshow.Ihaetwork.Itistoeyse.

NowonderIdidn’treaduntilfirstgrade.Theworkwastooeasy,andasaresultIdidn’tlearn.Evenlater,inthespecial“gifted”programsIattendedfromfourthgradeon,

howmuchhadmyteachersreallytaughtme?Somechangedmylifeforever,helpingmefallinlovewithjournalism,calculus,andevenquantumphysics.Butwhatabouttheothers?Besidesthatflukephysicsyear,mymemoriesfromscienceclassesweremainlyoflethargicfruitflies.AndonlyinmylastyearofhighschooldidIfigureoutthathistoryhadtodowithevidenceandarguments,aswellasmemorizingstatecapitalsandthedatesofirrelevantwars.Iattendedsomeofthefanciestpublicschoolsinthecountry(myschool

district,inMontgomeryCounty,Maryland,hasanaveragehouseholdincomeinthecountry’stopten),yettheteachingIreceivedwasjustasinconsistentasattheschoolsIlatervisitedinNewark,NewJersey,theBronx,andSanFrancisco.Yet,whileIhavecometoseethatthescopeofAmerica’seducationchallenge

ismuchlargerthanIeverimagined,Ihavealsobeguntoseeapaththroughwhichthechallengemightbetackled.ForeverycaseIhavefoundofthenatural-born-teacherfallacyhamperingprogress—andIhavefoundalot,stretchingfarintothepast—Ihavefoundanothercaseofapersonwhothoughtdifferently.TakeColonelFrancisParker.Bornin1837inNewHampshire,thesonand

grandsonofteachers,Parkerbelievedthatteachingwellrequiredintensestudy.Teachingwas,hesaid,“thegreatestartinalltheworld”;learningtodoitwellcouldtakealifetime.Butitdidn’ttakeParkerlongtolearnthatthiswasanunpopularview.AfterservinghonorablyintheCivilWar,hewasofferedseveralprestigiousjobsthatwouldtakehimawayfromtheclassroom.“WhenIsaidthatIwasgoingtobeaschoolteacher[instead]”—duringthewar,hehadspentnightsbeforethecampfire,planningfuturelessonsinhishead,andhedidnotintendtogivethemup—“myfriendswereverymuchdisgustedwithme.”Even

anotherteachercalledhimafool.Hisfellowteachers,Parkerwasfinding,mirroredthegeneralpublic.Manyof

themdidn’tthinkabouttheirworkasacrafttheyneededtostudy.Later,whenParkertookoverastrugglingschoolforteachersinChicago,mostofthecity(includingsometeachers)wonderedwhethertheschoolshouldexistatall.“Thefactofthematteris,theconvictionthatyoungmenandwomenshouldbetrainedfortheirworkinordertoteachlittlechildrenexistedonlyhereandthere,”oneofhiscolleaguessaid.“Thegeneralpublicwasagainstit.”Parkerdiedbeforeseeinghisdreamofresuscitatingtheschoolandits

reputationfullyrealized.Hewas,saidtherabbiEmilG.Hirschinhiseulogy,“anotherMoses,”destinedtobeholdhispromisedlandonlyfromafar.ThesamefatebefellParker’ssuccessorattheUniversityofChicago,thephilosopherJohnDewey.ExpandingonParker’svision,Deweyhadwritteneloquentlyaboutthe“scienceofeducation”hehopedtodevelop—howitwouldhelppreventtheimmeasurable“waste”thatcomesfromlettinggreatteachers’secretsliveanddiewiththem.“Theonlywaybywhichwecanpreventsuchwasteinthefuture,”hewrote,“isbymethodswhichenableustomakeananalysisofwhatthegiftedteacherdoesintuitively,sothatsomethingaccruingfromhisworkcanbecommunicatedtoothers.”Thesciencewasn’ttobe—atleast,notyet.Forhalfacenturyafterhemadeit,Dewey’sprescriptionlayinhibernation,thevictimofthesameforcesthatParkerhadpressedagainst.ButthoughParkerandDeweybothdiedbeforeseeing“educational

Palestine,”asEmilHirschcalledit,theirvisiondidnot.Today,thenatural-born-teacherillusionliveson,butthankstoMagdaleneLampertandagrowinggroupofeducatorslikeher,sodoesParkerandDewey’sdream.TheeducatorsincludesomepeoplelikeMagdalene,longtimeteacherswho

laterbecameauniquebreedofresearcher,studyingtheirowncraftwhiletheyworkedtopassitontoothers.Theyinclude,aswell,peoplewhoechoedMagdalene’sconclusionswithoutevermeetingher—sometimesdeliberately(ashappenedinthe1980s,onanislandsixthousandmilesawayfromherfifth-gradeclassroom),othertimesnot(asinthecaseofthemovementofentrepreneurialeducatorsthatemergedadecadelater).Together,theseeducatorsstillconstituteaminority.Butforavarietyofreasons,theirchancesofbuildingFrancisParker’seducationalPalestinearebetterthananyothertimeinhistory.Thisbookistheirstory.Itisalsothestoryofteaching,thathilariousand

heartbreakingtheaterthatunfoldsbetweenchildrenandteacherseveryday.Theworkthat,whendonewell,withtrainedskill,caninduceinastudentanear-

magicalfeeling:thetremblingsensationofbeholdinganewideawherenothingexistedbefore.Itbeginswithoneofthefirstpioneers—ashy,industriousmannamedNathanielGage.

1

FOUNDINGFATHERS

By1948,whenhelandedhisfirstacademicjobattheUniversityofIllinois,NateGagehadalreadyhelpedthearmyselectandtrainradarobserversduringWorldWarII;workedwiththeCollegeBoardtodevelopanewtool—theScholasticAptitudeTest;andcoauthoredadefinitivetextbook:APracticalIntroductiontoEvaluationandMeasurement.ThesecondsonofJewishimmigrantsfromPoland,he’dmadehiswayfromhangingwallpaperwithhisfathertothetopofhischosenfield,educationalpsychology.AtIllinois,hejoinedtheprestigiousnewBureauofEducationalResearch.ButthebreakthroughthatbecameNate’smostimportantfindinghappenedintheclassroom.Natewasserious,butalsopassionateandsweet.Atconferences,hewould

transfixhiscolleagueswithbarroomstorytellinglateintothenight.Andyet,intheclassroom,thatchemistrysomehowfailedtomaterialize.Hesimplycouldnotkeepthestudents’attention.Itwasnotunusualforoneormoreofthemtofallasleepinthemiddleofhislectures.“Hejustdidn’thavethatcertainsomething,”saysoneofhisstudents,DavidBerliner.Forallhissuccess—themultiplepublicationsinprestigiousjournals;theglitteringtitle,professorofeducation—thedataallpointedtoonedisturbingconclusion:Natewasaterribleteacher.Distraught,Nateturnedtotheacademicliterature.Surelysomeofhis

colleaguesineducationalpsychologyhadcrackedthemysteriesofteaching.Thatwaswhenhemadehisseconddiscovery:theresearchonteachingdidn’texist.Atleast,thefindingsdidn’t.Insteadofconclusions,researchershaddevelopedabundleofidiosyncratichypotheses,focusedmostlyonteachers’personalitytraits.Weregoodteacherswarmer?moreenthusiastic?moreorganized?moreinterestedintheirsubject?Maybebetterteachershadsimilardegreesofbohemianism,emotionalsensitivity,andsociability.Perhapssubpar

teachersdisplayedradicalism,oreven“worryingsuspiciousness.”Otherstudiescasttheirsearchesevenmorebroadly,investigatingtraitsfromageandexperiencetoeyecolor,clothingstyle,andstrengthofgrip.Noneofthestudiesfoundanythingconclusive.Aresearcherwouldpublisha

discovery,onlytohaveanotherproduceexactlyoppositefindings.Thefewconclusionsthatcouldbesqueezedoutoftheresearchtendedtobevagueandunhelpful.Onesetofstudiessuggestedthatgoodteachersshouldbe“friendly,cheerful,sympathetic,andmorallyvirtuousratherthancruel,depressed,unsympathetic,andmorallydepraved.”Anotherstudyconcludedthatthebestteachershadacharacteristiccalled,unhelpfully,“teachingskill.”Summarizingtheresearchin1953,Natewrote:

Thesimplefactofthematteristhat,after40yearsofresearchonteachereffectivenessduringwhichavastnumberofstudieshavebeencarriedout,onecanpointtofewoutcomesthatasuperintendentofschoolscansafelyemployinhiringateacherorgrantinghimtenure,thatanagencycanemployincertifyingteachers,orthatateacher-educationfacultycanemployinplanningorimprovingteacher-educationprograms.

Theironywasbruising.Thecountry,atthatpoint,haddozensofuniversityprogramsdevotedtorecruiting,training,andvouchingforAmerica’sfutureteachers—educationschools,theywerecalled.Yetsomehowallthoseedschools’professorshadmanagedtolearnnothingaboutteaching.Andthatwastheprofessorswhopaidthetopicanyattentionatall.Themostprestigiousamongthem—theeliteeducationresearcherslikeNate—ignoredteachingaltogether.Youcouldn’thelpbutwonder.Howhadthishappened?Howhadanentire

fieldcometoneglecttheworkatitsheart?

Oneanswerwasthattheydiditonpurpose.Thetraditionbeganwiththefirsteducationprofessors,whotaughttheneweducationcourseswithundisguisedreluctance.“Educationalpsychology?”thephilosopherWilliamJameswassaidtohavequipped.“Ithinkthereareaboutsixweeksofit.”Jamesbecamethe

grandfatherofthediscipline.Hisstudent,EdwardThorndike,anotherfoundationalfigure,enteredthefieldonlybecausehehadto.Afterhefinishedgraduateschoolinpsychologyin1898,thebestjobofferhecouldfindwasnotinpsychologybutinpedagogy,attheWomen’sCollegeatWesternReserveUniversityinCleveland.“Thebaneofmylifeisthepracticeschooltheystuckmewith,”hewroteina

lettertoafriendsoonafterstartingthejob.Later,whenhemovedtoColumbiaUniversity’sTeachersCollege,hespenthisfirstyearvisitingschools,buthequicklyabandonedthemission,callingthetripsa“bore.”Whenaskedwhathewoulddoiffacedwithacertainsuperintendent’sreal-worlddilemma,hescoffed.“Do?Why,I’dresign!”Insteadofaddressingeducationalproblems,Thorndiketookpsychological

onesandgraftedthemontoschools.Heappliedtohumanstudentsthegenerallawsoflearningthathederivedfromhisexperimentswithmonkeys,dogs,andcats(“Neverwillyougetabetterpsychologicalsubjectthanahungrycat,”hewrote).Meanwhile,heaidedtheproliferationofnewmeasurementtechniques,assessingeverythingfromintelligencetomemory.Buthedidnotstudyteachers.EvenJohnDewey,whoadvocateda“scienceofeducation,”woundup

retreatingtohisoriginaldiscipline,philosophy.Allaroundhim,educationalresearchershadfollowedThorndikeandabandonedthestudyofrealschools.Discouraged,Deweysethisworkineducationaside.NateGage,too,neverintendedtostudyeducation.Whathereallywantedto

bewasapsychologist.ButaftergraduatingfromtheUniversityofMinnesotamagnacumlaude,astarstudentoftheyoungB.F.Skinner,hewasrejectedbyalltengraduateprogramsheappliedto.“Fromtheuniversities’pointofviewitwouldbepointlesstotakehimintoagraduateprogrammeinpsychologyandwasteresourcestraininghim,sincehewasJewish,”explainedMinnesota’sdeanofpsychology,RichardElliott.Graduateprogramswerejudgedbytheirsuccessatplacingprofessors,anduniversitiesdidnothireJews.Theonlyprogramthatmadehimanofferwasonehehadnotappliedto—anewprogramineducationalpsychologyatPurdue,wheretheyoungdirectorrecruitedhisstudentsbyscouringpsychdepartments’rejectlists.Anotherreasonearlyeducationprofessorsignoredteachingwasthatthey

foundituninteresting.Learningtoteachcompositiondidnotrequireamethod,butrathera“clearhead,anenduringconscience,anelasticenthusiasm,anduncommoncommonsense,”theEnglishprofessorLeBaronRussellBriggsinsisted.“ThereisnosuchthingasascienceofPedagogy,”JosiahRoycewrote

intheleadarticleoftheinauguralissueofthejournalEducationalReview,publishedin1891.“Asfora‘philosophyofeducation’inanyothersense,”Royceadded,“thelorddeliverustherefrom.”Yetthesubjecthadtobeoffered;simpleeconomicsdemandedit.In1890,

totalenrollmentinUSelementaryandsecondaryschoolsstoodatjustunderthirteenmillion.By1920,thenumberwasmorethantwentymillion.Inthesameperiod,theranksofschoolteachersgrewbynearlyfourhundredthousand.Anothertwenty-onethousandpeopleservedasadministrators.BythetimeNatearrivedattheUniversityofIllinois,in1948,thenumberofteachersalonewasnearingonemillion.Forauniversity,thecalculationwasclear:trainingteachersmadefinancialsensewhethertherewassomethingtoteachthemornot.

Thegrimhistorymighthaveledanothermantosurrender.IfWilliamJameshadn’tbeenabletodevelopascienceofteaching,whatcouldhonestlybeexpectedofNateGagefromNewJersey?Anyway,asThorndikehadproved,itwasperfectlypossibletomakearespectablecareerineducationresearchwithouttouchingtheteachingproblematall.Butwhereothersmighthaveseenadeadend,Natesawpossibility.Afterall,inscience,themostimportantdiscoverieswerebornnotfromanswers,butfrompuzzles.And,studyingtheearlyworkonteaching,hehadglimpsedacommonand,hesuspected,fatalflaw.Noneofthetraitsthefirstresearchersinvestigated—eyecolor?strengthof

grip?—hadcomefromtheclassroom.Theyhadlookedintohundredsofvariablesbutignored“theprimarydataoftheteachingprocess.”Thatchoice,too,beliedthepatternofscience’sgreatestdiscoveries.JohannesKepler,DmitriMendeleev,GregorMendel—allbeganbyscrutinizingphenomenacloseupandonlythencameupwiththeoriestoexplainthem.Like“Keplerinexaminingtheorbitsofplanets,Mendelyeev[sic]inporingoverthepropertiesoftheelements,orMendelinraisinghispeas,”Natedecided,educationresearcherswouldonlyunlockthemysteriesoftheAmericanclassroombyventuringinsideofit.Natesetouttoconstructatruescienceofteaching.Hecalledhismethodthe

“process-product”paradigm.Bycomparingtheprocess(teaching)toitsproduct(learning),researcherscouldconcludewhichteachingactswereeffectiveandwhichwerenot.TheambitionwasnotunlikeJohnDewey’simaginedscienceof“whatthegiftedteacherdoesintuitively.”Theonlydifferencewasthat,whileDeweyfavoredlearningaboutteachinginthemessycauldronofarealschool,Natepreferredformalexperimentation.Asuccessfulprocess-productstudy,in

hisview,neededtoapproximatethenaturalclassroomhabitatwhilealsocontrollingforextraneousvariables.Inoneexperiment,Natefocusedonexplanation,thesliceofteachingthat,in

hisopinion,formed“theessenceofinstruction.”Heandhisgradstudentsrecruitedrealteacherstoteachrealstudents,butundercertainparameters.Onewasthattheteacherscouldspeakandusethechalkboard,buttheycouldnotinvitediscussion,solicitquestions,orevenaskstudentstotakenotes.(“Forsometeachersthisrestrictionmayrequireadifficultdeparturefromtheircustomaryteachingstyle,”theinstructionsread.“Wehopethatyouwillbearwithus.”)Anotherrestrictionwasthecontent;eachlessoncorrespondedtoapreselectedarticlefromtheAtlanticMonthlymagazine.Theresearchersgavestudentsacomprehensiontestattheendofthelessontofindoutwhichteachershadexplaineditbest.Nate’sstudentsvideotapedeachlessonandcataloguedtheteachers’behaviors.

Onegraduatestudent,BarakRosenshine,hadalistoftwenty-sevenqualitiestowatchfor,rangingfromtheaveragelengthofwordsspoken(perhapsbrevitywaskey?)tothefrequencyof“referencetopupils’interests”tothenumberofgestures(“movementofthearms,head,ortrunk”)andpaces(walkingfromoneplacetoanother).Anothergroupwrotecomputerprogramstoanalyzewhattheteachershad

said.Onecomparedthetranscriptsagainsta“vaguenessdictionary”writtenspeciallyfortheoccasion(qualifyingwordsincludedalmost,maybe,generally,andmost).Inonelecturethatscoredashighlyvague,forinstance,ateacherbeganbydescribinganauthor’sname,whichhesaidwas“nottooimportant.”Hewenton:

Iwillputhisnameupontheboardanyway.Itisreallynotveryimportantatall.MIHAJOV[sic]—thatisthewayyoupronouncethatword,UhMihajlovwrotethosearticles.Andsomeone,hehasdonesomethingthatisfinesomeoneverysimilarhaddoneandtherewasanotherauthorwhosename,uh,uh,letusjustrememberthereisanotherauthor.Thatonehasspellingproblemstoo.Twoauthors,twoauthors.OneweknowisMihajlov,theotheronewroteearlierinnineteensixty-two.Bothofthemcomplainedaboutconditions,especiallyinRussia.Andthisonewasinprisonbecausehe

wroteabookaboutconversationswithStalinand,Idonotknowifyouhaveeverheardofthebook...

Thefinalstepcomparedtherecordedteachingbehaviors(process)andstudents’comprehensionscores(products).Asonemightexpect,thestudentsofvaguenessoffendershadsignificantlylowercomprehension.Rosenshine’smethodyieldedotherstrongcorrelations.Ahighnumberofgestures,itturnedout,helpedimprovecomprehension;sodidahighlevelofright-to-leftmovement.TheresearchmightnothavebeenquitewhatDeweyimagined,butitwascertainlyunlikeanythingNateGage’scontemporarieshadseen.Process-productresearchcaughtonquickly.In1957,sharinganelevatorwith

acolleagueattheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation’sannualconference,Natejokedthatiftheelevatorcrashed,thenallofthatyear’sresearchonteachingwouldgodownwithit.Thatyear,heandthecolleagueweretheonlytwogivingpapersonthetopic.Bythespringof1963,Nate’sbookcollectingtheavailableresearchonteachinghadconvertedanewgenerationofresearchersintothefold.OfficiallycalledTheHandbookofResearchonTeaching(andunofficiallyknownas“TheGageHandbook”),thevolumesold30,000copies.Onechapter,outlininghowtodesignexperimentstostudyteaching,generatedsuchdemandthatthepublisher,RandMcNally,releaseditseparatelyinpamphletformin1966.By1974,thepamphlethadsold130,000copies.Perhapsmostimportant,Natebecame,ifnotthemostengagingteacher,

certainlyabelovedone.Graduatestudentsdevotedthemselvestohim,andeventheAmericanFederationofTeachers,aunionrepresentingpractitionersacrossthecountry,caughton.“TheycalledhimtheSageGage,”saysLovelyBillups,aunionofficialatthetime,whoworkedwithNatetoconverthisfindingsintousablelessonsforteachers.Sowhen,in1971,apairofyoungstaffersatthenewNationalInstituteof

Educationwaschargedwithfundingthenextgenerationofresearchonteaching,theywentstraighttoteaching’s“pooh-bah,”accordingtooneofthem,GarryMcDaniels.Soon,Natewastakingaleavefromhisuniversity—bythenhewasatStanford—tohelpthemlaunchthenewroundoffundingwithaconferencesuggestingnewdirectionsforresearch.Therewasjustonetwist.Createdbythecontrariannewpresident,Richard

Nixon,NIEwaschargednotjustwithsupportingexistingresearch,butwithtransformingit.“Myassignment,”saysMcDaniels,“wastochangethefield.”

Wittinglyornot,Natehelpedhimdoit.ThedraftconferenceagendahecirculatedforfeedbackwenttoallhiscolleaguesbackatStanford,includingthemanwhowouldeventuallyinheritNate’s“pooh-bah”crown—ayoungprofessorvisitingfromMichiganStatenamedLeeShulman.

“Garbage,”LeeShulmansaidwhenRichardSnow,anotherStanfordprofessor,askedhimwhathethoughtofGage’sdraft—theonehewascirculatingabouttheconferenceplanningthefutureofresearchonteaching.“Sameoldbullshit.”DickSnowwasaghast.“Why?”“It’snothingbutakindoftestimonytothepast,”Leesaid.“Doesn’tNate

realizethatbehaviorismisonlifesupport?”Itwastrue.Nate’sprocess-productapproachdependedonaschoolof

psychologythatwasfallingincreasinglyoutoffashion.Natewasabehavioristbydefaultandalsobygeneration;B.F.Skinner,hisoldprofessor,hadbeenbehaviorism’sseminalfigure.Thefounderofeducationalpsychology,Thorndike,wasanotherlifelongadherent.Nate’srisecorrelatedwithbehaviorism’smostprominentperiod.Thebehavioristsheldthattheonlyscientificwaytostudyhumanswasto

studytheirdirectlyobservablefeatures—theirbehaviorsandtheactions(“stimuli”)thattriggeredthem.Butthenewgenerationofpsychologistsbegantopointoutthatbyfocusingonstimuliandtheirresponses,behavioristswereignoringthemind.InThorndike’smodel,thehumanmindwasjustanextensionoftheanimal

one.Learningmeantrespondingtorepeatedrewardsorpunishments.Ifrewardedforonebehaviorenoughtimes,thesubjectlearnedtokeepdoingit.Ifpunished,heorshelearnedtostop.Butwhilethispatternmightdescribesomeformsofhumanlearning,critics

arguedthatbehaviorismcouldneverexplainthemall—especiallynotthekindoflearningthatwentbeyondsimpleactions(willIgetfoodwhenIpressmycatpawonthispedal?)tomorecomplicatedconcepts(whenisitusefultocalculateanindefiniteintegral?).Toexplainhowpeoplelearnedhigher-levelconcepts,thecriticsheld,psychologyhadtoreckonwithcognition.Lee,who’dbegunnotasapsychologistbutasaphilosopher,hadneverliked

behaviorism.Itrejectedasunscientificthequestionsthathefoundmostfascinating—questionsaboutthemind.Earlyon,thatopinionwasunpopular.ButbythetimeofLee’syearatStanford,in1973,critics—knownas

“cognitivists”—hadbrokenthebehavioriststrangleholdontheirfield.Thecognitiverevolutionspreadfromoneareaofpsychologytothenext,turningattentionfrombehaviortotheworkingofthemind.Leefiguredtheshiftshouldapplytoresearchonteachingtoo.Thewhole

pointofprocess-productresearch,NateGage’sgreatcontribution,wastostudyteachingbystudyingteachers’behaviors.Butwhatabouttheirminds?“Whydon’tyouwritetoNate?”SnowtoldLee.“Comeon,Natepersonifiesprocess-productresearch!”Leesaid.ButSnowwasinsistent.Natewasaseriousscholar.He’dlisten.“SoIwrote

himatwo-pagememo,”Leesays.“Probablywroteitonatypewriter,Selectrictypewriter,andImade—Ipolitelycritiquedwhathewasdoingandsaid,‘Youdon’tevenhaveonegrouplookingattherelevanceofcognitiveworkforthestudyofteaching,andmyguessisthat’sthefutureofresearchonteaching.’”Leewasmostlyjustriffing.“Imean,Iwasn’treallyinthefieldatthatpoint.I

wasteachingfutureteachers...Butresearchonteachingwasn’tmyarea.”SowhenthephonerangafewdayslaterandNateaskedhimtousethememoasthebasisforleadingoneofthetenpanelsathisconferenceinWashington,Leewasunprepared.Hedidn’tthink.Hejustsaidyes.

LeeShulman’sareaofexpertisewasdoctors.He’dbegunstudyingthemin1968,atMichiganState,asanoutgrowthofanideathatfirststruckhimingraduateschool.Besideseducation,whatLeehadalwaysfoundfascinatingwasthinking.The

technicaltermwasepistemology,theoccupationofthinkingaboutthinking.LikehisidolJohnDewey,Leefocusedonhigherkindsofthoughts,thementaloperationsthattakeplacewhenapersonmovesfromimpressiontoquestiontounderstanding.“Thepedestrian,”wroteDewey,“feelsthecold;hethinksofcloudsandacomingshower.”Thepsychologyofthinkingwasn’tjustfascinating;italsoseemedpainfully

relevanttoeducation.Byunderstandingcomplexthought—theprocessofmakingknowledge—researcherswouldnotjuststudyschools;theywouldhelpimprovethem.AndLeehadanideaforhowtostudythinkinginawaythatcouldmakearealdifference.Otherearlycognitivepsychologistspresentedsubjectswithproblemstosolve,puzzlestoanswer,butLeeknewthat,inreallife,problemsdidn’tcomeprepackaged.“Aproblemwellputishalfsolved,”JohnDeweywrote.“Withoutaproblem,thereisblindgropinginthedark.”To

getatruegrasponhowknowledgewasmade,Leeintendedtostudytheblindgropinginaction.Heonlyhadtofindtherightresearchsubjects—peopleforwhomproblemsolvingwaspartofthenaturalhabitat.TheideaofstudyingdoctorsarrivedafewyearsintoLee’stimeatMichigan

State,whenamanwalkedintohisofficeandintroducedhimselfasthedeanoftheuniversity’snewmedicalschool.“Iunderstandyoustudycomplexproblemsolving,”hesaidtoLee.“Well,”hecontinued,“Ithinkthat’swhatmedicine’sallabout,andwephysiciansdon’tbegintounderstandhowthatreallyworks.Wouldyoubewillingtotake50percentofyourappointmentandjointhemedicalschoolfacultyanddoresearchonmedicalproblemsolving?”Doctors.Ofcourse!“Itwassuchanepiphany,”Leesays.Doctorssolved

problemsallday.Itwastheheartoftheirwork.JosephBell,SirArthurConanDoyle’smedicalschoolprofessorandasurgeonwithlegendarycapacitiesofdeduction,hadinspiredSherlockHolmes,thegreatestprofessionalproblemsolverin(fictional)history.Leesaidyes,anditwasaperfectfit.Observingdoctorsatworkwithhis

colleagueandchildhoodfriendArthurElstein,heoverturnedtheconventionalwisdomaboutmedicalproblemsolving—and,ultimately,helpedimprovemedicaleducationintheprocess.LeeandArthurdesignedsimulationstoapproximatethecircumstancesofdailydiagnosisandaskeddoctorstodiscusstheirthoughtprocesses.Studentsplayedthepatients.Alabroombecamethedoctor’soffice,stagedlikearegularexamroomexceptforthetwohugevideocamerasmountedontheceiling.Threerealcasesprovidedthebasisfortheactors’improvisation,andLeeandArthurconcocteda“databank”withallthebloodlevelsandX-rayresultsaphysicianmightpossiblyrequest.Asthedoctorsworked,researchersstoodbehindaone-waymirrorwatchingthem“thinkaloud,”sharingthementalconsiderationsthatusuallyremainprivate.Onthefirstday,Lee,Arthur,andtheircolleaguesgotapreviewofwhatthey

wouldfind.Watchingtheirfirstphysician,achiefofmedicine,theresearchersexpectedeventstoproceedasallthemedicaltextbooksrecommended.Firstthedoctorwouldinterviewthe“patient.”Thenhewouldstartorderingtests.Onlylater,afterreviewingtheresults,wouldthedoctorstartoutliningpossiblediagnoses.Butthework-uphadbarelybegunwhenthechiefofmedicineturnedtothe

researcherstoannouncehisfirstdiagnosis.Whatwasgoingon?Atfirsttheteamfiguredthechiefofmedicinemustbeamaverick,anoutlierwhofollowedhisinstincts.Butasmoredoctorscameintothelab,eachoneproceededinasimilar

manner,suggestingtwo,three,evenfourpossiblediagnosesbeforeeventakingthepatient’sbloodpressure.Themaverickwasn’tamaverickatall.Themajorityofdoctorsworkedthisway,exactlytheoppositeofthemeticulousdecisiontreethattextbooksadvised.Butthemethodseemedtowork.WhenLee,Arthur,andtheirteamrantheir

data,theyfoundthatdoctorswhomadetheirfirstdiagnosticguessearlierintheappointmentgottheanswerrightjustasoftenasthosewhowaited.Ifanything,itlookedlikethemoreguessesweremadeearlyon,themorelikelythephysicianwastoreachanaccuratediagnosis.Somuchformoving“fromsymptomtosigntosyndrometodisease,”asonetextbookprescribed.Withonemodeststudy,Leeandhisteamhaddiscoveredthatmedicaldecisionmakingwasfarmorecomplexthanthetextbooksportrayed.Leethoughthecouldtaketheresearchevenfurther.AtStanford,thatwas

whatheplannedtodo—extendtheproblem-solvingfindings,fleshingouttheirimplicationsforeducation.Andthat,ultimately,iswhathedid.Hejustdidn’trealizequitewhatformthetransformationwouldtake.

AftertheNIEconference,writingupareportbasedonhispaneldiscussion,Lee’sfirstmovewastoborrowfromhisownwork,crossingoutthewordphysicianandwritingteacherinstead.Theclinicalactofmedicaldiagnosisbecametheclinicalactofteaching;thequestionsaboutwhichlabteststorunbecamequestionsabouthowtogroupthestudents,arrangetheclassroom,andselectatextbook.WhereNatehadthoughtofteachersascollectionsofbehaviors,Leeborrowedfromthemedicalprojectandcalledthem“informationprocessors.”Leehadnoexpectationsforhisforayintothestudyofteaching.Cognitive

scientistshadstartedoutbystudyingdoctors,chessmasters,andinvestorsbecausethinkingwasanobviousprerequisiteoftheirjob.Howmuchinformationwasprocessedbypeoplewhospenttheirdaystellingsmallchildren,“One,two,three,eyesonme!”?Butstudyingteachersbystudyingtheirthinkingturnedouttobesurprisingly

generative.Theprocess-productfindingsthatNateGagechampionedmighthavebeenstatisticallysignificant,buttheyoftenseemedtocontradicteachother.Itwasimportantthateverychildstay“ontask,”butcallingonstudentsatrandom—thebestwaytokeepthemfocused—wasnotalwaysthebestpathtogettingagooddiscussiongoing.Similarly,afteraskingaquestion,themostsuccessful

teacherswaitedafewextrasecondsbeforeacceptingananswer.Butsuccessfulteachersalsotendedtobethemostbrisk,spendingthesmallestnumberofminutesbetweentopics.Pullingasingle,clearansweroutoftheprocess-productresearchwasliketryingtodistilllawsfromtheBible.Onepassageofferedperfectclarity,butthenextsaidthecompleteopposite.Lee,whohadspenthisgrade-schoolyearsatayeshiva,metthetaskas

perhapsnootherpsychologistcould.“ThinkaboutthetraditionofcommentariesontheTalmud—thisenormouslylonghistoricaltraditionofinterpretationinwhichyounevergettoasettledconclusion,”saysGarySykes,whoworkedwithLeeatStanford.“It’sbrilliantintellectualworkwithatext.Leetookasthetextintellectuallifeinclassrooms.Andfromthere,allwascommentaryandinterpretation.”Taketheproblemoftiming.Howcoulditpossiblybebeneficialbothtobe

fast,movingquicklyfromtasktotask,andalsotobeslow,pausingbeyondtheboundsofcomfortbeforecallingonastudenttoansweryourquestion?Leeexploredthisteachingproblembyexaminingwhathecalled“theanatomyofaturn.”Theprocess-productresearchershaddescribedthevisibleelementsofturns:teacherasksaquestion,timeelapses,studentanswers.Buttoreallyunderstandtheturn,youhadtolookatitfromtheteacher’sperspective.Buildingonothers’research,especiallyMaryBuddRowe’sstudyof“wait

time”—thepausebetweenposingaquestionandselectingananswer—Leepointedoutthelogicintheapparentparadox.Forateacher,eachsecondspentwaitingforananswerheldbothpromiseanddanger.Ononehand,thelongershewaited,themoretimethestudentswouldhavetothink.Thiswasgood.Ontheotherhand,thesoonershebrokethesilencewiththecorrectanswer,thelowerwasherriskofexposingtheclasstoauselessdiversion.Thiswasalsogood.Thewisdomandperilofpausingwerebothtrue,andifyouthoughtthatdidn’tmakesense,well,thatwastruetoo.Waittimes,Leeconcluded,were“blessingsdippedinacid.”Thequestionforteachers,asfordoctors,wasnot,Whatisthebestbehavior?

Itwas,HowdoIdecidewhichofmanybehaviorstodeployforthecaseathand?Itwasaproblemofdiagnosis.Teachershadtolocatetheirpupils’pathologies,determineabestintervention,andact.Withdoctors,diagnosisandtreatmenthadclearbeginnings,middles,and

ends.Withteachers,thequestionskeptcoming.Sincethepathologies—thatis,everythingthechilddidn’tknow—werenotphysicalbutmental,howcouldteachersdiagnosethem?Howcouldtheyunderstandwhatachildhadfailedto

learn?Andiftheydidmanagetoteachsuccessfully,howcouldtheyconfirmit?Therewasalsotheproblemofscale.“Theteacher,”Leerealized,“is

confrontednotwithasinglepatient,butwithaclassroomfilledwith25to35youngsters.”Evenifateachercouldlocatepathologiesandsomehowdoitforallherstudents,howdidshemanagetodeploythecorrectinterventions,allatonce,totheentiregroup?“Theonlytimeaphysiciancouldpossiblyencounterasituationofcomparablecomplexity,”Leeconcluded,“wouldbeintheemergencyroomofahospitalduringorafteranaturaldisaster.”Studyingteachers,herealized,wasjustasimportantasthinkingaboutdoctors;infact,“itisfarmoregermane.”

TheNationalInstituteofEducationconferencecameandwentquickly.Leemoderatedhispanel;submittedhissummaryreport,advocatingtheusefulnessofstudyingteachers’decisions;andsoonhewasbackatMichiganState,workingwithdoctors.Hemighthaveforgottenaboutthetripaltogether,hadNIEnotsenthimacallforproposalstobuildanewresearchanddevelopmentcentertostudyteacherthinkinganddecisionmaking.Leeknewthathisproposalwouldbealongshot.Thelikelylistofapplicants

includedStanfordUniversityandhiscolleagueNateGage.Andsincewritinghisfamoushandbook,NatehadmadeStanfordintothecountry’sleadingsourceofresearchonteaching.MSU,bycomparison,wasa“cowcollege,”betterknownfortrainingteachersthanforstudyingthem.ButMichiganStatewon.Amongtheloserswereseveraloftheuniversities

thathadbeenpullinggovernmentgrantsforbehavioristeducationresearchforyears,Gageamongthem.“Natelosthisgranttoo,”saysGarryMcDaniels.“Intheolddaystheyalwaysgavehimthegrant.ButtheworkthathehaddonehadbeengoingonforsolongthatIwasconvincedthatithadreacheditsend.”LeeisfondofquotingalinefromthepsychologistJeromeBrunerabout

narrative.Oneofthecognitiverevolution’sleadersandanearlyscholarofteaching,Brunerwrotethatnarrativeisfundamentallycomposedof“thevicissitudesofintention.”Aprotagonistsetsouttodoonething,butalongthewaysomethingunpredictablehappens,andhedecidestodoanotherthinginstead.Leesetouttostudythinking.Byunderstandingminds,hethought,hecould

helpimproveeducation,theworkofshapingthem.Thethingthathappenedalonghisway—thecallfromNateGage—ledhimtochangenothisintention,

buthismethod.Doctorshadprovidedaneatkeyholeintothemind,butitturnedoutthatanothergroupofprofessionalsofferedabaywindow.Teachersnotonlyhadtothink;theyhadtothinkaboutotherpeople’sthinking.Theywereanarmyofeverydayepistemologists,forcedtoconsiderwhatitmeanttoknowsomethingandthenreproducethattransformationintheirstudents.Teachingwasmorethanstorytimeontherug.Itwasthehighestformofknowing.Atauniversity,traditionallythehighestdegreeholdersarecalledmasteror

doctor.“Bothwords,”Leediscovered,“havethesamedefinition;theymean‘teacher.’”Whatwasthebestwaytoshowyoureallyunderstoodasubject,ifnottoteachit?Andwhatwasthebestwaytouseresearchtoimproveeducation,ifnottostudyteaching?Withoutrealizingwhathewasdoing,LeehadstumbledonDewey’slost

project.Teachingwasindeedthescienceofallsciences,theartofallarts,asDewey’spredecessorFrancisParkerhadputit.Andnow,thankstoNateGage’snudge,Nixon’sinvestment,andhisownlifelongobsession,LeewasgoingtopickupontheworkDeweyandParkerhadneverfinished.LeehadwrittenintheNIEpanel’sconcludingreportthat“giftedpractitioners

arecapableofperformanceswhichourbesttheoriesarenotyetcapableofexplaining,muchlessgeneratingorpredicting.”Futureresearchonteaching,then,shouldexplorethetalentsofthebestteachers—the“wisdomofpractice,”hecalledit.Allheneededtodowasfindthegreatpractitioners.

LeeShulmanwasnoteacher,buthebecameoneoftwoseminalfiguresinmodernthinkingaboutpoliciesforimprovingthequalityofteaching.Theotherfigurewasnotateachereither.AndwhereasLeefocusedoneducationafterspendingtimeinsideofit(oratleastinsideofaschoolofeducation),EricHanushekcametoitwhollyfromtheoutside.HewouldgoontohaveasmuchofaninfluenceoneducationasLeedid,ifnotmore.Butheneverworkedatanedschool.Hanushekbecamefascinatedwithschoolsinthesummerof1966.Hewas

nearingtheendofgraduateschoolineconomicsatMIT,stilllackingadissertationtopic,whenhestumbledonaremarkablestoryinthenewspaper:

Washington,D.C.—TheJohnsonadministrationThursdaywasaccusedofignoringresultsofaFederal

investigationofinequalityincityschoolsystemsbecauseofpoliticalimplications...

Afterasurveyof600,000schoolchildrenand60,000teachers,thereportconcludedthatpupilsfrompoorfamiliesleftschool“withgreaterdeficiencies”thanwhentheyentered...

“Thisreportmeansthatalloureducationplans—increasingspendingperpupil,moreandbetterlibrariesandbooks,educationdevices—won’tsolvethecrisisinourschools,”said[ConnecticutcongressmanAbraham]Ribicoff.

GiventheredistributivegoalsofLyndonJohnson’s“GreatSociety”programs,itmadesensethattheadministrationwouldwanttocoverupthereport.Ifthestudy,byaJohnsHopkinssociologistnamedJamesColeman,wasright,thenoneofthemostexpensiveeducationalinterventionsinhistoryhadfailed.AccordingtoColeman,givingschoolsadditionalservices—includingmoreper-pupilspending,thesupposedantidotetounderachievement—didnothelppoorandAfrican-Americanstudentsovercomethechallengesoftheirenvironments.Hanushekcouldn’tquitebelieveit.“Ifinfactschoolsdon’tmakemuch

difference,”hethought,“whyarewecontinuallypumpingmoreandmoremoneyintoschoolstotryandimprovethem?”Therehadtobesomethingelsegoingon,alurkingvariablemaskingthemoney’simpact.Butwhatcoulditbe?RunningthroughColeman’sdata,amassivesetdrawingfrom645,000studentsandmorethanthreethousandschoolsacrossninety-threedifferentvariables,Hanushekfoundnomistakesofconsequence.NordidaworkinggroupconvenedatHarvardtovettheresearch.Coleman’sconclusionslargelyheldup.Butwhataboutotherdata?Hanushekpulledtogetheradatasetfromaschool

districtinCalifornia—muchsmallerinscopethanColeman’snationalsample,butwithtwoadvantages.First,insteadofcapturingasnapshotofoneyearinstudents’lives,theCaliforniadatafollowedstudentslongitudinally.Second,thedatabrokedownstudentsnotjustbyschool,butbytheteachersthey’dhad.TheextradetailenabledHanushektogetmorespecificthanColeman;hecouldgobeyondwhetherschoolsmadeadifferenceanddeterminewhetherindividual

teachershadaneffectaswell.Theeffectofteacherswasnosimplethingtomeasure,evenwiththebetter

data.Countlessfactorsundoubtedlyinfluencedstudents’performanceinschools,fromgeneticdispositiontothesizeoftheirparents’vocabularies.HowcouldHanushekdiscerntheteacher’sinfluenceamidalltheseothervariables?Theeducationliteratureofferednoadvice,butanotherareaofeconomicsdid:

thestudyofindustrialproduction.Liketeachers,factoriesreceivecertainrawproducts(steel,coal,plastics)andthenputtheirownuniquespinonthebusinessoftransformingtheminto,say,aChevyCamaro.Tomeasuretheproductivityofthemanufacturingprocess,economistshadtoextractthevalueofferedbyrawproductsfromthevalueprovidedbytheplantassemblingthem.Theydidthisbylookingforpatterns.Whatwasthevalueoftherawproductsbeforetheycametothefactory,andhowmuchdidthatvalueriseorfallafterthemanufacturerhaditswaywiththem?Applyingtheideatoeducation,Hanushekcouldcontrolfortheeffectsof

nonteachervariables,fromhomebackgroundtopastperformance,bysearchingfordeviations.“Ifyoufollowanindividualkidandyouseehimonsomelearningpath,andthenoneyear,allofasudden,helearnsalotmorethaninanotheryear,orallofasuddenhelearnsalotless,”Hanushekexplains,“thatgivesyouahintthatmaybeit’ssomethingspecificabouttheteachers,orsomethingspecificinthatyear.Then,ifyouseethatallofthekidsintheoneclasshavethisjumporthisfallinperformance,thenyoustarttobelievethatit’ssomethinginthatclass.”TheCaliforniadatawasfullofsuchjumps.IfHanushek’smethodwasright,

teachersdidmakeadifference,andthedifferencewasbig.Laterhemanagedtoputanumbertotheeffect.Studentsassignedtothebestteachers,hecalculated,progressedbytheequivalentofawholegradelevelmorethanstudentsassignedtotheworst,asmeasuredbytestscores.ByHanushek’smethod,teacherscoulddowhattheColemanReportsuggestedschoolscouldnot:theycouldoffsetthedisadvantageofpoverty.PerhapsHanushek’smostinfluentialfindingstemmedfromhiscomparisonof

teachers’“effectiveness”(theeducationalequivalentofproductivity)toothercharacteristics,especiallysalary.Theamountspaidtoteacherswerebasedonhowmanyyearsofexperiencetheyhadandonhowmanydegreestheyhadearned;amaster’swonasalarybump,andeveryadditionalgraduateclasswonanother.Yetthesalaryinputsseemedtohavenobearingontheoutput:teachereffectiveness.Experiencedidmatter,butonlyuptoacertainpoint.In

productivityterms,therewasnodifferencebetweenateacherwho’dbeenteachingforthreeyearsandateacherwho’dbeenteachingforthirteen.Writinghisfinaldissertation,eventuallypublishedasabookcalledEducation

andRace,Hanushekturnedtheobservationintoasuggestion—onethatwouldreverberateforyearsintothefuture.Ifschooldistrictsstoppedrewardinggraduatestudyandexperience,thentheycouldredirecttheirinvestmentsintosomethingmoreefficient:“TeacherAccountability,”hecalledit.AccountabilitywoulddrawonthestatisticalmethodthatHanushekhad

adaptedfromstudiesoffactories.“Thisprocedure,”heexplained,“allowstherankingofteachersonthebasisofteachingability.”Rankingandthenrewardingteachersaccordingtotheireffectivenessmightcreatesomeproblems—including,hesuggested,“problemsarisingfromattemptsto‘teachthetests.’”(Heldaccountableforhowtheirstudentsperformedontests,teachersmightemphasizetheexammaterialtotheexclusionofother,equallyimportantlessons.)But,Hanushekwrote,“whilewemaynotbeatapointnowwherewetruststandardizedteststoholdupunderconcertedattemptstofoilthem,conceptuallytheproblemappearssoluble.”Adecadelater,Hanushekgavehismethodaname:“value-added.”*Inthesamebook,EducationandRace,Hanushekmadeonemoreintriguing

point.LikeColeman,hehadonlyexaminededucationalinvestmentsandtheireffects—comparing,ineconomicparlance,education’s“inputs”toits“outputs.”Hehadnotstudiededucation’svastmiddle.“Theblackboxoftheproductionprocess,”hecalledit.Thatis,classroomteachingandlearning.Hehad,inotherwords,followedthetrailthatNateGageandLeeShulmanwereblazing,lookingnotjustatschoolsbutatteachers,yethehadfollowedthemonlysofar.Helookedatteachers’effects,butnotattheirwork—atteachers,butnotatteaching.Hanushekmadetheobservationasanaside,butthedecisiontooverlook

teaching’s“blackbox”wouldprovejustasinfluentialashis“value-added”innovation.Bystudyingteaching,LeeShulmanandhiscolleagueswereabouttoexplodemanycommonideasabouthowitworked,includingthemythofthenatural-bornteacher.Hanushek,meanwhile,ignoredteachingand,asaresult,ignoredhowteachingworked.Hecouldreadhisvalue-addedresearchanddrawthesimplestconclusion,theonethatmatchedwhateveryonealreadybelieved:someteacherswerebad,mostwerefine,andafewwerewonderful—asifthey’dbeenbornthatway.

*Theotherresearcherwithaclaimtohavinginventedvalue-addedcalculationsofteachereffectivenessisthestatisticianWilliamSanders,whodevelopedtheTennesseeValue-AddedAssessmentSystem(TVASS).

2

ATEACHERISBORN

DeborahLoewenbergBallarrivedattheSpartanVillageschoolinEastLansing,Michigan,inthefallof1975.Technicallystillacollegestudent,Deborahhadnevertaughtherownclassbefore.Barelyadecadeseparatedherfromthefifth-graders.Butitdidnottakelongfortheotherteacherstosizeherup.MindyEmerson,whotaughtacrossthehall,couldtellalmostimmediately.AsMindysawit,thereweretwotypesofteachers:thosewhochosetoteach

andthosewhowereborntoit.Forthelatter,teachingwasnotajob;itwasacalling.(Mindy,forherpart,decidedshewouldbeateacheronherfirstdayofkindergarten.“Iwalkedin,Ismelledthechalk,andIknewIwashome,”shesays.)FromDeborah’sfirstday,Mindycouldseethatshe,too,hadbeencalled.Deborahhadfinishedhighschoolearly,andbythetimesheturnedtwentyyearsold,shespokefourlanguages.“Shecouldhavebeenwhatevershewantedtobe,”Mindysaid.Butshewasvisiblygiddyatthechancetoteach,andhergiftwasundeniable.DeborahhadjoinedSpartanVillageasamemberofMichiganState’s

ElementaryInternProgram,ateacher-trainingcoursethatculminatedinaone-year,immersiveclassroomexperienceatalocalelementaryschool.Othernewteacherswentthroughapredictablelitanyofchallenges.Theycouldn’tgetthestudentstolisten,theytriedtoohardtobethestudents’friends,theydoubtedwhetherallthechildrencouldreallylearn,theystruggledtofeelcomfortableinthenewrole.Inonememorablecase,oneofMindy’soldclassmatesatMSUcamebackfromherfirstclassroomexperienceinshock:“Thechildrenaretouchingme!”Mindycouldn’tblamethem.Teaching,afterall,wasn’tlikeotherjobs,where

newhirestakeonnewresponsibilitiesonlyafterthey’vemasteredsimplerones.“Withus,whenthekidswalkinthedoor,you’reon,”Mindysaid.“Itdoesn’tmatterifyou’vetaughtoneyear,tenyears,orthirtyyears.You’reon.”Andyou

arealone.“Youfeelliketheloneranger.”ButifDeborahfeltanyofthetypicaljitters,shedidnotshowit.Shehada

calm,gentlewaywiththechildren,connectingevenwiththeoneswhocameunabletospeakEnglish(andthereweremanyofthematSpartanVillage,apublicschoolliterallyonthewrongsideofEastLansing’stracks,withmorethantheusualshareofimmigrants).Herdisciplinestruckthatrarebalance,leavingthechildrenbothhappyandwellbehaved.Mindyhadneverseenbetterpenmanship:neatlylinedprintandcursivethatmadethediscriminatingheartflutter.Andherlessonplans!Organizedandcomprehensive,theyleftnothingtochance.AllMindycouldthinkwas,Wow.“Anatural-bornteacher,”shesaidconfidently,thirty-sixyearslater.Eventhenewprincipal,ayoungwomannamedJessieFry,hadtoadmitthat

therewassomethingextraordinaryaboutDeborah.AndifJessiehadseenanyweakness,shewouldhavepointeditout.Jessiewasstrict.Theteachersmadenosecretoftheirfrustrationwithhermandates.Lessonplansturnedinafullweekinadvance;goalsandobjectivesoutlinedforeverysinglechild;visitstoeveryfamily’shomebyThanksgiving;unannouncedclassroomobservations,andalwaysfollowedbyapointednote“FROMTHEDESKOFJESSIEJ.FRY.”Deborahwasdifferent.“Great!”and“Thankyou!”and“Youarecoming

alongnicely,”Jessiewrote,becausewhenshewatchedDeborahteach,shecouldn’tthinkwhattoimprove.Heronlyadvicewastoslowdown.“Shewasanimated,andshetalkedveryfast,veryfast,”Jessiesays.“Isaid,‘Okay,Deborah,yougottoslowthisdown!’”Bytheendofherfirstyear,JessiehadviolatedanunwrittenlawoftheElementaryInternProgram.Traditionheldthatinternsleftaftergraduationtofindapermanentjob;thatway,anotherinterncouldhaveachancetoteachthenextyear.ButJessieaskedDeborahtostaypermanently.Withintwoyears,Deborahwaspetitioninghertocreateanunheard-offirst-,second-,andthird-gradecombinationclasswithanotherteacher.And,callJessienaïve,sheheardherselfsayingyes.Thestaffslippedthecustodianalittlesomethingextra,andhetoredownthe

wallseparatingthetwoclassrooms.Deborah,meanwhile,draggedinaworkingrefrigeratorandstoveoffofthestreet.Forcookinglessons,sheexplained.(Inhighschool,shehadworkedinabakery;thatwaswhereshehadmetherhusband,Richard,whosemotherdecoratedthecakes.)SheusedbakingasateachingopportunityandalsotohelpraisethemoneyneededtotakeherstudentsonatraintriptovisittheKelloggCerealfactoryinBattleCreek.Together,sheandhersecond-gradersopeneda“dessertrestaurant”—staffed,of

course,byeight-year-olds.Someoftheolderteachers,alreadyannoyedwithJessie,begantogrumble.

Whydidn’teveryclassroomhaveastove?Andhowcouldtheybesurethatthisspecialcombinationclasswouldn’tskimoffallthebeststudents?IfDeborahissocreative,theysuggested,Jessieshouldgiveherthetroublemakers.Butastheyearspassed,thegrumblersbecameacolytes.TheyrearrangedschedulessothattheirstudentscoulduseDeborah’sstove.TheyrequestedsubssothattheycouldleavetheirownclassroomsandwatchDeborahteach.Andsometimes,theyinvitedhertojointhemintheirs.By1980,onlyonepersoninallofSpartanVillagedoubtedDeborah’sgift.

ThatwasDeborah.

Mindy,Jessie,andtheothershadonethingright.TeachinghadbecomeDeborah’spassion.Butshedidnotfinditeasy.Tothecontrary,herfavoritepartaboutteachingwashowharditwas.Beforedecidingtobecomeateacher,she’dmajoredinFrench,takingclassesinphonologyandcultureandphilosophy.Sheseemedtoenjoycoursesindirectproportiontotheirdifficulty.Shealsoneededtostudysomethingthatwouldleadquicklytoadecentjob.(Rich,thebaker’sson,washerhighschoolsweetheart.Oncetheymarried,atnineteen,Deborahnolongerhadfinancialsupportfromherparents.)TheElementaryInternProgramofferedbothanintellectualchallengeandajob.Shebecameparticularlyfascinatedbythepuzzleofhowtoteachchildrento

read—amysteryforanyliterateadult,butespeciallysoforDeborah,whohadlearnedtoreadatagefourandcouldnotrememberatimewhenwordsweren’tsynonymouswithsoundsandmeanings.Thejobofateacherwastoexplaintootherswhatyoualreadyknewbyheart.Toteachchildrentoread,Deborahhadtounderstandallthethingsthatmakereadinghard.Adultsknowintuitivelyallthedifferentwaysthat“ea”canbepronounced,dependingonthecontext.Butteachersneededtobeabletoexplainthatbreak,beak,read(presenttense),andread(pasttense)allmakedifferentsounds.Samewiththe“r-controlledvowel.”Fewadultscouldexplainit,butchildrencertainlynoticedtheconfusingwaythat“r”cantransformavowelfromitsusualsoundtosomethingentirelydifferent—sothatthe“e”inherisnothinglikethe“e”inhen.Thosechildren’steachershadtoknowhowtohelpthemfigurethatout,selectingspecificwordsforeachstudenttoworkon:milk,store,lot,her;say,ran,down,right;laundry,laundromat,iron,fall,bag,them,from,girls.Eachgroupofwordshada

purpose,carefullyselectedtomatchexactlywhatthechildrenneededtolearn.Thenextchallengewasscience,theothersubjectDeborahtaughtinthatfirst

yearatSpartanVillage.(Theschoolwasorganizedintodepartments,likeahighschool,withdifferentteachershandlingdifferentsubjects.)TheElementaryInternProgramhadnoscienceequivalenttoitsreadingcourse,andDeborah’sownknowledgeofsciencewaslimitedtowhatshehadlearnedinhighschool,whereherteacherhadstagedadebateonthetopicofwhetherevolutionshouldbetaughtinschool.(Theteacher’sposition:no.)AtSpartanVillage,Deborahhadtolearnthecontentandpedagogysimultaneously.Howdidelectriccircuitswork,again?Whatwasthedifferencebetweenaclosedandanopensystem,andhowdidthisapplytothesystemsthatherstudentsweresupposedtostudy(weather,electricity,andheat)?Whatshouldsheexpectoutofathird-gradesciencefairproject?Andwhydidthetextbookthinkitwasagoodideaforthird-graderstogrowcotyledonsandbrineshrimp?ForeveryteachingproblemDeborahconqueredinthoseearlyyears,anew

oneseemedtoemerge.Thegreatestarosein1980,when,teachingfifthgrade,shediscoveredthatherstudentswerestrugglingwithmath.Andnotjustafewofthem.Allofthem.Oneday,twenty-fivenotebookswouldfillwithperfectlittlenumberhousesasshewalkedthemthroughthestepsoflongdivision.Thenextday,lefttoreconstructthestepsalone,thechildrenwouldflounder.Weekendswereherworstenemy.“MystudentswouldgohomeonFridayabletosolvealongdivisionproblemandonMondaynolongerseemtorememberhowtobegin,”shewrote,reflectingontheexperienceinanessay.Worstofall,thestudents’misunderstandingsincludedeventhesimplestideas.

Tryingtosubtractanumberlike55fromanumberlike72,thestudentswouldsubtractup,taking2from5insteadof5from2,anddecidetheanswerwas23.Deborahhandedoutbundlesofstickstorepresenttensandonesandrepeatedlyexplainedtheideaof“borrowing”—taketenfromthe7,carryitovertothe2—butherstudentswouldstillmakemistakes.Readingawordproblemlike“So-and-sohas12andso-and-sohas20.Howmanymoredoesso-and-sohavethanso-and-so?”thestudentswouldseethewordmore—anddecidetoadd.Butthequestionwasaskinghowmanymore:thedifference.Achildwhoaddedbecauseofseeingthewordmoreeitherdidn’tunderstandthemeaningofadditionorhadn’treadthewords.ItdidnotescapeDeborah’snoticethatasizablenumberoftheseclueless

studentscamefromtheverysamefirst-,second-,andthird-grademathclassesshehadtaughtwithsuchapparentsuccessafewyearsbefore.Whathadshe

beendoingwhenshethoughtshewasteaching?Whathadtheybeendoingwhensheassumedtheywerelearning?

Deborah’sfirstmovewastoaskotherteachersforhelp.Butalmosteverythingtheysuggested,shehadalreadytried.Shefollowedthetextbook,dividedthechildreninto“skillsgroups”(theTriangles,theDiamonds,theCircles,theywerecalled),constructedclearexplanations,andusedpapercutoutstoillustratekeyideas.Yetwhenhertestscameback,theytoldthesamestory.Thechildrenhadnotunderstood.Stumped,shetookherproblemtoaprofessorbackatMichiganState’s

CollegeofEducation.Theprofessorsuggestedthatshetryoutanewexperimentalcurriculumforelementaryschoolmath.“Experimental”putitmildly.Forfirstgradealone(Deborahhadmovedagain

afterteachingfifth),theteacher’sguidefilledmorethansevenhundredpages.Thecurriculumwasstrange,suggestingthatlessonsmoveforwardaccordingtoscripteddiscussionsabout,inonecase,anelephantnamedEli.(“ThereisanelephantnamedEliwholivesinthejungleandisalwaysveryhungry.WhatdoyouthinkisEli’sfavoritefood?”theguidesuggestedteachersask,asawaytobeginalessononnegativenumbers.)ButthebafflingmethodologybegantomakesensewhenDeborahsteeredthestudentsthroughthe“dialogues”thatpunctuatedeachlesson.Onitsface,theideaofamathlessonasanextendedconversation,ratherthan

asetofideasandrelatedpracticeproblems(subtractionwithregrouping,say,orcounting),wasasunusualasusinganelephantstorytoteachmath.Deborahhadhelddiscussionsinreading,wherestudentscouldtalkaboutstories—discussingthecharactersandwhatthestudentsthoughtmighthappennext—andinscience,wheretheycouldguesstheresultsofanexperiment.Butshehadneverledadiscussionaboutmath,anddespitetheassurancesintheteacher’sguide,shewonderedwhetherherstudentswouldreallyhavemuchtosay.2+2alwaysequaled4.Whatwastherereallytodiscuss?Yetwhenshetriedit,thecurriculumbegantoshowitswisdom.Elithe

elephant,forexample,turnedouttolovepeanuts—andhispeanutstooktwoforms:regularpeanutsand“magical”ones,whichwerelikenegativenumbers.Whenaregularpeanutanda“magical”onemet,itwaslikeadding1and–1:bothdisappeared.Followingthestory,Deborah’sfirst-gradersquicklypickeduptheideaofnegativenumbers—aconceptthatoftenbefuddledmucholder

students.Indiscussions,meanwhile,thechallengewasn’tingettingthestudentstotalk,

butinmakingsenseofalltheyhadtosay.Thedeeperintothemaththestudentsgot,themorequestionstheypresentedtotheirteacher.Forinstance,arethere“afinidy”possiblewaystousea24-storybuilding’selevatortogettothesecondfloor—orarethere25?*Whatexactlydiditmeantoaddanegativenumber?Whatabouttosubtractone(forexample,3minus−5)?EvenrudimentaryideasnowraisedcomplicatedquestionsthatDeborahfeltunpreparedtoanswer.Talkingaboutmathwassurprisinglyinteresting,butforthetalkingtoleadtolearning,itseemedtheteacherneededtoknowsomethingmore.Onceagain,DeborahturnedtoMichiganState,thistimenottotheCollegeof

Education,buttotheDepartmentofMathematics.Asanundergrad,shehadtestedoutofmathcompletely.Nowshestartedfromthebeginning,venturingthroughelementaryalgebra,geometry,andcalculuswhileherstudentsstudiedaddition,subtraction,andfractions.Thecoursesproducedsomeexcitingaha!moments,aswhenthedetailsoflimitsandintegralshelpedhersteerstudentsthroughaproblemaboutarea.Themostimportantrevelationarrivedinherfinalcourse:NumberTheory.

Taughtbythechairofthemathdepartment,aprofessornamedJosephAdney,theclassaddressedamathematicalsubjectDeborahhadn’tstudiedbefore(onedeeplyrelevanttoanelementaryschoolteacher).And,evenmoreimportant,Adneytaughtitinanewway.Insteadofmarchingmethodicallythroughalistofconcepts,heinvitedhisstudentstodiscovertheideasforthemselves.He’dwritesomethingontheboardandthenask,withastraightface,“Isthatalwaystrue?”Deborahfoundherselfthinkingabouttheseproblemsforhours.Sometimes

thewritingontheboardtooktheformofastatement:a“conjecture,”Adneysaid.Aconjecturewaslikethemathematicalversionofahypothesis,aquestionwithoutaquestionmark.Thesumoftwooddintegerswillalwaysbeeven,forinstance,orthesumofanevenandoddintegerwillalwaysbeodd.Isthatalwaystrue?Whenthestudentscameupwitharguments—proofs—hewouldpresenteverybody’sattemptwithoutprejudice.Thenthey’dhavetodefendtheirreasoningbeforetheclass.Ifanyonecouldfindacounterexample,thenpoof!Theconjecturewouldexplode.Deborahhadseenproofsbefore.Butshehadneverbeenaskedtomakeone

fromscratch,andshe’dneverrealizedhowmanydifferentproofscouldsupportasinglestatement.Adneytookspecialinterestinoddballproofs(Deborah,withherabbreviatedmathbackground,wasaconnoisseurofthese).Themorediverse

ideastheycouldpulltogether,thericherwastheirexplorationofthemath.DiscussionsinAdney’sclasswerenotjustfunwaystopassthetime.They

werevitaltotheworkofdoingmath.Bytalkingaboutmath—puzzlingoverproblems,makingconjectures—theypracticedit.Intheprocess,Deborah—theclassichumanitiestype,whonevertookasingleleft-brainedclassincollege—fellinlovewiththesubject.Themathshe’dlearnedinschoolwasdull,rote,blah—“uninspiringatbest,mentallyandemotionallycrushingatworst,”shewrotenotlongaftertakingtheclass.Theprocessionofrulesandproceduresflattenedanylatentpleasureintheneatfinalityoftherightanswer.(“Howmanymore”=subtraction,she’dremindedherstudentsatSpartanVillagejustafewyearsbefore.Subtracttheonesfirst.Andalwayssubtractdown.)Sometimestheproceduresmadesense.Moreoften,theywerejustapredeterminedpathtotherightanswer.Adneypresentedadifferentsubjectaltogether.Inhisclass,mathwaspowerful,rich,evenaweinspiring.Fordays,aproblemboggled.Butthensomeonewouldofferanotherwayoflookingatit,andsuddenlyitwouldmakesense.Whatwoulditlookliketoteachelementaryschoolchildrenmathintheway

shewaslearningit?Adney,whotaughtundergraduates,couldtakeheronlysofar.Deborahneededanotherresource.

AfewyearsafterherclasseswithAdney,Deborahdecidedtoteachasummerschoolsectionoutsideherusualrepertoire.She’djusttakenaclassonresearchmethods,andthematerialhadstruckheraspotentiallypowerfulforeight-andnine-year-olds.Inparticular,shewantedtoteachinferentialstatistics,akindofmathinwhichstudentsusetoolslikecurvesandintervalstodrawconclusionsaboutdata.But,findingnoresearchorcurriculumonhowtoteachthesubjecttoyoungchildren,she’dhadtocreatethecoursefromscratch.Thisprovedmorechallengingthansheanticipated,soshedecidedtorecruithelp.Notacoteacher—theclasshadonlyeighteenstudents,aperfectlymanageablenumberforoneperson.WhatDeborahneededwasanotherbrain.Betteryet,adozenofthem.Recruitingteacherswassimple;byparticipating,theycouldcrossoffa

requiredprofessionaldevelopmentsession.Everydaythatsummer,beforethechildrenarrived,thegroupwalkedthroughthelessonDeborahhaddrafted,tryingoutproblems,imagininghowstudentsmightreact,anddiscussingwhatDeborahmightsayinresponse.Whenthelessonbegan,theotherteachersservedasextraeyesandears,studyingeachchildandnotingwhattheydidand

didnotunderstand.Attheendofeachday,Deborahhadthestudentsleavetheirnotebooksbehindsotheteacherscouldstudythosetoo.Thentheyallsattogetherandtalkedaboutwhathadjusthappened.Whatdideveryonethinkaboutwhatthisorthatstudenthadsaid?Whatideasdidtheclassstillnotseemtograsp?WhatshouldDeborahdotomorrow?Inaway,thismethodwasnodifferentfromhernormalpractice.AtSpartan

Village,shefrequentlypulledotherteachersintoherclasstohelphersolveproblems.ButatSpartanVillage,momentsliketheseweremerelyfriendlyfavorsofferedbybusycolleagues.Atthesummerprogram,thegroup’sfocuswassustained,thetoneserious;itwasasiftheywerenotinanelementaryschool,butinalaboratory.Ormaybe,Deborahthought,asurgicaltheater.Technically,onlyDeborahtaughtthechildren.Butreallyshewasthegroup’s

surrogate—akindof“pedagogicaldaredevil,”shedecided,tryingoutideasoneveryone’sbehalf.“Whateverwedecidedtodo,”shewrotelater,“Iwastheonewhohadtotrytomakeitfly.”Thegroup,meanwhile,formedhersafetynet,makingsurethestudentsdidn’tbecomecasualtiesoftheexperiment.Thestudentslearned,and,justasimportantly,sodidDeborah.Lookingback,

shesaysitisimpossibletorecallanyonemomentofepiphany.Herteachingwasevolvingquickly,andshehadn’tyetbeguntomakerecordscapturingeachlessonandthediscussionsthatfollowed.Butsimilarpubliclessons,heldyearslater,attheannualprogramknownastheElementaryMathLab,shedlightonwhatsheandthosefirstco-conspiratorsmusthaveseenthatfirstsummerin1984.DuringalessoninJuly2012,agroupofobserverstooknotesfrombleacher-

styleseatsasDeborahaskedaclassofrisingsixth-graderstoconsiderarectangle.Therectanglelookedlikethis:

Whatfractionoftherectangle,Deborahaskedthestudents,isshaded?Thefirststudentshecalledon,agirlnamedAnya,gavethecorrectanswer,¼,explaininghowshehaddrawnanadditionallinetohelphersolvetheproblem:

ButwhenDeborahaskedforcommentsonAnya’sanswer,aboynamedShamar,withpuffycheeksandlongdreadlocks,saidsomethingcurious.“Ithinktheanswerwasone-halfandaoneonthesideofit,”hesaid.ThemysteriesmultipliedwhenDeborahbroughthimuptotheboardtoexplain.“1½,”hewrote.Buthekeptsayingthenumberbackward,asifreadingfromrighttoleft:one-halffirst,thenone,whichhecalledthe“remainder.”Whatwashethinking?Underwhatassumptionsmight1½makesense?

ScrutinizingShamar’sresponsesduringthedebriefingDeborahheldafterthelesson,oncethestudentshadleft,onegroupofobserverspiecedtogetherahypothesis.Perhapshehadflippedthequestion.Insteadoflookingatthefractionoftherectanglethatwasshaded,hefocusedonthefractionthatwasempty.Hemighthaveevenseentheimageasitsinverse:

OthersfocusedonShamar’sdescriptionof1½as“one-halfandaoneonthesideofit”—morelike½1than1½.Maybehehadtranscribedtheinverseimageintothenumbersthatitresembled:½ontheleft,1ontheright.Ifyousawmathasasetofrulesandprocedures,assomanychildrenweretaught,thenyoudidnotthinkaboutfractionsasholdingmeaning.Theyweresimplynumberswithlinesthroughtheirmiddles.Whateverhisexactthoughtprocesswas,Shamarhadclearlybecomeconfused

aboutanideathatstoodattheheartoffractions—onethat,overtheyears,Deborahandthosewhojoinedheratthelabhadcometoseeasatypicalstumblingblockforchildren(andmanyadults):theideaofthewhole.Toanswer

anyfractionsproblem,youhadtodefinethethingthatyouwantedtoknowafractionof.Inthiscase,thewholewasthelargestrectangle,theonethatalsohappenedto

beasquare.Shamar’sanswersuggestedthathehaddefinedadifferentrectangleasthewhole—theonethat,withitslongersides,lookedmorelikeachild’sideaofarectangle.(Childrenoftendonotunderstandthatallsquaresarerectanglestoo,justwithequal-lengthsides.)Ifyoudefinedthatslimmerrectangleasthewhole,andyouacceptedShamar’sinversionoftheshadedandemptyspace,then1½madesense.Themisunderstandingofferedanopportunity.Encounteringthemaththrough

thestudents’eyes,thegroupcouldfigureoutwhatneededtobeclarified.Thentogether,theseobserverscouldfigureoutwhatDeborahmightsayanddotogetShamartounderstandtheimportanceofdefiningthewhole.Thereweremanypossiblepathsintothematerial:questionstoask,

explanationstogive,problemstoassign.Overthecourseofmanyteachinglabs,themostproductivemethodsandproblemsmadethemselvesclear.Onegoodapproachwastohavestudentswithdifferentideaspresentthemtotheclass.SomeofthemundoubtedlysharedShamar’smisunderstanding,inoneformoranother.(Evenadultsintheroomcouldforgetsometimesthatafractionwasmeaninglesswithoutitsunit.)Listeningtotheirpeerscouldhelptheconfusedstudentssortouttheirideas.WhenaboynamedEduardojumpedintoclarify,Shamarseemedtounderstandhisownideabettertoo.Then,whenEduardoexplainedwhyheagreedwithAnyaanywayabout¼,Shamardecidedtochangehisanswer.Thelabgroupalsostudiedturns—whichstudentsDeborahcalledon,inwhat

order,andwhatsheaskedeachofthemtodo.Herdecisionshadcometoholdmoresignificanceovertime,asshelearnedthemanydifferenttypesofturns,eachwithvaryingdimensionsofbothacademicdifficulty(offeringamathfactversusofferinganinterpretation)andsocialrisk(givingananswereventhoughyouhadn’traisedyourhandwasmoderatelyrisky;cominguptotheboardandofferingadetaileddescriptionofyourincorrectanswer,muchmoreso).Otherconsiderationsmatteredtoo.Tomakesureeveryoneparticipated,itwas

advisabletocallonthethreestudentswhohadnotspokenyet,butthismightnotbeagoodstrategyifallthreehadthesameanswer.Orderalsomadeadifference.Incertaincases,therewaswisdomtocallingon,say,AnyabeforeShamar.Shamar’sanswerhadassumedanideathatAnya’s,bydrawinginthepreviouslyinvisibleline,madeexplicit—thatfractionsmadesenseonlyiftheyformed

equalpartsofthewhole.ThediscussionwouldgobetterifDeborahcouldgetAnya’sideaonthetablebeforetacklingShamar’sconfusion.Overtime,moreconventionsemerged.Itwascrucial,forinstance,tomake

surethatstudentsdidnottalkjusttoDeborah,buttotheentireclass.Everyonehadtolearneveryoneelse’sname.Then,insteadofsaying“thatweirdideaaboutone-halfandonebesideit,”theycouldsimplysay“Shamar’sidea”or,ifShamarpositedanargument,“Shamar’sconjecture.”Deborahcametoseethesenamedconjecturesas“fenceposts”fora

productiveconversation.Thestudentscouldpeerbackwardoverthelandscapeoftheirevolvingunderstandingandnamethekeyturningpoints.Andwhenanotherpart-wholemisunderstandinginevitablyarose,theycouldundoitmorequicklybythinkingbacktoShamar’sideaandthereasonsitdidn’tholdup.Theprecisewordingofquestionsalsomattered,andthelabgroupspenthours

debatingDeborah’sconstructions.Thatsameyear,hopingtointroducestudentstotheconceptofinfinity—oneofthosedazzlingideasthatcouldspininastudent’smindfordays—shehadpresentedaproblemwithendlessanswers.Then,askingthestudentstoguesshowmanysolutionstheycouldcomeupwith,sheaddedanextraquestion,apparentlyasanafterthought.“Afteryouwritedownyouranswer,”sheasked,“canyouwritehowlongitwilltake[tocomeupwithallthesolutions]?”Thelabgroupdevotedseveralminutestoconsideringthevalueofthatextra

question.Byaskingthestudentstowritedownhowlongwritingthesolutionswouldtake,hadn’tDeborahsuggestedthatwritingthemalldownwasactuallypossible?Andso,arguedateacherfromChicago,hadn’tthequestioninadvertentlytiltedthestudentsawayfromthecorrectanswer?Butthequestionhaddoneexactlytheopposite,anothergroupofteachersargued.“Wecouldbedoingthisforever!”thestudentsmightrealize,therebyjumpingclosertothekeyidea.ThegroupdissectedtheproblemsDeborahselectedtoo.Onthedayof

Shamar’smisunderstanding,anotherconfusionhadarisen—thisonenotaboutthewhole,butabouttheparts.Countingtheshadedpartandthencountingthetotalnumberofparts,somestudentshadcalledthefraction⅓.TheyhadmissedwhatAnyasawaboutdrawingalinetomakethepartsequal.Theclassdiscussedwhydividingashapeintoequalpartswasimportant,butsomelabobserverswonderedwhetherallthestudentsreallygraspedthisidea.Onepersonofferedaproposal.Inthenextclass,whynotpresentaproblemthatforcedthestudentstodrawevenmorelines?Somethinglikethis:

Thenextday,Deborahaddedtheproblemtothewarm-up.BackatSpartanVillage,thelessonsfromtheearlysummerlabs—which

beganin1984andcontinuedforyearsafter—werecombiningwiththenewcurriculumtocreateakindofmagic.Nowthatthestudentsconjectured,reasoned,argued,andproved,theywerebuildingoneideaontopofanother.Theysometimesforgotwhatthey’dlearned,likeallstudentsdo.Butnow,whentheystumbled,theycouldpickthemselvesup.Deborahsawithappenonedayafewweeksintothefractionsunit,whentwothird-graderswerepuzzlingoveraproblemaboutcookiesthatinvolvedthenumber .“Howcanwehavethis?”BetsyaskedJeannie,pointingtotheconfusing

fraction.“Idon’tknow,”Jeanniesaid.“Fourtwoths?”Betsyasked.“Wetakesomethinganddivideitintotwoparts...andtakefourofthose

parts?”Jeannieasked.“I’mconfused,”Betsysaid.“Metoo,”Jeanniesaid.Justthen,Sheenawalkedup.“Fourhalves,isn’tit?”“Yeah!”Betsyexclaimed.“Fourhalves!Halvesaretwoparts.So...”“Soweneedtwocookiesandcutthemeachinhalf,thenwehavefour

halves,”Jeanniesaid.“One,two,three,four.Twoths.Imeanhalves.”

WhileDeborahworkedonthepuzzleofhowtobeaneffectiveteacher,anotherquestionpulsedinthebackofhermind:Whyhadn’tshelearnedanyofthisbefore?AsadoublemajorinFrenchandelementaryeducation,she’dtakenamethodsclass,supposedlyabouthowtoteachmath.Later,ofcourse,she’dtakennearlytheentirestrandofuniversity-levelmathclasses.Butnoneoftheseclasseshadpreparedhertohelpchildrenlearnmath.Thatclassdidnotexist.Thetrouble,shesuspected,layinthekindofknowledgeoneneededtoteach

well.Itfitinneitherthecategoryofgeneraleducationnorthatofpuremath,thoughbothkindsofknowledgewerehelpful.Inadditiontothemathitself,shereasoned,mathteachersneededtoknowthekindsofactivitiesandtasksthatturnedastudent’sslipperyintuitionintosolidunderstanding.Notonlydidtheyhavetomasterprocedures,concepts,andthespecialcycleofconjecturetoargumenttoproof,buttheyalsohadtoknowthestudents:howmuchtheywerecapableof;theiterative,circlingwayinwhichtheylearned;andthekindsofrepresentations—theparticularconfigurationsofpictures,numbers,andblocks—thatbesthelpedthemtounderstand.Nowondertheclassdidnotexist.Itwouldhavehadtoteachasubjectwithno

name.EvenDeborah—whowasnowbothateacheratSpartanVillageandthespecial“mathhelpingteacher”forallEastLansingelementaryschools,nottomentionadoctoralstudentatMichiganState’sCollegeofEducation—couldnotarticulatetheparametersofthisknowledge.Butthatbegantochangeinthemid-1980s,whenshedecidedtostudyteachers’mathematicalknowledgeaspartofherdissertation.HerhunchwasthatMichiganStatewasstillnotequippingfutureteachers

withtheknowledgeandtechniquestheywouldneed.Buttobesure,shedevisedatest,ashortsetofteachingproblemsthatshethoughtmathteachersshouldbeabletoanswer,andgaveittoeducationmajorsabouttograduate.Onequestiondescribedagroupofeighth-gradeteacherswho“noticedthat

severaloftheirstudentsweremakingthesamemistake.”Whenmultiplyinglargenumbers,like123×645,theirstudents“seemedtobeforgettingto‘movethenumbers.’”Theirworklookedlikethis:

whenitshouldhavelookedlikethis:

“Whiletheseteachersagreedthiswasaproblem,”Deborah’squestionwenton,“theydidnotagreeaboutwhattodoaboutit.”Sheturnedthequestiontothefutureteachers.“Whatwouldyoudoifyouwereteachingeighthgradeandyounoticedthatseveralofyourstudentsweredoingthis?”Toanswerthequestionwell,Deborahdecided,teacherswouldneedto

identifytheideasthestudentslacked.Twowereparticularlyimportant.Onewastheconceptofplacevalue,theconventionthatgivesintegersdifferentvaluesdependingonwheretheysit,sothatthesecond3in79,335actuallymeans30,whereasthefirstonerepresents300.Thesecondmissingideawasthedistributiveproperty,whichexplainswhythecommonproceduredepictedinhersecondpictureworked—why,inordertofind123×645,youcouldadduptheresultsofthreemultiplicationproblems(123×5,123×40,and123×600).Bynotmovingthenumbersover,eighth-gradersshowedtheyhadfollowedaprocedureblindly,andthenfallenovertheinevitablecliff.Tohelpthemunderstandthestepsthatdidmakesense,ateacherwouldhavetoacquaintthemwiththereasonswhythealgorithmworked.Asitturnedout,ofthenineteenfutureteachersDeborahinterviewed,only

fivementionedeitheridea.Mostdescribedhowtheywouldremindstudentsoftherightsteps,especiallywhatateachernamedTericalled“shift[ing]thingsover.”Somereferencedtheideaofplacevalue,butobliquely,withoutrememberingitsname,meaning,orwhyitwasimportant.“Sinceyouareworkingwithsuchalargesum,”explainedateachernamedRachel,“youhavetoknowhowtoworkinthethousands,youknow,tokeepyournumbersthatway.”Theyhadtakenclassesinbotheducationandmath,buttheMichiganState

studentsdidn’thaveanotherkindofknowledgerequiredforteaching—“pedagogicalcontentknowledge,”LeeShulmancalledit.Notjustteachingmethodsortheintricaciesofthesubject,buttheperfectmixofthetwo.Evenfuturehighschoolteacherswithajointmajorinmathstruggledto

produceclearexplanations.Moreoften,likeateachernamedBarb,theyrememberedthereasonfortheprocedureonlyinthecourseoftryingtoexplain

it,andthenstumbledthroughit.“’Causeyou’regoingtotake5timesthat,andyoutake40,andthen600,andyoucanseewherethosezeroescomefrom,”BarbtoldDeborah.Deborahcouldsee,butwouldBarb’sstudent?Otherquestionswereaspuzzlingtothemathmajorsastoeveryoneelse.One

queryaskedthefutureteacherstocomeupwithawaytorepresentacommonpartofthecurriculum,divisionbyfractions.Deborahpickedaspecificproblem:1¾÷½.Mathteachers,sheremindedherinterviewees,oftentrytoexplainproblemsbyrelatingthemtoreal-worldsituationsor“modelsthatmakeclearwhatsomethingmeans.”Couldtheintervieweethinkofasituationormodelfor1¾÷½?Agoodanswerwouldhelpthestudentsvisualizewhatitmeanstofigureout

howmany½’sgointo1¾.Inherdissertation,Deborahdescribedonepossibility:“Arecipecallsfor½acupofbutter.Howmanybatchescanonemakeifonehas1¾cupsofbutter?”Theanswerwas3½batches,because1¾cupsofbuttercontains3½halfcups.Thestorynotonlyrepresentedtheproblem;itclarifiedtheconcept,offeringthestudentsonewaytoimaginedivision(ascreatinggroupsofacertainsize)andcuttingthroughtheconfusionofdefiningthewholebymakingtheunitclear.3½whats?3½halves.Onceagain,ofthenineteeninterviewees,onlyfivecameupwith

representationsthatDeborahcouldcallmathematicallycorrect.Andofthosefive,onlyonemadeuparepresentationthatwasdecipherable,thoughitlackedthecrispnessofthebutterexample.(Theteachersaidshewoulduseanumberlinetomarkoff1¾and½,andthenaskthestudentshowmany½’swentinto1¾.)Theotherfourteachers-in-trainingofferedexamplesthat,whilecorrect,

strainedevenDeborah’simagination,likeonebyayoungmannamedTerrell.Hesaidhewouldhavestudentsimaginegettingthreepizzas:onewholepizza,¾ofanotherpizza,and½ofathird.Thenhewouldaskthemtoimagineplacingthe½pizzaontopofthefirstandthenthesecondpie,eachtimetakingawaythatamountofpizza.Howmanytimeswouldtheyperformthisstrangeritualbeforetherewasnopizzaleft?DeborahaskedTerrelltoexplainwhattheanswer,3½,wouldmeaninthis

story.Terrellstumbled.“Theanswer,”hesaid,“wouldbehowmanytimesyougotawholehalf(ifyouwanttosaythat).Ofthe...whatever’sleftover,whatpartofitisofthehalf,Iguessyoucouldsay.”Heobviouslyknewwhatfractionswere,butwhenitcametoexplainingtheideatoanotherperson,hewasatsea.Anotherfivefutureteacherscameupwithstoriesordiagramsthatdidnot

actuallyrepresenttheproblem.Severalmadeupproblemsthatdivided1¾“inhalf”—thatis,by2insteadofby½.Theremainingeightcameupwithnothing.Deborahdidn’textrapolatethefindinginherdissertation,butthereaderhadto

wonder:BesidesDeborahherself,howmanypeopleattheCollegeofEducationcouldhaveansweredevenoneofthosequestionscorrectly?HowmanyteachersatSpartanVillage?In1984,MSUannouncedthearrivalofanewprofessorwithauniquejoint

appointment.MagdaleneLampert(orMaggie,aseveryonecalledherthen)wastoserveasbothassistantprofessorofeducationatMichiganStateand,simultaneously,mathteacherforgradesfourandfiveatSpartanVillage.Shewasbotharesearcherofeducationandapracticingmathteacher.And,asDeborahsoonlearned,notonlycouldshehavebreezedthroughallthequestionsonDeborah’squiz;shecouldhavewrittenabetterone.MagdalenecamefromCambridge,Massachusetts,butshemightaswellhave

sprungfromDeborah’simagination.Here,insilkblousesandpulled-backblondehair,wasDeborah’sspecialteachingknowledgepersonified.Magdalenespokeaboutproblemsthewayapottertalkedaboutclay,turningthemovertoseejustwhattheycoulddoandthensavingthemfortheperfectopportunity.Thebestproblems,theonesthatreallypushedstudentsintojusttherightmathematicalterritory,Magdalenedeemed“rich,”“open,”“productive.”Inclass,sheinfusedlessonswiththeideasandalsothehabitsofmath,teachingherfifth-gradersto“confer,”“conjecture,”and“prove.”Confrontedwithastudent’swrongidea,sheoftenspiedthehiddenmisunderstandingfasterthananyoneelse.Andjustlikeagoodmathproblem,shegavenothingaway.Withlipspursed,

herfacewasperfectlyopaque.“NobodyknewwhattherightanswerwasforMaggie,”saidThomDye,whosefifth-gradeclassroomatSpartanVillagebecameherhome(andtheplacewheresheeventuallytaughtAwad,Ellie,andRichardabout“rate,”helpingthemseehowfaracargoingat55milesperhourwouldtravelin15minutes).“She’sverystoic.Andsothestudentshadtolooktothemselvesforthecorrectanswer...Theycouldn’tjustsay,‘Oh,it’stherightanswerbecausetheteachersaidso.’”Magdalenegavethemnootherchoice.Theyhadtothink.ThefactthatDeborahhadn’tmetMagdaleneuntilshecametoMSUmadethe

resonancebetweentheirworkthatmuchmoreincredible.Whatdiditmeanthattwopeople,livinghundredsofmilesapart,hadstumbledonthesameapproach—Deborah’sstillnascent,Magdalene’sfarmoredeveloped,butinspiritthesame?Intime,astheybegancollaborating—DeborahlearningfromMagdalene

—theworktheyweredoing,thespecifickindofteaching,begantodemandaname,aneasytagforreferencingindiscussion,likeoneofDeborah’sstudents’fenceposts.Unabletocomeupwithsomethingadequatelydistinctive,theMichiganStatefacultysettledonacompromise:“ThisKindofTeaching”—TKOT(pronouncedtee-kot)—or,sometimes,“teachingforunderstanding,”thoughnoonereallylikedthatterm.(“Whatotherkindofteachingisthere?”someonewouldinevitablyask.)Morespecificlabelssimplydidn’tfit.Progressive,forinstance,wasapoliticalmovement,notapedagogicalapproach;constructivist,meanwhile,hadtodowithatheoryoflearning,notteaching.Sotheystayedpurposefully,playfullyvague:“ThisKindofTeaching”woulddofine.Deborahprotestedtheimpulsetoname;theteachingsheandMagdalenedid,

sheinsisted,wassimplyteaching,notaspecialsubsetorapproach.Theytaughtsothatchildrenlearned.Wasn’tthatthewholepoint?Forherpart,Magdaleneacknowledgedthatherteachingwasakindof“existenceproof”:livingevidencethatitwaspossibletoteachmathinthewayDeborahaspiredtoteachit.

Agraduateofoneofthecountry’smostprestigiousedschools—theGraduateSchoolofEducationatHarvard—MagdaleneLamperthadeschewedaconventionalacademicpath.Aftergettingherdoctorate,she’dtakenajobteachingelementaryschoolmathatBuckinghamBrowne&Nichols,aprivateschoolinCambridge,Massachusetts,thatalsodoubledasateacher-trainingprogram,workingwithstudentsfromnearbyLesleyCollege.There,herclassroom,aloftspaceshadedbytrees,becameherlaboratory.Herdailyjournalentrieschronicledtheroom’shappenings—herownideasaswellasherstudents’.AtHarvard,she’dreadtheformalresearchonteaching,butnoneofitharmonizedwithherownexperience.BetweenlessonsatBB&N,shetookcarefulandthoroughnotes,reassemblingtheday’seventsintoanaccountofwhatteachingreallyentailed.ShewashappyatBB&Nandhadnodesiretoleave.Butwiththegranthe’d

gottenfromtheNationalInstituteforEducation,LeeShulmanhadbuiltMichiganStateanewresearchgroupthatsuitedMagdaleneperfectly:theInstituteforResearchonTeaching(IRT).ChargedwithexploringwhatLeecalledthe“wisdomofpractice,”IRTprofessorswereexpectednotjusttodoresearchandnotjusttoteachfutureteachers,butalsototeachschool.Inotherwords,atMichiganState,Magdalenecoulddoeverythingshe’dbeendoingat

BB&N,exceptwiththesupportofafullresearchuniversity.Shewassold,andsoonshehadconscriptedDeborahintohercause—thetransformationofSpartanVillageintoafull-fledgedteachinglaboratory,aprojectthatcametotransformbothwomen’scareers.Magdalenefirstgottheideafromaformercolleague,whomadeacareerof

teachingschool,teachingteachers,andwritingabouthisteaching,allatonce.Tohelpunlockherownhiddenteachingexpertise(thepedagogicalcontentknowledgebehindherTKOT),Magdalenehadturnedherclassroomintoapetridishopenforstudy.AtBB&N,backinCambridge,herobservershadbeenthecohortofteacherssheworkedwith.AtSpartanVillage,asmallarmyofteachers-in-training,gradstudents,andfellowprofessorsfollowedherturns.Onanygivenday,twodozenormoreedschoolstudentsleftEricksonHallanddrovepastthefootballstadiumandoverthetraintrackstotheSpartanVillageschool.TheretheycrowdedintothebackofMagdalene’sclasses(and,soon,inDeborah’stoo),takingnotes.ButMagdalenequicklyfoundthatherobserversfailedtoseethesubtletyof

hermethods.Itwasasiftheirmicroscopesweresmudged.Theysawonlytheleastimportantdetails.Afterall,Magdalene’smostimportantwork,hermoment-to-momentdecisionsaboutwhattodo,livedonlyinherownhead.Ifsheinterruptedherteachingtomakethemvisible—tothinkaloud—shestoppedteaching.Deborahhadusedthemetaphorofasurgicaltheater.Butunlikesurgery,theactofteachingtookanentireyear.Inthatway,itwasmorelikeanovel.Skippingonechaptermeantmissingeverything.AnMSUgraduatestudentofferedasuggestion.Whynotvideotapeanentire

yearinherclass,startingwiththefirstdayandgoingallthewaytothelast?Itwasa“wildidea,”Magdalenereflectedlater.Butitwasthemid-1980sbythen,andtechnologywasimprovingfast.(ThegradstudenthadcometoMSUbywayofanewcompanycalledAppleComputer.)MagdaleneandDeborahbothalreadykeptdiligentjournals,butvideowouldexpandtheirdatadramatically—andhelpconveyittoo.Video,afterall,couldbepausedaswellasrewound.Toreviewaparticularlyproductiveorconfoundingturn,allanobserverwouldhavetodowasclickabutton.WorkingwithDeborah,Magdalenedraftedagrantapplication,andbythe

1989–90schoolyear,thetwoofthemhadrecruitedtwoteamsofgraduatestudents—theLampertteamandtheBallteam,theycalledthemselves—todothefilming.Carefulschedulesoutlinedwhichdaysthegradstudentswouldmanthecamerasandwhichdaystheywouldtakenotes.Eachstudentwasona

quarter-timeappointment,whichpaidenoughforjusttendaysofworkpermonth.Butafterawhile,thestudentsbegangivinguptheirdaysoffbecausetheydidn’twanttomissanything.ThisKindofTeaching,TKOT,mighthavearidiculouslyvaguename,butitwasriveting.“Theycouldn’tkeepusaway,”laughsKaraSuzuka,whowasontheBall

team.“Itwasjusthardnottobethere.Youknow,thestorycontinues!Imean,classjustends,andtheystilldon’thavearesolution.Kidsarestillconfused.Ortheyjustcameupwithanincredibleconjecture,andyoudon’tknowwhat’sgoingtohappenwiththat.Youknow,aretheygoingtouseit?What’sthenextthing?...Itwasjustaverycompellingstory.”Justhowcompelling,theyhadnoidea.

HymanBassfirstwatchedthevideosin1996,afterapackageofVHScassettesarrivedinhiscampusmailboxatColumbia,wherehewasthenatenuredmathematicsprofessor.Sixty-fouryearsold,havingworkedinmathfordecadesalready,Hywas

knownprofessionallyforexpandinganewfieldofalgebra.Buthehadalsotakenalate-careerinterestinthewaychildrenlearnedhissubjectinschools.Asfarashewasconcerned,mathwasnotjustbeautifulandfascinating,butvital.“Oneofthenoblestexpressionsofhumanity,”hesaid.Yet,insteadofencounteringthebeautyofthediscipline,childrensloggedawayatamerefacsimile.Thiswashardlyanewworry.Matheducation’swoeshadalwaysdrawnextra

attentionintheUnitedStates.Partially,thishadtodowiththecountry’sbeliefintheeconomicpoweroftheso-calledSTEMfields(science,technology,engineering,andmath).Anotherfactorwaspoortestscores.USstudentsregularlyrankedbehindCanada,Germany,andJapan,reflectingamathaversionthatplaguedmanyoftheirparentstoo.Asacountry,itseemed,Americanssimplywerenot“mathpeople.”Hopingtomakeadifference,Hyjoinedpolicygroups,matheducationboards,

andadvisorypanels.DespitetheprogressbeingmadebyLeeShulmanandhiscolleaguesatMichiganState,themostprominenteducationreformsinthe1980sstemmedfromeconomistEricHanushek’sideasaboutaccountability—anattentiontooutputsratherthaninputs,productionratherthanprocess.“Theconventionalwisdomaboutpublicschoolsisthattheyfaceseriousproblemsintermsofperformanceandthatimprovingschoolsrequiresadditionalmoney,”

Hanushekexplainedina1981article.“However,theavailableevidencesuggeststhatthereisnorelationshipbetweenexpendituresandtheachievementofstudents.”Insteadofinvestingintraditionalremedieslikelowerclasssizesorbetterteachertraining,hewrote,“moreattentionshouldbegiventodevelopingdirectperformanceincentives.”Theattentiontoincentivesmanifestedasamovementtocraftmore

demandingeducationalstandards.Thetragicflawofthepublicschoolsystem,standardsadvocatesargued,wasthatithadneitherattendedtotheoutputsofitsstudentsnordefinedwhatthoselearninggoalsshouldbe.Ofcoursetheschoolswastedmoney;thesystemliterallyhadnostandards!Followingthetrend,Hy’searlyforaysineducationfocusedonwritingbetter

goals.HewasservingonaboarddevotedtojustthistaskwhenhemetDeborahBall.DeborahwasunlikeanyoneelseHyhadmetinmatheducation.Whilehebelievedinthepowerofstandards,theeffortstowritethemfeltdisconnected.Everyoneseemedtohaveanideaofwhatbettermathlearningcouldlooklike,butnoonecoulddescribeit,andtheyhadcertainlyneverseenit.Deborahwasthefirstpersonhemetwhoactuallyseemedtoknowsomethingabouttheschoolsideoftheequation.ShewasalsothefirstpersontoimagineawaythatHyhimself,withhisextensivemathbackgroundbutlimitedknowledgeofclassroomteaching,mightbehelpful.Sowhensheaskedhimtoreviewthevideotapesthatsheandacolleaguehadmade,Hysaidsure.Now,poppingthetapeintohisVCR,heknewhisinstincthadbeenright.The

videoopenedonaclassroomthatlooked,atfirstglance,ordinary.Atthefrontwasalong,greenchalkboardwithlittleposterspastedoneitherside;inthemiddlestoodthestandardbeigedeskswithsmooth,laminatetopsandbuilt-instoragebelow.Andofcourse,therewerechildren—nineteenofthem.Asthevideoopened,onechildstaredlistlesslyatthefloor,herheadslumpedontothebackofherchair;anotherperchedhischinonhishand,pensive;athirdpulledherdeskopen,superquick,andgrabbedapencil.Thescenecouldn’thavebeenmoremundane.YettheclasswasunlikeanythingHyhadeverseen.ThefirstvoicetobreakthesilencewasDeborah’s.“Morecommentsfromthe

meeting?”sheaskedfromthesideoftheroom,outofthecamera’ssight.Atranscriptexplainedthecontext.Thedaybefore,thethird-gradershadheldameetingwithagroupoffourth-graderswho’dtakenDeborah’sclassthepreviousyear.The“ConferenceontheNumberZero,”thefourth-gradershadcalledit,lininguptheirdesksinanauthoritativerowtopresenttheirfindingsonaquestionthethird-gradershadonlyjustbeguntopuzzleover.Waszeroeven,

odd,or,assomechildrenargued,neitherone?Nowitwasadaylater,andDeborahwasgivingthethird-gradersachanceto

debrief.Thediscussion,shefigured,wouldlastonlyafewminutes.They’dtalkquicklyaboutwhattheyhadlearned(zeroiseven),*andthenthey’dmoveontotherealplanfortheday,anactivityDeborahhadbeenanticipatingforweeks.Afewdaysearlier,workingonaproblemshe’ddesignedspecificallyforthispurpose,thestudentshadcomeupwithconjecturesaboutthepropertiesofevenandoddnumbers.Anoddnumberplusanoddnumber,they’dnoticed,alwaysseemedtoequalaneven,whiletwoevensalwaysmadeaneven.Now,shewantedtoseeiftheycoulddowhatnothird-graderssheknewhadeverdonebefore.Shewantedthemtoprovethestatementstrue—notjustforthenumbersthey’dtriedsofar,butforallnumbers.Itwasn’ttobe—notthatday,anyway.Beforeshecouldgetthroughthe

discussion,DeborahfoundherplanhijackedbyatallboynamedSean.Shewouldn’tregaincontrolforanotherseveraldays.“Sean?”she’dsaid,noticinghishand.“Idon’thaveanythingaboutthemeetingyesterday,”hesaid,“butIwasjust

thinkingaboutsix.Iwasthinkingthatitcanbeanoddnumbertoo,’causetherecanbetwo,four,six,andtwo—threetwos—that’dmakesix.”“Uh-huh...”Deborahsaid.“Andtwothrees.Itcouldbeanoddandanevennumber.Both!Threethings

tomakeitandtherecouldbetwothingstomakeit.”Deborahjumpedin.“Andthetwothingsthatyouputtogethertomakeitwere

odd,right?Threeandthreeareeachodd?”“Uhhuh,”Seanreplied,“andtheother,thetwoswereeven.”Maybe,shethought,Seanwasrespondingtotheearliercommentabouthow

evennumberscanbemadeupoftwoevennumbers.Maybehewantedtopointoutthatsomeevennumbers,likesix,wereactuallymadeupoftwooddnumbersinstead.Knowingthey’dgettoallthatinjustafewminutes,Deborahdecidedtolet

theidearest.“Otherpeople’scomments?”sheasked,returningtothedebriefing.ButCassandra,atallgirlwithayellowhairclip,whoraisedherhandnext,

wasstuckon6.“IdisagreewithSeanwhenhesaysthatsixcanbeanoddnumber,”shedeclared,rockingherchairbackonitslegs.“Because—”HywatchedCassandrastandupandwalktotheboard,whereshepickedupa

longpointer.“Look,”shesaid,directingthepointeratthenumberlinehighabovethechalkboardandlandingitonzero.“Sixcan’tbeanoddnumber,

becausethisis,um”—shepointedtozero—“even.”Shewalkedthroughtherestofthenumbers,“Odd,even,odd,even,odd,”untilshelandedonsix.“Even.”SheturnedbacktoSean.“Howcanitbeanoddnumber?”ButSeanpersisted.“Because,”hesaid,“becausesix—becausetherecanbethreeofsomethingtomakesix,andthreeofsomethingis,like,odd.”NextcameKeith,whothrewuphishand.“Thatdoesn’tnecessarilymeanthat

sixisodd,”hesaid,toachorusofagreementfromtheclass.“Justbecausetwooddnumbersadduptoanevennumberdoesn’tmeanithastobeodd.”Hymarveledasthevideocontinued.Thesethird-graders—notagiftedclass,

butaverage,publicschoolthird-gradersfrom,Deborahsaid,awiderangeofbackgroundsandabilitylevels—werehavingarealmathematicaldebate.Oneofthemhadmadeaclaim,andthentheothersweretryingtoprovehimwrong.Cassandra’sprooffollowedaclassicstructure.First,shehadinvokedonedefinitionofevenandodd—thefactthatintegersalternatebetweenthetwotypesonanumberline—toshowthatsixcouldonlybeeven.Thenshehaddrawnoutacounterargument.Tobeoddandstillfitthealternatingdefinition,she’dshown,zerowouldhavetobeoddtoo.But,she’dconcludedwithaflourish,theyhadjustdecidedtheotherdaythatzerowaseven.QED:Sean’sconjecturewasimpossible.DeborahhadaskedHytowatchthevideoforimportantmathematics.Well,

hereitwas:athird-graderdoingafairlysophisticatedmathematicalproof.Moreproofsfollowed,noneofwhichhelpedSeanarticulatehisidea.Jeannie

remindedherclassmatesoftheirworkingdefinitionofanevennumber—one“thatyoucansplitupevenlywithouthavingtosplitoneinhalf.”Seanhadagreedthat,yes,6fitthatdefinition.Later,fromOfala,agirlfromNigeria,cameaderivationofadefinitiontheclassapparentlyhadnotmadebefore,foroddnumbers—“myconjecture,”Ofalacalledit.Ifevennumberswerethosethatcouldbesplitevenlyintwos,withoutanyleft,thenoddnumberswerethosethatalso“havetwointhem,excepttheyhaveoneleft.”Drawingoutsixlines,sheshowed,therewerenoneleft.“Ialreadyhaveallthetwoscircled,”shesaid.Butthemostintriguingproofbelongedtoalittlegirlinapurpleheadband,the

onewho’dstartedthedaystaringatthefloor:Mei.“Oh!”she’dexclaimed,outofnowhere,notlongafterDeborahhaddeclaredherselfconfused.“IthinkIknowwhathe’ssaying!...Whatheissayingisthat—youhavethreegroupsoftwo,andthreeisanoddnumber.Sosixcanbeanoddnumberandanevennumber.”Thatis,itcouldbeevenbecause6isbrokenintogroupsoftwo,butoddbecausethenumberofgroupsoftwoisodd.“Isthatwhatyou’resaying,

Sean?”Deborahasked.Finally,itwas!Meiwasnotdone.ShehadclarifiedSean’sargument,andnowsheintendedto

destroyit.“Idisagreewiththat,”shesaid,whenDeborahaskedheropinion.“Here.”Shewasalreadyhalfwayoutofherseat.“CanIshowitontheboard?”Beforeherteachercouldsayyes,Meiwaspushinginherchairandmarchingtotheboard.Sean,stillstandingattheboard,tookasteptothesidetomakeroom.“It’snotaccordingto,like,howmanygroupsitis,”Meisaid,herlong,blackhairwaggingfromsidetosidebehindherasshereachedtheboardandgrabbedapieceofchalk.HerheadbarelyreachedSean’selbow.Sheexplained.“Let’sseeifIcanfind...”shesaid,pointingherchalkatthe

greenboardandstaringahead,deepinthought.Hervoicewashigh,evenforanine-year-old.“Let’ssayten.”Shebegandrawingalineofcircles.“One,two,”shecounted.Shedrewteninarow.“Andherearetencircles,”shesaid.Seanstoodwithhisbackagainsttheboard,watchingMeipressdownher

chalkagain.“Andthenyouwouldsplitthem,”shewassaying.“Let’ssayIwanttosplitthembytwos.Goone,two...”Shedrewverticallinesbetweeneveryothercircle.Theboardlookedlikethis:

“Well,look!”shesaid,gainingspeedasshetappedeachpairwithherchalk—“one,two,three,four,five!”—andturnedtofaceSean,whonowhadhisentirebodyfacinghers.“Thenwhydoyounotcallten,like—a—,”Meistoppedforamoment,and

Seansaidsomething,butshedidn’thearit.Shehadturnedtofacetherestoftheclass,andshewasthrowingherhandsouttoeithersideofher,summinguphercaselikeatriallawyerreachingtheclimaxofaclosingstatement.Justas6dividedby2producedanoddnumber(3),10dividedby2was5—anotheroddnumber.Whydidn’tSeancall10“anoddnumberandanevennumber?”Meiasked.Shedroppedherhandstohersidesandsteppedback,scratchinghernose.Caseclosed.Meihadmissedthekeysentence,butithadnotescapedHy.Rightinthe

middleofhercrescendoconclusion,Seanhadmumbledthefollowingfourwords:“Idisagreewithmyself.”ToHy,allthiswasstunning—anextraordinaryepisodeofmathematicalreasoning,enactedentirelybynine-year-olds.First,Meihadpulledoffsomethingthatisoftenchallenging,eventomathematicians.She

hadlistenedtoSean’sconfusingargument,andshehadtranslateditintoanimpeccablyclearexplanationofhisownthinking.Mei’sanalysishelpedtheclass,anditalsoallowedMeitoarticulatetothewholegroupwhyshedisagreed.Whatshedidattheboardwasevenmoreamazing.Untilthatpoint,allthe

argumentsagainstSeanhadfollowedthesamepattern:Seanmadehisclaim,andthenthestudentsattackedtheconclusion,offeringupdifferentproofsofwhy6wasactuallyeven.Meitookamuchmoresophisticatedstance.Insteadofchallenginghisconclusion,shechallengedhisreasoning.Andintheprocess,shetookaleapSeanhadnotyetmadeorevenseen.Six,sheshowedhim,wasn’ttheonlynumberthatmethisodd-groups-of-twocriteria;10didtoo,andpossiblyothers.“Whataboutothernumbers?!”Meihadsaid.“Like,ifyoukeepongoingon

likethat,andyousaythatothernumbersareoddandeven,maybewe’llenditupwithallnumbersareoddandeven.Thenitwon’tmakesensethatallnumbersshouldbeoddandeven,becauseifallnumberswereoddandeven,wewouldn’tbeevenhavingthisdiscussion!”Seanseemedtohavenochoicebuttofold.Except,that’snotwhathappened.

Afterapause—MeistaringatSean,SeanstaringatMei,Meiscratchinghernose,Seanrockingbackandforth—Seanextendedhisgratitude.“Ididn’tthinkofitthatway,”hesaid,smiling.“Thankyouforbringingitup.So,Isayit’s—tencanbeanoddandaneven.”InsteadofquietingSean,Meihadunleashedhim.Notonlythat,butsoon

otherstudentswerejoininghiscause,derivingmorenumbersthatfithiscriteria(notjust6and10,butalso14andeven2!).WhenDeborahtriedtosteertheconversationtoaclose—onemoreidea,sheallowed,“butthenIthinkmaybewe’regoingtohavetostopwiththis”—itwasnouse.Thechildren,Hythoughtwithdelight,hadbeenignited.Notonlyweretheyconstructingproofs.Theyhadinventedanentirelynew

categoryofnumbers.“Seannumbers,”Deborahchristenedthemafewdayslater,decidingtoturnthediversionintoanopportunitytoenhanceapointshe’dbeentryingtoteach,abouthowtomakemathematicaldefinitions.(Apoint,shehadtoadmit,thattheSeandetourhadofferedmultiplechancestounderscore,whatwithOfala’snewdefinitionofoddnumbersandJeannie’srestatementofthedefinitionofanevennumber.)Whenthevideocametoanend,HyconsideredthequestionDeborahhad

askedhim.Whatmathcouldheseeinthevideos?He’dseenmathinthekids,ofcourse,butalsoinDeborah.Uponreflection,itwastheteacher,notSeanorMei

orOfala,whohadprovidedthekidswithtwocriticalturningpoints.Deborahhaddirectedthembacktotheir“workingdefinition”ofanevennumber,layingafoundationfordiscussion.Sean,incalling6“evenandodd,both,”wasactuallypositinganentirelydifferentdefinition.Andthentherewasthemoment,rightafterMeisuggestedthat10fithiscriteriatoo,whenDeborahsuggestedthatthechildrenconsider14—thelaunchpointthathadsparkedagirlnamedRibatoderiveanothermathematicaldefinition.Infact,Ribahadshownthat,ifyoufollowedSean’slogic,everyfourthnumberonthenumberlinecouldbecalled“oddandeven.”Anothermathematicianmightlookat“Seannumbers”asamistake.Afterall,

numbersthatmettheboy’scriteriawere,ultimately,even.ButHyknewthatmathwasallaboutdefinitions—comingupwiththespecificrulesandrestrictionsthatmadeonenumberpositiveandanothernegative,oroneprimeandanothercomposite.Theusefulnessofthesedefinitionsdeterminedwhichonesstuckandwhichonesmathematiciansdiscarded.TheconceptofSeannumberswouldultimatelyendupinthedustbin,butbyinventingthenumbersinthefirstplace,thestudentshadlearnedsomethingfundamentalabouthowtothinkaboutmath,somethingtheycertainlywouldn’thavegottenjustfromlearningthedifferencebetweenoddandeven.DeborahamazedHy.Hehadviewedonlywhatshehaddoneonthisparticular

day.Butwhatabouteverythingshehadtoknowtogettothispoint?Theproblemsshe’dhadtopick,thehabitsshe’dhadtoteach,thedecisionsaboutwhentoletadetourhappenandwhentoshutitdown?EveryamazingstudentepiphanyinaTKOTclassroomreflectedanequalcapacityonthepartoftheteacherorchestratingit.AndDeborah’scapacitywasunlikeanythingHyhadeverseen.“WatchingDeborahteach,”hesaid,“islikelisteningtochambermusic.”Helikeditsomuchthat,notlongafterwatchingthatfirsttape,hehandedin

hisresignationatColumbiaandmovedtotheUniversityofMichigan,wherehetookajointappointmentinthemathdepartmentandtheeducationschool.Standards,curriculum,andassessmentswereimportant.Butmatheducation,hehadrealized,couldnotchangeunlesstheteacherscouldturnthosetoolsintoeverydaylessons.HeandDeborahbeganaformalinquiryintothekindofknowledgerequiredtoteachmathwell.Soon,theyhadadefinitionoftheirown—andaname:MathematicalKnowledgeforTeaching,orMKT,“themathematicalknowledge,skills,habitsofmind,andsensibilitiesthatareentailedbytheactualworkofteaching.”ThemathversionofLeeShulman’spedagogical

contentknowledge.Thewisdomofexpertpractice.SomepartsofMKToverlappedwithknowledgeheldbyanyeducatedadult,

butotherparts,likeknowinghowtoanalyzeincorrectornonstandardsolutions,identifyingthestudentthinkingthatmighthaveproducedanincorrectanswer,anticipatinglikelystudenterrors,andunderstandingwhatkindsofrepresentationsofferthebestexplanations,didnot.EvenHy,aprofessionalwithdecadesofexperience,didnotpossessthesepartsofMKT.Andlater,administeringatestofMKT,heandDeborahsawthatneither(tothesubjects’horror)didothermathematicians.Intime,theSeanepisodewentviral,playingatconferencesfromCaliforniato

Korea.MagdaleneLampert’sclass,meanwhile,wasfeaturedinLifemagazineandeventuallycametoinspireanentiretelevisionshowonPBS:amathprogramforyoungchildrencalledSquareOneTVinwhichnoirdetectivesGeorgeFranklyandKateMondayof“MathNet”workedtosolveanewcaseeachweek.(InadditiontothecasescrackedbyMathNet,recurringsketchesofferedthetwo-minutetelevisionequivalentofMagdalene’sproblemoftheday.Inthe“BureauofMissingNumbers,”distressedcitizensreportedabsenteenumberstoanFBI-styleinvestigator,whohuntedthemdownbyinterviewingwitnessesabouttheircharacteristics;“PrimeClub”depictedanightclubthatadmittedonlyprimenumbers;amusicalnumberparodied“ClimbEveryMountain”inasongaboutcountingtothehighestnumber.)Thetwoteachers—DeborahBallandMagdaleneLampert—wereaformof

proofthemselves,evidencethatadifferentkindofteachingwaspossible.IftwowomeninMichigancouldteachthisway,peoplebegantowonder,whycouldn’teveryone?

*Thecorrectanswerdependsontheproblem’sassumption,whichwasn’tgiven.Ifthepassengercanstoponlyonce,thenthereareonly25waystogettothesecondfloor.Iftripscanincludemultiplestops,thenthenumberofpossibletripsisinfinite.

*Likeallevennumbers,zerocanbedividedevenlyby2,issurroundedoneithersidebyoddnumbers,andwhenitissubtractedfromanevennumber,producesanevenresult.

3

SPARTANTRAGEDY

Itwasonethingtoprovethatexcellentteachingwaspossible,quiteanothertoteachittopeoplewithouttheextraordinaryskillofMagdaleneLampertandDeborahBall.In1982,afterLeeShulmanleftMichiganStateUniversityforStanford,thewomanwhotookresponsibilityforthattaskwasLee’soriginalIRTpartnerincrime,aMichigannativeandformerteachernamedJudithLanier.Judymodeledherreformeffortsontwooftheschoolswhereshe’dbeen

trainedherself—labschools,theywerecalled.Evenbackthen(shestartedteachinginthelate1950s),theschoolshadbeenthelastofadyingbreed.Labschools,inturn,weretheoffshootsofanotherantiquatedinstitution,the“normal”school,acollegealternativethatthrivedintheearlytwentiethcenturybeforeuniversitiestookoverthejoboftrainingteachers.Aimedbothattrainingfutureteachersandinventingbetterwaysofteaching,

normalschoolsservedtwokindsofstudents:kindergartenersthroughtwelfth-gradersand,simultaneously,thecollegestudentswhowantedtolearnhowtoteachthem.Eachnormalschoolwasreallytwoschools:the“normal”part,forteachertraining,andthelab,or“practice,”school,whereK–12kidslearnedwhilethefutureteacherswatchedand,eventually,steppedintotryoutteachingthemselves.JohnDewey’slabschoolattheUniversityofChicago,whichheinherited

fromhismentorFrancisParker,fashioneditselfonthismodel.Judy’sownexperiences—firstatalabschoolinPawPaw,Michigan,andlaterataschoolinMilwaukee,Wisconsin—showedherthemodel’spower.InPawPaw,sheandherfellowteacherslearnedtokeepdetailedlogsoftheirdailypractice.Latertheymetwithresearcherstogooverwhatthey’ddone,receivinglecturesinabuildingadjacenttotheschool.ThelabschoolinMilwaukeeevenhadanupstairsviewingarea,aglassed-incatwalkraisedaroundtheclassroom’sperimeter,fromwhicheducationstudentscouldsitandobserve,openingthe

glasswindowtoeavesdroponthelessonwithoutinterruptingitsflow.Afterward,thestudentsandtheirprofessorwouldgooverteachingproblemstogether.WorkingatthelabschoolchangedJudy’sviewofteaching.Originally,she’d

takenuptheworkbydefault.(Whenshefinishedhighschool,intheearly1950s,womenseemedtohaveonlythreechoices:nursing,secretarialwork,andteaching.SinceJudydislikedbloodandfoundofficeworkboring,teachingwasit.)ButaftertheexperiencesinPawPawandMilwaukee,teachingwasnolongerajobshehadsettledfor.Itwas,shesaw,acraft—onethatapersoncouldspendalifetimemastering.Astheyearspassed,however,thelabschools,andtheviewofteachingthey

supported,becameincreasinglyobsolete.Themaintriggerwasuniversities,whichbegantoaddthelucrativeteacher-trainingbusinesstotheirrepertoires,puttingnormalschoolsoutofwork.Butintakingoverteachertraining,universitiesmarginalizedit.Insteadoftraining,theirprofessors—menmorelikethepsychologistsWilliamJamesandEdwardThorndikethanliketheformerschoolteacherFrancisParker—focusedonresearchthatoffered“hardlyanodtowardthepublicschools,”Judylaterwrote.Attheuniversity,“schoolteachersandyounglearners,whoshouldbethefocus,”becamea“sideshowtotheperformanceinthecenterring.”AnOxfordprofessornamedHarryJudge,touringAmericanedschoolsatthe

requestoftheFordFoundation,describedtheuniversityapproachas“thedoctrineofAnything-But.”Thatis,edschoolswere“anythingbutschoolsofpedagogy,”anedschoolprofessortoldJudge.ThedoctrineofAnything-Butbeganwithprofessors.Inhisfinalreport,Judge

describedhowfacultyrecruitmenthappenedatafictionaluniversityhenamedWaterend—acompositerepresentingtheeliteedschoolshe’dtoured:

Thedominanttacticwastomakeaforayintothedisciplines,totrackdownascholarofachieveddistinctionorofsparklingpromise,andtocarryhimtriumphantlythroughthegatesofWaterend.Thereafter,theprofessorwouldbecarefultoexplainthatthiswasthefirstappointmenthehadeverheldinaschoolofeducation,thathewasunsulliedbycontactwiththelowerworldsofeducationalpractice,thathewasfirstandforemosta

WaterendProfessor—withatleastacourtesyappointmentinanotherdepartmentaswell.

Atland-grantuniversitieslikeMichiganState,whichJudgesatirizedasafictionalplacehecalledHSU,thesamepracticesruled,butonalargerscale.Insteadofahandfulofunsulliedpsychologists,heobserved,HSU’sedschoolhiredsixty.AtbothWaterendandHSU,educationprofessorstendedtofeelmoreloyalto

theirdisciplineoforiginthantothestudyofeducation.Amongthesubjectsofinterest,Judgerecounted,aprofessorofeducationmightstudy“thehistoryofthefamily,theroleofthemediaintheformationofpublicopinion,thestructureofhighereducation,thechangingshapeofmacro-economics,ortheevolutionoforganisationaltheory”beforeevervisitingaclassroom.Theneglectwassometimesbenign(forexample,LeeShulmanstudieddoctorsbeforehisencounterwithNateGage),butoftenitwasoutrighthostile.OneprofessortoldJudgehowhappyhewasnottohavetoworkwith“dumb-assedteachers.”FuelingthedoctrineofAnything-Butweretheperversepressuresoftenure.

Eventhosewithgoodintentionslearnedthattheworkthatledtothatultimateacademicaccoladedidnotalsoleadtogoodschoolteachingorteachertraining.Ayoungprofessormightbeamasterfultrainerofundergraduateteachers,butherCVneededtolistpublicationslike“SexStereotypesofSecondarySchoolTeachingSubjects”ifshewantedajobaftergradschool.Judgeconcludedthatthetradition,while“indefensible,”wasnevertheless

unchangeable.Theuniversitiesdependedonedschoolsfortuitionandthussuppressedreform.Theeddepartmentbecame“ourdumpingground,”oneprofessortoldhim.

WhenJudyLanierarrivedtherein1964,asagraduatestudent,theMSUedschoolepitomizedthedoctrineofAnything-But.Itwasa“goodoldboys’paradise,”Judytoldonehistorian.Thereigningcliqueofbig-thinkertypesmetregularlyintheloungeonthetopfloorofEricksonHall,wheretheyspenthourssmokingtheirpipes,sippingcoffee,andgenerallyinfuriatingtherestofthefaculty,whonotedwithaggravationthattheyrarelystrolledinbefore10:00a.m.These“goodoldboys”hadlittleinterestinresearchonteaching.WhenJudy

firstdescribedherdissertationidea—astudyofthefeaturesthatseparatedexcellentteachingfrommediocrecases—severalseniorfacultytoldherthatthe

projectwasimpossible.Theywereunimpressedbyherproposedmethodology:surveyingprincipals,teachers,andparentsandvideotapingtheteacherswiththebestreputations.Thiswasthemid-1960s,pre–NateGage,andmoststudieshadfailedtoidentifyanycommoningredientsofgoodteaching.ThefacultydoubtedtherewasanywayforJudytoidentifythebestteachers,muchlesstodiscernwhatmadethemsucceed.MSU’s“teachereducators,”meanwhile,formedadistinct,marginalized

group.Whilethe“goodoldboys”enjoyedlightteachingloadsandampletimeforresearch,theteachereducatorsenduredmonumentalclasssizes,heavyloads,andslimtononexistentresearchbudgets.Asforteacherpreparationitself,rigoroustracksliketheElementaryIntern

ProgramthatfedDeborahBallintoSpartanVillagewererare.AtypicalAmericanundergraduate,Judge’sreporthadobserved,couldpassthroughthecoursesnecessarytobecomeateacherevenifshesuffered“aprolongedfitofabsentmindedness.”Ratherthancloselyguidedclassroomexperiences,theaverageMSU

educationstudentfollowedathree-partcurriculum.First,therewastheoverviewoftheacademicsubjects,basicsurveycourses,taughtbywhatJudyconsideredthedepartment’slightweights.Thencamethe“foundations”coursesinthepsychology,history,andphilosophyofeducation,taughtbythemostjuniorofthe“goodoldboy”types(including,whenhefirstarrived,theyoungeducationalpsychologistLeeShulman).Finally,therewerethemethodsclasses,taughtbytheteachereducators.Intheory,thesefocusedonthecraftofteaching,the“how”ratherthanthe“what.”ButmoreoftentheyreflectedwhatJudycalledthe“bootsandgaloshes”visionofteaching—“theidea,”accordingtoFrancescaForzani’shistoryoftheperiod,“thatallteachersneededtolearnwashowtohelpchildrendressforrecess.”Next,futureteachersembarkedonthestudentteachingexperience,tenweeks

inaclassroombuoyedonlybywhateverlimitedguidancetheirhostteachercouldprovide.Sometimes,Judyobserved,schoolsassignedstudentteacherstotheirweakeststaffmembers—theoneswhostruggledtokeepthechildreninorderandcouldusethehelp.Duringherownstudentteaching,atWesternMichiganUniversity,she’dwoundupdoingmoreoftheteachingthanthehostteacherdid.In1980,whenshebecamedeanoftheedschool,Judyupendedthedoctrineof

Anything-But.Insteadofdallyinginotherdisciplines,professorswouldspendtheirtimeminingthesecretwisdomofteachers,modelingfortheentireschool

theapproachthatsheandLeeShulmanhadperfectedattheIRT.TheywouldtransformMSUintoamodernversionofherlabschoolinPawPaw.MichiganStatewouldsetanexampleforuniversitiesacrossthecountry,raisingthelevelofteachingnationwide.Judge’sscathingreporttotheFordFoundationin1981mightaswellhave

beenJudy’sblueprint.Firstcamehousecleaning.Judycutedschoolspendingby40percent.Inreturn,sheextractedapromisefromtheprovost:a25percentincreaseforfutureinitiativesfocusedonhermission.Thenshewentinsearchofnewhires.JustassheandLeehaddoneattheIRT,Judyrecruitedprofessorswhomotheredschoolsmighthaveignored,facultywhowereexpectedtoconductresearchaboutteachingandtotrainteachers.Thegoalwasnotjusttodoteachereducation,buttotransformit.JudyevenconvincedHarryJudgetojointhecause.Forfiveyears,heservedajointappointment,workingatbothOxfordandMSU.Shecappedoffherhiringspreein1984withMagdaleneLampert.Magdalene

hadswornoffedschoolslongbeforethen,banishingherselfinsteadtotheclassroomatBuckingham,Browne&Nichols.HerexperienceattheHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationhadthoroughlydisenchantedher.OfallthelistingsinHarvard’scoursecatalogue,onlyonehadtheword“teaching”initstitle—andsheendedupmarryingtheprofessor,DavidCohen.ButevenDavid,ahistorianbytraining,hadnevertaughtschoolhimself.Hehadonlyrecentlymovedfromstudyingeducationpolicyandhistorytoobservingclassrooms.“Crouching,”hecalledit.Notonlythat,butMichiganStatewasacowcollege.WhenMagdaleneand

DavidfirstvisitedMSU,oneofthefirstdepartmentstheypassedhadasignthatannounced,inboldMSUgreenandwhite,“DEPARTMENTOFSHEEPTEACHINGANDRESEARCH.”Another:“SWINETEACHINGANDRESEARCH.”EricksonHall,homeoftheeducationschool(humanteachingandresearch),satonastreetcalledFarmLane,lessthanaminute’sdrivefromalongstretchofcornfields.Finally,theypassedasignreminiscentofhome:“AISchool,”itsaid.“Well,inCambridge,that’sMIT,andthat’sartificialintelligence,”Davidsays.AtMichiganState,“AI”meantartificialinsemination.ButJudyLaniertookwhatwasmostforeignabouttheMidwest—that

staggeringflatness,theswine—andspunitasanadvantage.Asthecountry’sfirstland-grantuniversity,MichiganStateprideditselfonitscommitmenttoproducingknowledgeforthefield,literally.Inthenineteenthcentury,itwasaprofessoratMSUwhofirstdevisedaprocedureforhybridizingcorn,helpingto

modernizeagriculture.Theeducationschool,JudyexplainedtoMagdaleneandDavid,coulddothe

sameforteaching.Withsuchahugestudentbody,theirexperimentsmightchangethelivesofthousandsofstudentteachersinclassroomsthroughoutMichiganeachyear.Equipthemwiththerightideasandskills,andtheycouldchangeeducation.HowcouldMagdalenesayno?

JudyLanier’sambitionswerenotnovel.Effortstotransformteachingstretchedbacktotheearlynineteenthcentury.Inaspeechtoagatheringofschoolleadersin1830,aneducatornamedWarrenCoburnannouncedthathewantedtoextinguishwhathecalled“theoldsystem.”Inthatapproach,“thelearnerwaspresentedwitharule,whichtoldhimhowtoperformcertainoperationsonfigures...Butnoreasonwasgivenforasinglestep,”Coburnwrote.“Ashebeganinthedark,sohecontinued;andtheresultsofhiscalculationseemedtobeobtainedbysomemagicaloperationratherthanbytheinductionsofreason.”Butthe“oldsystem”wasstillcurrentin1911,whenthemathematicianAlfred

NorthWhiteheaddescribedthe“roadtopedantry”offeredbymostschoolmath.Poorlytaught,withafocusonlyonbrutememorizationandnotanyofthesubject’smoreintricateconcepts,hesaid,thegreatsciencebecameliketheghostofHamlet’sfather:“’Tishere,’tisthere,’tisgone.”Norhadmuchchangedby1957,whenthecompetitivepanicwroughtbytheSoviets’Sputniklaunchinspiredafreshcurriculumcalledthe“NewMath”—aprogramofstudythat,SuzanneWilsonsummarizedinherhistoryofAmericanmathreforms,wouldhelp“anynormalhumanbeing[to]appreciatesomeofthebeautyandpowerofmathematics.”ThestateofmathteachingasDeborahBallandHyBassencountereditinthe1990sshowedhowwellthathadgone.Mathgotthemostattention(nottomentionmoreresearchdollars),butitwas

nottheonlyschoolsubjecttoinspire,andthenresist,callsforchange.StudyingclassroomsinPortland,Oregon,in1913,asurveyteamfoundpedantryeverywhere.Ingeography,“thequestions,almostwithoutexception,calledforunreasoningmemorizationofthestatementsofthebook.”Ingrammar,muchofthework“hadlittlemeaningformostofthechildren.”Inhistory,“therewasnottheslightestevidenceofactiveinterestinthesubject;theonepurposeseemedtobetoacquire,bysheerforceofmemory,thestatementsoftheassignedtext.”Yetin1970,thejournalistCharlesSilbermanwasstilldiagnosing“mindlessness”

acrosstheboard.Thiswasthestoryand,perhaps,thedestinyofAmericanschoolteaching:alwaysadmonished,neverchanged.ButJudyLanierbenefitedfromgoodtiming.Like-mindedcomradesmight

havecomeandgonebefore,butnonehadarrivedatamomentasauspiciousforteachingreformasthe1980s.Oneadvantagewastheemergenceofacademicresearchthat,forthefirsttime,bolstered(ratherthanignored)educators’notionsthatlearningwasmorecomplicatedthanNateGage’sbehaviorismsuggested.Studyingtheinnerworkingsofthemind,thenewbreedofcognitivescientistshadfoundthatlearningdidnotrespondtocommonteachingtechniques.OnestudyexaminedthemathcapabilitiesofchildstreetvendorsinBrazil.

Sellingcoconutsandwatermelonsonthestreet,thechildrentabulatedpricesandcountedoutchangewithimpressivefacility.Butwhentheresearcherstransferredtheproblemsthechildrenhadencounteredonthestreettopaper,thechildrenfloundered.Overandoveragain,theresearcherswatchedthemmiscalculateinthesameway:byincorrectlyfollowingprocedurestheyhadlearned—andcompletelymisunderstood—inschool.Theyweremorethancapableofcomplexcomputation.Schooljustseemedtoconspireagainsttheirabilitytodoit.Thepatternrepeateditselfagainandagain.Onthestreet,achildwould

improvisementalmathtofigureouthiscustomer’sprice.Then,onpaper,hewouldswitchoffthatpartofhismind—thepartwheremultiplicationanddivisionrepresentedrealtransformations—andinsteaddohisbestimitation(oftenincorrect)ofthestepshe’dbeentaughttomemorizeinschool.Itwasasifthetwoproblemswerecompletelyseparate:oneanactualmanipulationofrealnumbers,theotheraseriesofstepsperformedtopleaseateacher.Atwelve-year-oldboywhohadjustfluentlycalculatedthepriceof4coconuts

at35cruzeirosacoconut,140cruzeiros,wasflummoxedwhenresearcherspresentedhimwiththeexactsameproblemonpaper.35×4?Insteadoffollowingthesamecalculationhe’ddoneaminutebeforeinhishead(“Threewillbe105,plus30,that’s135...onecoconutis35...that’s140!”),hetriedtowalkthroughthemultiplicationprocedurehe’dlearnedinschool,stackingonenumberontopoftheother:

Hegotthemainpiecesright,correctlymultiplyingthe4by5toget20and

thencarryingthe2.Butinsteadofwaitingtomultiply4by3beforeaddingthecarried2,headdedthe3and2andthenmultipliedby4.Heproducedhisanswerfortheresearchers—200—apparentlywithoutwonderingaboutthedifferencefromhisfirstcalculation.School,thestudysuggested,notonlyfailedtohelpstudentslearn;itactuallyseemedtoconfoundthem.Inadditiontothecognitivists,anevenmorepowerfulgrouphadbegunto

influenceschoolsinthe1980s—thebusinessandpoliticalelite.AlarmedbynewinternationaltestsshowingthatUSstudentswerefallingbehindtheircounterpartsaroundtheworld,theseCEOs,electedofficials,philanthropists,andadvocatesworriedaboutwhattheapparentdownturnmightmeanforthenationalinterest.Afterall,theeconomywasshiftingfrommovingandmakingphysicalobjects(cars,food,coal)toconstructingwhateconomistscalled“informationproducts”(software,videogames,cellphonecalls).FlounderingAmericanstudentsdidnotseempoisedtoparticipateinthisneweconomy.OneCEO,AlfredTaubman,abillionairebusinessmanwhoseempireincluded

theA&Wrestaurantchain,becamealarmedaboutschoolsafteramajorproductflop.HopingtochallengethefamousMcDonald’sQuarterPounder,he’dreleasedtheA&Wone-third-poundburger—atthesameprice.ButthoughtheA&WburgerbeattheQuarterPounderintastetestsandvalue,theone-third-pounderdidnotsell.OnlyafterhiringamarketresearchfirmtomountcustomerfocusgroupsdidTaubmanunderstandwhy.HalftheparticipantsinthefocusgroupsbelievedthatA&Whadovercharged.“Whyshouldwepaythesameamountforathirdofapoundofmeataswedoforaquarter-poundofmeatatMcDonald’s?”theyasked.Somecustomersactuallythoughtthatathird,havingtodowiththenumber3,waslessthanafourth,havingtodowith4.Themathabilitiesofcustomersauguredpoorlyforthoseofworkers.“When

companieshavetospendbillionsofdollarsprovidingremedialinstructioninreading,simplemath,andproblemsolving,”Taubmanconcluded,“that’sadoubletax.”Theypaidoncefortheofficialeducationsystem,throughgovernmenttaxes,andthen,whentheschoolsfailed,theypaidagainfortheirown.EconomiccompetitivenesswasonthemindofPresidentReagan’sfirst

secretaryofeducation,TerrelBell,whenhecommissionedastudyofAmericanschoolsin1981.TitledANationatRisk,thereportdescribedthedeterioratingconditionoftheAmericaneducationsystem.Ofspecialconcernwasthefactthatevenstudentswithbasiccompetencyfailedatthe“higherorderintellectualskills”thatwouldbevitalinthepostindustrialeconomy.TheNationatRisk

reportlauncheddozensmore.Onehistoryconcluded,“Withinafewyears,itwasnoexaggerationtospeakofa‘movement’forschoolreform.”Reformerswagedtheirfightonmanyfronts.Overtime,themostprominent

wasthepushforstandards.AfterANationatRisk,governorsbeganmeetingtoplotnewlearningstandards—adevelopmentthatsowedtheseedsfortheNoChildLeftBehindlawtwodecadeslater.JudyLanier,meanwhile,usedthebuddingconcerntobuildanimpressivecoalitionaroundherreformagenda:transformingthestudyandtrainingofteachers.WhenTerrelBellannouncedtheNationatRiskreport,JudytraveledtoWashington,DC,fortheoccasion.Later,BellvisitedMichiganState,wherehegaveanawardtoJudyandtotheInstituteforResearchonTeaching.Judy’sadvisersalsoincludedAlfredTaubman,JimBlanchard(theMichigangovernor),andtheleadersofseveralnationalphilanthropies.Rallyingthereformmovementtohercause,Judydidn’thavetopersuadetheestablishmentabouttheimportanceoftrainingbetterteachers.Forthemomentanyway,shewastheestablishment.

But,MagdaleneLampertwouldlaterask,exactlywhatdidteachersneedtolearn,andhowweretheygoingtolearnit?NotlongafterMagdaleneagreedtocometoMSU(shesignedonforaprovisionaltwo-yearstay,shortenoughforDavidtokeeptheoptionofreturningtoHarvardwithoutlosinghistenure,andlongenoughforhertogiveMSUarealshot),ateachernamedRuthHeatoncametoembodythechallengeofteachereducation.Afirst-yeargraduatestudent,RuthfirstmetMagdalenemidwaythroughthe

schoolyearinastateofdistress.She’dcometogradschooltobecomeateachereducator,butdespitenineyearsofexperienceinelementaryschoolclassrooms,herconfidencewassufferingatMSU.AllaroundEricksonHall,sheheardpeoplediagnosingthepitfallsofthetraditionalmathclassroom.And,withhorror,sherealizedthatfornineyearsshehadbeenperpetuatingthosesamemistakes.MagdalenetookRuthonashernewstudent.SheputherontheLampertteam,

thegroupofgradstudentswhocametowatchherteachduringtheyearofthevideotapes.ThefollowingSeptember,MagdaleneinstalledRuthinafourth-gradeclassrightnextdoortoherown.Ruthbecamethemathteacherforthatclass,aswellasMagdalene’sunofficialapprentice.Twiceaweek,MagdalenesatinRuth’sclassroom,watchingandcomposingcomments.Intheyearsthatfollowed,bothwomentaughteachother;MagdalenetaughtRuthhowtoteach

math,andinturn,RuthtaughtMagdalenehowtoteachteaching.Oneearlylessonstartedoffsimpleandthengotmorecomplicated.Watching

MagdaleneandDeborahteach,Ruthhadgraspedtheimportanceofgettingherstudentstotalk.Inhermathlessons,shedutifullypliedthefourth-graderswithquestions,oftenimitatingMagdaleneandDeborahwordforword.“Howdoyouknowthat?”“Whatdootherpeoplethinkaboutthat?”Butalthoughsheaskedtherightquestions,shewasn’tsurewhattodowiththestudents’answers.Asaresult,classdiscussionsfeltlesslikeexplorationsandmorelikeaseriesofdeadends.Eachcommentfellwithathud—thesoundofnoonethinking.Inonetypicalsequence,Ruthintroducedalessononfunctions.Shewasusing

thesameexperimentalcurriculumthatDeborahhadtriedwithherfirst-graders.Followingtheteacher’sguide,Ruthhadtheclassmakeupalistofnumbersthatfitasimplefunction:f(x)=x+10+2.Pluginanynumberforx,andwhatwouldyouget?Thestudentscameupwithalisteasily:99and111,8000and8012,250and262,4988and5000,andsoon.Next,Ruthwassupposedtoaskthemwhatpatternstheysawinthenumbers.

Theteacher’sguidedescribedtherichdialoguethatwouldensue.Thestudentswouldmakesharpobservations—ifthenumberontheleftiseven,thensoisthenumberontheright;thenumberontherightisalwaysbiggerthanthenumberontheleft—andthen,asinoneofMagdalene’sorDeborah’slessons,theywouldmovefromnoticingtoverifying(“Isthisalwaystrue?”)andfromverifyingtoadeeperunderstanding.Whoknew,maybethey’deveninventanewclassofnumbers!Instead,itwasanotherdrearyparadeofdullideasmarchingnowhere.There

aretwo“80s,”onestudentoffered,pointingto8000and8012.Anotherpointedto8000,111,and5000.“Hereisthreezeroesinarowandthreeonesinarow,andthenthreezeroesinarow,”thestudent,aboynamedRichard,said.Whatwasthepattern?Ruthaskedhopefully,andhesaiditagain:“000,111,000.”Ruthwasdespondent.“IfeltlikeIwasflounderingtoday,”shetolda

colleaguelaterthatafternoon.ButwhereRuthsawfailure,Magdalenesawroomforimprovement.Ruthknewherstudentsneededtotalkaboutmath.Shejustdidn’tknowhowtoturnthetalkingintolearning.ThatwaswhatMagdalenewouldhavetoexplain.Toteachmathtoachild,thebeststrategywastodesignaproductiveproblem.

ToteachTKOT,Magdaleneneededaparallelopportunity,ateachingproblemtohelpRuthseethedifferencebetweenhersolution(repeatingthequestionfromthetextbook)andother,betterpossibilities(amorefertilewayofrespondingto

students’ideas).AproductiveteachingproblemaroseonedayinlateSeptember,whenRuth

assignedthefourth-gradersaproblemoftheday:

Whatwholenumberscouldbeputintheboxes?26– =

Insteadofplungingintotheproblem,likeMagdalene’sstudentsalwaysseemedtodo,Ruth’sdiverted.“What’sawholenumber?”onegirlaskedher.Thrownoffguard,Ruthtriedtoanswerthequestionquicklyandmoveon.Shedirectedthegirltothenumberlineonthewall,whichdisplayedalistofwholenumbers.Butinsteadofreturningtotheproblem,thesamestudentpipedupagain.“Idon’tunderstand,”shesaid.“What’snotawholenumber?”Frustratedbythiswasteoftime—theyneededtobecomingupwithsolutions,notdebatingthedirections!—butalsotryingtolistentothestudents,Ruthpausedonemoretime,helpingthestudentslistmoreexamplesofwholenumbers.Watchingfromthesidelines,Magdalenesawaclassicteachingproblem.Ruth

seemedtohavemissedwhatthegirlwasaskingfor.Shedidn’twantexamplesofwholenumbers;shewantedadefinition.Thatwaswhysheaskedthesecondquestion,“What’snotawholenumber?”Therewasnoeasysolutiontothisproblem(ortoanyteachingproblem,forthatmatter),butMagdalenecouldhelpRuththinkmorecarefullyaboutherresponse.Shecould,forinstance,helpRuthseethevalueinlisteningtowhatstudentswereaskingherfor.Sometimes,ateacherneededtosteerstudentsawayfromquestionsthatthreatenedtotakethemoffontangentsbecause,sometimes,thetangentswereawasteoftime.Butinthisparticularcase,clarifyingthestudents’confusionaboutwholenumberswascoretohelpingthemworkonthetask.Theyneededtoknowwhatawholenumberwasbeforetheycouldthinkofwholenumberstofitintheboxes.MagdalenecouldalsohelpRuthdeviseabetterresponsebyhelpingher

understandthemathshewasdealingwith.Herdecisiontopointtothenumberlinehaditsmerits,asitgavethestudentsareadyandvisiblelistofpossiblenumberstotry.ButRuthhadconfusedthewhole-numbernumeralswrittenonthelinewiththelineitself,whichrepresentednotonlywholenumbersbutalsoallthefractionsinbetween.Magdaleneunderstoodtheconfusion.“Withinmathematicstheimportanceofthenumberlineisthatitrepresentscontinuity,”MagdalenewroteinanotetoRuth.“Thatis,itrepresentstheideathattherearealwaysmorenumbersinbetweentheothernumbers.”Thechallengeforteachers

wastowalkthelinebetweenthesetwoequallyimportantusesofthenumberline—astockofdiscretenumberstodrawon,andalsoanexpressionofcontinuity—withoutconfusingthestudentsorbeingincorrect.ReadingoverMagdalene’snotelater,Ruthfeltrelief.Therewasnomagic

bulletthattookstudents’ideasandcreatedarichconversationalenvironment.Buttherewerebetterandworsewaysofmakingsenseoftheircomments—andbetterandworsewaysofrespondingtothem.Forinstance,hadRuthdoneabetterjoboflisteningtowhatitwasthestudentsactuallywanted—adefinition—shecouldhavefocusedhereffortsonhelpingthemgenerateone.Andtogetthemthere,shecouldhaveelaboratedonamovethatMagdalenepointedoutapprovingly,whenRuthsuggestedthatastudentdiscussthemeaningofwholenumberwithotherstudentsathertable.Insteadofjustlettingthemtalk,shecouldhavesteeredtheirconversationtowardtherightanswer.Thekeytomovingadiscussionforwardwastolistentostudents’questions,figureoutwhattheyneededtounderstand,andconstructaresponsetopullthemthere.WhenRuthfinallymanagedtopullthisoff,shedidn’tevennoticeshe’ddone

ituntilMagdalenepointeditouttoher.MagdalenealwaysscribbledcommentsrightafterwatchingalessonandthengavethemtoRuthtoreadbeforetheydiscussedtheminperson.Thistime,Magdalene’snoteunderlinedacertainmoment,whenRuthhadtoldthestudents,“Iwanttoshowyousomething.”“Didyougetsomekindof‘brightidea’abouthowtopullallthistogetherwhenyousaid[that]?Orwereyoufollowingthescript?”Magdalenewroteinherobservationnotethatday.“Itseemedtomeasifyouweremoreengagedhere,morethinkingaboutthekidsandthesubjectmatterandtherepresentationratherthanreadingthemanual.”Atfirst,readingthenoteinsidehercarintheSpartanVillageparkinglot,Ruth

hadnoideawhatMagdalenemeant.“DidIgetsomebrightidea?Whatmomentwasshereferringto?”shethought.Athomethatnight,sheopenedtheaudiotapeshehadmadeofthelesson,foundthe“Iwanttoshowyousomething”moment,andhitplay.Thelessonhadbegunlikesomanyothers,withRuththrowingoutquestionsandthestudentshandingbackduds.Theyploddedonlikethis—nothinginteresting,nogristforexploration—until,morethanhalfanhourintoclass,aboynamedArifsteppedtothefront.Theproblemwas2×(3×x),andtheyweretryingitoutwithdifferentnumbersstandinginforx.Inthiscase,xequaled35,andanotherstudenthadofferedthesolution,210,countingoutthecalculationwithcheckers.Arifvolunteeredtodotheproblemanotherway.Butnowhestoodattheboard,stuck.Ruthlistenedagaintotheawkward

silencethatfollowed.“Iamconfused,”Arifsaid.“Why?”Ruthasked.“Becauseoverhereweaddedthreeofthem[35]andwegot105,”Arifsaid,“andIthoughtoverhereweweresupposedtoaddtwomoreofthem.”Hemeanttwomoreof35,buttheotherstudenthadaddedtwomore105s,nottwomore35s.Ruthcouldrememberthemomentnow,andMagdalenewasright—shehad

beenstruckbya“brightidea.”Whilepreparingforclass,sheherselfhadmisread2×(3×x)as3×x+2×x.Shehadsoonrealizedhererror;theproblemactuallycalledformultiplying,notadding—fortriplingxandthendoublingtheproduct.Thiswasacommonmisunderstandingofmultistepmultiplication.WhenArifsaidhethoughttheyshouldaddtwomore35s,Ruthcouldtellhe’dmadethesamemistake.“DoesanybodyhavethoughtsforArifaboutthis?”sheaskedtheclass.AstudentnamedBobjumpedin,butRuthheardherselfcuthimoff.She

rememberedwhy.Knowingexactlywhereshewantedthediscussiontogo—apointaboutorderofoperationsandthepropertiesofmultiplication—shehadseenalmostimmediatelythatBob’sanswerwouldn’ttakethemthere.Hehadn’tunderstoodArif’sconfusion,sohiscommentwasn’tgoingtomoveanythingforward.Thatwasthemomentwhenshesaidthosewords—“Iwouldliketoshowyou

somethinghere.”Shewalkedtheclassbackthroughtheirsteps,startingwith35×3=105.“Now,”sheheardherselfsaying,“andthisiswhatsomepeoplewerehavingproblemswith,Iwanttodoublethis.”“This”meantthe105—not,shewasmakingclear,the35.Shedrewanarrowfromthe105andwrote“2x”overit,theclass’ssymbolformultiplyinganumberby2.Achorusof“Ohhhhhhhh”filledtheroom.Listeningtothetape,Ruthexperiencedherownaha!moment—notabout

math,butaboutteaching.“Ididseewhattheyneeded,”shewroteinherownjournal.“Thepointwastoseetheconnectionbetweenadditionandmultiplication...TheyweremissingthepointandIcouldseethat.”Inhernotebookthatnight,Ruthparaphrasedthelessonshetookfrom

Magdalene’scomment.“ThingscametogetherinthatmomentbecauseIwasthinkingaboutthesubject,listeningtothestudentsandtryingtomakesenseofwhattheyweresaying,”shewrote,“andthenIacted.”Discussionswouldn’tworkifshesimplyletthestudentstalkontheirown.Thebestexchangesactuallyhappenedwhenshefiguredoutwhatthestudentsneededtounderstandandguidedtheirconversationtoaplacewhereshecouldteachittothem.Bytheendoftheyear,thechallengewasnothowtogetadiscussiongoing

buthowtoendit.(Classoftenwentonstraightthroughthebell,stoppedonlybythecriesofotherchildrenmakingtheirwaytolunch.)Ruthstillhadalottolearn,butthesuccesswasundeniable.Nowheronlyquestionwas,“HowdoIkeepitup?”

AtSpartanVillage,Ruthwasn’ttheonlyonemasteringthetechniquesofTKOT.Downthehall,aveteranteachernamedSylviaRundquistwasstudyingwithDeborahBallthesamewayRuthwatchedMagdalene—andchangingherownteachinginresponse.SylviawasnineteenyearsolderthanDeborah,andherteachingexperience

datedbacktothe1960s.ShetaughtthirdgradebutgaveherclassovertoDeborahformath.SittinginthebackofherownclassroomduringDeborah’shoureachday,shebecameastudentherself,fullofquestions.Waszerooddorwasiteven?Whywasn’t–7primeif7was?Did7×4reallymeansomethingdifferentfrom4×7?Onemorningeachweek,sheandDeborahmetoutsideofschool,talkingovertheanswers.(Zeroiseven;negativenumbersaren’tprimebecausethey’realldivisibleby–1aswellas1;andyes,thoughtheybothhavethesameanswer,thedifferencebetween7×4and4×7isanimportantconceptformathteacherstoknow.)*WatchingDeborahteachmadeSylviaquestionherownteaching.Midway

throughtheyear,shebegantorefertoheroldhabitsasBDB,“BeforeDeborahBall.”Oneday,attendingarequiredprofessionaldevelopmenttrainingonmath,Sylviafoundherselffollowingalongeasily—andeven,insomeinstances,catchingerrors.“[Theleader]simplyannouncedthat3×4and4×3weretheSAME!”shewrotetoDeborahinane-maillaterthatnight.“ValandIstronglydisagreedwithher,andsheagreedthattheyweredifferent,buttheendresultwasthesame...Amenandthankyou!(It’sworking.)”OnemajorchallengeforSylviawasmanagingherfear.Deborahalways

lookedsocalmandserious.WhenSylviaopenedupadiscussionforchildren’sthoughtsandideas,herheartraced,herstomachgottight,andherfacegrewwarm.Whatifastudentaskedaquestionshedidn’tknowhowtoanswer?TKOTobviouslyworked,butitwasalsoscary.Todoitwell,Sylviadidn’tjusthavetolearnaboutmathandhowchildrenunderstoodit.Shehadtomusterakindofconfidenceshehadn’tpreviouslythoughttofind.Sylviafoundherselfchangingthewayshegotreadyforclass.“Whereaswhen

sheusedtogoinonweekendsitwastocleanupandtocorrectpapers,”Sylvia

andDeborahwroteinasummaryoftheexperience,“nowshelookedformaterials,read,andorganizedareasoftheroom.Shetriedtoimaginevariouspathsthestudentsmightwanttotakeininvestigatingwhatwasgoingonwiththeirplants,ortheirbreadmoldcultures,ortheirmagnets.Shelookedforbooks.Shegatheredmagazinesandnewspapers.Inshort,sherealizedthatshewaspreparing,ratherthanplanning,forteaching.”LikeRuth,Sylviabecamemorecomfortableovertime.Shenevertaughtafull

mathlesson,buttheeffectsofwhatshesawtrickledoverintothewayshetaughtscience,reading,andEnglish.Shestoppedusingabasalreader,oneofthosetextbookswithpre-preparedpassages,andstartedhavingtheclassreadcompleteworksofchildren’sliterature.“Whatdotherestofyouthink?”she’dask,movingfromtheusualask-tellping-pongtosomethinglooser.“Facilitating,”shecalledit.SylviaandRuthweren’ttheonlyoneslearningfromMagdaleneandDeborah.

Everyday,MagdaleneinvitedMSUundergradstositinthebackofherfifth-gradeclassroomandobserve.Everyweek,shemetwithasmallgroupofSpartanVillageteacherstoworkonmathproblemsandtalkaboutteaching.Deborah,meanwhile,continuedplayingpedagogicaldaredevil,teachingmini-lessonsinotherteachers’classrooms.Atfirst,thevisitingundergrads’reactionstracedthesamesuperficialterritory

thathadinspiredMagdalenetomakethetapes.“Theteacherdoesn’tsaymuch—shedoesn’tdoanythingtoreinforcethekidswhoaregettingitright,”onestudentsaid.“Iwonderifthisisagiftedclass,”saidanother.“Mostthirdgraderscan’ttalklikethis.”And,notingthatthestudentsworkedonjustoneproblemaday,anotherwondered,“Don’ttheyneedtogetthrougheverythingtheyaresupposedtolearninthirdgrade?Howcantheydothatiftheyworksolongononesimpleproblematatime?”Bytheendoftheyear,afterwatchingvideosandalsopracticingthematerial

ontheirown(writingandsolvingfractionproblems,forexample),theiropinionshadchanged.TheynoticedthewaysthatDeborahandMagdalenedidgivefeedback,ifnotbysimplydecreeingeachanswerrightorwrong.Theysawthatinthespaceofoneproblem,theclassoftentouchedmultiplepartsofthecurriculum.Andtheywatchedasmisunderstandingsthattheteacherseemedtoignoreonedayweretakenupandobliteratedthenext.Theyevenshedtheirideasabouttheirownmathabilities.“I’mjustnotamathperson,”they’dsaidatthebeginning.Bytheend,onesuchstudentwrote,“Thiscoursehasenlightenedmetoawholeworld.”

Astheyearswentby,JudyLanier’sambitionsgrew.ShegavethemodelthatMagdaleneandDeborahwerecreatingatSpartanVillageanofficialname,the“professionaldevelopmentschool,”amodern-daylabschool.AndwithagrantfromtheMichiganstatelegislature,shebegancreatingmoreofthem.Bythemid-1990s,morethanadozenMSUprofessorshadmadehomebasesoflocalschoolsandembarkedonnewteachingresearch.TheseprofessorswerejustthefirstwaveoftherecruitsJudyandLee

Shulmanbroughtin.In1986,twoyearsintotheirhesitanttryout,Magdaleneandherhusband,DavidCohen,haddecidedtostay,makingDavidperhapsthefirsttenuredHarvardprofessorinhistorytoleaveCambridgeforEastLansing.WithDavidonboard,JudybeganpersuadingprofessorsfromallacrossthecountrytocometoMichiganState.Judyneededtheextrafacultymembersbecauseshewaseyeinganevenbigger

expansion.ThesameyearMagdaleneandDaviddecidedtocommittoMSU,Judylaunchedanationalcampaignwithfellowdisaffectededschooldeans.TheycalledthemselvestheHolmesGroupafteramaverickHarvarddeanwhowascommittedtotrainingteachers.Theirfirstreporturgededschoolstobetterprepareteachersor“surrendertheirfranchise.”Amongthegroup’srecommendations:createmoreprofessionaldevelopmentschools.Bytheendoftheyear,toeveryone’ssurprise,membershipinthegroupincludedmorethanahundreddeansfromcollegesanduniversitiesallacrossthecountry.ItwashardnottofeellikeMSUwasthecenterofanewuniverse,ground

zeroforanewnationalreformmovement.Thesensehadbeenunderlinedin1985,whentheCaliforniaDepartmentofEducationannounceditsintentiontoadopt“teachingforunderstanding”inmathclassesthroughoutthestate.Ayearlater,DavidandagroupofyoungMSUresearchersboardedaplaneforCalifornia.ThegroupincludedDeborahandRuth,thoughnotMagdalene,whopreferredtostudyteachingratherthanpolicy.Theywereexcited.Whatwoulditlooklikeifanentirestatecommittedtoteachingmathwithmorethanjustroteexercisesandmemorization?Theywereabouttoseeforthemselves.Overthenextseveralyears,thegroupobservedclassroomsacrossthestate,

watchingelementaryschoolteachersteachmath.Theysawsomepromisingchanges.Oneteacherwhoviewedthereformswithsuspicionnonethelessusedthenewmethodofteachingfractionsandreportedbeing“amazed”bywhatthestudentsachieved.“Heneverhadimaginedthathisfifthgraderscouldthinkand

reasoninsuchadvancedways,”theteamwroteinonereport.Anotherteacher,awomanDavidcalledMrs.Oublier(apseudonym),proudlydeclaredthatherclassroomhadundergonea“revolution”asaresultofthenewideas.Butoncloserinspection,theMSUteamwonderedhowextensiveCalifornia’s

changesreallywere.Mrs.Oublier’s“revolution”—whichDavidobservedfromthebackoftheroom,crouchedamongthesecond-graders—seemedtohavereallimits.Followingthestate’sdecreethatmathlessons“involveconcreteexperiences”withnumbers,Mrs.Oublierhadreplacedherpen-and-paperworksheetswith“manipulatives”—littledriedbeansanddrinkingstraws.Insteadofseatingthechildreninrows,shearrangedtheminclustersoffourorfive,inlinewiththestate’snewemphasison“cooperativelearninggroups.”Andshezealouslyincorporatednewtopicsthatthestatesaidwereimportant,likeestimation.Yeteachadjustmentdidlittletoachievethestate’sgoals.“Concrete

experiences,”forinstance,weresupposedtohelpchildren“developasenseofwhatnumbersmeanandhowtheyarerelated,”accordingtothestate’snewmathframework.YetMrs.Oublierpaidmoreattentiontotheactivitiesthemselvesthantothemaththeyweresupposedtoteach.InoneactivitythatDavidobserved,thechildrenusedbeansandcupstomodelplacevalue.ButMrs.Oublierfocusedmostofhertimeonwhetherthechildrenwereholdingthebeanscorrectly,sometimesphysicallymovingtheirarmstomakesuretheymadethemotionsasshe’dinstructed.Whenshegottotheactivity’skeymathematicalpoint—themomentwhenthestudentshadtoenactsubtractionwithregrouping,effectivelytakingalargernumberfromasmallerone—sheflewrightpastit.Theydidtheexchangeandtheymovedon—noemphasisordiscussion.Thesupposedlycooperativelearninggroups,meanwhile,wereintendedto

giveMrs.Oublier’sstudentsopportunitiesfor“speculating,questioning,andexplainingconceptsinordertoclarifytheirownthinking.”ButDavidneveroncesawstudentsspeaktoeachotheraboutmath.“Indeed,”hewrote,“Mrs.Ospecificallydiscouragedstudentsfromspeakingwitheachother,inhereffortstokeepclassorderlyandquiet.”AsfarasDavidcouldtell,sheusedthegroupsonlyasameanstocallonindividualchildrentocomeuptotheboard(forexample,sothattheycouldnotetheirresponsetoayes-or-noquestionforuseinagraphingactivity),topassoutorcollectpapersormaterials,andtodismisstheclassforlunchandrecess.“Shewouldletthequietestandtidiestgroupgofirst,”Davidobserved.AnotherlessonDavidsatinonhadtodowithestimation.Liketheplacevalue

lesson,theactivityhadpotential.Mrs.Oublieraskedthestudentstoguesshowmanypaperclipsitwouldtaketolineanentireedgeofherdesk,andthen,aftertheywrotedowntheirideas,shecollectedeachstudent’sguessonthechalkboard,askingeachtimeiftheclassfoundtheguess“reasonable.”Butinsteadofdiscussingwhatmakesaguessreasonable,orhelpingthestudentstodiscriminatebetweenmoreorlessreasonableestimates,Mrs.Otreatedalltheguessesequally—evensomethatwereobviouslyfaroff.Mrs.Owasn’ttheonlyonewhoserevolutionfellshort.Theteamvisitedthe

classroomsofnearlythreedozenteachersand,wroteoneresearcher,“Toaone,weneversawradicalchange.”Theteacherssatchildreningroupsandevenassignedeachgroupmembera“cooperativelearning”role,buttherolesdidn’ttranslateintoconversationsaboutmath.Theyemphasizedtheimportanceofknowingthe“why”ofaprocedure,butonlyacceptedonekindofwhyascorrect,evenwhenmoreexisted.Andwhenstudentspresentedexplanationsthatteachersdidn’tunderstand,insteadofdiggingintotheideas,theteacherssteeredaway.Deborahwatchedthatparticulardramaplayoutinalessonfocusedononeof

herownoldteachingchallenges:subtractionwithregrouping.Afterexplaining“Mrs.Turner’slawofmath”—“Neversubtractthetopnumberfromthebottomnumber”—theteacherharpedsomuchontheimportanceofregrouping,or“borrowing,”thatonelittleboyborrowedoneverysubtractionproblem,evenwhenitwasn’tnecessary.Butinsteadofunpackingthechild’smisunderstanding,Mrs.Turner(apseudonym)seemedtobrushitaside.Afteraskinghimashortseriesofstackedquestionsandgettingthedesiredresponse(“Youhave4cookies.Canyoueat3cookies?...Sothere’snoreasontoborrowthere.”),shemovedon.Whatexplainedthesepoorchoices?Somemightarguetheproblemwasan

activeresistancetochange.AndtheremighthavebeensometeachersinCaliforniawhodidresisttheideasinthenewCaliforniamathframework.OneMSUresearcherreportedvisitingateacherwhoswappedtheproblem-solvingpagesofanewtextbookhisdistricthadadoptedforoldworksheets.Anotherscoffedatthetermteachingforunderstanding.“Whatdotheythinkwe’vebeendoing—teachingformisunderstanding?”theteacheraskedtheMSUteam.Butmanyteachers,likeMrs.Oublier,plainlyembracedthechanges.What

stoppedthemfromimplementingtheideasmoreeffectivelywasn’talackofwill,butalackofclarityaboutwhattodo.LikeRuthandSylvia,theCaliforniateacherswerestrugglingtounderstandstudents’ideas,figureoutwhatthe

studentsneededtoknow,andthenusethatinformationtorespond.Theythoughtthatsimplygivingstudentsachancetotalkwasenough.Butwithoutthemathematicaltrainingtorespondtostudents’comments,theyweren’tabletotranslateconfusionintounderstanding.Changewasalsodifficultwithoutgoodmodels.Intheabsenceofproper

coaching,manylikeMrs.Oublierbelievedtheyhadundertakenarevolution.Andwithmanyvisiblechangesintheirclassrooms—morechildrentalkingorplayingwithblocks—theyhadreasontobelievetherevolutionwasreal.YetwhenDavidaskedMrs.Oublierifshehadactuallyreadthestate’smanifestooutliningthechanges,shecouldn’tremember.Thatresponsewasrepeatedoverandoveragain.Outsideofasmallgroupofmathspecialists,whohadtheirownworncopiesofthemathframework,teacherstoldtheMSUresearchersthatthey’deitherneverreadthedocumentordidn’tevenknowitexisted.Theteachersdidreceivenewtextbooks,butthebookshadnotactuallymadethechangesthatCaliforniaeducationofficialshopedfor.Despitehardlobbyingbythestate’sDepartmentofEducation,publishers’revisionswereminimal.AccordingtoSuzanneWilson’shistoryoftheperiod,CaliforniaDreaming,stateofficials“estimatedthat90percentofthetextshadremainedessentiallythesame.”Professionaldevelopmentsessions,meanwhile,mademattersworse.Wilson

watchedonesessioninwhichaninstructor,explainingthenewfocusonopen-endedratherthanmultiple-choiceproblems,emphasizedthatstudentsmustcommunicatetheirideasclearlybutfailedtomentionthatteachersalsoneedtomakesurethestudents’answersarecorrect.Forherpart,Mrs.Oublierreliedonabookwrittenbeforetheframeworkcame

out,ateacher’sguidecalledMathTheirWay.Readingit,Davidfoundthatthebookcenteredonastrangeidea.Youngchildrencan’tactuallyunderstandabstractnumbers,itargued.Butiftheyworkenoughwithphysicalrepresentationsofnumbers—beans,say,orstraws—thenwhentheyareoldenough,numbersthemselveswillcomequite“naturally.”Theprocess,thebooksaid,wouldbe“effortless.”ToMSUresearchers,Mrs.Oublier’sdecisiontouseMathTheirWaywashard

tounderstand.Thebookwasnotpartofthestate’sreforms.Indeed,itsmagicalthinkingdirectlycontradictedpsychologists’findingsabouthowmuchabstractmathyoungchildrenarecapableofdoing.ButMrs.Oublier’sdecisionhaditsownlogic.AsRuthandSylviahadfound,

changingthewayyoutaughtwasamajorundertaking.Ateacherhadtorevise

everythingfromthekindsofquestionssheaskedtoherveryunderstandingofthesubjectshewasteaching.ImplementingtheactivitiesinMathTheirWay,meanwhile,wasmorelikewhatMrs.Oublierdidwiththedesks:aredesign,butnotanoverhaul.Thesameoldwineinnewbottles,Davidsaid.Shecouldcarryouttheactivitieswithoutrebuildinghercorebeliefs.Morethanthat,nobodyhadchallengedMrs.OublieroranyoftheCalifornia

teachersontheirfidelitytothereforms.Mrs.Oublier’sprincipaladmiredthechangesinherclassroomandevencalleditamodelforothers.InsteadofreallyteachingMrs.Oublier,givingheropportunitiestolearn,andnotingwhatshedidanddidnotunderstand,thestatesimplysaid,here’stheframework;goodluck.

BackatMSU,JudyLanier’splanswerefalteringtoo.Supportforoverhaulingtheedschoolhadneverbeenuniversal.Butinthebeginning,Judy’ssupportershadusuallydrownedouttheskeptics.Nowthebalancebegantoflip.Hiringeducationresearcherswhoalsodidteachereducationandtaughtinaschoolclassroomwasalovelyideal,butdifficulttocarryout.Magdalene’sandDeborah’spositionsatSpartanVillagehadgrownorganically.Buildingnewrelationshipswithnewschoolstooktime.AccordingtoahistoryoftheperiodbyFrancescaForzani,onefacultymemberhadtospendayear“hangingout”inaschoolbeforeateacherfinallyagreedtocollaboratewithher.Timespentinaprofessionaldevelopmentschool,meanwhile,meanttime

awayfromtheusualtasksofbeingaprofessor,likedoingoriginalresearchandjoiningprofessionalgroups.AccordingtoForzani,severalyoungprofessorsscaledbacktheirinvolvementinprofessionaldevelopmentschoolstofocusonboostingtheiracademicrésumés.HarryJudge,theobserverfromOxford,hadpredictedthis:theAmerican

practiceoftenure,historicallydeterminednotbythenumberofdaysspentworkinginelementaryschools,butbythenumberofpublicationsinpeer-reviewedjournals,wouldundermineedschoolreformefforts.JudyLaniersworethatthosewhofollowedherintotheclassroomwouldnotbepunished,but,accordingtooneprofessor,youngfaculty“sawthewritingonthewallintermsoftheproductivityexpectedfortenure.”Insteadofrelaxinghergoals,though,Judyspedup.Evenwithmore

professionaldevelopmentschoolsunderway,amajorityofMSUundergradsstilldidtheirstudentteachingatschoolsselectedessentiallyatrandom.Theresimplyweren’tenoughprofessionaldevelopmentschoolstoaccommodateevery

trainee.Judy’sambitionswerealsoinfluencedbythepeoplewhosesupportshespent

moreandmoreofhertimecourting—potentialdonorswhomightprovidethemoneyneededtoexpandheroperations.EspeciallyinfluentialwasAlfredTaubman,thebillionaireA&Wproprietor,whobegantobrainstormwithJudyabouthowtotaketheprofessionaldevelopmentschoolideastatewide—a“scaling”projectthathemodeledonhisownexperiencegrowingsupermarketsandchainrestaurants.Thespiralingplancalledforbuildingfiftyorsixtyprofessionaldevelopmentschoolsallacrossthestate.“M.S.U.hasonly140facultymembersandthenumbersdoingteachereducationareevensmaller,”afacultymembertoldForzani.“That’sjustnotenoughpeopletomakeitwork.”Forherpart,Judy(knowntodayasJudithGallagher)pointsoutthatshepursuedtheexpansiononlyattheinsistenceofsomeofthesamecolleagueswholaterquestionedit.Whateverthesourceoftheplans’ambitionswas,though,thegapbetweenwhatJudyandotherfacultymembersbelievedwasneededinbothMichiganandtherestofthecountryandwhattheresourcesathandmadepossiblewasundeniable.AccordingtoafacultymemberinterviewedbyForzani,Judycametothinkof

herjobasanalogoustothequeenScheherazadefromOneThousandandOneNights.JustasScheherazadehadtotellthekinganewcaptivatingstoryeverynighttostayalive,Judyfeltthatsheconstantlyhadtospinbetterandbetterplansbeforepotentialfunders.“Youhadtoproposeagrandvisionthatis[infact]cockamamie,”thefacultymembertoldForzani.“Imean,peopleinthisplacewouldreadJudy’splansandsay,‘Whatisshethinking?!’Butthat’swhatittookinthecorporatecommunity;that’sthestoryyou’vegottotell.”Fedup,otherfacultymembersairedtheirfrustrationspublicly,publishinga

newsletterfilledwith“enragedandsometimessatiricalessaysaboutJudyaswellascartoonsthatdepicted,forexample,thedeansmashinghammersandotherinstrumentsovertheheadsofhercolleagues.”Bytheearly1990s,agroupofparticularlyfrustratedfacultymembers—manyofthemmembersoftheoldboys’clubJudywastryingtochange—beganholdingregularmeetingstodiscusshowtoresistherplans.*

EvenifJudyandcompanywereunabletoreformtheuniversitysystemandtheedschoolinstitution,SpartanVillagemightstillhaveofferedanexampleofwhatprofessionaldevelopmentschoolscoulddoontheirown.It’struethat

Deborah’s,Magdalene’s,andRuth’srelationshipswiththeschoolhadbeenforgedthroughMSU,butmuchoftheirworkcouldhavecontinuedevenwithoutanedschooltosupportit.ButtheworkatSpartanVillageprovedunsustainabletoo.Thoughshenever

mentionedittoDeborah,PrincipalJessieFrycaughtalotofcomplaintsfromteacherswhodidn’twanttovisiteachother’sclassrooms.Atfirst,Deborah’suniquepowersofpersuasionandJessie’sownironwillkeptthechangesintact.Butastheysoughtmoreambitiousreforms,Jessiebeganrunningintoroadblocksmoreformidablethanveteranteachers’skepticism.Theevolutionofthestaffmeetingtoldthewholetale.Traditionally,the

meetingexistedforthepurposeofexchangingbusinessunrelatedtoteaching:thestateoftheschoolbudget,applicationsforsupplies,newsfromthedistrict,buildingconcerns,firedrills,tornadodrills,parent-teacherconferences,schedules,upcomingevents.Butastheschoolbegantochange,themeetingdidtoo.“Iwouldsay,‘So-and-so,IwassittinginyourroomandIsawwhatyouweredoing,’”Jessiedescribed.“Wouldyoukindofsharewhatyouweredoingwithso-and-solittlekid?”Teachersstartedoutshy,butovertime,moreandmoreofthemshared,untileventually,thestaffmeetingshadsomanynon-“business”itemsthatJessieranoutofspace.Themeetingsimplywasn’tlongenoughtodealwithbothschoolbusinessandteachingpractices.Findinganothertimetomeetwasnoteasy.Accordingtoalltheofficial

districtpolicies,theteacherandteacher’saidecontracts,andtheschoolcalendar,theschoolweekwasfull.TheSpartanVillageschoolalsohadnophysicalspacetomeet.Theschoolalreadyusedatinyhallwayalcoveasalibrary,andtheroomwheretheymetforstaffmeetingsdoubledasaclassroom.SoJessiehadtonegotiate.Throughmeetingswithbothrelevantunions,aswellastheschooldistrictandtheschoolboard,shewonpermissiontochangetheschool’scalendar,eventuallybuildinginextratimefor“professionaldevelopment.”Theagreementsolvedthemeeting-timeproblem,butnotitscorollary.

Teacherswantedtoobservetheircolleaguesbuthadnoonetostepinandwatchtheirownclasses.Determinedtogivethemmorechancestoobserve,JessienegotiatedaseparatearrangementtobringmoresubstitutestoSpartanVillage—and,becauseherteacherswouldn’tleavetheirstudentswithjustanyone,Jessiehadtonegotiatesomethingeventrickier:permissionforherteacherstoscreentheirsubs,somethingthedistricthadnotpreviouslyallowed.Grants,meanwhile,paidforadditionstotheschoolbuilding.Shebuiltanewlibraryandanewroomjustforteacherstomeet.Improvingteaching,itturnedout,requirednotonly

newjobdescriptionsfortheteachers,butalsoanewfloorplan.Afteralloftheseacrobaticfeats,Jessiestillfacedanotherhurdle.Likethe

staffmeetings,Jessie’sownofficialscheduleallowedforonlythe“business”partofherjob.Shealonewasresponsibleforwritingtheschool’sbudget,orderingsupplies,managingthemaintenancestaff,anddealingwithparents.Workingwithteachersontheirteaching—theschedulesimplydidn’tallowforthat.Jessiebeganworkingevenmoreovertimethanusual.Duringtheschooldayshemovedfromoneclassroomtoanother,watchingteacherswork,leavingnoteswithfeedback,andthinkingofwhichteachersmightbenefitfromtalkingtogether.Atnight,sheplayedofficialprincipal,fillingouttheendlesspaperworkthatkepttheschoolhumming.Mostnights,shedidn’tleaveschooluntil8:00or9:00p.m.Thearrangementsworkedforawhile,butovertime,strainsbegantoappear.

Eachtimeanewsuperintendentarrived—Jessiewasprincipalthroughatleastfour—shehadtodefendtheSpartanVillageexceptions.Everytimebudgetsgrewtight,theschoolboardalwaysseemedtoturntoSpartanVillage.Didthattrainingschoolacrossthetracksreallyneedtoexist?ThelonghoursandrisingstressstrainedJessie’sprivatelife.Hermarriageended,andherhealthdeclined.Teachers,meanwhile,cametoresentthegrowingdemandsontheirown

schedulesasmoreMSUprofessorssatinontheirnewprofessionaldevelopmentmeetings.Somerefusedtoattendthemeetingsatall.Othersjokedaboutbeing“bugged”;tostudytheschool’stransformation,MSUresearchershadbegunvideotapingtheschool’smeetings.AfewteachersevenrefusedtoletJessiewatchthemteach.“Therewereacoupleofpeoplethat,theydidn’twantanythingtodowiththeprofessionaldevelopmentschool,”Jessiesays.“Theydidn’twanttomeetextrahoursoranything.Theywantedtojuststayintheirclassrooms,dotheirteaching.TheywoulddoeverythingelseIrequired,thelessonplansandallthis.‘Nope!Don’twantyoutocomeintomyroom.’”WhenJudyLanieraskedSpartanVillagetobecomenotjustaprofessional

developmentschool,butademonstrationschool,teachingnotjustfutureteachersbutotherschools,Jessieandthestaffsaidno.Itwouldbetoodisruptive.“You’vegottoremember,”Jessiesays,“thatthisistheuniversity.”Sheheldoutonehand.“Here’susouthere.”Sheheldoutanother,wayovertotheotherside.“Thetwodon’tmeet.Sowehadtolearntoworktogetherandtoshareourknowledgeandourownexpertise.Weareononeside,we’reateam,andthey’reontheotherside,andit’slikeusandthem,usandthem.Weweren’talltogether.Wegrewtogether.”

Untiltheydidn’t.Soon,DavidandMagdalenehadannouncedtheirplanstoleaveMSUforthe

UniversityofMichigan,beginningawaveofdepartures.By1992,theself-describedfaculty“mutiny”againstJudyLanierhadexpandedtoincludeevenTaubman,whotoldJudysheneededtobecomemorerealisticaboutwhatshecouldaccomplish,accordingtoForzani’saccount.ThatOctober,Judyresignedasdean.Afewyearslater,shemovedtoFlint,

Michigan,toworkwiththedistressedcity’spublicschools.Sevenyearslater,whenthosereformscrumbledunderoppositiontoo,shelefteducationaltogetherandmovedpermanentlytoBeaverIslandinLakeMichigan,themostremoteinhabitedislandintheGreatLakes.Shehaslivedthereeversince.

*Thoughit’struethatthetwoexpressionsareequivalent(bothequal28)mathteachersneedtoseethat4×7and7×4representdifferentideas:onemeansfourgroupsofseven;theother,sevengroupsoffour.(Imagine,forinstance,sevencarswithfourwheelseachversusfourcarswithsevenwheelseach;bothhaveatotaloftwenty-eightwheels,butthroughverydifferentmeans.)Thedistinctiongrowsevenmoreimportantindivision.Thecorollaryofthe

ideathat7×4isdifferentfrom4×7isthefactthattherearetwowaystounderstandthemeaningof28÷4.One,calledpartitivedivision,asksquestionslike,Ifwehave28wheelsand4cars,howmanywheelscanwegivetoeachcar?Another,calledquotativedivision,asks,Ifwehave28wheels,andweknowweneed4wheelspercar,howmanycarscanwefitwithnewwheels?Inbothcases,theansweris7,butagain,theconfigurationslookverydifferent.Armedwiththisunderstanding,Sylvianodoubtwouldhavebeenableto

answerthedivision-by-½problemthatstumpedsomanyMSUundergrads.Dividingby½makesnosensefromtheperspectiveofthemostcommonconceptionofdivision(howcanyoumake½numberofgroups?)butitmakesperfectsenseconceivedquotatively(youcaneasilymakegroupsofsize½).

*Judy,forherpart,disputestheaccountthatbuildingresentmentagainstthereformworkatMichiganStatewastargetedatherpersonally.Sherememberssupportforthereformsstayingstronguntilaftershetooktimeoffasdeanin1989.(JudithGallagher,interviewbyJessicaCampbell,November2013.)

4

KNEADANDRISE

CreatingacountryfullofteacherslikeMagdaleneLampertandDeborahBallmighthavefailedintheUnitedStates,butthatdidn’tnecessarilymeanitwasimpossible.Magdalenelearnedthislessononedayin1985,aftergivingatalkattheUniversityofChicago.She’dopenedherremarkswithawarning.Thevideostheaudiencewasabouttosee,takeninherclassroomatSpartanVillageduringaseriesoflessonsonmultiplication,woulddepictteachingthatdeviatedmarkedlyfromtraditionalmathclassculture.Asfarassheknew,nootherteacherintheworldtaughtinquitethesameway.Thatlastcommentstuckinthemindofonememberoftheaudienceashe

watchedthevideos.JamesStigler,thenayoungpsychologyprofessorattheUniversityofChicago,knewthatMagdalenewasonlypartiallyright.Yes,herteachingdidlookdifferentfromthatinmostAmericanschools.But,asStiglertoldMagdalenelater,shewasnot,infact,theonlyteacherintheworldwhotaughtthatway.Indeed,awholegroupofteacherstaughtalmostexactlylikeshedid.TheyjusthappenedtoliveinJapan.Stiglerknewbecausehe’dseenthemdoit,startingwhenhewasingrad

schoolattheUniversityofMichigan.He’dgonetoJapanwithHaroldStevenson,apsychologyprofessorwhostudiedchildreninJapanandChinawhostruggledwithreading.Bycomparinghowchildrenlearnedtoreadindifferentlanguages,StevensonandStiglerhopedtogetabettersenseoftheprocessingeneral.Butthepair’sfocusshiftedwhentheyranatestofstudents’mathachievement.Comparingreadingabilities,theyhadfoundsomediscrepanciesbetween

countries.But,saysStigler,“thereadingdifferenceswereminorcomparedtothemathdifferences.”Japanstoodoutmostofall.ComparingchildrenfromMinneapolis,Taipei,andSendai,theyfoundthat73percentofJapanesesix-year-oldsscoredhigherthantheaverageAmericanchild.Theadvantagegrew

evenlargeraschildrengotolder.Amongten-year-olds,thepercentageofJapanesestudentsscoringhigherthantheaverageAmericanwas92.EventheJapaneseten-year-oldswiththelowestaveragemathscoresinSendaiscoredbetterthanthosewiththehighestscoresinMinneapolis.StiglerandStevenson’sfindingechoedagrowingsetofinternational

comparisonsthatputstatisticsbehinddeepeninganxietyaboutAmerica’seducationalstanding,especiallyinmattersofscienceandmath.OnestudyfundedbytheUSgovernmentcomparedachievementacrosstwelvedifferentcountries(notjusttheUnitedStatesandJapan,butalsoIsrael,Sweden,England,andothers)andfoundthattheaverageJapanesestudentscoredaswellonamathtestasthetop1percentofstudentsaroundtheworld.Another,comparinghighschoolstudentsinIllinoisandJapan,foundthattheaverageJapanesestudentperformedbetterthanroughly98percentofAmericans.Athirdstudy,commissionedbytheDallasTimesHerald,foundthatoutofeightcountries,Japanrankednumberoneinmathachievement,whiletheUnitedStatesrankednumbereight.“ThereisnodoubtthattheJapanese...havebuiltuptheireducationalsysteminamannercomparabletotheheralded‘economicmiracle,’”aNewYorkTimesreportervisitingJapanconcluded,justafterthereleaseoftheNationatRiskreport.WithconcernmountingaboutAmericanschools’performance,explanations

forthegapproliferated.Somecommentatorspointedtoculturalfactors,notingtheJapaneseemphasisoneffortaboveability.StevensonandStiglerthemselvesarguedthathomelifehadtoplayarole;inJapan,theyfound,98percentoffifth-gradershadadeskathome,whilethepercentageamongtheirAmericancounterpartswas63.OthersspeculatedthatJapanesechildrenhadinherentlyhigherIQs,thoughStevensonandStiglercouldfindnosignificantdifferenceswhentheygavechildrenatestofcognitiveability.Reviewingthemathresults,Stiglerthoughttheextracurricularfactorsmustbe

important.Buthedoubtedthattheycouldcompletelyexplainthedifference.“It’snotlikeyourparentssityoudownandteachyoualgebra,”hesays.“Yougotoschool,andyourteachersareteachingyouthesethings.”WhattheJapaneseteachersdidintheclassroomhadtomattertoo.EachtimehevisitedaJapaneseschool,hebegantoaskthelocalhostsafavor.Wouldtheymindtakinghimintoaclassroomtowatchalessonortwo?Onearlyvisits,Stiglerhadnoticedsuperficialdifferences.Insteadoftheone-

floorbuildingscommoninAmerica,inJapanelementaryschoolswereallthree-storyconcretepalisades,withthehallwayswrappingaroundthecircumference

likeamultilevelmotel.(Indeed,everyelementaryschoolhadafullswimmingpool,althoughnotusuallyonthegroundfloor.)Childrensnappedbetweenoppositepolesofactivity,shriekingandrunningchaoticallyoneminute—theboysonstiltstwicetheirsize,thegirlsonunicycles—andsilentlystudyingthenext.Atthefrontdoor,everyoneexchangedtheirshoesforslippers(asisstandardeverywhereinJapan).Schoolsusedheatsparingly,creatingaconstantchill.Andwhentheprincipalreceivedvisitors,healwaysservedthemhottea.Butitwasonlywhenhestartedvisitingclassrooms—notjustpokingahead

in,butsittingthroughanentirelesson—thatStiglernoticedthedeeperdifferences.Japanesemathteachersledclasswithadifferentpace,structure,andtonethandidothercountries’teachers.Insteadofaseriesofproblems,theteachersusedjustone,andinsteadofleadingstudentsthroughprocedures,theyletstudentsdomuchmoretalkingandthinking.WatchingMagdalene’svideosinChicagotransportedStiglerbacktothose

classroomsinSendai.Shehadthesameslow,methodicalwayofstudyingstudents’work,askingaquestion,andchannelingtheirrepliestowardthedesiredconclusion.Howhadsuchuncannilysimilarpedagogyevolvedinteachersanoceanapart?AndhowhadtheJapanesemanagedtodowhateludedAmericans,trainingwhatappearedtobetheentireprofessiontouseTKOT?IntheyearsaftermeetingMagdalene,Stiglercouldonlyguess.Thenumberof

Japaneseclassroomsthathe’dvisitedwastinycomparedtothetotalnumberofschoolsinthecountry.HisknowledgeofwhathappenedinsideAmericanclassrooms,meanwhile,wasalsoimperfect.ManypeoplethoughttheyknewhowmostAmericanteacherstaughtmath,butnoonehadevermountedalarge-scalescientificstudytoconfirmit.Stigler’sopportunityarrivedintheearly1990s,whenthegroupbehindthe

newinternationaltestswaspreparingitsthirdandlargestcomparisonstudyyet:theThirdInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy,orTIMSS.Thistimetheparticipatingcountries(agroupthathadnowswelledfromtwelvetomorethanforty)agreedtoexaminenotonlyscoresonachievementtests,butalsoothermeasuresthatmightshedlightoninternationaldifferences—includingavariabletoaccountforclassroomteaching.Applyingthesamplingmethodsthathadbeenusedtocompareachievement,

TIMSScouldbuildthefirst-everstudyofinternationalclassroomteaching,usingvideocamerastocaptureteachersandstudentsatwork.Becausevideotechnologywasstillrelativelyexpensive,theynarrowedtherecordingtojustthreecountries.InadditiontotheUnitedStates,TIMSSorganizerspicked

Germany(amajoreconomiccompetitor)andJapan(thereigningkingoftheinternationaltests).TheyselectedJamesStiglertoleadthestudy.

Stiglerguessedthathewouldfinddifferencesacrosscountries.Buthedidn’tanticipatejusthowsimilarteacherswouldturnouttobewithinthecountries.Commonlore,ofcourse,heldthatawidegapseparatedthebestAmericanteachersfromtheworst.ButcomparedtotheirGermanandJapanesecounterparts,eventhetwomostdisparateAmericanslookedidentical.TheconsistenciesstoodoutmostwhenStiglergotpeoplefromdifferent

countriesinoneroomtowatchthevideostogether.Onedayearlyon,aJapaneseresearcherabruptlystoppedavideoofanAmericanclassroomrightinthemiddleofthelesson.“Whatwasthat?”heasked.Theteacherinthevideohadbeendemonstratingaprocedureatthechalkboardwhenaninvisiblevoiceinterruptedhim.“MayIhaveyourattention,please,”thevoicesaid.“Allstudentsridinginbusthirty-one,youwillmeetyourbusintherearoftheschooltoday,notinthefrontoftheschool.Teacherspleasetakenoteofthisandremindyourstudents.”TheAmericanshadbarelynoticedthepublicaddressinterruption.“Oh,

nothing,”theytoldtheJapaneseresearcher,pressingthebuttontostartthevideoagain.ButtheJapaneseresearcherpersisted.“Whatdoyoumean,nothing?”hesaid.Stiglerwrote:

AswepatientlytriedtoexplainthatitwasjustaP.A.announcement,hebecamemoreandmoreincredulous.Wereweimplyingthatitwasnormaltointerruptalesson?Howcouldthateverhappen?SuchinterruptionswouldneverhappeninJapan,hesaid,becausetheywouldruintheflowofthelesson.Ashewenton,webegantowonderwhetherthisinterruptionwasmoresignificantthanwehadthought.

Later,goingoverallthevideos,theyfoundthattheresearcherwasright.Thirty-onepercentoftheAmericanlessonscontainedsomekindofaninterruption,eitheraPAannouncementoravisitorwalkingintodealwith

administrativebusiness(likecollectingthelunchcount).ZerooftheJapaneselessonsdid.Buttheyneverwouldhavethoughttocountinterruptions,hadtheobservernotsingledoutthatmoment.Sometimesthemostdistinctivefeaturesofacountry’steachingwerealsothemostdifficultfornativestonotice.Onestrikingexamplewasthewayteachersstructuredtheirlessons.American

teachersrarelytalkedaboutlessonstructure—thewayclassproceedsfromabeginningtoamiddletoanend—andyet,watchingeachindividualteacheratwork,Stiglerfeltasthoughthey’dallreadthesamerecipe.“Aculturalscript,”hecalledit.TheAmericanandJapanesescriptswerethemostdifferentfromeachother—alimerickversusasonnet.SomeAmericanteacherscalledtheirpattern“I,We,You”:Aftercheckinghomework,teachersannouncedtheday’stopic,demonstratinganewprocedure—Today,we’regoingtotalkaboutdividingatwo-digitnumberbyaone-digitnumber(I).Thentheyledtheclassintryingoutasampleproblemtogether—Let’stryoutthestepsfor24÷6(We).Finally,theyletstudentsworkthroughsimilarproblemsontheirown,usuallybysilentlymakingtheirwaythroughaworksheet—Keepyoureyesonyourownpaper.Ifyouhaveaquestion,raiseyourhand!(You).TheJapaneseteachers,meanwhile,turned“I,We,You”insideout.Youmight

calltheirversion“You,Y’all,We.”Theybegannotwithanintroduction,butasingleproblemthatstudentsspenttenortwentyminutesworkingthroughalone—24chocolatestobesharedwithxnumberofpeople(noleftovers);comeupwithasmanysolutionsasyoucan(You).Whilethestudentsworked,theteacherwovethroughthestudents’desks,studyingwhattheycameupwithandtakingnotestorememberwhohadwhichidea.Sometimestheteacherthendeployedthestudentstodiscusstheprobleminsmallgroups(Y’all).Next,theteacherbroughtthembacktothewholegroup,askingstudentstopresenttheirdifferentideasforhowtosolvetheproblemonthechalkboard.Givetheanswerandthereasonforyouranswer.Finally,theteacherledadiscussion,guidingstudentstoasharedconclusion—Whatdidyoulearnfromtoday’sproblem,orwhatnewquestionsdoyouhave,ifany?(We).Thepatternsdidn’tdictateeverythingeachteacherdid,ofcourse,andthe

researchersfoundsomecasesofdepartures.Butevendepartureshappenedinsidethespiritofthescripts,whichencouragedsomemovesmorethanothers.Takethekindsofquestionseachcountry’steachersasked.Americansaskedalotofsimplequestionsandsoughtquickanswers.1−4:Whatdoesitequal?Japaneseteachers,workingattheslowerpaceprovidedbyasinglefocusedproblem,usedquestionsnotsimplytounderstandwhetherthechildhadtheright

answer,buttopeekintohermind,discerningwhatsheunderstoodandwhatshedidn’t:Whohadthesamethinking?Anythingtoaddtothiswayofthinking?Didanybodyelseuseanotherway?Inaministudyoffourlessons,twoAmericanandtwoJapanese,Stigler

countedthetypesofquestionsthataroseineachone.IntheJapaneselessons,themostcommonquestiontooktheformofwhathecalled“explainhoworwhy”:Howdidyoufindtheareaofthistriangle?forinstance,orWhyistheareahere17?Problems,meanwhile,seemedtobedesignedwithgreatcare:theyweregenerativeenoughtofilloneortwoforty-five-minutelessonseach,andcarefullyselectedtoleadstudentsnotjustthroughinterestingmathbuttoanimportantnewidea.Theytiedlessonstogetherlikedaisychains,withthefruitsofoneday’sproblemleadingdirectlytothetaskofthenext.Onitsown,thetaskofderivingaformulatofindtheareaofanytrianglewouldbealottoaskofafifth-grader,butcomingrightontheheelsofalessononparallelograms,childrencouldusetheformulasthey’dderivedjustdaysearlier(oftenconvenientlypastedtoawallforeasyreview)tocomeupwiththatday’sanswer.StiglercalledthesecondmostcommonquestionintheJapaneselessons

“checkstatus”:Whoagrees?Japaneseteachersoftenasked,tallyingupwhetherotherstudentshadbeenpersuadedbyaclassmate’sidea.Or,checkingwhetherstudentswerefollowingtheprogressionofthoughts:Isanyoneconfused?IntheAmericanlessons,meanwhile,themostcommonquestionwaswhatStiglercalled“name/identify”:Whatkindoftriangleshavewestudiedsofar?theAmericanteachermightsayinherversionofreview,orWhatisthelengthofthisshape?Thesecondmostcommonquestionwas“calculate”:Whatis90dividedby2?NeitherofthetwoJapaneseteachersaskeda“calculate”question,andneitheroftheAmericansaskeda“checkstatus”question.Thedifferentsortsofquestionsledtodifferentformsofparticipation.The

Japanesestudentsspokemoreoftenandsaiddifferentthings.Forinstance,theyweremuchmorelikelythantheAmericansortheGermanstoinitiatethemethodforsolvingaproblem.Whereasstudentsinitiatedthesolutionmethodinjust9percentofAmericanlessons,inJapaneselessonsthatnumberwas40percent,Stigler’steamfound.Studentsindifferentcountriesalsodiddifferentkindsofwork.Theresearchersfoundthat95percentofAmericanstudents’workfellintothecategoryof“practice,”whileJapanesestudentsspentonly41percentoftheirtimepracticing.Themajorityofworkfellintoacategorytheresearcherstermed“invent/think.”Asolid53percentofJapaneselessonsincludedformalmathematicalproofs.InalltheAmericanlessonscollected,theresearchersfound

zeromathematicalproofs.TheTIMSSstudyrevealedvastlydifferentapproachestoteachingexactlythe

samematerial.Lessonsonthedifficultproblemofaddingfractionswithunlikedenominators(forexample,½+ )exemplifiedthegulf.Americanteacherswereencouragedtobuilduptothechallengestepbystep,startingwithlikedenominators( + ),andthenmovingontothesimplestunlikeones(½+¼).Theydidthisonlyafterwarningstudentsoftheimportanceofnotaddingthedenominatorsanddemonstratingexactlywhattodoinstead.Japaneseteachers,meanwhile,gavestudentsunlikefractionswithoutcommentary.Whenstudentsinevitablymademistakes(addingdenominatorstogether,forinstance),theteachersembracedtheerrorasachancetoseewhyconvertingtolikedenominatorsmakesmoresense.Eventhearchitectureoftheclassroomsreflectedthenationalpredilections.To

supplementtheirlessonsvisually,forinstance,USteachersusuallyusedoverheadprojectors,butinJapan,everyobservedteacherusedthechalkboard.Atfirstitseemedlikeatrivialdifference.Butoncloserinspection,theresearcherscouldseethateachdevicecreatedaspecificmood.IntheAmericanclassrooms,whereteachersseemedtovalueattentionmorethananyotherformofparticipation(“Eyesonme!”),theoverheadforcedlightontoeverythingtheteacherwrote.Astrategicallyplacedsheetofpaper,meanwhile,coveredupeverythingbutthelatestproblem.Guidingstudentsstepbystep,teachersbroughtalleyestotheimmediateidea—andpreventedanyreflectiononwhatcamebefore.InJapan,whereteacherscaredmoreabouttheattentionstudentspaidtotheideasastheyunfolded,achalkboardthatcouldholdthefulltrajectoryofforty-fiveminutes’worthofinsightsservedteachersbetter.Takentogether,thefindingsconfirmedStigler’shunch.Americanteachers

reportedinlargenumbersthattheyknewaboutthenewmathreformideasthatDavidCohenandDeborahBallhadtrackedinCalifornia.LikeMrs.Oublier,manyreportedthattheywereadoptingtheideasintheirownclassrooms.Butthevideosdisputedtheiraccounts.Insomecases,thereformsactuallymademattersworse.Oneeighth-gradeteacher,followingdirectionstousecalculatorsforproblemswherepracticingcomputationwasn’tthepoint,guidedherstudentstousethemachinestofindtheanswerto1−4.(“Takeoutyourcalculators,”shesaid.“Now,followalongwithme.Pushtheone.Pushtheminussign.Pushthefour.Nowpushtheequalssign.Whatdoyouget?”)Nowonderparentsandsomemathematicianshadbegunprotestingthatthereformsconstituted“fuzzymath.”Inthewarpedwayteachersinterpretedthem,theywerefuzzy.

OnesurprisefindingdidnotappearinthevideosoreveninStigler’sfinalreport,butininformalinterviewswithJapaneseteachersandeducationleaders.Askedwhenandhowtheyhadlearnedtoteachthisway,theyallrespondedthesameway.Thechanges,theysaid,beganinthe1980s.Beforethat,mathclassesweremorelikewhatStiglersawintheUnitedStates:rote,mechanical,dull.Afterthereforms,Japaneseteacherstookinspirationfromthreemainsources:JohnDewey,theAmericanphilosopher;GeorgePolya,aStanfordmathematicianwhosewritingaboutproblemsolvinghadinfluencedMagdaleneLampert;and“NCTM,”theacronymforthestandardsproducedbytheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics—theonesinspiredbyMagdaleneLampertandwritteninpartbyDeborahBall.HowdidJapaneseeducatorslearntoteachthisway?You,they’dsometimestellAmericansmoresimply.Welearnedfromyou!TheexchangesremindedStiglerofaconfusingconversationrepeatedoften

duringhisfirstvisitstoJapan.Askedtoexplainthesuccessofthecountry’sthrivingcompanies,Japanesewouldpronouncewithreverencethenameofamanagementexpert:De-Ming.“Gee,”Stiglerthought.“Iwonderifthisguy’sworkhaseverbeentranslatedintoEnglish!”Onlylaterdidhelearnthat“De-Ming”wasWilliamEdwardsDeming,anIowa-bornstatisticianandmanagementconsultantwhohadbegunhiscareerintheUnitedStatesafterWorldWarII,butwhoseideashadgainedtractiononlyinJapan.(Later,afterwordspreadofDeming’sfameinJapan,AmericancompaniespaidheftyfeestoseekhisadviceabouthowtocompetewiththeirAsiancounterparts.)LikeDeming’swork,theNCTMstandardshadamoreloyalfollowingin

Japanthaninthecountrythatbirthedthem.NotonlyhadtheJapanesediscoveredtheAmericanmathstandards;they’daccomplishedwhatCalifornianevercould.They’dtakenapopulationofearnestbutordinaryteachersandproducedacountryfullofMagdaleneLamperts.

Howhadtheydoneit?WhileStiglerponderedthatquestion,AkihikoTakahashifoundhimselfobsessedwithanother.ThesonofaTokyopoliceofficer,Akihikohimselfhadstumbledintoteaching.Then,inthefallof1991,heandhiswifefoundthemselvesinChicago,halfwayacrosstheworld.Officially,AkihikohadmovedunderordersfromJapan’sMinistryof

Education,whichsentteachersabroadtoworkattheJapaneseschoolsservingthechildrenoftravelingbusinessmen—inAkihiko’scase,theFutabakaiSchool

inChicago.Butinfact,he’daskedfortheassignment.DuringtwelveyearsofteachinginJapan,he’dbecomeacarefulstudentofAmericaneducators,especiallyGeorgePolya,JohnDewey,andtheNCTM.Nowhewantedtoseetheschoolsthey’dbuilt.Withtheministryorder,notonlydidhegettogototheUnitedStates;hegottogotoChicago,thehomeofDewey’soriginallabschoolattheUniversityofChicago.AttheFutabakaiSchool,Akihikohadtoteachclasses,ofcourse,buthealso

receivedpermissionfromtheprincipaltospendpartofhistimevisitingAmericanschools.Itdidn’ttakelongfortheotherteacherstogrumble.WhyisTakahashialwaystraveling?Thetruthwashewassearchingfortheclassroomshe’dreadaboutinbooks.Meccadidnotrevealitself.Atanelementaryschooloutsidethecity,the

teacherkeptsaying“Shh!”Theremusthavebeenonehundred“Shh!”s.“Ithought,well,that’sonlythisclass,”Akihikosays.“Icametothewrongclass.”But“Shh!”turnedouttobetherule.Mathclasses,hisspecialty,werenothinglikewhattheNCTMhaddescribed.Theywererote,tedious,andfullofmistakes.AmemberoftheJapaneseMinistryofEducation,travelinginAmericaafewyearslater,watchedamathteachercalculatethat2+3×4equaled20,firstadding2and3toget5,andthenmultiplyingby4.Astonished,theministryofficialwonderedforaminutewhetherperhapsAmericansfollowedadifferentorderofoperations,inwhichadditionprecededmultiplication.(Hequicklyconfirmedthatmathisindeedthesameallaroundtheworld.)EventheChicagolabschool,theonethatAkihikohadreadsomuchabout,

betrayednotraceofitsfounder.“Iwasshocked.Like,IreadJohnDewey!”Akihikosays.“Buttheydon’tdoanythinglikethat.”TheAmericansproducedwonderfulintellectualworkonwhatteachingcouldlooklike,buttheyhadfailedtoimplementanyofit.He’dtoldtheprincipalheneededtimeofftodoresearchontheAmericanclassroom.But,hesays,“ratherthanfindings,therewerealotofpuzzles.Gooddocumentsandgoodresearchandgoodmaterials...butsomehowitdisappearsintheclassroom.Sohowdoesthishappen?”Notlongafterthelabschoolvisit,AkihikotookatriptotheUniversityof

IllinoiscampusinChampaign.AcolleagueinJapanhadintroducedhimtoaprofessorthereandhiswife,JackandElizabethEasley.ElizabethwasJapaneseAmerican,andtenyearsearlierthetwohadspentfourmonthsembeddedinaTokyoelementaryschool,withElizabethtranslatingwhileJackobservedtheJapaneseteachingstyle.ThevisitstoJapanhadinspiredJacktoimprovemathandscienceteachingintheUnitedStates,buthehadnotbeenabletoimportthe

ideasintoactualschools.Theproblem,hethought,wasalackofcommunicationbetweenthetwoworlds:researchersandteachers.So,withafewcolleagues,he’dcreatedanewgrouptobridgethegap.DialoguesinMathematicsEducation,hecalledit,orDIME—aregularworkshopforprofessors,teachers,evenprincipals.WhenheconnectedwithAkihiko,heinvitedhimtojoinDIMEforameeting.ThemeetingfascinatedAkihiko.PeoplefromallaroundtheMidwest

presentedworktheyweredoinginclassrooms,generatingrichconversations.Butonethingstoodout:theDIMEmeetingseemedtobeeachparticipant’sonlychancetodiscussherwork,andasfarasAkihikocouldtell,thegroupmetonlytwiceayear.CouldthisreallybetheUnitedStates’bestmechanismfortranslatingideasintopractice?Moststunningofallwasthefact,confirmedtohimbymembersofthegroup,thattheconversationswerejustthat—talk.Theteachersdescribedlessonstheygaveandthingsstudentssaid,buttheydidnotseethepractices.Whenitcametoobservingactuallessons—watchingeachotherteach—theysimplyhadnoopportunity.Indeed,theresearchersandteachersvieweditasatriumphthattheyweremeetingtogetheratall.ToAkihiko,theunusualnessoftheaffairspokevolumes.WhathappenedinJapanasamatterofeverydaybusiness(meetingsbetweenprofessorsandteachers)was,intheUnitedStates,arevolutionaryact.Therealizationhelpedexplainsomethingelsethathadbeenpuzzlinghim.

AlmosteverytimehetriedtovisitanAmericanclassroom,hewouldgetthesamefrustratingresponse.Insteadoflettinghimwatchquietlywhiletheytaught,teacherswouldhaltthelessontowelcometheirguestfromJapan.Dozensofminuteswoulddisappearasheintroducedhimselfandfieldedquestions.Afterward,hisconversationswiththeteachersimitatedthedistraction.Anyquestionheaskedabouttheactualcontentofthelessongotbattedawayinfavorofsomethingcompletelyunrelatedtoeducation.Itwasasif,insteadofcolleaguesinthesameprofession,theywerestrangersmeetingatadinnerparty.WhatdoyouthinkoftheUnitedStates?Wheredoyoulive?Socialquestions,notprofessionaltalk.Whenaconversationdidveerinaninterestingdirection—HowdoyouteachthistopicinJapan?ateachermightask,beginningthediscussionAkihikolongedtohave—italwaysendedtooquickly.Theexperiencewouldhavebeenunbelievableifithadnotrepeateditselfso

manytimes.Aftervisitingmorethanahandfulofmathclasses,heunderstood.Theteachersdidn’tlethimstandinthebackoftheirclassroomsquietlytowatchbecausenobodyeverstoodinthebackoftheirclassroomsandwatched.The

samewentforconversation.Theydidn’ttalkabouttheirteachingwithhimbecausetheydidn’tdiscusstheirteachingwithanyone.Theyhad,herealized,nojugyokenkyu.Translatedliterallyas“lessonstudy,”

jugyokenkyuisabucketofpracticesthatJapaneseteachersusetohonetheircraft,fromobservingeachotheratworktodiscussingthelessonafterwardtostudyingcurriculummaterialswithcolleagues.ThepracticeissopervasiveinJapaneseschoolsthatitislikethePAinterruptiontoAmericans:effectivelyinvisible.ForaJapaneseobserverlikeAkihiko,askingifschoolshadjugyokenkyuinAmericawouldbelikeaskingiftheyhadstudents.Andherelaytheanswertohispuzzle.OfcoursetheAmericanteachers’work

fellshortofthemodelsetbytheirbestthinkers—Polya,Dewey,andtheNCTM.Withoutjugyokenkyu,hisownclasseswouldhavebeenequallydrab.Withoutjugyokenkyu,howcouldyoueventeach?

Akihikowasnotanatural-bornteacher.Hehadbecomeateachermainlybecausetheuniversitythathadacceptedhim,TokyoGakugei,specializedineducation.Eveninhisfinalyearsofcollege,hewasindifferenttoteaching.Butduringthesecondsemesterofhisjunioryear,hesteppedintotheclassroomofTakeshiMatsuyamaattheSetagayaElementarySchool,andeverythingchanged.TheschoolstoodattheendofacurvingcobblestonedrivewayinTokyo’s

affluentSetagayaWard,aresidentialneighborhoodfamousevenininscrutableTokyoforitsmazelikestreets.Thegroundswereunusuallylargeforacenter-cityschool,butthebuildingwasordinary:threedrabconcretestories,practicalwoodfloors,drafty,andcold.Setagaya,however,wasdifferentfromanyotherJapaneseelementaryschool.Afuzokuschool,meaning“attached”—asin,partoftheuniversity,or,inAmericanparlance,alabschool—Setagayaconducteditshiringwiththethoroughnessofacorporaterecruitmentoffice,combingthecountryforthebestteachers.Theyhadtobetruemastersbecause,asfuzokuteachers,theywereresponsibleforeducatingbothchildrenandfutureteachers.Forthreeweekseachautumn,thesecollegestudentstroopedintotheSetagayaschool,breakingintogroupsoffiveperteacher.Theylinedthebackoftheclassroom,notebooksinhand,unsureofwhattoexpect.Amongthemasters,Matsuyamastoodout.Hispubliclessonsattractedso

manyteachersthattomakeroomforthemall,hehadtoholdclassinthecafeteria.Thismadethejobofhisstudentteachersespeciallydaunting.Inordertograduate,educationmajorsnotonlyhadtowatchtheirassignedmaster

teacherwork,theyhadtoeffectivelyreplacehim,installingthemselvesinhisclassroomfirstasobserversandthen,bythethirdweek,asawobblyfive-personapproximationoftheteacherhimself.Itworkedlikeakindofteachingrelay.Eachtraineetookasubject,planningfivedays’worthoflessonsinlanguageormathorscienceorhistory.Theneachtookaday.Topassthebaton,youhadtoteachaday’slessonineverysinglesubject:theoneyouplannedandthefouryoudidnot.Youhadtodothiswhetherornottheteacherbeforeyoumadeitthroughthefullmaterialthedaybefore.Andyouhadtodoitrightunderyourmasterteacher’snose.Afterward,everyone—theteacher,thecollegestudents,andsometimesevenanotheroutsideobserver—wouldsitaroundaformaltabletotalkaboutwhattheysaw.Duringtheobservationweek,thetraineesstayedinMatsuyama’sclassuntil

thestudentsleftat3:00p.m.,andtheydidn’tleavetheschooluntilthey’dfinisheddiscussingtheday’sevents,usuallyaroundeighto’clock.TheytalkedaboutwhatMatsuyamahadsaidanddone,buttheyspentmoretimeporingoverhowthestudentshadresponded:whattheywroteintheirnotes;theideastheycameupwith,rightandwrong;thearchitectureofthegroupdiscussion.Therestofthenightwasdevotedtoplanning;somedays,theseteachers-in-trainingdidn’tgohomeuntil10:00p.m.Itwasintense,exhausting,terrifying—andthrilling.WatchingMatsuyamateach,withalltheintellectualrigorthatentailed,wasinspiring.Thetraineesbegantocomeupwiththeirownideas.Akihikosawforthefirsttimewhatitmeanttobeateacher.Hewashooked.Forhisfocus,Akihikoselectedmath,whichwasMatsuyama’sspecialtytoo.

Thiswas1977,andMatsuyama,astudentofJohnDeweyandGeorgePolya,wasanearlyproponentofthechangesjustarrivinginJapanesemathteaching.HistechniquetantalizedAkihiko.Ingradeschool,Akihikohadlovedmathbuthatedmathclass,whereteachersalwaysactedasiftherewereonlyonecorrectwaytosolveaproblem.Matsuyamaofferedtheexactopposite.Henotonlyrewardedstudentswhocameupwiththeirownsolutionmethods;hedependedonthem.AdmiringMatsuyama’steachingstyleandcarryingitout,ofcourse,weretwo

differentthings.Akihiko’sfirstlesson,whichhewouldstillrememberthirtyyearslater,beganeasilyenough.Thatweek,sixth-gradeclassroomsacrossJapanwereintroducingtheconceptofproportionalrelationships—asin,if5cookiescost300yen,thenhowmuchdo2cookiescost?Atraditionallessonmighthaveintroducedthetopicandthendemonstratedhowtocalculatetheunitrate(60yenpercookie)andusethattofindtheanswer(120yen).ButunderMatsuyama’s

guidance,Akihikohaddevisedaproblemthatguidedthechildrentomapasetofrelationshipsthatwouldturnouttobeproportional.Thenheledthestudentsinadiscussionofthelinetheyhaddrawn,showingtherelationshipbetweenthenumberofcookiesandhowmanyyentheycost:

Everythingwasgoingwellenough,whenastudentraisedhishandwithaquestion.Why,heasked,couldn’ttheyconnectthelineallthewaydowntozero?Anotherstudentaskedadifferentquestion:Whatdoesthelineconnectingthedotsmean?

Akihikowasstuck.Heknewthat,ingeneral,agraphrepresentingproportionalrelationshipsshouldconnectzerotoalltheotherdatapoints.However,thequantitiesinthecookieproblemwerediscrete;thecaseofbuyinglessthanonecookieorevenzerocookiesforzeroyensimplydidnotexist.Buthowcouldheexplainthattothesixth-grader?“Istillrememberthefeeling,”Akihikosaid.“EventhoughIknew,Icouldnotexplainit.Ifeltlikemybackistoacliff,andIcannotgobackanymore.”Hehadnoanswer,buthavingnoanswerwasnotanoption.Likeastudentcalledontotalkaboutabookhehadn’tread,hebluffed—andfeltthateveryonecouldtell.Inthatmoment,heknew.Teachingwouldn’tjustbehiscollegemajor,somethingtostudybeforefindinghisrealprofession.Hewasgoingtomakeithislife’swork.Overthenextsixyears,ashegraduatedandwenttoworkatanothernearby

elementaryschool,AkihikoexperimentedwithmoreMatsuyama-stylelessons.Heknewenoughnottotrytheapproacheveryday.Veeringfromthetextbook’ssuggestedlessonplanrequiredmorepreparationthanhehadtimetodo,andtherewasnoguaranteeofsuccess.Instead,hedeployeditinselectcases,alwaysrememberingtospendasmuchtimeimagininghowstudentsmightrespondtoaproblemashespentinventingit.Still,nomatterhowlatehestayedatschool,

planning,thelessonwouldbeginwithaleapintotheunknown.Thestudentslovedtosurprisehim.Hetooktokeepingajournal;hewantedtoremembereverylesson.Whenparentscomplainedabouttheyoungnewteacherexperimentingontheirchildren,heturnedhisnotesintoanewsletter,senttoparentsfirstonceamonthandthen,byhisthirdyear,everyday.Iftheyweregoingtosupporttheirchildren,andsupportAkihiko,theparentsneededtoknowthemathaswell.Yearbyyear,thelessonsgotbetter,andtheparents’confidencegrew.Byhis

fifthyear,hewasteachingalmosteverylessoninthesingle-problemstyle.Byhissixth,hereceivedunexpectednews.BackattheSetagayafuzokuschool,Akihiko’soldmentorMatsuyamahadjustreceivedapromotionfromtheschooldistrict.Thenewjobmeantthathispositionasmasterwasnowempty,andthedistrictofficialshadaskedhimtosuggestareplacement.HehadnamedAkihiko.

ToanAmerican,AkihikoTakahashiseemedlikeanotherdiamondteacherintherough,theprecociouscounterparttothemadogiwa(“windowgazers”),asweakemployeesarecalledinJapan.BythetimehearrivedinChicago,he’dbecomeasfamousasMatsuyama,givingpubliclessonsthatattractedhundreds,and,inonecase,anaudienceofathousand.Hehadaseeminglymagicaleffectonchildren.ButAkihikoknewhewasnovirtuoso.“Itisnotonlyme,”healwayssaidin

English.“Manypeople.”Afterall,itwashismentor,Matsuyama,whohadtaughthimthenewapproachtoteachingmath.AndMatsuyamahadcraftedtheapproachalongwithothermathteachersinSetagayaWardandbeyond.Together,thegroupmetregularlytodiscusstheirplansforteachingdifferently,aJapaneseversionofTKOT;attheendofadiscussion,they’dusuallyinviteeachothertotheirclassroomstostudytheresults.Inretrospect,thiswasthemostimportantlessonMatsuyamataughtAkihiko:nothowtogivealesson,buthowtostudyteaching,usingthecycleofjugyokenkyutoputhisworkunderamicroscopeandimproveit.ThosethreeweeksofstudentteachingattheSetagayafuzokuschoolhadbeen

ajugyokenkyucycleinminiature:earlyplanningbasedonthecurriculumandpotentialstudentresponse;theobservationofanotherteacher(firstMatsuyama,theneachstudentteacher);teachingapubliclesson;andfinally,adiscussionofobservedevents.Eachpubliclessonposedahypothesis,anewideaabouthowtohelpchildrenlearn.Andeachdiscussionofferedachancetodeterminewhether

ithadworked.Thetypicalpostlessondiscussionbeganatschool,aroundtablesarrangedina

U,acupofteaateachseat,andcontinuedoverbeersatthelocalizakaya.Inadditiontohisownnotes,eachobserverhadacopyoftheteacher’slessonplan.Theplanexplainedwhattheteacherintendedtodoandwhy,describingtheadvantagesof12–7insteadof13–6tointroducesubtractionwithregrouping.Italsoofferedcontext.Sofar,allstudentshavemasteredsubtractionwithoutregroupingexceptSayaka,theplanmightsay.Beneaththatdetailwouldbealistoftechniquesallthestudentshadmastered—forexample,countingonfingers,usingmanipulatives,orbreakingupthenumbersmentally.Inthediscussion,thebestcommentsweremicroscopic,minute-by-minute

recollectionsofwhathadoccurred,pluscommentary.Theserangedfrompragmatictweaks—sincethestudentswerestrugglingtorepresenttheircalculationsvisually,whynotarrangethetileblocksingroupsoftenratherthanindividualblocks?—toinsightsthatspilledoutsidetheboundsofthelesson.Afteralessononfindingtheareaofarhombus,forinstance,anobserver

recalledapowerfulmomentwhenonestudenthadaskedanotherwhyshecalculatedthewayshedid.Usually,teachersstruggledtopersuadestudentstotalknotjusttotheteacher,buttoeachother.Theyoftenhadtoforcetheissuebyhavingstudentsstandattheboardandpresenttheirideastotheclassorbyaskingonestudenttorespondtoanother’sconfusion.Butthiskindofspontaneousdiscussion—onestudentaskinganotheraboutherthinking—provedmuchhardertoengender.Whatwasitaboutthisclass’sculture,theobserverasked,thathadtaughtthechildrentocommunicatesowell?Thegroupreviewedtheevidence,searchingforoccasionswhentheteacher

saidordidsomethingtoencouragethiskindofdialogue.Intransitioningthestudentsfromworkingontheproblemindependently(“You”)toconferringwithaneighbor(“Y’all”),forinstance,theteacherhadbeenverydeliberateinherlanguage.Insteadofdescribingthestepoffindingapartnerortalkingtoafriend—acommonpattern,andonethatcouldfeelforced—she’dfocusedontheexchangeitself,tellingstudentsto“lookateachother’spapers.”“Maybe,”she’dsaid,“youwillfindanideayouneverknew!”Someoneelsepointedtothewaytheteacherhadbegunthediscussionpartof

thelesson(“We”).Likeotherteachers,shehadherstudentsrecordtheirideasonpiecesofpaperthattheythentackedonthechalkboardforthewholeclasstosee.Andlikeotherteachers,shedividedthedifferentstudents’ideasintogroups:trianglemethodhere,squaremethodthere,parallelogrammethodhere.Butshe

addedoneunusualtwist:insteadofgroupingtheideasherself,shedelegatedthetasktothestudents,therebyforcingthethinkingworkontothemtoo.Intherhombuslesson,aspiriteddiscussionhadensuedasonelittleboypickedupapieceofyellowchalk,unprompted,andbegandividingtheboardintofourdifferentsectionsforeachtypeofidea,leadingtheotherstoscrambleastheyfiguredoutthesectiontowhicheachideabelonged.Bycreatingasimple,predictableroutine—afterwehaveourideas,wearrangethemontheboardingroups—theteacherhadinculcatedaspiritofownership.Anotherroutinecementedtheculture.Eachtime,aftersharinganideawith

theclass,astudentaskedthesamequestion:“WhothinksthewayIamthinking?”Onitsown,eachoftheroutinesmighthavefeltforced.Indeed,teachers

observingthelessonrecalledotherclassroomswheresimilarexchangesfellflat.Buttogether,theroutinesformedapowerfulcombination,gettingstudentstoaskeachotherearnestquestions—withouthavingtobetold.Otherpostlessondiscussionsfocusedmoreonthesubjectmatteritself,noting,

forinstance,whichpartofthematerialthestudentsmisunderstoodandwhetherallchildrenstruggledwiththatsamedifficulty.Inalessonaboutangles,forinstance,anobservercommentedabouttheinherentchallengeinseeinganglesasnotjustshapesbutquantities—amoredifficultstretchthanmakingthesamementalstepforarea.Problems,too,couldcomeunderscrutiny.Thesamelessononangles

stemmedfromaquestionaskingstudentstocomeupwithasmanyanglecombinationsastheycould,giventwotriangles—withoutusingaprotractor.Butinsteadofleavingitatthat,abasicmathproblem,theteacherswhodesignedthelessonembroideredthequestionintoastoryaboutanimaginarykingwholovedtowearhatsofalldifferentanglesizes.(“Oneday,”thestorybegan,“therewasacountrywithoutaprotractor.”)Thestorymadeforsomefunmomentsinclass,aswhenoneteacherplayfullyanointedaboykingoftheclass,directingquestionstohim.(“King,isthisokay?”theteacherasked,promptinganotherboytoask,ofnooneinparticular,“Howdidhebecometheking?”)Butinthepostlessondiscussion,theobserversnotedthatmostlythestoryseemedtoleavestudentsconfused.Anglesjustdon’tlooklikehats.Bytheendofthelesson,theteacherhadspentsomuchtimeclarifyingtheboundsofthequestionthatthestudentshadn’tgottentodigintomuchmath.Thepowerofjugyokenkyu,fromtheplanningprocesstothediscussion

afterward,layinthefactthatnoteacherworkedalone.Tosolvethepuzzlesthat

teachingposed,teachersneededthepushandpullofotherpeople’sopinions.

JugyokenkyupervadedJapaneseelementaryschools.Buthowdirectlyeachteacherparticipatedinitwasuptotheindividual.AftergraduatingfromTokyoGakugeiUniversity,Akihikotooktwostepstobecomeapoweruser:hemadeavowtoperform(notjusthelpplan)onepubliclessonayear,andhejoinedavolunteerstudygroupofmathteachersinthearea.ThemathgroupoperatedundertheswayofAmericandocumentsthatkeptcomingoutinJapanesetranslation.Thoughhe’dfirstreadJohnDeweyandGeorgePolyaincollege,itwaswiththisgroupthatAkihikoreallydelvedintothoseAmericans’writingsforthefirsttime—anddiscoveredjusthowcomplicateditwastoapplytheirideaseverydayintheclassroom.TakePolya,themathematicianwhoseproblem-solvingmanualHowtoSolve

Itbecamelikeabibletothegroup.Polyaarguedthattheprocessofsolvingaproblemhadfourkeysteps.Atfirst,theJapaneseteachersfollowedPolya’srecipefaithfully,guidingtheirstudentstobeginbyfirstunderstandingaproblem,thenplanningasolution,andonlythenattemptingtoimplementtheplan.(Thefourthstepadvisedstudentstolookbackontheirwork,checkingformistakesandthinkingaboutthesolution’simplications.)ButwhentheteachersinAkihiko’sstudygrouptriedusingthestepswiththeirstudents,nobodyeverfollowedsteptwo:“deviseaplan.”Theyalwaysjumpedstraighttostepthree:“carryoutasolution.”Againandagain,theteacherstriedtogetthestudentstofollowthesteps,withoutsuccess,untilitemergedintheirdiscussionsthatperhapstheydidn’tneedsteptwoatall.Threestepswereenough.Akihiko’steachinggroupformedataboutthesametimethattheNational

CouncilofTeachersofMathematicsreleaseditsstandards.AswithPolya,JapaneseteacherstooktheNCTMstandardsnotasarecipebook,butasaguideline.Insteadoffollowingtheideasstepbystep,theythoughtcarefullyaboutthegoals,triedoutwaystoachievethemintheirclassrooms,andcomparednotesonwhatworked.Nobodyexpectedprogresstohappenimmediately.Akihikofollowedother

teachers’advicewhenchoosingsubjectstoapproachwiththesingle-problemformat.Arealessons,forinstance,wereanaturalfit:studentscouldplayaroundwithshapes,experimentingwithdifferentmethodsforfindingtheareaofaparallelogramoratriangle,andthen,bycomparingmethods,theycouldderiveaformulathatwouldworkforanysuchshape.

AsAkihikoworkedonthelessons,therestofthegrouplookedathisplansandofferedfeedback,guidinghimthroughchanges.Heespeciallytreasuredpubliclessons,heldonspecialdaysintheJapaneseschoolcalendarwhenteacherswerereleasedfromtheirregularteachingloadstotravelandonlythestudentsofteachersgivingalessonstayedinschool.Withpubliclessons,Akihikolearnedasmuchfromtheoneshetaughtastheonesheattended.VisitingaschoolinNaganooneyear,hewatchedateacherdosomethingintriguing.OnecomponentofteachingthatJapaneseteachersoftendiscussedwasbansho,or“boardwriting”—theartofwritingonthechalkboardinawaythathelpsstudentslearn.Eachteacherhadherownstyle,butovertime,intricateconventionsevolved.Usually,atitlewentintheupperleft-handcorner;theproblemoftheday,rightunderneath.Thewritingontheboardthenproceededincolumns:selectedstudents’solutionmethods,thenthoughtsabouthowtoconnectthem,followedbyaconcludingstatement(afinalformula,definition,orobservation).Thekeywastomakethespaceavisiblerepresentationofthelesson’sunfoldingideas.Carryingthisout,ofcourse,posedallkindsofproblems.Notrunningoutof

spacewasabigone.Iftheteacherpacedherselfjustright,sherecordedalltheimportantideas,rightuptotheconclusion,withouthavingtoeraseanythathadcomebefore.Butonetoomanynotescouldthrowoffthewholebalance.Whenstudentssuggestedlotsofgreatideas,teachersneededstrategiestokeepthemfromgettinglostinthedenseprogression.TheNaganoteacherhadfoundanovelsolutiontothisbanshochallenge.On

theright-handsideofthechalkboard,theclasskeptacollectionofmagnets,eachinscribedwithadifferentchild’sname.Whenanewideaemerged,theteacherwroteitout—andattacheditsauthor’snamemagnetaboveit.Theinnovationservedmultiplepurposes.Onanaestheticlevel,ithelpedset

offthestudents’proposedsolutionmethodsfromtheotherpartsoftheboard.Italsomadediscussionsmoother.Talkingabouttheareaoftriangles,itwaseasiertoreferto“Nori’shypothesis”thanitwastoconstantlysummarizeitscrux.Teachersalreadyusedstudents’namestomarkideasthisway,likeDeborah’sfenceposts,butlabelingthemwithamagnetmadetheprocessevenmoreefficient.Finally,appendinganideawithanamemagnetrewardedstudentsforsharingthoughts,equippingteacherswithanewweaponintheircontinualwaronshyness.Akihikotookuptheidea,andsoonhewasseeingotherteachersdothesame.

BythetimehereturnedtoJapanafterhisstayinChicago,youcouldhardlygo

toaclassroomwithoutseeingacollectionofnamemagnetsdottingtherightsideofthechalkboard.

Theone-problemapproachtoteachingmathtookholdjustlikethemagnetidea.Akihikowasn’ttheonlyteachertoobserveandemulateMatsuyama.Asthenumberofteachersexperimentingwiththeapproachexpanded,sodidthenumberwhosawitduringapubliclessonorjustwhilewalkingdownthehalloftheirownschool.Often,allittookwasonelessontobepersuadedthattheapproachwasworthtrying.Manyteacherscouldstillremembertheexactlessonthathadopenedtheireyes.Noteveryattemptsucceeded,ofcourse.Thedifferencewasthat,inJapan,a

teacherwhotreatedgroupworkasmerelyanendinitself,ortriedsohardtoengagethechildrenwithafunstoryproblemthatshedistractedfromthecontent,waslikelytohearaboutitfromhercolleagues.Andthen,afterlearningwhatsheneededtoworkon,shedidn’thavetocomeupwithasolutionallbyherself.Shecouldobserveotherteachers’classroomswiththatprobleminmindandlearnsomething.Takeasecond-gradeteacher’slessononbargraphs.Togetthestudents

engaged,theteacher,Mr.Hirayama,didn’tcomeupwithagoofyfairytale.Hesimplydesignedaversionofthetextbook’ssuggestedlesson—surveystudentsaboutapreference,thenhavethemplottheresultsonthechalkboard—aroundatopicheknewthestudentswereinterestedin.They’dbeentalkingaboutgrowingplantsintheclassroom,andtheteacherdecidedtousethebargraphlessonassteponeintheirplanningprocess.Hirayamabegannotbyannouncingthelesson’smathematicalpurpose(today

wewilllearnaboutbargraphs),butbytellingthechildrenthattodaytheywoulddecidewhichplantstogrow.First,hesolicitedideas.Whatmighttheywanttotry?Whenalmosteveryonehadshoutedouttheirpreference,Hirayama—ayoung,tallmanwithasmiling,calmdemeanor—wrotethefinallistalongthelowerpartofthechalkboard,lefttoright:potatoes,carrots,okra,sweetpotatoes,tomatoes,cucumbers,greenpeppers,cosmos.Thenheannouncedthenextstep.Thestudentswouldvote,placingtheirmagneticnamecardsnexttotheplanttheywantedtogrow.Theopportunitycausedaminorecstasy,withsomechildrenmakingachoicequicklyanddefendingitandothersmullinguntilthelastminute,engenderingasmallmutinyfromcucumberstosweetpotatoesrightbeforethedeadline.

Betweenshrieks,Hirayamapausedtoaskquestions.Whichplanthasthemostvotes?Whichhastheleast?Howdoyouknow?Whenallthechildrenhadenteredtheirfinalvotes,heaskedthequestionthatsteeredthemclosertotheirsecretpurpose.“Didyourealize,”hesaidthoughtfully,puttinghishandonhischin,“youpiledupyournamesontopofeachother?”Indeed,aboveeachplantnamestoodalittlemakeshiftbarlinemadeofnamemagnets.Inspiredbythediscussionaboutwhichplanthadthemostvotes,they’dstartedtosortthemout.WiththehelpofHirayama—convenientlymorethantwicetheirheight—thenamemagnetsmadecolumnsstretchingtowardthetopoftheboard.Withoutbeingtoldtheideaofabargraph,thesecond-gradershadcomeupwithitintuitively.NowHirayamajustneededthemtonoticewhatthey’ddoneandthinkabout

whythey’ddoneit.“Youdidn’thavetodothat,”hesaid.“Whydidyoudoitthatway?”Thestudentsthrewoutideas,andtheteacherlistenedcalmly,waitingfortheonethatwouldtakethemclosertograspingthepurposeofarrangingdatainabargraph.Finally,aboynamedAnogavehimtheopportunityhewaslookingfor,notintheformofananswer,butasaquestion.Why,Anoasked,didHirayamamakesomecategorieslineupinasinglecolumnwhenothershadtwocolumnsperplant?Thequestionturnedintoadebate.“Idon’treallyseethereasonofmakingit

two,”anotherboyretorted.“Maybeinyourhead,Ano,you’rethinking2,4,6,8?”Hemimickedcountingbytwos.Morecommentsfollowed.Usingtwocolumnsmighthelpthesecond-graders

reachthenamecardsmoreeasily,anditalsohelpedthemcountbytwos.Butwhatabouttheplantsthatreceivedanoddnumberofvotes?Runningoutoftime,Hirayamaabandonedhisoriginalplan.He’dexpectedtohavethestudentsreplacethenamecardswithcircles,solidifyingthetransitionfromdatacollectiontochartmaking.Instead,heletthempursuetheirdiscussionaboutcolumns.Hedidn’tregretthedecision.Evenifhehadinsistedonmovingtothecircletechnique,theyprobablywouldn’thavegraspedit;theirattentionwassomewhereelse.Hecouldalwaysmakethetransitioninthenextday’smathlesson.Forthemoment,HirayamaconcludedtheAnodebatewithapoll:Howmany

studentsthoughtthatarrangingthevotesinsinglecolumnsmadethemostsense,andhowmanyagreedwithAnoabouttwo?Aconsensusemerged.Onecolumn,theydecided,wasthebestwaytohelpthemseewhichplanthadreceivedthemostvotes.Aquickexperimentconfirmedthehunch;arrangingthevotesin

singlecolumns,theyallsangoutthewinnerinunison.“Potatoes!”Justasthesecond-graderslearnedmorebysharingtheirthoughtswitheach

other,thefluidexchangeofideasacceleratedprogressamongteacherstoo.Thebeautyofwatchingmultipleteachersatworkwasthatyoucouldseethemanydifferentfacetsofasinglepractice.Sometimesthedifferentsolutionsbuiltoneachother.Takethechallengeofendingeachlessonwithaneatlysummarizedmain

point,ormatome—andgettingallthestudentstoreallyconsiderit.Onematomeinnovationinvolvedaddinganewminisegmenttotheveryendofthelesson,inwhichtheteacheraskedthestudentstoscribbledownwhattheyhadlearnedthatday.“TodayunliketheotherdayswetalkedaboutplantsandwecomparedtheheightsandI’mhappy,”onegirlwroteinhernotebookattheendofHirayama’slesson.“Todaywedidgraphsforthefirsttime.Ididn’tknowaboutitsoitwasfun,”aboywrote.Anothergroupofteachersexpandedontheidea,notonlyaskingstudentsto

writeasummaryforthemselves,butthenaskingcertainstudentstosharewiththegroup.Sharinghadmultiplebenefits.Studentswithexcellentsummariesgotrecognition,andtheyalsoservedasmodels,givingothersachancetodiscreetlyrevisetheirnotes.Andeveryonegotafewminutestorevisit,record,and(theteacherhoped)rememberthekeythingthey’djustlearned.Athirdgroupofteacherstookaslightlydifferentapproach,replacing

summarieswithacompetitiontogivethelessonatitle.Usually,thetitletoalessonwaswrittenintheupperleft-handcornerofthechalkboardassoonasthestudentssatdown.Inthisapproach,theteacherleftthatpartoftheboardblank.Then,attheendoftheclass,sheaskedstudentsfornominationsaboutwhattofillin.Likesummarizing,titlewritinghelpedtiethelessontogether.“Times2anddividedby2arebrothers!”onelittleboysuggestedafteralessonondivision,inwhichtheclasshadnotedapatternconnectingproductsanddividends.Theteacherencouragedtheidea,butitwasthemoredescriptivesuggestion—“Therelationshipbetweentheanswerandthenumbertobedivided”—thatwonaspaceatthetopoftheblackboard(andineverychild’smathnotebook).Eventeacherswhodidn’tobservethesemethodsinclassroomvisitsfoundthe

newideasenteringtheirclassrooms.LeadingteachersinJapannotonlyattractedcrowdstotheirlessons;theyalsotookjobswithtextbookpublishers,helpingtowritethetextstheyhadtoteach.Andsothemathtextbooks,too,startedtotakeupthenewideas,graduallycenteringeachlessonaroundasingleproblem.They

refinedtheproblemsovertimeastheytriedthemoutinlessonstudies,findingoutwhichonesweremostproductive.Akihikowastheauthorofseveraltextbooks;sowasHirayama’smentor,acolleagueofAkihikoatTokyoGakugeinamedToshiakiraFujii.Takesubtractionwithregrouping.Thenumbers1through19producethirty-

sixdifferentproblemsthatintroducetheidea,from11–2to18–9.Butovertime,fiveofthesixtextbookcompaniesinJapanconvergedonthesameproblem:13–9.Otherproblemswerelikelytogetstudentsdiscoveringonlyonesolutionmethod.Forexample,takingonaproblemlike12–3,thenaturalapproachformoststudentswastotakeaway2andthen1(thesubtraction-subtractionmethod).Veryfewwouldtake3from10andthenaddback2(thesubtraction-additionmethod).ButJapaneseteachersknewthatstudentswerebestservedbyunderstandingbothmethods.Knowingtwomethodswouldcomeinhandywhenstudentsencounterednewproblemsthatworkedbetterwithoneortheother.Andingeneral,seeingtwopathstoasolutionhelpedstudentsunderstandjusthowsubtractionworked.Thatwaswhy13–9almostalwayscameoutahead.Whentacklingthat

problem,teachersknew,studentswereequallylikelytodevisesubtraction-addition(break13into10and3,andthentake9from10andaddtheremaining1and3toget4)astheyweretodevisesubtraction-subtraction(takeaway3toget10,andthensubtracttheremaining6toget4).Becausebothapproacheswerelikelytobetried,theycouldcountontheclasstocomeupwiththemostproductivepathtounderstanding.Thelayoutofthetextbooksevolvedtoo.Traditionally,anewunitwouldbegin

withthepointofthelessoninboldlettersatthetop—howtomakeproportionalrelationships,say.Unitsalsousuallybeganontheleftsideofatwo-pagespread,sothatthenextpage,withtheformulaorconceptspelledout,wasimmediatelyvisibletoareader.Butthisformat,ofcourse,gaveawaywhatshouldhavebeenadelightfulandimportantdiscovery.So,thetextbooksbeganopeningunitsontheright-handpage,leadingoffwithbroadertopicsandasingleproblem,soasnottospoiltheending—or,moreimportant,tomakesurechildrenunderstooditforthemselves.Onecouldalsogetideasfromtheessaysteacherspublishedafteralesson

study,describingtheirplan,whathadactuallyhappened,andthendiscussingwhattheyhadlearnedfromit.Magazinesfulloftheseessayslinedtheshelvesoflocalbookstores,offeringeverythingfromwaystointroduceaparticularconcepttotranscriptsofthelecturesonschoolculturegivenbyelementaryschool

principalseachmonth.Theeducationsystemwasnoutopia,ofcourse.Japaneseteachersrolledtheir

eyesatMinistryofEducationbureaucratsasmuchasteachersanywhereelsedo.AndjustlikeintheUnitedStates,officialministry-runprofessionaldevelopmentsessions,usuallyheldoutsideofclassrooms,couldfeeldisconnectedandpointless—wastesoftimetoteachersforwhomtimewasascarceresource.Indeed,oneidealisticofficialhopingtobreathenewlifeintothesessionstraveledallthewaytoAmerica,onlytobetoldaboutaJapanesepracticecalled“lessonstudy.”Andwhileteachingevolvedimpressivelyinsideelementaryschools,highschoolteachingchangedmoreslowlybecausetheteacherswereboggeddownbythepressureofpreparingstudentsforthecutthroatcollegeadmissionscontest,nottomentiontherequirementofspendingtheirafter-schoolhoursrunningextracurricularactivities.Meanwhile,lower-incomestudentsreceivedmorestrugglingteachersandfell

behindtheirpeersinachievement,justlikeintheUnitedStates.Andcitizensworriedaboutfallingbehindintheinternationalachievementrace,asothercountriesinchedaheadonglobaltests—someofthem,likeSingapore,bydeliberatelyadoptingJapan’sapproachtojugyokenkyu;others,likeChina,byusingtheirownnativejugyokenkyu-styletraditions(zuanyanjiaocai,or“studyingteachingmaterialsintensively,”Chineseteacherscallit)or,likeFinland,bycreatingthem(“fieldschools,”labschoolsarecalledinFinland).ButJapaneseeducationofficialsalsofoundwaystosupportthelearningthat

teachersfoundmostvaluable,writingresearchlessonsintoschooldistricts’schedulesandeveninvitingleadingteacherstohelprevisethenationalcurriculumeverytenyears.Asaresult,justlikethetextbooks,thecurriculumbegantoincorporatethenewideas.Thewholeprocesswasnotunlikeagreatlesson.Bytryingoutnewideasin

realteachingexperiments,notingwhathappened,andrefiningtheircraftinresponse—and(crucially)bydoingallofthistogether,andfrequently,withcolleagueswhowerebothfellowteachersandvisitingsubject-matterexperts—theylearnedmuchfasterthaniftheyhadtriedtolearnontheirown.Workingalone,ateachermightexcelorinnovate,ormightnot;theoutcomedependedmostlyontheindividual.Workingtogetherincreasedeverysingleperson’soddsofimproving.Throughjugyokenkyu,teacherstaughtthemselveshowtoteach.

ToJamesStigler,theAmericanrunningtheTIMSSstudy,jugyokenkyujibed

withwhathe’dlearnedaboutthecountry’sculturegenerally.JapanesecompanieshadgleanedasimilarconceptfromWilliamEdwardsDeming:theideaofcontinuousimprovement.Organizations,Demingargued,couldimproveonlyiftheyconstantlystudiedtheirpractices,alwayslookingforlittlethingstheycoulddobetter.AdudinAmerica,DemingbecameasensationinJapan.Theideacapturedacommitmenttocraftsmanshipthatwasalreadyattheheartofthecountry’smostprizedtraditions,fromthecarefullifelongstudyofthesushichef,whospentdecadesmasteringtheparticularflipofthehandrequiredtomakeaperfectricepillow,totheslowandsteadyapprenticeshipsinkabukitheater,wherestudentsspentdecadesmasteringthespecialposes.Akihiko’scolleagueToshiakiraFujiiusedtheanalogyofhisownpastime,

kendo.Apersoncouldspendalifetimeslowlyadvancingthroughthekendoranks.That“do”attheendofkendo,Fujiipointedout,couldbeappendedaswelltoothercarefulcrafts:sado,fortheteaceremony;shodo,forJapanesecalligraphy;karate-do,forthemartialart.Translatedliterally,itmeant“theway”or“road”—alongwaytogo.Thinkofit,Fujiisaid,as“lifelonglearning.”Consideringthistradition,Japaneseteachershaddonenothingparticularlyinnovativewhentheycreatedjugyokenkyu—except,perhaps,notcallingitjugyo-do(jugyomeanslesson).StiglersawthesameattitudewhenhefirstpitchedtheJapanesegovernment

onthevideostudy,oneofdozensofoptionalcomponentsoftheinternationaltest.AsStiglerwalkedintotheconferenceroomtomakehiscase,acolleaguegrabbedhimwithawarning.“Hesaid,‘Oh,thisishorrible.TheJapanesehaveturneddowneveryoption.’”ButwhenStiglermadehispitch,theofficial“lookedupandsaid,‘Yes.’Justlikethat.Andeverybody’sjawdropped.”Later,whenStigleraskedtheofficialwhyhe’dsaidyesafterturningsomanyothercomponentsdown,hegaveananswernoAmericanofficialevermentioned.“Hesaid,‘becausewewanttowatchthevideostoseeifwecangetanyideastoseehowtoteachbetter’...NoAmericanhadeverbroughtthatupasareasonwhytheywoulddothisstudy.”Americanswantedanswers,notimprovement—areportfilledwithbargraphsandtables,notnewteachingcasestostudy.In1999,whenStiglerandtheresearcherJamesHiebertpublishedtheir

findingsinabookcalledTheTeachingGap,theymadelessonstudytheirtriumphantconclusion.Americanteaching,theirstudyhadshown,wasfailingAmericanchildren,denyingthemdeepopportunitiestolearn.ButtheAmericanapproachtotheproblemlargelymissedthepoint.Atfirst,thebusinessandpoliticaleliteswholedtheUSeducationreform

movementhadembracedmanydifferentapproachestoimprovingschools.Butby1999,theyhadincreasinglysettledonjustone:standards.ItwasthekindofargumentthatfitnicelyintoaPowerPointchecklist,acommitteehearing,oranewbill.Documentssoonlaidoutwhatstudentsshouldknowandbeabletodoineachgrade(like“identifyamainidea”and“distinguishbetweenfactandopinion,”infourth-gradeEnglish;and“understandtheconceptofrate”and“addandsubtractfractionswithunlikedenominators,”insixth-grademath).Injustayear,thenumberofstateswithapprovedlearninggoalsonthebookswouldgrowtoforty-eight,andtwoyearslater,adiversecoalitionincludingbusinessandlaborgroupswouldsupporttheNoChildLeftBehindlawtomakestandardsandaccompanyingannualtestsarequirement—alongwithconsequenceswhentheyweren’tmet.ThecountrywasmovingtowardtheaccountabilityideathatEricHanushekhadarticulatedthirtyyearsearlier.StiglerandHiebertsupportedthismovementtoo.“Withoutcleargoals,we

cannotsucceed,forwecannotknowinwhichdirectiontomove,”theywroteinTheTeachingGap.Yettheysuspectedthatsimplysettingstandardsandconsequencesforfailurewouldnotensurethattheyweremet.“Itisequallyimportanttorecognizethatstandardsandassessments,thoughnecessary,arenotenough.”Reform’s“nextfrontier,”theywrote,wasteaching—thewaystudentsandteachersworkedtogetherinschool.“Standardssetthecourse,andassessmentsprovidethebenchmarks,butitisteachingthatmustbeimprovedtopushusalongthepathtosuccess.”Themovementtowardaccountabilityignoredthisvastmiddlepieceof

education,thepartHanushekhadoncecalled“theblackboxoftheproductionprocess.”ThisblindspotwastherealreasoneffortstoscaleTKOThadfailed.Insteadofincorporatingthelaboratory-styletrainingprocessthatMagdaleneLampertandDeborahBallhaddevisedfortheirstudentsatMSU,theCaliforniaandNCTMreformersdescribedthechangestheywantedwithoutofferingaplantoimplementthem.“Wehavethisideathatifyoudiscoversomethingquantitativelyinaresearch

study,andthenyoutelleverybodyaboutit,that’llimproveteaching,”Stiglersays.“Thetruthis,withteaching,10percentofitisthetechnologyortheideaortheinnovation.Ninetypercentofitisfiguringouthowtoactuallymakeitworktoachieveourgoalsforstudents.”AmericanideasmighthavetakentheJapanese10percentofthewaythere,

butJapanesejugyokenkyuhaddonetherest.Tochangeteaching,AmericansneededtolearnasmuchfromtheJapaneseastheJapanesehadlearnedfrom

them.

OneyearafterTheTeachingGapcameout,HymanBassfoundhimselfstandingatthebackofaclassroomattheSetagayaElementarySchoolwithagroupofAmericanmathteachers,watchingalessonunfold.Withitscarefullyplottedbeginning,middle,andend,theclassremindedHyofgreattheater.Thentherewasthewaytheteacherusedmanipulativetools,unlikeanythinghe’dseenintheUnitedStates—sodeliberately,withincredibleprecision.ButhestillfeltsomedistancefromtheJapaneseteachers.Everyoneelseinthedelegationdidtoo—exceptoneperson.“TheonlyAmericanresearcherwhoreallyconnecteddeeplywiththeJapanesewasDeborah,”Hysays.“Shenoticedthingsandaskedquestionsofthemthatwereunlikewhatanybodyelsedid.”WhatDeborahBallnoticedmostofallwaslanguage.Translatingwhatthe

teacherssaidafterthelesson,Deborah’sinterpreterkeptstumbling.TheJapaneseteacherswouldsaysomething,anditwasn’tthattheinterpretercouldn’thearthemorthattheyweren’tmakingsense.TheproblemwasthatthewordstheJapaneseteacherskeptusinghadnoEnglishequivalent;thelanguagesimplydidn’texist.It’sokay,Deborahtoldhim,entranced.Justtranslateliterally.Theneriage

sectionofalesson,inwhichmanydifferentideasyieldedtoaconsensusandanewacademicconcept,mightnotmakesensetotheinterpreter—“kneadandrise”—butitresonatedwithDeborah.Therewasaword,bansho,todescribetheartofwritingclearlyonthechalkboard;another,kikanjunshi,todescribethepartofthelessoninwhichtheteacherwalksbetweenstudents’desks,lookingattheirworktodeterminewhichstudentshouldshareandinwhatorder.Therewasawordtodescribetheprocessofeffectivelyusingstudents’ideastoachievealesson’sgoalandanotherforthecategoryofmistakesthat,whensharedwiththewholeclass,offertherichestopportunitiestolearn(neriageandtsumazuki,respectively).Therewerekeyquestionsforposingtheproblemoftheday(shu-hatsumon)andthepracticeofobservingstudents(mitori)andthelessonopener(donyu).Thewordswereanotherproductofjugyokenkyu.Totalkaboutteachingandallitscomponents,teachershadinventednewwordstodescribethem.There,inthemiddleofresidentialTokyo,acityshe’dnevervisitedand

probablywouldneverseeagain,Deborahhadthepeculiarfeelingofcominghome.“Iwaslikeinheaven,”shesays.“Itwouldbeasif,Idon’tknow,youreallylikegoodfood,andyou’realwayseatingMcDonald’s,andthensuddenly,

you’reinthisgoodrestaurant.”Or,shethought,asifafteryearspaintingalone,shehadfinallyfoundtheartist’scolony.Ontopofeverythingelse,whatJapanhadwaslanguage.OfcourseAmericans

struggledtoimprovetheirteaching.Whentheytriedtotalkoreventhinkaboutit,theysufferedafundamentalhandicap:theyhadnowords.

5

ANEDUCATIONALSTART-UP

ThemanwhoinventedanAmericanlanguageofteachingnevervisitedJapan,neverattendededschool,and,untilrecently,hadnevermetDeborahBall.InsteadofatraditionaledschoollikeMichiganState,DougLemovcame

fromtheworldofeducationalentrepreneurs.Anewclassofeducators,theentrepreneursemergedinthe1990sjustasthereformsatMichiganStateandCaliforniawerewindingdown.UnlikeDeborahandhercohort,Dougandhisfriendswerejustaslikelytohavedegreesinbusinessasineducation.Insteadofepistemology,childpsychology,andphilosophy,theirobsessionsweredata-baseddecisionmaking,start-ups,and“disruption.”TheyweremorelikelytoknowthenameofEricHanushek,theeconomistwhoinventedthevalue-addedteacherevaluationmodel,thanJudyLanier.Theythoughtofthemselveslessaseducatorsthanasactivists,membersofamovement:themovement,someofthemsaid.AndtheykepttheirdistancefromDeborah’sworldnotonlyoutofignorance;theseparationresultedfromconscious—evenrighteous—design.Theirmovementwasbornoutofmoraloutrage.DougLemov’sinvolvement

wasignitedin1994,duringgradschoolatIndianaUniversity.ThesonofalawyerandajournalistfromBethesda,Maryland,theupscalesuburbofWashington,DC,hehadsupplementedhisstudies(inEnglish)withasidejobtutoringmembersoftheIndianafootballteam.Growingup,Dougwassmall,painfullyshy,andamediocreathlete.Buttowardtheendofhighschool,thegrowthspurthe’dprayedforfinallyarrived,andincollege,hissix-foot-twoframewonhimaspotonthevarsitysoccerteam.Collegeathletesdidnotfazehim,andhefoundthathewasgoodathelpingthemstudy.Then,oneday,thecoachespresentedhimwithanewpupil—anosetacklenamedAlphonso,who,theytoldDoug,“needsmorehelpthanjuststudytable.”DougmetwithAlphonsoandsuggestedthathestartoffbywritingabrief

autobiographyintroducinghimself.AlphonsowasnotunlikeDoug:sweet,

gentlemanly,eagertoplease.Butwhenhesatdowntowrite,hestruggled.Hisparagraphwasvirtuallyincomprehensible.Dougcouldn’tfindacompletesentenceinit.“Morehelp”hadbeenanunderstatement.Alphonsowaspracticallyilliterate—andhedidn’tevenknowit.First,Dougwasindignantattheuniversity.Admiringtheyoungman’s

considerableathletictalents,IndianaU,itseemed,hadledhimtothinkhehadtheskillstogetthroughcollege.Dougfeltthisdeceitwascruelandconfrontedthestudy-tableofficialwho’dgivenhimtheassignment.“I’mflatteredthatyouthinkI’mthesolutiontoAlphonso,”hesaid.“Butletmetellyou,meetingwithmethreeorfourtimesaweekisn’tgoingtosolvetheissuehere.Hewritesonthefourth-gradelevel.”“Actually,”thestaffmemberreplied,“wetestedhim,andhewritesonthe

third-gradelevel.”Dougbristled.Shouldn’tthecoacheshaveconsideredthatbeforepersuadingtheuniversitytotakehim?“That’stheinterestingthing,”shesaid.“He’snotasponsoredcase.”Thetruedeception,sheexplained,wasperpetratedneitherbytheuniversity

northefootballteam,butbyhishighschoolintheBronx,whichhadpromotedhimyearafteryearwithoutcomplaint.Bythetimehegraduated,hehadgoodgrades,flatteringteacherrecommendations,andnotaclueastohowmuchhedidnotknow.“Becausehewasnotatroublemakeratabadschool,noonewantedtoshitonhisdream,”Dougsays.“Nobodywantedtotellhim,I’mnotgoingtopassyou.Theythoughttheywerehelpinghimbypassinghimalongeveryyear.Andtheykilledhisdream.”In1971,writingaboutthebirthofmodernfeminisminNewYorkMagazine,

thewriterJaneO’ReillydescribedexperienceslikeDoug’srealizationaboutAlphonsoas“clicks”—themomentswhenanabstractsocialillintersectswiththedailyminutiaeoflifeandbecomespersonal:

InHouston,Texas,afriendofminestoodandwatchedherhusbandstepoverapileoftoysonthestairs,puttheretobecarriedup.“Whycan’tyougetthisstuffputaway?”hemumbled.Click!“Youhavetwohands,”shesaid,turningaway.LastsummerIgotaletter,fromamanwhowrote:“Ido

notagreewithyourlastarticle,andIamcancelingmywife’ssubscription.”ThenextdayIgotaletterfromhis

wifesaying,“Iamnotcancellingmysubscription.”Click!...InNewYorklastfall,myneighbors—namedJones—had

acouplenamedSmithoverfordinner.Mr.SmithkepttellinghiswifetogetupandhelpMrs.Jones.Click!Click!Twowomenradicalizedatonce.

Theywereclicks“ofrecognition,”O’Reillywrote,“themomentthatbringsagleamtooureyesandmeanstherevolutionhasbegun.”AlphonsoprovidedDoug’sclickmoment.Afterencounteringunequal

educationaloutcomesfirsthand,hecouldn’tgettheinjusticeoutofhishead.HebegantothinklessandlessaboutgraduateschoolandmoreandmoreaboutAlphonso.ThelasttimeDougsawhim,Alphonsowassittinginthecomputerlab,tryingtowriteapaper.“Hecouldn’tfigureouthowtoscrolldownonthescreen,andthelettersinhistitleweren’tcapitalized,”Dougsays.“Ithought,he’sgoingtofailout,he’sgoingtogobacktotheBronx,andhe’sgoingtohavenoideawhathedidwrong.”Whatkindofcountryletchildrenturnintoyoungmenwithoutteachingthem

howtoread?Whatkindofdysfunctionledapublichighschooltopassastudentwhocouldnotwriteacompletesentence?WhathadthecivilrightsmovementanditsBrownv.BoardofEducationdecisionaccomplishedifboysfromtheBronxandtheirfuturetutorsfromBethesdastillgotcompletelydifferenteducations?Justaswithfeminism,Doug’sclickdidn’thappeninavacuum;alloverthe

country,otherpeoplewerebecoming,inO’Reilly’swords,“clicking-things-into-placeangry”aftertheirownencounterswiththeinjusticeoftheAmericanpublicschoolsystem.TherewasJayAltman,whorealizedthathisruralCaliforniahighschoolhadshortchangedhim,leavinghimyearsbehindmostofhisclassmatesatWilliamsCollege.TherewasJohnKing,ofEastFlatbush,Brooklyn,who,comparinghimselftothefriendshegrewupwith,realizedthathemightneverhavegraduatedhighschool,muchlessgoneontoHarvard,hadanextraordinaryNewYorkCitypublicschoolteachernotsethimonadifferentpath.AndtherewasWendyKopp,whowatchedherPrincetonroommatefromtheSouthBronxstruggletokeepupwithherpeers.AftermeetingAlphonso,Doughadtocallonlyafewfriendsbeforehefound

oneboilingwiththesamefrustration—acollegeclassmatenamedStaceyBoyd.

ShewaslivinginBoston,wheresheplannedtofomentaneducationalrevolution.Injustafewweeks,DoughaddecidedtomovetoBostonandjoinher.Togethertheywouldoverturneducationalinequity.Theyjustneededtofigureouthow.

Theapproachtheycameupwithreflectedthespiritofthedecade—and,inparticular,twoemergingtheoriesthatwerethenhardeningintoconventionalwisdom.ThefirstwasErikHanushek’saccountabilityidea.Theeconomist’sarticlesabouttheproblemofthrowingmoneyatschoolswereeccentric,evenradical,whentheyfirstappearedinthe1970s.Butbythe1990s,Hanushek’sideashadbecomeabipartisantruismthatstretchedbeyondeducationtoallsocialprograms.Therootsofignorance,unemployment,andotherillsdidnotlieinalackofgovernmentsupport,butanoverabundanceofit.Bythrowingmoneyatpoverty,thegovernmenthadexacerbatedit,givingthepoornewreasonstobecomplacentratherthanempoweringthemtochangetheirstations.“Theproblemtheyweretryingtosolve,”IrvingKristolputit,“wastheproblemtheywerecreating.”In1994,theyearDougmetAlphonso,theDemocraticpresident,BillClinton,

vowedto“endwelfareasweknowit.”Futureantipovertyefforts,evenDemocratsagreed,wouldhavetomakesupportcontingentonresults.Inotherwords,programswouldhavetoattendnotonlyto“inputs”likehowmuchmoneytheprogramsgotandhowmanypeopletheyserved,butalsotoresults,or“outputs”—whethertheyshowedquantifiableimprovements.Ineducation,theassumptionwasthatschools’dysfunctionstemmedfroman

absenceofaccountability.EducationhadbeenacornerstoneofLyndonJohnson’swaronpoverty,receivingbillionsofdollarsinsupportfordisadvantagedstudentslikeAlphonsobywayofanewfundcalledTitleI.(“Povertyhasmanyroots,”Johnsonhadexplained,“butthetaprootisignorance.”)Inturn,between1961and1991,realannualper-pupilspendingnearlytripled,risingfrom$2,835to$7,933inconstantdollars.Butduringroughlythesameperiod,readingachievementasmeasuredbytheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressremainedessentiallyflat.Justaswelfareprogramshadallegedlycreatedapermanentunderclassbysupportingthepoorwithnostringsattached,federalspendinghadfosteredaschoolsysteminwhichdistrictsgotincreasinglylargegrantswhetherornottheysuccessfullyeducatedtheirstudents.Thearrangement,accordingtothenewconventionalwisdom,

conditionedschoolstofail.Theywerelikeanymonopoly;uncheckedbythefreemarket,theyunderperformed.WhydidAlphonso’shighschoollethimfail?Accordingtotheaccountabilityadvocates,theanswerwassimple.TheschoolletAlphonsofailbecausefailurecarriednopenalty.ThesecondinfluenceonDougandhisfriendswasanewnationalobsession

withthepowerofquantitativedata.Themetricsrevolutionelevatedabuddingclassofnerdy“quants”(peoplelikethestatisticianshiredbyOaklandA’smanagerBillyBeane,asdescribedinMichaelLewis’sinfluentialbookMoneyball)aboveanoldguardwhofollowedintuitionandbusinessasusual,neverguessingthatwithinthepilesofavailableperformancedatalurkedamoreeffectiveapproach.Ineducation,thequantswerepeoplelikeHanushek,outsiderswhoanalyzedthenewdatapouringoutofdistrictsacrossthecountryanddiscoveredthatschoolshadnoideahowtoeffectivelyspendtheirmoney.Thesetwoinfluences—accountabilityandquantitativemetrics—ledto

sweepingreformsineducation,includingtheproliferationofstandards,stakes,andteststhatJamesStiglerobserved.Theycametotaketheirpurestmanifestationinthecharterschool,anewcategoryofschoolfinancedbythedistrict,butunderdifferentmanagement.StaceyBoyd,Doug’sfriendfromcollege,wantedtostartoneinBoston.TargetedatpoorstudentslikeAlphonso,livinginheavilyblackandHispanicneighborhoods,charterschoolsfolloweddifferentrules.Attraditionalpublicschools,fundingwastiedonlytoattendance;schoolsstayedopenaslongastheyhadlocalchildrentoteach.Atcharterschools,supportwastoflowonlyaslongasstudentachievementmetcertainbenchmarks.AttheAcademyofthePacificRim,orAPR,thecharterschoolfoundedbyStaceyandDoug,studentshadtomeetthetargetsortheschoolwouldshutdown.Staceytookthepromiseastepfurther,vowingthatifanystudentfailedtopasstherequiredtenth-gradestatetest,shewouldsendthefundsAPRwouldhavespentonthestudenttowhateverschoolthatstudentchosetoattendinstead—essentiallyamoney-backguarantee.Traditionalpublicschoolsallreportedtoasinglebureaucraticschooldistrict

thatruledtheiroperationswithByzantineobtuseness.Charterschools,ontheotherhand,couldbelikelean,efficientFedExestothedistrict’sPostalService—or,inthelanguageofthedecade,spiriteddot-comsbattlingthemightyMicrosoft.*Theyreceivedgovernmentsupport,buttheycontrolledtheirownaffairs.Thebestchartersalsoobsessedovermetrics.Bystudyingeverythingtheydid

andanalyzingtheresults,theyhopedtofigureoutwhatwasreallyworkingand

whatwasn’t,andthenchangetheirhabitsaccordingly.Inanewlycompetitiveeducationalmarketplace,theyassumedthatthe“winner”wouldbetheschoolthatpursuedeffectiveinnovation,eveniftheresultwasvastlydifferentfromthewaythingshadalwaysbeen.

AtAPR,thefirsteducationalconventionthatStaceyandDougdiscardedwasarchitecture.TheschooloccupiedthesecondflooroftheMostPreciousBloodparochialschool,abuildingconstructedaroundacourtyard,likeaninner-cityDoubleTree.Thesetupdidnotincludeanathleticfield;MostPreciousBlood’sonlyoutdoorspacewasaparkinglot.Soathletics,includingAPR’sdailyTaiChilessons,tookplaceonalanding.Staffmeetings,inkeepingwiththelatestmanagementtrends,wereheldstandingup.APR’sfoundersalsorejectedalmosteverythingassociatedwithedschools,

includingtheirideasaboutteaching.Manyofthem,Dougincluded,hadn’tgonetoedschool.Butthosewhohadgavetherestanideaofwhateducationprofessorsadvocated,andasfarastheycouldtell,itwasexactlytheoppositeofwhattheirstudentsneeded.Thebroadlabelfortheedschoolapproachtoteaching,astheyunderstoodit,wasprogressive.Thegoalsofthisprogressivepedagogywerelaudable.Inthehandsofprogressiveteachers,classroomsweresupposedtobelittledemocracies,withchildrenworkingwiththeteacherstocreatetherules;structuresweresupposedtoberelativelyloose,givingstudentsachancetoexpressthemselvesandpursuetheirowninterests;andinsteadoffocusingonrotememorization,teachersweresupposedtoplancarefullessonsguidingstudentsthroughbigconceptsandideas.*Buttherewastheoryandthentherewasreality.Theteacherswhohadworked

attraditionalpublicschoolsbeforecomingtoworkwithStaceyandDougtoldhorrorstoriesabouttheattemptedimplementationofprogressivepedagogy.Insteadofinspiringcreativelearningandself-expression,theprogressiveideasmadechaoticurbanschoolsmoredisorderlyandstrugglingstudentsmoreconfused.Testscoreswerelowerthanever.ScottMcCue,anearlyAPRteacherwhocametotheschoolafterteachingatanalternativehighschoolinNewYorkCity,describedspendingtwentyminutesinafifty-minuteclassperiodjustgettingstudentstopayattention.Progressivepedagogysoundednice,butexperiencedidn’tsupportit.Anyway,theentrepreneurshadmorepressingconcerns.Theirstudentsdidn’t

needdemocracy;theyneededthebasics.AtAPRmanyofthestudentswere

poor,black,andyearsbehindtheirmoreaffluentpeers.Theyneededtolearntoreadandwriteandaddandsubtract.Noneoftheloftiergoals—criticalthinking,imagination,andcreativity—couldhappenwithoutagraspofthesefundamentals.Howcouldachildstudychemistrywithoutknowinghowtomultiply?Orcreateahistoricalargumentwithoutbeingabletoread?APRstudentsneededtolearnsomethingelsetoo—theskillthatundergirded

allacademicstudy,evensimplenumberandletterfluency:discipline,theartofpayingattention,obeyinginstructions,andfollowingthrough.DisorderruledintheschoolsthatStaceyandDougsoughttoreplace—thefailinginner-citypublicschools,wherefightsbrokeoutinthehallways,homeworkassignmentswereroundlyignored,andnoiselevelstestedthelimitsofthehumaneardrum.AtAPR,DougandStaceythrewawaytheideasaboutdemocracyandopen-

endedprojectsinfavorofapathological(somesaidauthoritarian)focusonbehavior.Asupporteroftheschool,LindaBrown,noticedthegermofthehabitwhenshetelephonedStaceyBoydontheschool’sinauguralfirstday,aswelteringJulymorning.(Hopingtopullstrugglingstudentsahead,theschoollaunchedwithasummerbootcamp.)“Icalledinthemorning,andIsaid,‘Stacey,thisisthedayyou’vebeenwaitingfor!’”Brownsays.“‘Thestudentshavecome,right?’Andshesaid,‘Yes,yes,theyhave,butwehadtosendafewhome.’Isaid,‘Whatareyoutalkingabout?’Shesaid,‘Theyweren’tinuniform.’”Theoffendingchildren,Brownlearned,hadworneverypieceoftherequiredwardrobe(khakipants,standard-issuepoloshirts)exceptone:abelt.Shepicturedstudentstrudgingmileshomein100-degreeheat.Whatkindofschoolwasthis,exactly?ButStaceyexplainedthatwhatseemedpunishing,evencruel,infact

representedaradicalactofkindness.Bybeingscrupulousaboutorder,startingwiththetiniestsymbols,theycouldbuildaschoolwherestudentsobeyedmoreimportantcodesofconduct,pavingthewayfortheemotionallysafe,academicallychallenginglearningexperiencesthatwouldbetrulyprogressive.Shecitedthebroken-windowstheory—theargument,devisedadecadeearlierbytwosocialscientists,JamesQ.WilsonandGeorgeL.Kelling,thatcatastrophicurbanchaos,cascadingfromharmlessdrunkswanderingthestreetstoviolentcrime,couldbeunderminedbyeliminatingthetiniestsignsofdisorder.Whenabrokenwindowisleftunrepaired,“alltherestofthewindowswillsoonbebroken,”WilsonandKellingargued.

Thisisastrueinniceneighborhoodsasinrun-downones.

Window-breakingdoesnotnecessarilyoccuronalargescalebecausesomeareasareinhabitedbydeterminedwindow-breakerswhereasothersarepopulatedbywindow-lovers;rather,oneunrepairedbrokenwindowisasignalthatnoonecares,andsobreakingmorewindowscostsnothing.(Ithasalwaysbeenfun.)

Staceyhadtomakesurethatstudentsknewfromdayonethat,atAPR,breakingwindows—oritsschoolequivalent,notwearingabelt—costsomething.Brownwasconvinced.“Irealized...ifyoudon’tgetthatculturerightatthebeginning,youdon’tgetanotherchance,”shesays.Theideapersuadedotherstoo,lessbecauseofthephilosophythanbecauseof

theresponseitengenderedfromtheparents.SpencerBlasdale,anotherearlyAPRteacher,andoneofthefewteacherstherewhohadattendededschool,atHarvard,recallshearingStaceyannouncethezero-toleranceapproachforthefirsttimeataseriesofinformationalmeetingsforparentstheyearbeforeAPRopened.Everytime,parentswouldpushbackontheidea.Andeverytime,Staceywouldholdherground.“There’sonecasethatIrememberviscerally,”Spencersays.“Amomsaid,youknow,‘Mydaughtersortofswearssometimes.She’s13yearsold,she’sateenager.Ifshesworeunderbreathorsomething,you’rereallysayingthatyouwouldcallmeathometocometotheschooltogether?’”Stacey’sreply:“Yup,”shesaid,asSpencerrecalls.“Iwillcallyou,youmaynotlikeit,andIthinkthat’saservicethatwearedoing.”“Andeveryotherparentintheroom—theystoodupandstartedclapping,”

Spencersays.OfallthepiecesofAPR’spitchtoparents—fromtheplanstoteachinternationalfinanceineleventhgrade,totheMandarinclassesforeverystudent(nottomentionTaiChi),totheglitteringrésumésofthefounders(StaceyhadjustfinishedHarvardBusinessSchool;Dougcamewithhismaster’sinEnglishfromIndiana;SpencercamefromPrinceton)—itwasdisciplinethatcaptivatedparentsmost:apromisetokeeptheirchildrensafe.Onceagain,theharddataofexperiencetrumpedprettydreams.Andteacherssawimmediatepayoffintheirresults.Teachingatdiscipline-obsessedAPR,ScottMcCuenowspentfifty-fourofthefifty-fiveclassminutesoncontent.ThestaffatAPRknewtheirzealousapproachmadeanumberofteachers

uncomfortable.Astudentforcedtoapologizetotheentireclassforhismisbehavior—wasn’tthatonestepawayfromaduncecap?Butthisdiscomfort

withconsequenceswastheconventionalwisdomtheentrepreneurswantedtooverturn—anotherromanticnotionthatexperiencedidnotsupport.Dougcalleditthe“Hug’EmtoHarvard”principle—theideathatwhatunderprivilegedstudentsneededmostwaswarmthandkindness.TheHug-’Em-to-Harvardswere“like,‘Oh,whenthosekidsmeetus,andtheyseehowmuchwelovethem,thentherewon’tbeanybehaviorproblems!’Andyou’relike,howdareyouthinkthatwhentheymeetyoutheywon’tshowallthemanifestationsoftheorganizationaldysfunctionandscarsofpoverty,”Dougsays.“Wewerenotgoingtobethosefools.”Morethanhugs,thefacultyfelt,theAPRstudentsneededlimits.Othercharterschoolswerecomingtothesameconclusion.AtRoxburyPrep,

anotherBostoncharterschool,JohnKing—theHarvardgraduatefromEastFlatbush—debatedwithhiscofounderEvanRudallabouthowfartotaketheirownradicalorderliness.LikeAPRtheyhadastrictdresscode,butwhataboutpassingperiods?Johnthoughtthekidsshouldbeallowedtotalkastheymovedfromclasstoclass.Evandisagreed.“Evansaid,‘I’mtellingyou,ifwedon’tdosilenthallways,transitionsaregoingtotakeforever,andit’sgoingtobeatotaldisasterforclasses,’”Johnsays.Tosettlethedebate,theydecidedtocallEvan’swife—John’sidea,becausehe

knewshewouldsympathizewithhissofterapproach.Shedid,andstudentswereallowedtotalkbetweenclasses.IttookonlytwodaysofschoolforJohntoabandonship.AsEvanhadpredicted,movingbetweenclassesnotonlytookupmoretimethantheyhadallotted;italsocreatedopportunitiesformisbehaviorthatspilledintoclassrooms,wastingvaluableinstructionaltime.BythetimeJayAltman—whowasintheprocessofopeninghisownschoolinNewOrleans—visitedRoxburyPrepafewyearslater,Johnhadbecomethesilenthallwayczar.“Hewasradicalaboutit,”Jaysays.“Everytime,abouttwominutesbeforethebellwouldgooffbeforeclasses,allyearlong,heorsomeonewouldgetonthespeakersandsay,‘Teachers,thebellisabouttoring.Pleasegetinthehallway.’”AccordingtoJohn,thePAmessagecameononlyasthebellwasringing,andtherequestwasforteachersto“joinusinthehallway,”buttheresultwasthesame.Withoutmissingabeat,theteacherswithoutaclassthatperiodappearedinthehalls,readytokeepwatch.Soonenough,theentrepreneurs’approach—“countercultural,”McCuecalled

it—hadsolidifiedintoaphilosophy.Itwasthedeliberateinverseof“Hug’EmtoHarvard”:noexcuses.*

ThesecondpieceoftheeducationalorthodoxythatDougandtheotherno-excusesentrepreneursrejectedwasisolation.Americanteachersmightworkinschoolbuildingswithdozensofcolleagues.

But,aseducationscholarshavenoted,theyoperatedessentiallysolo,like“lonerangers,”asDeborahBall’sSpartanVillagecolleagueMindyEmersonputit.SociologistDanLortie,whoarguedthatAmericanclassroomsstilloperatedlikeaone-roomschoolhouse,describedtheapproachasthe“singlecellofinstruction”model.Despitegrowingfacultieswithgreaternumbersofspecialists,individualteachersrarelyinteracted.Someeducationprofessorsusedthemetaphorofthe“egg-crateschool,”whichcarefullyseparatedteachers,asiftokeepthemfromtouching.Theentrepreneurshadn’treadmuchoftheacademictheory,buttheywere

zealousabouttheirworknonetheless.Inexperienceseemedtomotivatethem.Mostoftheteachershadjustafewyearsofteachingundertheirbelts(Doug,forhispart,hadtaughtEnglishforthreeyearsataprivatedayschoolinPrinceton,NewJersey,beforegradschool),yettheywereresponsibleforrunningtheschool.Everydaytheyfacedastreamofdifficultquestions.“Youknow,theTaiChiinstructordidn’tshowup,”saysSpencerBlasdale.Or,“like,okay,what’sthefirstreportcardgoingtolooklike?Howarewegoingtodoourfirstschooldance?WhatarewegoingtodobecausethisTaiChiteacher’sbeenabsentthreetimes?”ForDoug,thequestionsmultipliedattheendofthefirstyear,whenStacey

decidedtoleave.“Shewaslike,‘Guesswhat?You’reprincipal!’”Dougsays.“‘It’syourschool.Goandget’em!’”Hewastwenty-sevenyearsold.Oneday,notlongafterthat,agroupofauditorsapproachedhimaboutanaccountingproblemhehadn’tevenknownexisted,which,ifunaddressed,wouldjeopardizetheschool’sfuture.“Everydaytherewassomethinglikethat,”Dougsays.“Weweresoincrediblyvulnerable.Inpart,because[we]wereatinylittleorganizationwithnoinfrastructure.Inpart,becausetherewasnoexperienceandnotrackrecordandnooneknewanythingtogobackon.Andnoneofushadanyexperience.And,inpart,becausenoneoftheruleswerewritten.Itwasterrifying.”Runningacharterschool,hethought,wastheultimatecrucible.Everymistakeyoumade,youmadeinpublic,forallyourstaffandstudentstosee.Anothergroupofpeoplemighthaveturnedinward.Butintheirresponse,

DougandtherestoftheAPRteachersweredistinctlymore“Japanese.”Withnoexperiencetofallbackon,theytackledtheproblemstogether.Insteadof

regressingtotheegg-cratetradition,thefacultyatAPRopenedtheirdoors—andlearnedfromoneanother.Indeed,theAcademyofthePacificRimwas“pacific”bydefinition.Itstwo

foundingboardmembershadreadJamesStiglerandHaroldStevenson’searlyresearchonAsianschools,andtheyhadattendedAsianschoolsthemselves.TheyhandedthecharterovertoStacey,whohadtaughtinJapan,withamandatetoblendthebestofEastandWest.Asaresult,Dougfoundhimselfleadingstudysessionsonjointreadingsof

TeachingandLearninginJapanandessaysonJapanesemanagementtechniques.TheTIMSSvideostudythatintroducedStiglertolessonstudyhadnotyetbeenpublished,buttheculturalapproachunderlyingjugyokenkyuwasembodiedbytheconceptofkaizen—thenpopularamongtheHarvardBusinessSchoolcrowd—whichdescribedthe“continuousimprovement”ofToyotaassemblylines.Imaginingtheeducationalequivalentofanefficientandresponsiveassemblyline,Dougandhiscolleaguesdidnotquitereinventlessonstudy.Buttheycameclose,holdingstandingmeetingsontheminutedetailsofthehomeworksystemanddevisingschedulestoenableteacherstomakeregularvisitstoeachother’sclassrooms.(InAPR’scase,ithelpedthatsomanyoftheteacherswereyoung,unmarried,andchildless;daysstartedat6:00inthemorninganddidn’tenduntil7:00,8:00,sometimes9:00atnight.)Theschool’scultureofconstantcollaborativelearningalsostemmedfrom

Doughimself.Thoughheoutgrewhischildhoodsmallness,Dougnevershedtheshyness.Hewascompulsivelyhumble,painfullyself-deprecating,andprolificonthesubjectofhisownfaults.Incollege,afterasoccergame,hewouldspendthenexttwoweeksfixatingonthemistakeshe’dmade,evenifhisteamwon.Whenhedidstumbleonanideathatheknewwasgood,healwaysdeferredresponsibilitytoacolleague.“Youcanassume,becauseitwasreallysmart,thatitwasnotmyidea,”he’dsay.Wheneverhegaveadvice,hedelivereditwithahintofaquestionmark.Hewassoself-effacing,soobsessedwithhisownshortcomings,thatbeingaroundhimcouldsometimesbephysicallyuncomfortable.Colleaguescouldn’ttalktoDougforlongwithouthiscasuallydeclaringafailureatsomedeeplypersonaltask,likeraisinghischildrenorsupportinghiswife.Dougthoughtthereweretwokindsofpeopleintheworld:thevirtuosos,who

couldrunorjumporwriteoractwithoutthinkingmuchaboutit;andthestrivers,whostudiedthenaturals’everymove,perfectingtheirskillsinanattempttoreachthehigherlevel.Dougwassurehewasastriver,apersonfor

whombrilliancerequiredimitation.DougrespondedtofailureatAPRbydoingwhathehadalwaysdone:he

lookedforpeoplewhoexcelledattheirworkandstudiedwhattheydid.Hisstaffwashisfirstandbestsourceofideas.WalkingthroughtheclassroomsatAPR,helearnedhowtobecomeabetterteacher.Sometimesthelessonswereobvious,aswithMollyWood,whosepeppypersonamadeherteachingtechniques—anintriguingmixofextremestructureandwarmemotionalconnection—easytoidentify.Othertimestheyweremoremysterious,aswithquiet,understatedKateGlendenning,whoputherstudentsintoakindoftranceastheyconsideredShakespeare,neverrushingintoansweringastudent’squestion(thewayDougalwaysdid),butinsteadpausingafewsecondsbeforecraftingthemosteffectivereply.Dougstudiedthemall,evenbringingavideocameratoKate’sclassoneday

toenablefurtherreview.HealsolookedbeyondAPR,tothenewmovementofno-excusescharterschoolleadersinBostonandaroundthecountry.Together,theteachersandprincipalstalkedonthephone,huddledovercoffeeorataparty,andvisitedeachother’sschools,discussingeverythingfromhowtodealwithtroublesomeparentstohowtomanageaschoolbudget.“Anydifficultdecision,IwouldpickupthephoneandcallJohn[King]orMike[Goldstein,oftheMatchcharterschools]orEvan[Rudall]orBrett[Peiser]andsay,whatwouldyoudointhissituation,orwhathaveyoudoneinthissituation?Andwealwayswouldsendteachers,groupsofteachers—gospendadayatRoxburyPrepor[later]BostonPrep,”saysSpencerBlasdale,whobecameDoug’sassistantprincipalwhenStaceyleft.Littlecommentsoftenmadethebiggestdifference.Oneday,watchingDoug

teach,acolleaguegavehimasimplesuggestion.Tryingtosavetime,Doughadgivendirectionswhilehemovedaroundtheroom,passingoutpapers.Butthestudentsweren’tpayingfullattention.“Whenyouwantthemtofollowyourdirections,”thecolleaguesuggested,“standstill.Ifyou’rewalkingaroundpassingoutpapers,itlookslikethedirectionsarenomoreimportantthanalloftheotherthingsyou’redoing.Showthatyourdirectionsmatter.Standstill.They’llrespond.”Dougtriedit,andhewasfloored.“Icouldseethedifferencerightaway.”Thecommentsmultiplied,andovertime,everyone’sconfidencegrew.

Teachingpresentedamillionproblems,butbyworkingtogether,watchingeachotherandbeingwatched,heandhiscolleaguescouldcraftsolutions.“Thegreatthingaboutbeinginthecrucibleisthatifyouseesomethingsuccessful,you

knowrightaway,”Dougsays.“It’snotworking,andit’sgoingtobealonghour!Or,‘OhmyGod.It’sworking!’Itwasjustatonofveryvisible—likealaboratory—atonofveryvisiblefeedbackcomingbacktoyou.You’regettingthis,oryousuck.”Noteverymemberoftheno-excusesmovementwasacongenitallearnerlike

Doug.Buttheoneswhowere—JohnKingandEvanRudallatRoxburyPrep;JayAltmaninNewOrleans;BrettPeiser,aformerteacherinBrooklynwhohadstartedanotherBostoncharterschool;DavidLevinandMikeFeinberg,earlyTeachForAmericacorpsmemberswhowentontofoundtheKIPPcharterschoolsinHoustonandNewYorkCity;and(therareearlyfemalefounder)DaciaToll,aYaleLawSchoolgraduatewhohadcreatedAmistadAcademyinNewHaven,Connecticut,whichlatergrewintotheAchievementFirstnetwork—becameacommunity.Togethertheyensuredthateachschoolnotonlylearnedtosolveitsownproblems,butalsobenefitedfromsolutionsinventedbyitscompatriots.Aftervisitingthefifth-gradeclassroomofateachernamedJulieJacksonatthe

NorthStarAcademyinNewark,NewJersey,JayAltmandecidedtodevoteanentireprofessionaldevelopmentsessionbackinNewOrleanstoreproducingherlesson.“Ms.Jackson’sMythicalMathClass,”hecalledtheworkshop.“IhadeveryonegothroughtheexperienceofherclassandusedallthesetechniquesI’dlearnedfromthevisit.Oneofthemwasoralwarm-upinmath,likelanguageclass.”Hebroughthisstafftotheirfeetandpepperedtheroomwithquestions,justasJulieJacksonhaddonewithherfifth-graders.“Like,‘Whocanpointoutapairofparallellinesinthisroom?Okay,threehundredtimesthirtyplustentimesfiveequalswhat?’Andthen,ifakidanswered,say,‘Okay,whoagreeswiththatanswer?Whodisagrees?Whyorwhynot?’”Inoneshortexercise,she’dmanagedtogetherstudentsthinking,talking,practicingfluency,usingmathvocabulary,andgivingherselflotsofinsightsintowhattheydidanddidn’tunderstand.Altmanwantedallthatforhisstudentstoo.Anothertrip,organizedbyLindaBrown,theBostoncharterschooladvocate

whohadbeenatfirstperplexedandthenimpressedbyAPR’sbeltpolicy,offeredatourofinnovativeschoolsinNewYorkCity.“Werentedabusthatheld44people,andwetooktheMassachusettscharterschoolsthathadopened,”Brownsays.Itwas1996,thesecondyearofcharterschoolsinthestate;onlytwenty-twoschoolshadopenedsofar.“Wefilledthespacesinabout25minutes.”Thetripseventuallybecameaformaltrainingprogramforno-excusesprincipals:theBuildingExcellentSchoolsfellowship.

ReadingPoBronson’saccountoflifeinSiliconValleyduringthedot-comboom(TheNudistontheLateShift),oneAPRteacher,ChiTschang,sawhimselfandhiscolleaguesinthedescriptionsofthescrappyHotmailprogrammerswhosleptundertheirdesks.Later,afterChiintroducedhimselftoBronsonbye-mail,theauthorvisitedandwroteaboutAPR.An“educational‘start-up,’”Bronsoncalledit.

Asno-excusescharterschoolsproliferated,theirstudentsprospered.AllthestudentsinAPR’sfirstgraduatingclasspassedthestateexams,justasStaceyhadpromised(ortheirmoneyback!),andallwentontofour-yearcolleges.AtRoxburyPrep,amiddleschool,studentsconsistentlyledthestate,fancyBostonsuburbsincluded,inmathandscienceproficiency.JayAltman’sNewOrleansCharterMiddleSchoolbecamethehighest-performingnonselectivemiddleschoolinthecity.NorthStar,KIPP,andAmistadfollowedthesamepattern.Observersinterpretedthesuccessinthesameaccountabilityframeworkthat

hadgeneratedcharterschoolsinthefirstplace.Theno-excusesschoolsmusthavedonebetterbecausetheyweremoreaccountabletoresults—andtherefore,inthelanguageoftheday,“results-driven.”Freeofbureaucraticredtape(suchastherulesaboutteachinghoursandsubstitutesthateventuallydoomedJessieFry’seffortsatSpartanVillage),andfinallygiventheincentivetosucceed,theyproducedtheoutputsdemandedofthem.“HadwetriedtoinventNorthStaratthefederalgovernment,”jokedthen-governorGeorgeW.Bushonavisittotheschoolin2000,“they’dstillbeincommitteehearings.”DougLemovbelievedinaccountabilitytoo.Indeed,hebelievedinitsomuch

that,threeyearsafterAPRopened,hedecidedtoleaveforbusinessschoolatHarvard,wherehehopedtolearnskillstoimproveschoolaccountability.Whilemanycharterschoolsservedchildrenwell,others,Dougknew,stayedinbusinesseventhoughtheypostedlesssparklingresults—theoppositeofcharterlaws’intent.Atbusinessschool,hethought,hecouldfigureouthowtomakeaccountabilityworkbetterforallschools,notjustsuccessfulcharters.Eventually,Dougputtheideaintopracticeatanewdreamjob,managingthe

accountabilitysystemsforcharterschoolsacrossNewYorkState.Later,hewentofftostartacompanyofhisown,buildingdiagnosticteststohelpschoolsmeettheirgoals.AtHarvardhe’dbecomeespeciallybullishaboutdata.Treatedcarefully,helearned,datacouldbothpaintanaccuratepictureofwhichcompanies(orschools)wereperformingandwhichweren’t—andgivethemthe

toolstogetbetter.Thediagnostictestswereanexample.SchoolsthatDougworkedwithcouldusethemtotracktheirstudents’progresstowardstatestandardsthroughouttheyear,recordingeachchild’sadvancementinordertospotlapses:WhydoesKaylaunderstandtwo-dimensionalfiguresandtime,butnotmoney?WhyisDestinydoingwellwithcongruencebutnotthecalendar?Scrutinizingdatacouldhelpteachersmakedecisions.Ahzheona,withher50percentscoresinacertaincategory,probablyneededadayoftutoring;Jasmine,whoscoredbelow50percentacrosstheboard,neededtutoringeveryday;andKendraandAmirah,withtheclass’shighestmarksacrossallthestandards,werereadyforanewchallenge.Doug’sworkatbothjobsearnedhimpraise.NewYork’scharterschool

standardswereheraldedasthebestinthecountry,andthediagnostictestingcompany,calledSchoolPerformance,wonhimtheacclaimoftheUSDepartmentofEducation,whichaskedhimtospeakabouttheapproachataneducationsummitin2006.Bythetimehegavethepresentation,though,hewasalreadybeginningtosee

thelimitsofaccountability.Theyearbefore,he’dworkedwithaschoolinSyracusethatpresentedaconundrum.Walkingthroughthehallwaysandmeetingwithteachersandadministrators,DougfoundaschooldrenchedinjustthekindofgreatexpectationshehadpracticedatAPR.TheschoolusedDoug’sdiagnostictests,andtheprincipalwassoobsessedwithgoalsettingthatshehadhungabannerintheentrancelistinghertopthreegoalsforeveryonetosee:

1.Increaseparentalinvolvementto100%2.Intentionalpracticeforgoal-setting

3.Increaseachievementinreading,math

Dougcouldseethateveryoneinthebuildingsharedtheprincipal’sgoals.Theteacherswerenotlazymonopolists,enjoyingtenure,rakinginattendancechecksfromthedistrict,andpromotingkidswhohadn’tearnedit.Instead,theysatdownonthefloor,holdingbooksrightinfrontofthechildren’sfaces,practicallybeggingthemtosucceed.Butashespentmoretimeinitsclassrooms,Dougsawthattheschool’shigh

hopes,howeverstaunchlyheld,failedtomaterializeinpractice.ThiswasnotaHollywood-styleurbanjungle,thekindofbrutalfailureDoughadseenwhere

studentscalledtheirteachersmotherfuckersandinstructorsmadebasicfactualmistakes.(Atoneschool,ateacherhadsolemnlylecturedaboutthe“farmers”oftheConstitution.)Here,thefailurewasmuchmoreinsidiousandalso,Dougsuspected,muchmorecommon.Studentsobeyedbasicinstructions,andteachers’lessonplanshadbeginnings,

middles,andends.Butitwasasifthetwosideshadreachedatruce:thestudentswouldcreateminimalchaos,providedtheteacherwouldn’tdemandtoomuchoftheirconcentration.Itwasalose-losecompromise.Classdiscussionsdraggedgrudginglyforward.Thesamethreestudentsalwaysraisedtheirhands.Andthesameoneslaunchedsubtleprotestsagainstseriouslearning.InoneclassthatDougobserved,theteacherspentseveralminutesdebatingastudentaboutwhyhedidn’thaveapencil.Anotherdividedherstudentsintotwogroupstopracticemultiplicationtogether,onlytowatchthemturntothemoreinterestingworkofchatting.Asinglequietstudentsoldieredonwiththeproblems,alone.Theteacherlookedtheotherway,andDougcouldn’twatchtherest.Hewalkedoutthedoor.Teachingdidnothavetofeelthatway,likesuffocatingslowly.Andhigh

expectationshadtobemorethanaposterhangingfromtheceilingoralawsignedinWashington,DC.Toguaranteethatreallearninghappened,somethinghadtochangeintheactualclassroom.Theproblemdidnotseemtobealackofmodels.FollowingDoug’sold

strategyofwatchingbetterteachersatwork,theschoolhadalreadytakenagroupfieldtriptooneofthecrownjewelsoftheno-excusesworld:KIPPAcademyinNewYorkCity.CreatedbyDavidLevinandMikeFeinberg,twoearlyTeachForAmericacorpsmembers,KIPPwasaperfectmodelofboththezero-tolerancedisciplineapproachandthesermonizingschool-as-pep-talkculture.YetwhenDougaskedtheSyracuseteachersaboutthetrip,hefoundthatthe

visithadnotprovedinstructive.Theteachershadseenplentyofthings—thearrangementofthereadingrugs,thecolorsoftheuniforms.ButlikethevisitorswhowatchedMagdaleneLampertandDeborahBallteachatSpartanVillage,theyhadnotseenthethingstheyneededtolearn.“Ijustrememberthinking,‘Holyshit.That’swhatyoutookaway?’Thethingstheytookawayweresorandom,andifyourankedthemostimportantthingsaboutahigh-performingschoolfrom1to100,theyhadseennumber63,number84,andnumber47.Asopposedtonumbers1,2,and3.”Butwhatwere1,2,and3?Dougalwaystoldclientschoolsthathisdata

reportswereonlythebeginning.“Thistoolisonlyasgoodaswhatpeopledowithit,”hetoldtheaudienceatthenationalsummit.“Empowerthemtotakerealaction.”Butwhatactionsshouldteacherstake?DougunderstoodtheSyracuseteachers’struggle,goingtoKIPPandnot

knowingwhattofocuson.Hecouldthinkofplentyofgreatteachershe’dseensincehestartedworkinginurbanschools.Butdescribingthethingsthatmadethemgreatwasliketryingtodescribeadream.Hecouldexplainhowtheirteachingmadehimfeel:goodorbad,painedorgiddy.Buthecouldnotexplainexactlywhathappenedorwhyorhowtomakethebadmomentsbetter.Hethoughtaboutsoccer,thesporthe’dplayedthroughcollegeandbeyond.If

histeammateswantedhimtodobetter,theydidn’tjustsay,“Improve.”or“BemorelikeBeckham!”Theybrokethat“it”factordown,tellinghimto“marktighter”or“closethespace.”Maybethereasonhestruggledtotalkandeventothinkaboutteachingwasthattherightwordsdidn’texist—oratleast,theyhadn’tbeeninvented.Notyetanyway.

*Someofthecharterschoolsliveduptothispromise,butmanydidnot.Multiplestudiesofcharterschoolperformancehaveshownthattheschoolsoftenperformjustaspoorlyasthedistrict-runschoolstheyseektooutdo.Andacrossthecountry,charterschoolshavebeenthevictimofthesameinefficiencyandcorruptionchallengesthatplagueneighborhoodpublicschools.

*WhensimilarcharacterizationswereusedtodescribeDeborahBallandMagdaleneLampert’steaching—whatotherMichiganStateeducatorsnamedTKOT—thetwowomenresistedthemasfalsedichotomies.Ingoodteaching,theymaintained,structurewasasimportantasfreedom,fluencyasimportantasconcepts.ButtheteachersatAPRhadnotheardofDeborahorMagdalene.DeborahandMagdalenealsobothrightlyquestionedwhat“progressivepedagogy”actuallyreferredto.Whilesometeacherstookonthelabelproudlytodescribea“child-centered”approach,therewasnocoherentschoolofpedagogicalthoughtthatcouldbecalled“progressive.”Historically,progressiveeducationdescribedapoliticalmovementadvocatingcertaineducationalgoals,notapedagogicalapproachtoachievingthem.

*AswithTKOT(thephrasedescribingthekindofteachingpracticedbyDeborahBallandMagdaleneLampert),Iborrowthe“noexcuses”labelfrom

somemembersofthegroupofpeopleI’vecalledtheentrepreneurialeducationmovementtodescribetheirpedagogicalapproach.“Noexcuses”waspopularizedbySamuelCaseyCarterinhisbook,NoExcuses:Lessonsfrom21High-PerformingHigh-PovertySchools(Washington,DC:HeritageFoundation,2000).AswithTKOT,the“noexcuses”descriptorisnotembracedbyalltheentrepreneurialeducatorsIwriteabout.Notably,asIexplainfurtherinChapter7,DougLemovdislikesthetermanddoesnotuseittodescribehisownwork.

6

LEMOV’STAXONOMY

DrivinghomefromSyracusewithhiscolleagueKarenCichon,aformerCatholic-schoolteacherwhonowworkedwithhimatSchoolPerformance,DougLemovcouldn’tstopthinkingaboutthesoccermetaphor.Asateacher,hehadalwaysbeenanevangelistforthepowerofclearlanguagetohelpstudentsunderstandexactlywhatyouwantedthemtodo.Heoftencrusadedagainstwhathecalled“thefundamentalambiguityof‘shh,’”oneofthemostwidelyusedteacherphrasesintheAmericanschoolandalso,tellingly,oneoftheleastspecific.“Areyouaskingthekidsnottotalk,orareyouaskingthekidstotalkmorequietly?”hewouldaskteachers.Thesamelessonappliedtoteachers.Learninghowtoteach,theyneededspecificinstructionsasmuchastheirstudentsdid.Butwherecouldthewordscomefrom?Dougthoughtofarecentvisithe’d

madetoaclassroomatRoxburyPrepwithoneoftheschool’sadministrators,JoshPhillips.Atacertainpoint,JoshpulledDougintothehall.“Didyouseethat?”hesaid.“Theteachertoldthekidstoputtheirhandsdown.”Ithadbeenacounterintuitivemove.Presentedwitheagerhands,mostteacherswouldnaturallyrewardtheirenthusiasmbylettingthechildrenspeak.Butthisteacherdecidedthequestionshadbecomeredundant,andshemovedon.“That’showwedoithere,”JoshtoldDoug.Adecadeofworkhadcomedownto“howwedoithere,”awayofdoing

schoolsodetailedandintricateitevenincludedanopiniononwhentostoptakingstudents’questionsduringalesson.Learningtogether,theno-excusesleadershadtakenablankcanvasandturneditintoasystemofthoughtandpractice.WhatDougneededwasawaytocommunicatethatvision,toforegroundallthelittlethingsthatmadeuptheno-excuseswaysothatanyvisitorwouldbesuretoseethem.Heneededbetterwords.AsKarendrovethemdownthehighwaybacktoAlbany,Dougexplainedhis

ideafromthepassengerseat.Theyneededtocreatea“commonvocabulary”todescribetheelementsofgoodteaching.HewantedtheSyracuseprincipaltobeabletositinthebackofaclassroom,takenotes,and,justasthebellrang,passtheteacheraPost-it:“Nicejobclosingthespace.Nexttime,marktighter.”Orwhatever.Whatever.SittingatthewheelofherJeep,Karenthoughtitover,rewindingthroughher

memoryofeverythingthey’djustseenattheschool.Suddenly,shehadone.Itwasasmallthingshe’dseenafewteachersdothatalwaysdrovehercrazy—maybebecause,whenshetaught,she’doftensuccumbedtothesametemptation.Frustratedwithbadbehavior,teachersoftenfixatedonit,complainingsomuchaboutwhatstudentsweredoingwrongthattheyforgottoexplainhowtobehaveright.SupposeaboynamedDanieltossedapencilupanddownuntil,whoops!the

pencilparachutedovertotheothersideoftheroom.ThesensibleteacherwouldwantDanieltoquitplayingwiththatstupidpencil.Thenshewouldwanthimtoputitinthelittlegrooveonhisdeskandnottouchitagain.Thenshewouldwanttheclasstoreturnimmediatelytothematterathand.Giventhesegoals,thesensibleteachermightsaysomethingcalmlike,“Daniel,putthatpencilinthepencilholderandlookatme.”Butthefrustratedteacherisnotusuallysensible.Watchingthatpencilsail

acrosstheroom,andmaybeimaginingitspikingLawreneshaintheeyeballorskeweringDantethegoldfish,thewordsflyingoutofthefrustratedteacher’smouth,morelikely,wouldbesomethinglike,“Daniel!I’mgoingtogluethatpenciltoyourfingers!”Notonlywouldthesewordsfailtodescribethecorrectbehavior;theywoulddrawunnecessaryattentiontothemisbehavior.Anystudentwhohadn’tnoticedthatflyingpencilwouldknowallaboutitnow,andthepowerintheroomwouldshiftfromthediligentstudentstothedunce.Moreexamplesemerged.“David,”Dougsaid,takingonateachervoice,“I

askedyoutositup,andIstilldon’tseeseveralofyousittingup.Pause.”Hewentbacktohisregularvoice.“Okay,sowhat[I]justdidwasmakeitexplicitthatthekidsdidn’tdowhat[I]askedthemtodo,andtherewasn’taconsequenceforit.Youalmostcouldn’tdoanythinglessproductiveinyourclassroom.”Ifaprincipalcaughtateachermakingthismistake,DougandKarenthought,

heshouldbeabletosendheraone-phrasereminder.Maybetheycouldcallit“WhattoDo,”torepresentthegoalofrespondingtomisbehaviorbypointingoutexactlywhattodoinstead,ratherthangivingattentiontothefailure.“John,”

theteachermightsay,“that’sthethirdtimeyou’reoutofyourseat.”Okay,theprincipalcouldwrite,butWhattoDo?Or,“Andrea,whydoyouhavetogotothebathroomsomuch?Whydidn’tyougoatlunchtime?”AnotherWhattoDo.KarenandDougthoughtaboutproblemsbeyondbehaviortoo.Atthetime,

everyonehad“highexpectations.”Therewasn’tateachertobefoundwhowouldadmittohavinglowexpectations.YetinSyracuse,andinotherschoolsacrossupstateNewYork,they’dseenathousandsmallwaysthatteachersunwittinglyshowcasedthatsoftbigotry.Like,whenateacheraskedaquestionandallhandsintheroomwentupbutthree,andtheteacherwashappybecausethatwasprettygood.Butsheneverfollowedupwiththosethree,andtheoneswhogotthequestionright—sheneveraskedthemtotakeastepfurtherandtrytosolveaslightlyharderquestion.Orwhataboutwhenastudentansweredaquestionwithalmosttheright

answer,butnotquite,andthatwasgoodenough?Orwhenateacheraskedaspecificstudent—say,Benjamin—forananswer,andthestudentshrugged?“I-o-no,”Benjaminwouldsay,lookingsomewhereelse.Andbecauseitseemedimpossibletopullanythingmoreoutofhim,especiallyunderthetimeconstraintsandconsideringthefactthathewasoneofonlythirtystudentsinthepacked,maybealsohotroom,theteacherwouldmoveon.AndBenjaminwouldgetawaywithoutsayinganotherword.KarenandDougcameupwithmorecategoriestogoalongwithWhattoDo.

“100Percent”wouldremindtheteachertomakesurethateverysinglestudentintheroomwasengaged,followingalong,andunderstood.“RightIsRight”wouldencourageateachertoinsistongettingtheprecisecorrectanswerfromthestudent,notaclose-enoughone.“StretchIt”woulddemandthatteacherspressstudentswhoeasilyprovidethecorrectanswer,challengingthemtotaketheproblemastepfurther.Doug,who’dbeenwritingtheirideasfuriouslyinhisnotebook,lookedupat

thedashboard.MILESTOEMPTY,thelightread:0.They’dbeensoengrossedincreatingtheirnewlanguage,theyhadn’trealizedthey’drunoutofgas.

Aweeklater,DougandKarenreturnedtotheroad.ThistimetheirdestinationwasanelementaryschoolinBrooklyn.Takingnotesinthebacksofclassrooms,theyonceagaintriedtothinkofconstructivefeedback,concrete“realaction”thattheycouldtelltheteacherstohelpthemimprove.Exceptthistime,theyactuallyhadsomewords.Itwaslikefinallyvisitingtheoptometristaftera

lifetimeofnearsightedness:Fuzzylinessuddenlyclickedintofocusrevealingclear,discernibleletters.Thetreeshadleaves.Inthefirstclassroomateacherwasrunninganexerciseinproofreading.To

practicesymbolslikedelete,insert,andnewparagraph,studentswalkedonebyoneuptoanoverheadprojectorandfilledinthecorrectsigns.Onestudentcameupandannouncedthatawordneededtoberemoved.Butshecouldnotrememberthenameofthesymbol,thatloopything.“It’sokay,”theteachersaid.“Youcansayloopything.I’llknowwhatyoumean.”“RightIsRight,”Karenwrote.Latertheteachermovedontoavocabularylesson.Shegavethestudentsa

wordfromtheirlistandthenaskedthemtousethewordinasentence.Thefirstwordwasenjoy.Astudentsaid,“Ienjoymyweekend.”“Canyouaddonthat?”theteachersaid.“Ienjoymyweekendbygoingtomycousin’shouse,”thestudentsaid.“Well,”theteacherurged,“canyoudescribethatboy[hiscousin]?”KarenandDougtooknotes.Theteacherwasclearlytryingtodrawthestudent

out,topushhimtodescribethecousininawaythatwoulddemonstratethatthestudentunderstoodthemeaningofenjoy.“StretchIt,”Karenwroteinhernotebook;thistime,she’dfoundagoodexample.Thenextwordwaspoison.“Onedaywhenmyunclecame,”astudentoffered,

“Imadeapoison.”Theteachernodded.“Okay,”shesaid.“Now,nextword.”Karenwrotethisdowninhernotebooktoo—asabadexampleof“StretchIt.”

Withoutanycontextcluesexplainingwhythestudenthadmadepoisonwhenhisunclecame,hehadn’tdemonstratedthatheunderstoodtheword’smeaning.Notonlythat;intheprocess,he’dgottenthewholeclassthinkingabouthisuncle,ratherthanthemeaningofthewordpoison—andtheteacherhaddonenothingtosteerbacktheirfocus.Later,Karentookaccountofthelessoninhernotebook:“Thinkofallofthe

thingsgoingonthere,”shewrote.“Whataretheimportantwordstolearn?Inthesentencethey’reusing,isthatthebestwaytodecide:isthattherightwordtouseornot?Ifasentencecomesupthattakesthemofftask—well,nowthere’s18kidsthatreallywanttohearabouttheunclemakingpoison,asopposedtodecidingwhatistheword,whatdoesitmean,onwego.There’sawholelotthatyoucouldanalyzejustbasedonwhatwasaquickhomeworkreview.”ThesimplevocabularythatDougandKarenweredeveloping—onlyahandful

oftermssofar,representingahandfuloftechniques—helpedthemsaysomuchmore.

By2010,Doughadtraveledtodozensmoreschools,thistimenottosolveproblems,buttofindsolutions,moretechniquestoname.Healwaysbeganaschoolvisitbyaskingtheprincipalforareportontheteacherswhohelpedstudentsthemost.Thenhewentintotheirclassrooms,bringingavideographerwithhim—thefirstvideographerwasbasicallyaweddingphotographer,whomDoughadmetthroughafriend—sothatafterward,hecouldstudythetapemorecarefully,rewindingthekeypartslikeanNFLcoachreviewingtheopposingteam’splays.Soon,he’dbroughttheweddingguyonfull-time.ForDoug,too,theprojecthadgrownfromasideinteresttoanearlyfull-timejob.Afewyearsearlier,Doughadlefthisdatabusinesstostarttwonewcharter

schools—oneinRochesterandanotheroneinTroy,NewYork,justoutsideAlbany.TheschoolswerepartofthenewUncommonSchoolscharternetwork,acollaborationthatbroughtDougtogetherwithsomeofhisoldfriends:JohnKingandEvanRudallofRoxburyPrepinBoston;NormanAtkinsofNorthStarinNewark,NewJersey;BrettPeiserofBostonCollegiate,whowasnowopeningschoolsundertheUncommonbannerinBrooklyn.Uncommonhadinstitutionalizedthegroup’sinformalcommunity.Now,ratherthanjustcallingeachotherupwhentheyhadaquestion,Doug,John,Evan,Norman,andBrettheldregular“managingdirector”conferencecallstochartstrategy.Andinsteadofsharingideasandcurriculaandworksheetsandtestshaphazardly,theysharedthembydesign.Thetaxonomyprojectemergedinthesameway—aweirdsideprojectof

Doug’sthatgraduallybecamesomethingbigger.OnereasonDougandhiscohortsbuiltUncommonwastohelpalltheirschoolsexpand.Afterachievingisolatedsuccesses,theywereunderpressurefromfunders,parents,andthemselvestocreatemorehigh-performingcharterschools.Butgrowthhadintroducedamillionnewproblems;chiefamongthemwastalent.Theyhadallbeeninthepracticeoffindinggreatteachersthesamewaycorporateheadhuntersfindskilledemployees:theyscoutedoutthebesttalentatotherschoolsandrecruitedthoseteachersawaybyofferingabetterworkenvironmentand,whennecessary,anicersalary.Now,asthegroupopenedmoreschools,andotherchartersdidthesame

(AchievementFirst,KIPP,andotherno-excusesschoolswerebecomingfranchisednetworksatexactlythesametime),thecompetitionforgreatteacherswasgrowingfierce.Uncommondecidedtochangeitsapproach.Ratherthanbuy

talent,thenetworkwouldtrytobuildit.The“buildit/buyit”epiphanygaveDougthesameilluminatingsensehehadfeltinSyracusewhenherealizedthelimitsofdataandaccountability.Attractingthebestteachersthroughincentivesgotthechartersonlysofar.Toscaleup,theyneededawayofhelpinganyaverageteachergetbetter.Theyneededakindofplaybook,anunderstandingofwhatmadethebestteachersgreatsothattheycouldhelpthemerelyordinarygetevenbetter.TheyneededDoug’staxonomy.Thatwaswhatteachershadstartedcallinghisvocabularyproject:theDoug

Lemovtaxonomy,anorganizedbreakdownofallthelittledetailsthathelpedgreatteachersexcel.Soon,thetaxonomyhadbecomepartofDoug’sofficialjob.InsteadofexpandinghisupstateNewYorkbranchofUncommonatthesamepaceastheothers,hewouldfocushalfofhistimeonbuildinghistaxonomyandrecruitingasmallteamofvideo“analysts”tohelphimdoit.Charterschoolsupportersontheoutsidemightconcludethatthekeydriverwasaccountability,butinsideUncommon,Dougandtheothersknewthattrainingwasjustasimportant.AsDougbuiltthetaxonomy,hetookadvantageofthegrowingUncommon

network,whichgavehimawidenewpoolofteacherstostudy.Soonhislistoftechniqueshadexpandedtoforty-nine.Some,like“RightIsRight,”coveredacademicstandards.Butthetechniquesthatgotthemostattentioncovereddisciplineandattention,thevitalcoreofno-excusesculture.Atitsheart,theno-excusesideaactuallyrepresentedanend,notthemeans.

DougandKarenhadcalledoneofthefirsttechniques“100Percent.”Itdescribedagoal—aclassroomwhere100percentofstudentsmeet100percentoftheexpectations100percentofthetime—ratherthanthemeansofachievingit.Howdidthebestteachersgetallthoseeyesonthem,orallthosebrainsthinkingthroughtheproblem?Totheuntrainedeye,thekeytoobedienceseemedtobesheerpersonality.

Observersoftenspokeofhowgreatteachersworked“magic,”asiftheyturnedahatintoarabbit.Inaway,theyhad.Wherepreviouslyhadsatdefiant,misbehavingchildren,voilà!:eager,attentive,curiousscholars.Thesevirtuosoteachershad“it,”whatever“it”was.ButwhenDougstudiedtheseteachersmoreclosely,hesawthatthestudentshadnotactuallytransformed—notcompletelyanyway.Presentedwiththemostcharismatic,engagingteachers,somestudentswouldstilldeviate—refusingtopayattention,forinstance—ortheywouldforgettofollowarule.Thedifferencelayinwhathappenedjustafterastudentstrayed.Whatdidthe

teacherdothen?ThemoreDougstudiedhisvideotape,themoreintricatetheanswerseemedtobe.Justasstudentsseemedtofindamilliondifferentwaystomisbehaveormakeamistake,therewasalsonoonewayforateachertorespond,nosecretformula.Buttheredidseemtobeaseriesofprinciplesthatallthe“it”teachersfollowed,consciouslyornot,andtheprinciplesseemedtoleadtowardcertainimportantmoves,aslidingscaleofresponsestoselectanddeployineachparticularmoment.OneofthefirstteacherstoimpartthislessontoDougwasColleenDriggs,a

TeachForAmericaalumnawhotaughtathisschoolinRochester.Colleenhad“it,”thatenchantingqualitythattransformedchildrenintostudents.Butoneday,watchingavideotapeofherteachingavocabularylesson,Dougnoticedsomethinghehadn’tseenbefore.Justbeneaththesurfaceofhercalm,coolteaching—shewasespeciallygoodatgettingstudentstotalknotonlytoher,buttoeachother—layaseriesofpracticallyinvisiblehandgestures.Midsentence,shewouldpointtwofingersathereyes,batdownanimaginaryflywithtwoquickswipes,or,withnoexplanation,brieflyclaspherhandsbeforeher,asifinprayer.Duringonefive-minutevideoclip,adiscussionofthemeaningofthewordscarce,Dougcountedfifteensuchgestures,oneeverytwentyseconds.Watchingagain,hecouldseethatthegesturesclearlymeantsomething,both

toColleenandtoherstudents.Twofingerstohereyes—thatmeant“trackthespeaker,”codeforpayingattentiontothepersontalking,usuallyanotherstudent.Theflyswat,appliedtoaraisedhand,meant“I’mnottakingquestionsrightnow.”Andtheprayersignremindedstudentstogetintotheattentivepositionthatno-excusesschoolscalledSLANTorSTAR,aback-straightposetiedoffwithprimlyclaspedhands.*Colleenhadcreatedthegestures,sheexplained,sothatshecouldsubtly

correctstudents’misbehaviorwithoutinterruptingtheflowofherlesson.Atthebeginningofeachyear,shetaughtthethreegesturesexplicitly.Forthefirstfewweeks,everytimesheusedone,shewouldsayitsnametoo.Butprettysoon,shecouldpulloffperformancesliketheoneDoughadwitnessed.Whenshesaid,“ThefoodinMrs.Driggs’refrigeratorisscarcebecausetheinconsiderateguestscameoverandatealmostallofit,”theonlypersonwhonoticedthatshe’dalsogrippedherhandsinprayerjustbetween“scarce”and“because”wasthestudentwhohadlapsedfromSLANT.Thepracticallyinvisiblecorrectionsexplainedher“magical”commandoftheclassroom.Bynippinginterruptionsinthebud,shekepteveryoneintheroomontask.Thepracticebecameoneofthecoreprinciplesofthe“100Percent”

technique.Whatdid“it”teachersdowhenconfrontedbystudentmisbehavior?Theyused“theleastinvasiveformofintervention,”Dougwroteinthetaxonomy.HefoundanotherexampleinavideoofanotherRochesterPrepteacher,

namedPatrickPastore.Askingaclassofsixth-gradersforattention,Patrickcounteddownhowmanypairsofeyesheneeded,untilthenumberwasjustone.ThelaststudentwasaboynamedDwayne.ButPatrickhadneversaidtheboy’sname.Instead,he’djustsaid,“Weneedonemoresetofeyes.”ThemoveechoedColleenDriggs’stechnique.Presentedwithachildrefusingtofollowdirections,Patrickcorrectedhim—butinawaythatwasalmostinvisible.Thealternative,ofcourse,wouldhavebeentocallhisname.Dwayne,Patrickcouldhavesaid,handsonhiships.We’reallwaiting.Butimagine,Dougthought,whatwouldhavehappenedthen.“Everyone’slookingatDwayne,andthenDwaynehasachoice,”Doug

explainedtoagroupofteacherslater,givingaworkshoponthetaxonomyinBoston.“AmIgoingtohaveeveryoneseemebendanddowhatPatrickaskedmetodooramIgoingto[act]out,evenatgreatcosttomyself,tosavemyhonor?”Apowerstrugglewouldensue,and,inalllikelihood,thesituationwouldescalate,withDwayneresistingharder,forcingPatricktopushbackequallyhard.Theymightspendtwominutesjustresolvingthefight.Ortheymightneverresolveit.InthesecondittooktonoticethatDwaynewasn’tpayingattention,Patrick

seemedtohavemadeallthesecalculationsanddecidedtotryhishardesttoavoidashowdown.Usingtheleastinvasiveformofinterventionlightenedateacher’sjob,butitalsolightenedthestudent’s.Compliancecameatamuchlowercost.Toooften,Dougknew,teachersmadeanotherchoice,andtheconsequences

multiplied.“Thedeathspiral,”hecalledit.“Let’ssayI’mteaching,andAnneisslouching,”DougsaidattheworkshopinBoston,motioningtoateachernamedAnne.“Icouldstopandsay,‘Justaminute,class.Anne,Ireallyneedyoutositup.’”Heswitchedperspectives.WhenhemadethatmovewithAnne,whatwaslikelytogothroughthemindsoftherestoftheclass?“Thekidswhowereleastengagedareleastlikelytogetbackontaskwithme,”hesaid,answeringhisownquestion.“Istopmylessontocorrectonestudent,andwhenIcorrectthatstudent,threemorekidsgetofftask,andthenIhavetorunoverhere,andIhavetocorrectanotherstudent,andthenthreemorekidsoverheregetofftask.AndthenInevercatchup.Ineverwin.It’sthedeathspiral.”

Butwhataboutthecaseswhenitsimplywasn’tpossibletocorrectastudentwithoutnaminghim?ColleenDriggscouldpointtohereyesbecausethestudentwhohadfailedtowatchthespeakerwaswatchingher.SamewiththestudentwholapsedfromSLANTandtheoneswiththeirhandsupatthewrongtime.Butwhatifthechildwasstaringintospace?Whatifthehandgestureortheanonymoushint(“Weneedonemoresetofeyes”)didn’twork?Douggroupedpossibleresponsesintosixacceleratingoptions,eachone

slightlymoreinvasivethanthelast.Justonestepabove“nonverbalintervention,”anearlyinvisiblehandgestureliketheonesColleenDriggsused,was“positivegroupcorrection.”BypositiveDougmeantconstructive—describingthedesiredbehavior,ratherthantheproblem.“We’refollowingalonginourbooks,”ateachercouldsay,posingthestatementlikeself-evidentnarration,evenifitalsocontainedahintofaspiration,servingtoremindtheboyinthebackthatheshouldn’tbelookingoutthewindow.Tomakethepointslightlymoreclear,ateachercouldshifttosecondperson:“Youshouldbefollowingalong.”Levelthree,“anonymousindividualcorrection,”wasPatrick’smove.“Weneedtwopeople,”ateachercouldsay.Often,“it”teachersevenfudgednumbers,optimisticallydeclaringtheyneededtwowhenreallythenumberwasfourorfive,apurposefulmisstatementdesignedtocreatetheillusionthattheorderunderrequestwasinfacthappeningnow.Actasifitisalreadyso,andbeforeyouknowit,itwillbe.Levelfourapproximatedanonymityasmuchaspossiblewithoutactually

preservingit.“Privateindividualcorrection,”Dougcalledit,afterwatchingseveral“it”teacherscasuallyplacethemselvesnexttoamisbehavingchild(oh,didIenduphere?whatacoincidence!),kneeldown,andwhisperareminder.Thebestexecutionsfailedtodistractanyoneexceptthestudentwhowasnotpayingattentioninthefirstplace.Theteacherdidthisbysomehowmakinganactionthatwasbothpurposefulandantagonisticappearexactlytheopposite,afriendlyaccident.OneingeniousRochesterPrepteacher,JaimieBrillante,beganwitha

diversion:shegavethewholeclassaquick,silenttask:“Copyitdown,please.”Then,withthestudents’facespointedtotheirpapers,shewalkedcasuallyinthedirectionofagirlontherightwhohadn’tbeenpayingattention.Butinsteadofmarchingstraightovertoher,shemeandered,pickinguptwotissuesfromtheclassroomKleenexbox,droppingthemwarmlyonthedeskofagirlinherpath,andpeeringcuriouslyovertheshoulderofanothergirl.Whenshetookafewmorestepsovertotheonewhowasherrealdestinationallalong,nobody

noticed,andtheydidn’teavesdroponherstage-whisperedcorrectioneither.Thewholemoverequiredstrategicfinesse,especiallyconsideringthatitwas

lacedwithinalessonthatJaimieneverstoppedteaching.ItalsodependedontheordinarinessofJaimie’shappeningtoweavefromonecorneroftheclassroomtoanother.Shecouldwalkaroundlikethatwithoutattractingattentionbecauseshewalkedaroundallthetime,notjustwhensomeonemisbehaved.Douglabeledthenextintervention,levelfive,“lightning-quickpublic

correction.”This,too,wasbestconductedsurgically.“Andrew,Ineedyouwithme,justlikeJeremyandAnneandDavid.Nowwe’relookingsharp!”Dougmodeledattheworkshop.“SoIcorrectedAndrewpublicly,”heexplained,“butIdidacoupleofthings.One,Iinstantlydivertedthegazefromhimtosomeoneelseorsomethingelse,and,whenpossible,thatsomethingelseismuchmorepositive.SoifIsaid,‘Andrew,Ineedyouwithme,’thenyou’reallgoingtodivertyourgazestoAndrew,andwe’reinthatsituationwhereIhavetowin,it’sallpublic,andthenIcan’taffordtolose.”Instead,heletAndrewtakethestageforhalfasecondbeforequicklymovingontoJeremy,Anne,andDavidandtheideathat“we”(read:everyone,evenAndrew)werenow“lookingsharp.”Thesixthandfinallevelwas“consequence,”themostvisibleresponse.But

evenaconsequencedidnotneedtolookthewayonemightpictureit,atenseexerciseofpowerthatgrabbedeveryone’sattention.(Howmanytimeshadateacherhandedoutadetentiononlytofindtheroomtakenoverbyachorusof“ooooh!”solvingoneproblembutcreatinganother?)HereferredtheBostonteachersbacktoavideohe’dshownearlier,acheerfulsequenceinwhichakindergartenteacher,GeorgeDavisoftheLeadershipPrepschoolinBrooklyn,declaredthat“oneofourfriendsisnotreadyyet”andaskedhisstudentstotrycomposingthemselvesintheSLANTpositiononemoretime.MakingthestudentsgettoSLANTagain,Dougpointedout,wasaconsequence—physicalworkdoledoutbecauseofasmallbehaviorallapse.“It”teachersdidsometimesresorttodetentionorthateasiestofHailMarys—“Dean’soffice,now!”—buttheyusuallyreservedtheseforthemostseverecases,andeventhen,theykepttheircool,workingtokeepinterruptionstoaminimum.Thesixlevelsofbehavioralinterventionrepresentedjustonesubprincipleof

onetechniqueamongDoug’sultimatelistofforty-nine,the“TaxonomyofEffectiveTeachingPractices.”Inaddition,therewereTechniqueNo.43,“PositiveFraming”(“Narratetheworldyouwantyourstudentstoseeevenwhileyouarerelentlesslyimprovingit”),withitssixrules(includingone,“AssumetheBest,”describinghowthebestteachersactedasifstudents

misbehavedoutofignorance,ratherthanwillfuldefiance,unlessprovenotherwise);TechniqueNo.26,“EverybodyWrites”(inwhichateacherfollowsupaquestionbyaskingeverystudentintheclasstowritedownherthoughtsonpaper);andTechniqueNo.44,“PrecisePraise”(reflectingDoug’sconclusionthatsuccessfulteachersdistinguishpraise,whichincludesapositivejudgment,fromacknowledgment,whichmerelydescribesanexpectationmet,andofferingtwoother“rulesofthumb”forgivinggoodpraise,includingthesuggestionto“praiseloud;fixsoft”andtoensurethatallpraiseisgenuine—notameanstoanotherend,likepointingoutonestudent’ssuccessinordertochideanotheronherfailure).

Butdidthetaxonomycapturethemagicofteachingaswellasthescience?Doug’sexperiencewithBobZimmerlisuggesteditcould.BobwasateacherDoughadfirstmetin2005,whenheinterviewedforapositiononthefoundingteamatRochesterPrepbyteachingasamplelessononplacevalue.“Itwaslikeseeingthetruth,”Dougsays.“Bobjustwalkedinwithapencil,anditwaslikeaboltoflightningcamedown.”Dougknewthatthestudents,onloanfromaschoolheworkedwith,werenotthemostenthusiasticbunch.ButinBob’shands,theyturnedintonewpeople,individualswhotookaninterestnotjustinschoolbutinmath.Dougimmediatelyaskedhimtoteachasecondsample.Hehadjuststartedbuildingthetaxonomy,andheneededtocaptureBobonvideotape.“Iknewthatifyoucouldbottlewhathe’ddone,youwouldhavesomethingincredible.”Fiveyearslater,thetapeofthesecondsamplelessonhadbecomeaclassicin

thetaxonomycanon.Thevideoopensatthestartofclass,withBobstandinginfrontofanothergroupofstudentshehasnevermet.Asclassbegins,thechildren—fifth-graders,allofthemblack,mostlyboys—arelookingeverywherebutatBob,whostandsattheboard.Oneiscaughtplayingwithapairofheadphones;anotherpagesslowlythroughagiantthree-ringbinder.“Okay,guys,”Bobsays,“beforeIgetstartedtoday,here’swhatIneedfromyou.”He’sdressedinaneatsuitandtie,withthethin,athleticbuildofacyclist.“Ineedthatpieceofpaperturnedoverandapencilout.”Almostnooneisfollowingthedirections,butBobpersists.“Soifthere’sanythingelseonyourdeskrightnow,pleaseputthatinsideyourdesk.”Hemotionsaquickunderhandpitch,demonstratingwhathewantsthestudentstodo.“Justlikeyou’redoing,thankyouverymuch,”hesays,pointingtoastudentinthefrontwhohasputherpapersaway.Anotherdesk

emergesneat;Bobzeroesin.“Thankyou,sir.”“Iappreciateit,”hesays,pointingtoanotherstudent.Bythetimehepointstoonelaststudent—“Nice...nice”—theheadphonesaregone,thebinderhasclickedshut,andeveryoneispayingattention.BobZimmerlimighthavebeentheperfectcaseoftheunexplainable“it”

teacher.Apreacherontheside,hepossessedacharmthatseemeddownrightethereal.Butwatchingthevideointhecontextofthetaxonomyresearch,Dougsawthelessonwithneweyes.“Imagine,”DougtoldtheteachersinBoston,aftershowingtheclip,“ifhisfirstdirectionhadbeen‘pleasegetyourthingsoutforclass.’”Instead,he’ddeployedaperfectversionofoneofthefirsttechniquesDougandKarenCichonhadnamed:“WhattoDo,”whichhadnowbecomeTechniqueNo.37,anextensionoftheprinciplebehind“AssumetheBest.”Moreoftenthandefiance,Doughadnoticedthatmisunderstandinglaybehindstudents’failuretofollowdirections.“It”teachersgotstudentstodosomethingbybeingbrutallyspecificaboutexactlywhattheywanted.Bobhadalsodeployedrulenumberfourofthe“PositiveFraming”technique:“Buildmomentum,andnarratethepositive.”Insteadoffocusingonthebinderortheheadphones,he’dpointedoutthestudentswhodidlisten.“It’sthispositivewave,”Dougsaid.“Youcanalmostseeitgoingacrosstheclassroomfromrighttoleft.”Heplayedthecliponemoretime,directingthegroup’sattentiontotheboy

withthebinder.Whenthevideostarts,hisheadisdownashepagesslowlythroughhispapers.Tensecondsin,helookstohisleft,whereanotherboyhasthepaperandpencilandisstaringattheteacher.Forthefirsttime,helooksupatBobandstopspaging.“He’slike,‘OK,what’sthis?’”Dougnarrated.“‘IguessI’mgoingtogowithit.’”Thirtysecondslater,hisbinderisclosed,andhe’spushingitinsidehisdesk,underhand—justlikeBobshowedhim.NotonlydidthetaxonomyexplainBob’ssuccess;Bobhimselfsaidhelearned

somethingfromit.Histestimonialwasoneofdozens.Doughadbeensharinghisideassincethebeginning,typingthetaxonomyintoincreasinglydenseWorddocumentsande-mailingthemtocolleaguesacrossthecountrywithvideofilestomatch.Everytimehesharedthelistwithanewperson,helearnedsomethingnew,andhebuiltthenewideasbackintothedocument.Theeffectsacceleratedashestartedcollectingmorevideo.Whenheandthe

newteamofdataanalystshiredtohelpsiftthroughthegrowingvolumeofclassroomtapewentthroughthenewvideos,theynotonlyfoundnewideas;theyalsofoundevidencethattheoriginaltechniqueswerespreading.Having

watchedBobZimmerli“narratethepositive,”otherteacherstriedthesamethingthemselves.Andoftentheyimprovedthetechniquesintheprocess.Sometimesthenewfootageevenoutshinedtheoriginals.Anearlystar,ateacherattheall-boysBrighterChoicescharterschoolin

AlbanynamedDarrylWilliams,hadshownDougthefirstcasehe’deverseenofTechniqueNo.39,“DoItAgain,”inwhichteachersdeploythemostminorformofaconsequence,teachingstudentstoperformsimpleroutinesbyaskingthemtorepeatthemuntiltheycandothemwell.ButastheDVDclipofDarrylmadeitswayaroundthecountry,moreteacherspickedupontheidea,andsoontheirinterpretationstooktheideatonewheights.ThenewelaborationsmadeDarryl’sexecutionlookcommonplace,evenweak

—hisdeliverytooslow,theroutinetooinsipid,hisstudentsneedlesslymorose.Thenewvideosshowedhowtokeepthepoweroftheexercisewithoutsacrificingtimeorpep.“Saying,‘Oooh,let’slineupagainandprovewhywe’rethebestreadinggroupintheschool,’”Dougwroteinthetaxonomy,“isoftenbetter[than]saying‘Class,thatwasverysloppy.We’regoingtodoitagainuntilwegetitexactlyright,’evenifthepurposeistoDoItAgainuntilyougetitexactlyright.”“DoItAgain”alsoseemedtoworkjustaswellwhenteacherscalledforavideogame–styleredorightinthemiddleofaroutine,ratherthanwaitinguntiltheend.Indeed,interruptingatthefirstsignofaslipwaslessdismalandtookuplesstime.Thetaxonomybecameakindofrecursiveprocess.Dougandtheanalystssentatechniqueoutintotheworld,andthentheworldsentitback:thesameidea,refined.Perhapsthebestevidenceofthetaxonomy’ssuccesswasDoughimself.He’d

consideredhimselfaweakteachersincehisfirstjob,teachingEnglishinPrinceton,NewJersey,wherehislovinglycraftedlessonsalwaysseemedtofizzle,leavinghimtocounttheremainingminutes.Now,teachingfellowteachers,itwaslikehehadlefthisoldpersonabackinPrincetonandwrappedhimselfinnewskin.Hecalledonhisstudentscold(“ColdCall,”TechniqueNo.22),without

makinganyonefeelpressured,creatingthefeelingofanatural,spontaneousconversationwhilestillcarefullykeepingtrackoftimeandsteeringthelearninginonepurposefuldirection.Whenheposedaparticularlydifficultquestion(“Numberone,whatdoes[thisteacher]addtoourunderstandingofnonverbalintervention?Andthentwo,canyoufindevidenceoftheotherprinciplesof100Percent?”),hemadesuretogiveeachparticipanttimetowritedownherthoughtsonacarefullypreparedworksheet.Andhebuiltinjokes,gettingthe

wholeroomtolaughjustwhentheproximityoflunchmighthavestolenattentionfromthecollectiveenterprise.Theresultwasthetruestmeasureofthemasterteacher.SittinginaLemovtaxonomyworkshop,aparticipantexperiencedthatmostsatisfyingbuzz,therevelatoryaha!feelingthatcomesfromthinkingdeeply—theunmistakablepleasureoflearning.

Thetaxonomywasnotjugyokenkyu,exactly,butitwasatwenty-first-centuryAmericanhybrid.Insteadofdevisingalanguageorganically,asanaccidentalby-productofpostlessondiscussions,Dougandhisteambuiltthenewwordsdeliberately,duringstructured“cuttinglog”meetingswhereanalystssataroundaconferencetable,watchingvideostogetherandmakingnotes.Andinsteadofbuildingtimeintotheschoolcalendarforcity-orevenstatewidelessonobservations,theysentaroundvideofilesandanaccompanyingWorddocument(andlater,DVDsandabook).Yet,inmoreimportantways,thetaxonomyandthecruciblethatwroughtit

werejustJapaneselessonstudyinaslightlydifferentform.Theyproducedthesameeffects.Forone,Americanteachersbegantodevelopfollowings.BobZimmerli,ColleenDriggs,DarrylWilliams—theybecametheAmericanequivalentsofTakeshiMatsuyama,AkihikoTakahashi,andToshiakiraFujii.Ifthecollaborativedevelopmentofthetaxonomywastheentrepreneurs’versionoflessonstudy,thentheno-excusesschoolsweretheirlaboratories,theequivalentofthefuzokuschoolswhereAkihikohadlearnedandtaught.Andtheirranksweregrowing.AccordingtoLindaBrown,theBostoncharterschoolsupporterwhowentontotraincharterschoolprincipals,bythetimeDougwrotethetaxonomy,thenumberofno-excusesschoolshadgrownfromaboutfifteentomorethanahundred.*ThebiggestdifferencebetweentheAmericanandJapaneseteaching

laboratorieswasnothowtheystudiedteaching,butwhatkindofteachingtheydescribed.BothDougandAkihikodisavowedtheusefulnessof“shh,”butfordifferentreasons.WhereasAkihikothoughtthatchildrenneededstructuredopportunitiestotalkinordertolearn,forDoug,learningfirstrequiredthefoundationalabilitytobequietandlisten.Hejustdidn’tthink“shh”—withitsfundamentalambiguity(shouldstudentsstoptalkingorjusttalkmorequietly?)—wasagoodwaytogetthemthere.Andso,whereasinJapanschoolwasinterruptedbyachaoticburstofscreamsaschildrentooktheirhourlybreak,atno-excusesschoolsstudentswalkedbetweenlessonsinadetermined(andnot

necessarilyunhappy)silence.Indeed,hadJamesStiglerandhisTIMSScolleaguestakentheirvideo

camerasintotheno-excusesmovement’sclassrooms,theywouldhavefoundteachingthatlookednotJapanese,butclassicallyAmerican.Dougandhiscolleagueshadadvancedfarbeyondthechaosoftheaverageurbanschool,creatingschoolswherestudyingwaspossibleandachievementwasvalued—nosmallfeat.TheyhadeveneliminatedthetyrannyoftheunannouncedPAinterruption.Butinmanyotherrespects,theirclassroomslookednodifferentfromanyotherintheUnitedStates.LiketheirfellowAmericans,theno-excusesteachersusedthe“I,We,You”structure(Iexplain,wetryanexample,andthenyoupractice)formostifnotalloftheirlessons,askedquestionsdesignedmainlytogeneratesimpleanswersratherthanto“explainhoworwhy,”anddevotedmostoftheirstudents’worktimetopractice,ratherthantheequallycommonJapaneseactivity,“invent/think.”Itwasnowonderthattheyvaluedquiet,“eyesonme”–styleattentionsohighly;forthem,asforsomanyAmericanteachers,attentionheldthekeystolearning.Ironically,thisorthodoxyfollowed,inpart,fromamovethathadoriginally

seemedcountercultural:theentrepreneurs’rejectionofedschools.Theyhadspurnedtheschoolsforunderstandable—indeed,data-based—reasons.Manyedschoolprofessors’ideasaboutteaching—abstractadvocacyforclassroomswhereorderwaslessimportantthancreativityandstudents’voicescouldalwaysbeheard—reallydidnotworkinpractice.Thesadtruthwasunderlinedinstudyafterstudyshowingthatedschoolsfailedtohelptheirteachersteachwell.Yetbydisregardingedschools,Dougandhiscolleaguesalsounwittingly

distancedthemselvesfromtheedschoolprofessorswhowereproducinginnovativeideas—peoplelikeMagdaleneLampertandDeborahBallandtheircolleaguesdoingsimilarworkinhistory,English,andscience.(Peoplewho,incidentally,hadmadethesameobservationaboutthetendencyoflovelyteachingideas,likethenewCaliforniamathframework,towiltinpractice.)Asaresult,theAmericanjugyokenkyuthatwastheLemovtaxonomyhadallthefeaturesofitsJapanesecounterpartexceptone:Americanideas.WhileAkihikoandhiscolleaguescombedthroughthestandardsofthe

NationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics,devoureddescriptionsofMagdaleneLampert’slessons,andcloselystudiedvideosofDeborahBall’steaching—allthewayfromTokyo—Dougandtheno-excuseseducatorsunknowinglyignoredtheirowncountry’sbestteachinginnovations.Asaresult,whenDougbuiltthevocabularythatDeborahlongedfor,hebuiltittodescribea

sortofteachingthatshedidn’tdo.InspiredbyJapan,DougcreatedthestructurethattheUnitedStateshadneverhad—asystemfocusedonhelpingteacherslearn—butwithnoneoftheideas(originallyAmerican)thattheJapanesefilleditwith.Foranyothergroup,thatstrangestateofaffairsmighthavecontinuedfor

years.Butifanythingmatchedthestrengthoftheentrepreneurs’allergytotheeducationalstatusquo,itwastheiritchtoimprove.IfDoug’sgenerationhadbuiltthestart-upstodisrupttheoldmonopoly,theyhadalsobuiltamachinedesignedtotakenewideasandimprovethem—evenifthatmeantattackingthecoreoftheno-excusesapproach.

*Althoughthewordingvariesslightlyateachschool,ingeneral,SLANTstandsfor“Situp,Listen,Askquestions,Nod,andTrackthespeakerwithyoureyes.”STARstandsfor“Situp,Trackthespeaker,Askandanswerquestions,andRespectthosearoundyou.”

*ThatwasatinyfractionofthenumberofcharterschoolsintheUnitedStates—justoversixthousandby2013.(NationalAssociationofPublicCharterSchools,http://dashboard.publiccharters.org/dashboard/schools/year/2013.)

7

THEDISCIPLINEOFDISCIPLINE

WhenRousseauMiezejoinedtheeducationreformmovement,hewasatruebeliever.ThesonofHaitianimmigrants—hismothercleanedhouses,hisfatherdroveacab—heknewfirsthandhowtherightschoolcouldchangeyourlife.Withhisparentsalwaysworking,itwashisteacherswhofirstfedhimsushi,histeacherswhoshowedhimhowtoflythroughtwohourstalkingabouthistoryandphilosophyandhumans’placeintheuniverse,andhisteacherswhohelpedhimreturnaproperhandshakewithoutlaughing.TeachersacquaintedRousseauwiththebesttoolhehad:hisintellect.AndthenhisintellecttookhimtoWilliamsCollege,themostacademicallystimulatingplacehe’deverbeen.Hewantedtogiveotherkidsthesamegift,andhecountedhimselfluckythat

whenhestartedcollege,in2004,anecosystemofschoolsalreadyexistedtodojustthat.InsteadofinterningwithprofessorsorcatchinguponsleeporwhateveritwasthatotherpeopledidduringbreaksatWilliams,Rousseauspenthistimeapprenticedtothemovement.Onesummerheworkedinthedean’sofficeataBostoncharterschool.ThenexthewenttoRochesterPrepandshadowedsomeoftheLemovtaxonomy’sbiggeststars—PatrickPastore,ColleenDriggs,BobZimmerli.ToRousseautheywereheroesintheflesh.Rousseauwoulddefendcharterschoolstoanyone,andbythattime,he

sometimeshadto.Bythemid-2000s,theno-excusesmovement’sgrowthhadgeneratedaconsiderableamountofattentionandthen,inturn,abacklash.Preparingforhisfirstjob,atacharterschoolinRhodeIsland,Rousseaufoundhimselfconfrontedbyanotherfirst-yearteacherwhowonderedoutloudwhetherthe“noexcuses”styleamountedto“brainwashing.”Allthosesingle-filelinesandmandatorychantsseemedlikeprison,somesaid.Theteacherwonderediftheysquashedindependentthought.“Nah,man,”Rousseautoldhim,runningthroughthekeyarguments,whichboileddownto:Lookateverythingthestudentslearn!

Andyet,byhissecondyearteaching,Rousseaufoundhimselfwonderingwhat,exactly,thestudentswerelearning.Thatyear,hewasworkingatacharterschoolinHarlemwhere,onthesurface,theteachersseemedtobedoingeverythingright.TheLemovtaxonomywasomnipresent—teachersquotedfromitliketheBible.ButsomethingabouttheschoolmadeRousseaufeeluncomfortable.Ithadtodowiththewayteacherstalkedtostudents.Theycommandedthemtofollowrules,buttheydidn’tofferthemanyrationale.Sometimestheyevenseemedtomockthem.Thekids,inturn,weregreat—funny,smart,sweet,likeallthekidshe’devermet.Buttoooften,theymarchedintoclasseitherdefiantorsullen.Lifeless.Nothappy.“Weweren’ttreatingkidsliketheywerepeople,”hesays.Thiswasnotwhatthetaxonomyadvised.“Whileyoushouldexpectstudents

todosomethingwhenyouaskthemto,it’snotreallyaboutyouintheend,”DougLemovwroteinapartofthetaxonomyhecalled“purpose,notpower.”“Commandobediencenotbecauseyoucanorbecauseitfeelsgoodbutbecauseitservesyourstudents.”Yetsomehow,theteachersseemedtobediviningexactlytheoppositelesson.Ifthepointofnoexcuseswastoteachdiscipline—thehabitsrequiredtoliveahappy,productivelife—thenwhydidthesechildrenkeepactingout?Theteachershadonlythebestintentions.SodidDougLemov.Butwhatwereallthesetaxonomytechniquesactuallyteaching?Sometimeduringthatyear,anothereducatorsentRousseauachillingreport

aboutaKIPPcharterschoolinFresno,California.Inasixty-three-pageinvestigation,theFresnoUnifiedSchoolDistrictdescribeddozensofcasesofwhatitcalled“inappropriate”studentdiscipline,mostofitmetedoutbytheschool’sprincipal,ayoungmaninhisthirtiesnamedChiTschang.Theaccusationswereextreme—storiesofpunishingdisobedientchildrenbyputtingthemoutsideinthecold,lockinganentireclassinatwo-stallbathroom,andputtingatrashcanonastudent’shead—andChiandhisteachers(aswellassomeoftheirstudents)arguedthatmanywerealsofalseormisleading,giventheschool’songoingfeudwiththeschooldistrict.Evenso,theoverallpicturewasshocking.Manydismissedtheschoolanditsprincipalasbadapples—anisolatedcaseof

goodintentionsgonewrong.ThatwasthepositionthatKIPPimplied,decliningtomakeapublicstatementbackingChiafterheresigned.Butothershintedatabroadertakeawaymessage.OneeducatorwhowasfriendlywithChiandRousseau—aKIPPprincipalinNewark,NewJersey,namedDrewMartin—wroteouthisthoughtsinaweeklystaffmemo.ThememourgedDrew’steachers

toreadtheFresnoreportandreflectonasinglequestion,highlightedinagraybox:Whatdoesgooddisciplinelooklike?ChiTschangmayhavebeenextreme,buthehaddrawnonaspecifictradition,

andthetraditiondeservedscrutinytoo.ThequestionDrewMartinwantedteacherstoconsiderwasnotwhetherChihadtakentheideaofnoexcusestoofar,butwhattheno-excusesapproachtaughtinthefirstplace.Foralltheinfelicitiesdescribedinthereport,DrewknewthatChiwasmoretypicalthanmostpeoplewerecomfortableacknowledging.Rousseauknewthisperhapsbetterthananyone.Asoneofthefirstgraduates

oftheAcademyofthePacificRimcharterschool,in2004,disciplinehadturnedhislifearound.ChiTschanghadbeenhishistoryteacheratAPR,andthepersonwhohadhadthebiggestinfluenceonbothofthemwasanotheryoungprincipal,namedDougLemov.

Backthen,studentsattheAcademyofthePacificRimcouldagreeaboutonething:theyabsolutelyhatedschool.“Nothingaboutschoolwasfun,”Rousseausays.Instead,APRwasaparadeofrulesthatdraggedeveryonedown—“likeawhippingandballandchain,”onestudenttoldaresearcheratthetime.Everychairhadtobepushedperfectlyin,everyshirttucked,everyinstructionfollowed,everytoothunsuckedandeyeballunrolled.Eitherthat,oryou’dfindyourselfsittinginthedean’sofficewithMr.Lemov,explaininghowyouplannedtoactdifferentlynexttime.WhenstudentsdidcometoloveAPR—andmanyofthemdid,fiercely—theiraffectionwasalwaysbracketed:“love-hate,”saidoneoftheschool’sstarstudentsandstrongadmirers,MillisentFuryHopkins.Rousseau’sfirstmemoryofAPRwasfromtheseconddayofschool,which

wasalsothefirsttimehegotsuspended.TheclasswasworkingonanactivitycalledMathMinutes,inwhichstudentscompetedtoseehowmanymathproblemstheycouldsolveinaminute.“SoIgotthroughthem,Ifinished,Ididit,andIcelebrated,”Rousseausays.“Iwaslike,‘Yesssss!!Igot100onmyMathMinute!’”Thenextthingheknew,hewasbeingsenttotheoffice.Fromthere,hewassenthomeearlyfordisruptingclass.“Iwasterrified,”hesays.Rousseauwasatalker,yes,andaclassclown,but

hewasnotabadkid.“Pleasedon’tdothis!”hepleaded.Buthehadcalledout,disruptinghisclass,sotheysenthimhome.Thepatternwasset.Practicallyeveryday,ateacherwouldsendRousseauoutofclass.Sometimesithappenedthreeorfourtimes.MostofhisoffenseswerelikethatfirstMathMinutes

celebration.Nomatterhowhardhetried,healwaysseemedtofindhimselftalkingwhenhewassupposedtobequiet,makingacommentwhenhehadn’tbeencalledon,jokingaroundwhenheshouldhavebeenworking.Suspensionspiledup.Sometimeshegotsuspendedthreetimesinoneweek.TheflipsideofStaceyBoyd’s“brokenwindows”theoryofdiscipline—

squashingthelittlestsignsofdisorderbeforetheyexplodedintochaos—wasthatstudentsspentalotoftimeinsidethedean’soffice.Accordingtotheschool’sannualreport,inthe2002–03schoolyear,whenRousseauwasajunior,38percentofstudentsreceivedatleastoneout-of-schoolsuspension.Thatwasdownfrom58percenttheyearbefore.ThecombinedsuspensionandexpulsionrateinthetraditionalBostonPublicSchools,meanwhile,wasestimatedat6percentforallstudentsand8percentforblackstudents.PunishmentsatAPRcouldbeembarrassing.Anuntuckedshirtyielded“shirt

tuck-inexercises”—acalisthenicsroutineperformedinviewofthewholeschool.“Youknow,wetouchourtoes,wereachforthesky,wejump,andthenwehavetotuckourshirtbackin,”saysKevinThai,amemberoftheschool’sfirstgraduatingclass.Witheveryjump,theoffendingshirtuntuckeditselfagain,requiringanotherroundofcalisthenics.Thesmallestinfractionscouldproducethemostextremereactions.Once,insixthgrade,ChimelIdiokitas,afriendofRousseau’s,spentanentiredayintheofficejustfordroppinghispencil.Anotherstudentwasjoking,accusingChimelofhittingherwithhispencil,and“atthatexacttime,Idroppedmypencil.AndmyteacherjustassumedIdidthatonpurpose.”Onetime,Kevinevengotintroubleforthecolorofhisgympants.Theyweresupposedtobenavyblue,butKevin’swereking’sblue.Thestudentsweren’talwaysclearonthereasonsforsuchdraconian

discipline.“Theywantyoutocomeinlikearobot.Like,justfollowandfollowandfollow,”anotherstudenttoldaresearcheratthetime.“It’sreallyfake,”saidanother.“Itdoesn’treallymeananythingintherealworld...Ithinksomeofitisjustalotofpointlessrules.”(Ontheotherhand,ifitweren’tforAPR,KevinThaiwouldneverhaveknownthat“king’sblue”isacolor,nottomentionhavebeenawardedafullscholarshiptocollege.)AllofRousseau’sfriendscomplained.ThatwashowAPRkidsbonded.They

followedinstructionsinthemannerthatresearchersJereBrophyandMaryMcCaslinterm“grudgingcompliance.”Butwhiletheschoolcouldbestrict,theteachersalsoworkedhardtobuildintimeforfun.ChimelIdiokitascouldn’tunderstandwhyhespentthatonedayintheofficeinsteadofinclass,buthelovedtheplaysAPRteachershelpedstudentsputon,thefieldtripstheytook

themon(includingonetoChina),therapstheylethimandRousseauandtheirfriendsperforminthelunchroom.Eventheshirt-tuckingexercises,acreationofDougLemov’s,wereledinthespiritoflaughter—anironicsend-upoftheschool’sstrictness,inwhichoffendingstudentswerethe“shirttuck-inteam,”Dougplayedtheroleofoverzealouscoach,andalongtimerepeatuntuckerwasappointedteamcaptain.KevinThaifeltembarrassed,butmanyotherstudentslaughedastheirprincipaljumpedaroundwildly,makingadeliberatefoolofhimself.Rousseaudefendedtheschool,evenbackthen.Hemighthavebeenterribleat

followingtherules,buthebelievedinthem.Histeachersweretryingtogethimtocollege,andtherulesweretheretomakethathappen,sohedidhisbesttofindthevalueinthem.Theteachersweretough,buttheycareddeeplyaboutthestudents.DuringabadperiodwhenKevinThaiwasfightingwithhisparents,ChiTschangmediatedasessionatschoolthathelpedthemreconcile.Anothertime,Chistayedatschooluntil11:00atnightjusttomakesureherepliedtoane-mailKevinhadwrittenhim.Later,whenKevinbecameateacher,heoftenthoughtofanAPRteacher,AlexanderPhillips,andtriedtomodelhisowndevotiontohisstudentsonMr.Phillips’sexample.ButforallthatAPRgavethem,thereweresomelegaciesRousseauwould

havepreferrednottocarry.JustasKevinThaihadlookeduptoAlexanderPhillips,RousseaulookeduptoChiTschangasamodellater,whenhebecameateacherhimself.“IfI’magoodhistoryteacher,Ishouldbeaspreparedashewas,”hewouldthink.ButChialso“becametheembodimentofmylowself-esteem,”Rousseausays.Inhighschool,Chihadalwaysbeentheonetoremindthestudentsofwhattheyneededtodotosucceed—andwhatwouldhappeniftheydidn’t:thecollegestheywouldn’tgetinto,thedreamstheywouldn’tfulfill.Soincollege,wheneverRousseauquestionedhimself,hefoundhimselfthinkingofChi.“IwouldalwayshearChi’svoice,evenwhileIwasafreshmanatWilliams,tellingmethatIdidn’tbelongthereandthatIdidn’tworkhard,thatIdidn’tdeservetobethere.”Asateacher,Rousseauthoughtofthatlegacytoo.JustlikeChi,heoftenstood

infrontofgroupsofstudents,knowingthegrimoddsagainstthemandfeelingcompelledtoletthemknowtoo:“Thisiswhereyou’regoingtoendupifyoudon’tgetittogether.”Buthecouldn’thelpwonderingwhateffecthiswordswouldhaveonhisownstudents,yearslater.Fearrepresentedafundamentalironyofnoexcuses.Thepointofallthose

rulesandconsequenceswastoteachthestudentsthedisciplinetheyneededto

succeed.Butinpractice,thesameconsequencesthatseemednecessarytohelpstudentssucceedcouldalsomakethemmoreanxious,evenangry.Researchersstudyingschooldisciplinefoundthatpunishmentoftenproduced“resentment,retaliation,and/oremotionsthatarecounterproductivetolearning.”AtAPR,sometimesthepunishmentscouldevenpushstudentsoutthedoor.ManyofRousseau’sfriendscametoappreciateAPRlater,andevenloveit(themostnotoriouscomplainer,JonathanCorreia,woundupjoiningtheschool’sboard).ButRousseauknewthatforallthestudentsAPRhelped,therewereotherstheschoollost.Thefirstyear,DougLemovandStaceyBoydhadstartedoutwithaclassof

fifty-fiveorsoseventh-graders.Butbythetimethatclassmadeittosenioryear,onlyelevenstudentsremained.Andthreeofthemhadonlyjoinedlateron,inninthgrade.InRousseau’syear,thewinnowingwentfromaboutahundredkidswhohadstartedtogetherinsixthgradetothirty-fourinninth.Aboutthirtygraduatedtogetherasseniors.(Bycomparison,thepercentageofninth-graderswhoenteredBoston’spublichighschoolsin2000butdidn’tmakeittograduationwas21.6.)Muchoftheattritionwasinnocent.Eveninthebeginning,APRneverasked

studentstoleave(abadgeofhonorthatsomeothercharterschools—andmanynoncharterschools,forthatmatter—couldnotclaim).Someofthestudentswhodidn’tmakeittograduation,meanwhile,werelikeRousseau’sfriendChimelIdiokitas,wholeftaftermiddleschoolwhenhegotintotheprestigiousBostonLatinAcademy,anexamschool.Andovertime,asAPRfoundwaystosupportmoreofitsstudents,theleakagesdeclined.Yetevenwiththebestintentions,APR—likemanyschoolsservinghigh-risk

communities—stilllostsomeofthestudentstheschoolmostwantedtohelp.Someleftbecause,fedupwitheitherthedisciplineorthelongschooldayorboth,theysoughtanotheroption.Accordingtotheiroldclassmates,thestudentswholeftbecausetheygrewtiredofAPR’sdisciplinetendedtobetheoneswiththeleastsupportathome.“Theyweremakingtheirowndecisions,”Chimelsays.“Therewasn’taparenttellingthemthattheyhadtostaybecauseitwouldpayoff.”Withoutthatpush,“theycouldn’tcutit,”Kevinsays.Sotheyleft.*Whatwasn’tclearwaswhethertheparadoxicaleffectsofnoexcuses—life-

changingforsome,crushingforothers,andsometimes,aswithRousseauandChiTschang,bothattheverysametime—neededtobethatway.DidtheteacherwhoinspiredRousseaualsohavetoguthisself-esteem?Orwasthereanotherway?

ForDrewMartin,thereweremanymomentsoftruth—“stop-everythingmoments,”oneofhisteachers,RanjanaReddy,calledthem.TheChiTschangreport,whichDrewhadwrittenupinhisweeklystaffmemoonFebruary22,2009,wasoneofthebigones.Anothercamejusttwoweekslater,whenDrewfieldedreportsofbadbehaviorontheNoLimitsbus.Hisschool,RiseAcademy,amiddleschoolthatispartoftheKIPPnetworkin

Newark,NewJersey,hadfourbusroutes,allnamedaftertheschool’svalues:NoLimits,NoShortcuts,NoExcuses,andOpportunity.Thebusesallhadstrictrules.Sincethebuswasaplacewheredisruptivebehaviorcouldputchildreninrealdanger,Risebannedeverybehaviorthatmightdistractthedriver.Movingaroundwasprohibited,andsowastalking.Transgressors,meanwhile,facedsteepconsequences.Talkonce,andyourparentsgotcalled;talktwice,suspension.Getupfromyourseat?Don’teventhinkaboutit.Automaticsuspension.Fortwoyears,theruleshadpaidoff.Studentsgottoandfromschoolsafely

andobediently.Butnow,halfwaythroughtheschool’sthirdyear,somethinghadevidentlyshifted.Studentswerenotonlygettingupoutoftheirseats;theywerepushingeachothermidtransit.Alarmed,DrewandtheotherschoolleaderstemporarilysuspendedtheentireNoLimitsroute.Then,onFridayafternoon,justastheywerepreparingforanemergencyparentmeetingthenextweektofigureoutwhattodowithNoLimits,theOpportunitybussurprisedthembyreturningtoschoolmidwaythroughitsroute,stillhalffullofchildren.Thedriverprovidedanotherunsettlingreport.“Itturnsout,”Drewwroteinhisweeklystaffmemothatweekend,“therewere3fightsonthebusthatafternoonand,accordingtothekids,thishasbeengoingonforquitesometime.”Drew’sresponsewasabitoverblown.Whathecalled“fights”werereally

morelikearguments,withsomepushing.And,outsideofthebus,ahealthymajorityofstudentsatRisewerestillhappy,hardworking,andsuccessful.YetDrewcouldstillrememberRise’sfirstbusrides—hushed,punctiliousaffairs,withpicture-perfect,adorablestudentsinbrightlycoloredbackpacksridingsilentlytoschool.Itpainedhimtowatchasthosesamestudents—afewyearsolder,sure,andunavoidablyunrulierastheyenteredadolescence,butthesamechildren!—nowopenlyflauntedeverythingthey’dbeentaught.“Twoyearsago,”Drewwrote,“ifIhadseenaparagraphliketheonewrittenaboveIwouldhavebeenapoplecticandcompletelyinconsolable.”Thestudentsnotonlytalked;they

fought.Officialstudentmonitorsnotonlyfailedtoreportincidents;theyactivelyliedaboutwhatwenton.Liketherestoftheno-excusesschools,Risewasbuiltonthepropositionthat

behavior—orculture,assomeofthemputit—camefirst.AlumniofTeachForAmerica,manyoftheno-excusesteachersgottheirstartsinurbanschoolswherelearningwassubordinatedtomayhem.Theirfirstpressingorderofbusinesswastochangewhatschoolfeltlike.Plus,asDrewandtheotherssawit,interpersonalskillswereasimportantasanyacademicsubject,maybeevenconstitutingtheirownsubject:thedisciplineofdiscipline.Justasinmath,reading,science,andhistory,indisciplinethemeasureofsuccesswassimple.Hadthestudentslearned?Thebusepisodessuggestedthattheanswerwasno.LikeDeborahBall’sfifth-

graders,whomasteredlongdivisiononedayonlytohavetorelearnitfromscratchthenext,thestudentsatRiseappearedtolearn—andthen,somehow,byseventhgrade,theyforgot.Theytookallthatordertheirteachershadgiventhem,andtheyturneditbackintochaos.ThefailureremindedDrewofabookhe’dreadafewyearsearlier:AShort

HistoryofProgress.Theauthor,RonaldWright,describesaphenomenonhecallstheprogresstrap,inwhichsocieties,pursuingwhattheythinkisprogress,insteadcreatethemachineryoftheirowndemise.Weapons,forinstance,initiallysolveashort-termproblem—easierhuntingandreadieraccesstofood.Buttheyalsocreatealong-termmenace,threateninghumansurvival.Nuclearpowerbegetsnuclearwar,andtheexpansionofenergyyieldstoenvironmentaldevastation.“Aseductivetrailofsuccesses,”saysWright,“mayendinatrap.”Perhapsthelogicofnoexcuseswasaprogresstraptoo.Silenthallwayswere

thebestexample.“Whenyougoandyouseethat,”Drewsays,“you’reimpressed.Maybethat’sbecauseyou’vebeentoatraditionalpublicschool,wherethekidsareoffthehook,andtherefore,‘Wow.Thisshowsthatwe’reincontrol.’”Plus,thehallwayssolvedanobviousshort-termneed:gettingstudentsbetweenclassesquickly,calmly,andwithoutdisruption,sothatteacherscouldmaximizetheirtimeonacademics.Theapproachbuiltonsomeoftheearlyideasthatdefinedthemovement—

likebrokenwindowstheory.Eliminateshort-termdisorder,thethinkingwent,andteacherscouldcreatelong-termgains.“Thewaythethinkinggoes,ifyougiveaninstruction,andit’snotfollowed,”RanjanaReddysays,“everychildinthatroomlearnsthelifelonglessonthatinstructionsdon’thavetobefollowed.”Theentrepreneurshadtorespondtoeventhesmallestinfractions;itwasthe

mostimportantthingtheycoulddotohelp.Buttherewasevidencethatthethinking,howeverlogicalintheory,was

flawedinpractice.Themostfrighteningdatacamefromnoncharterpublicschools,where,duringthe1990s(thesametimeperiodduringwhichtheno-excusesmovementarose),aparallelapproachtodisciplinecalled“zerotolerance”gainedincreasingpopularity.Likethebrokenwindowstheory,zerotolerancemadepowerfulintuitivesense.Yet,adecadeandahalflater,agrowingbodyofevidencesuggestedthat,inpractice,thepoliciesdidnotpanout.Oneseeminglyobviousideahadtodowiththecalculation—supportedbytheexperienceofeducatorsinclassroomsallacrossthecountry—thatremovingafewverydisruptivestudentsfromaschoolwouldcreateabetterspaceforthemanyremainingstudentstolearn.Infact,astheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationreportedina2008summaryoftheresearch,“dataonanumberofindicatorsofschoolclimatehaveshowntheoppositeeffect.”Schoolswithhighersuspensionandexpulsionratesactuallyhadworseschoolclimatesandspentmoretimeondiscipline.Thepoliciesdisproportionatelytargetednonwhitestudents,eventhough

studiessuggestedtheywerenotdisproportionatelydisruptive.Andincreasinglysevereconsequencesformisbehaviorledschoolstorefermorestudentstothejuvenilejusticesystem—aphenomenonknownasthe“school-to-prisonpipeline.”Therewasalsoevidence,theAPAreportsaid,that“zerotolerancepoliciesmaycreate,enhance,oracceleratenegativementalhealthoutcomesforyouthbycreatingincreasesinstudentalienation,anxiety,rejection,andbreakingofhealthyadultbonds.”Atthebestcharterschools,educatorspouredtheirenergiesintobuilding

strongrelationshipswithstudentsaszealouslyastheymetedoutconsequencesformisbehavior.Fromthebeginning,theyaimedatgettingstudentsnotjusttocomplywithrules,buttodecidetoactmorallyallontheirown.AtthefirstKIPPschoolinNewark,teacherstalkedwithstudentsexplicitlyabouttheselevelsofmoraldevelopment,asthepsychologistLawrenceKohlbergcalledthem,evenwritingthemonthestepsoftheschool’sstaircasetounderscorethepoint.Yetatthosesameschools,noexcusescouldtakeonalifeofitsown.If,asRanjanaReddyunderstoodearlyon,thebestwaytoservechildrenwastorespondtoeventhelittlestsignofdisorder,thenshowsofextreme,evenmacho,toughnessshouldbecelebrated.Indeed,forbetterorworse,storiesabouteducators’mostoutrageousefforts—likethetale,chronicledinJayMathews’shistoryofKIPP(WorkHard.BeNice.)ofhowKIPPcofounderMikeFeinbergoncetraveledtoa

student’shousetouninstallhertelevision—becamelegends.Thestoriesarguablydidsomegood.InMathews’sbook,Feinbergsaysthat

whilehewasn’tsureiftakingouttheTVsetwastherightthingtodo,hedidthinkit“sentthemessagetostudentsthathewouldgotocrazylengthstomakesuretheyhadthetimeandopportunitytogetagoodeducation.”Butthestoriescouldalsocreateaperversepressuretoproveone’sdedicationthroughcrazyacts.Oneeducator,afterbeingtoldthatshewasdescribedasaloving,sensitive,andunderstandingteacher,feltcompelledtoshareatalethatseemedpurposefullyshocking—ofatimeshe’dcomparedherstudents’failuretopickupasinglecerealpiecetotheSeptember11tragedy.Theextremeeffortsimpressedobserversandproducedvisiblyobedient

children.Andyet,Drewsays,“someofthethingsthatIthinksometimeslookthegreatestarenotalwaysnecessarilythegreatestpractices.”Whatmatteredwasn’twhatavisitorsaw;itwaswhatallthatcontroldidtochildreninthelongrun.InRise’scase,thekidswhogrewupwithsilenthallwayswerenowunabletositthroughabusride.“Ifthat’sprogress,”Drewsays,“we’reallcompletelyscrewed.We’rerunningourselvesoffthecliff.”ToproduceadifferentoutcomeforthestudentsatRise,theyweregoingtohavetofindadifferentwaytoteachdiscipline.Theyjusthadtofigureoutwhatthatwaywas.

Asitturnedout,Rise’steachersalreadyhadanothertool.They’dbeenbuildingitforyearswithoutquiteknowingtheyweredoingit.Theapproachevolvedfromtheirfrustration,earlyon,withthelimitsofalongtimeKIPPtradition,theBench.TheBenchwaslikeaglorifiedtimeout,punishingmisbehaviorwithsocial

isolation.AstudentontheBenchworeadifferentcoloredT-shirtandwasbarredfromtalkingtopeers.TheKIPPtwistwasthatstudentsontheBenchdidnotactuallymissclass;instead,theysateitherattheedgeoftheroomorinanormalseat,separatedonlybythecoloroftheirshirtandtheprohibitionontalking(althoughtalkingforthepurposeofclasswasoftenpermitted).TheBenchwaseffectiveasadeterrent.Fromafifth-grader’spointofview,it

was“theworstthingyoucouldevergeton,”accordingtoMalik,aRiseseventh-grader.“Iseefifth-gradersthatbewalkingthroughthishalllikethey’rescared,”hesaid.“They’rescaredtoevenlookatme.”Theydidn’twanttodoanythingthatwouldlandthemontheBench.(Interestingly,fromanadult’spointofview,thefifth-graderscouldnothavelookedhappier:walkingthroughthehallways,

theygrinnedandheldeachother’shands;later,inclass,theythrewtheirhandsintotheairtoanswerateacher’squestionwithgleefulgusto.)ButtheBenchalsohadaperversesideeffect.Thestudentswhohadthehardesttimeinteractingwitheachotherwerealso,naturally,theonesmostlikelytogetontheBench.Someofthemwouldstayon“forweeksandweeksandweeks,”saysRanjanaReddy,theformerRiseteacher.Asaresult,“ourbiggestbehavioralproblemkidswouldhavenopracticeinteractingwithotherkidssocially.”Theironywasn’tlostontheteachers.Soasthestudentsgotolder,Ranjana

andtheotherteachersdecidedtomodifytheBench.Soon,seventh-andeighth-graders—the“upperschool”atRise—hadanewBenchalternative.Choices,theteacherscalledit.ChoicestradedtheBench’simmediatesocialisolationfortherelativelylessdisruptiveconsequencesofdetentionandsilentlunch.(Insteadofeatinginthecafeteria,silent-lunchparticipantsateinaclassroomwithothermisbehavers.)Choicesaddedanewrequirementtoo.Togetoffofit,studentshadtodeliverapublicapologytotheclassinwhichtheiroriginaloffenseoccurred—andtheclasshadtoaccept.Thegoalwastoswitchthewaytheschooltaughtitsdisciplinarylessons.The

Benchpresumedthatstudentswouldlearnfromtheconsequenceoftheiractions;thepunishmentofsocialisolationwouldbeenoughtoteachthemnevertomisbehaveinthesamewayagain.Andmaybethatworkedwithfifth-graders.Butforseventh-andeighth-graders,theteacherssuspected,apunishmentwouldn’tbeenoughtoteachbetterbehavior.Somekindofreflectionwasalsonecessary.WithChoices,Ranjanasays,“thetheoryhereisthatthelearninghappensattheendofthatpiece—thatthereisaconversationwhenthepersongivestheirapologylater,andpeopleareallowedtoaskthemquestionswhentheygivetheirapology.”Theresultingdialoguesforcedstudentstomakesenseoftheirmistakes,tothinkthemthrough.AsRise’steachersfacilitatedmoreandmoreofthesepublicapologies,they

alsostartedtoleadspontaneousconversationsaboutbehavior.“Cultureconversations,”theycalledthem.LikeChoices,cultureconversationshadtheiroriginsinmorechoreographedroutines,inwhichteacherswouldintroducethereasonsbehindtheschool’srulesbyreadingabookorshowingaclipfromamoviethatillustratedtheideatheywantedstudentstolearn.Butovertime,theconversationsaboutbehaviorstartedtohappenrightinthemiddleofclass.Someconversationsweremodest,small-groupaffairs.Watchingtwostudentsdeliberatelyleaveoutanotherastheypickedpartnersforasciencelab,forinstance,ateachernamedShannonGrandeturnedthemomentintoachanceto

discussthepitfallsofcliques.Later,inthesamelesson,ShannonrespondedtoameltdownofastudentnamedDestiny—“YouneedtobeinLINESandQUIET!”shehadscreamedbeforestormingoutoftheroom—byaskingthewholeclasstopauseanddiscusshowtorespondwhenDestinyreturned.Shannondidn’tknowaboutDeborahBallandMagdaleneLampert’sTKOT,

butthecultureconversationapproachboresimilaritiestoit.JustaswithTKOT,theydidn’tforsakelectures,whichwerestillcrucialforclarifyingimportantconceptsandintroducingnewideas;theysimplysupplementedthemwithresponsestostudents’in-the-momentmisunderstandings.AndjustasinTKOT,thecultureconversationsdidn’tjusthappenoverthecourseofasinglelesson.Theysometimesstretchedoverweeksandmonthsasstudentshelpedeachotherthinkthroughtheirbehaviordecisions—thesourceofwhichtheycametothinkofnotas“discipline,”butassocialandemotionalgrowth.InShannon’sclassroom,forexample,aseventh-gradernamedJamaloften

failedtocontrolhisanger.Eventhelittlestcommentcouldsethimoff.Yourshirt’snottuckedin,anotherstudentwouldtellhim,andhewouldscream,slamhisbooksonthefloor,andshutdown.“Ohh,whydoyoualwayshavetosaythistome?”he’dsay.And,“Ihatethisplace!”Sometimes,hewouldbreakoutandcryduringthemiddleofclasswithnoexplanation.Atonepoint,heevengotintoafightwithoneofthegrade’sbeststudents,usuallyaparagonofperfectbehavior.Frustrated,thegirllashedback,tellinghimthathewasdirty,thathesmelled.Shannoncouldn’tbelieveit.“Ipulledthegirl,andshewaslike,‘Well,hebringsiton!HegetsangryandthenwhatamIsupposedtosay?’”Perhaps,Shannonsuggested,don’ttellhimhesmells.“Andshe’slike,‘Well,hedoes!’”Thatwastrue.ShannonknewthatJamal’shygienewasanissue.Hishome

wasachaoticplace.Justtheweekbefore,thepowerhadgoneoff.Theweekbeforethat,thewaterwasshutoff.Atanotherpoint,partoftheroofcavedin.Often,withtheirmothergone,Jamalandhisbrotherswouldbeontheirowntocookdinner.Heandoneofhisbrothersdidn’thaveregularaccesstoshowersuntilthestaffatRisearrangedaprivatebathroomtheycouldusebeforeschool.Facedwiththegirl’slegitimatestatement—yes,Jamaldidsometimessmell—

Shannondecidedtogivethegirlmorecontexttoshapetheideaintosomethingmoreconstructive.Oneday,inbetweenclasses,shetookthatgirlandthreeotherhighperformersinJamal’sadvisory(Rise’sversionofhomeroom)aside.“Isaid,I’mgoingtohaveaverymatureconversationwithyourightnow,”shesays.Jamal,Shannonexplained,“strugglesjusttogethereeveryday.Iwaslike,‘youwakeupinthemorningandyou’vegotsomebodythat’sgettingyououtofthe

door,givingyoubreakfast,makingsureyourclothesareclean,makingsureyou’regettinghereontime.Hedoesn’thavethat.’”Hisangerwasn’tacceptable,butitwasunderstandable.Andwhatheneededwasnotmorereasonstofeelattacked,butsupport—andexamplesofwaystoreactdifferently.Shannonconcludedwithaplea.“Iwaslike,‘SoIneedyoutokeepthisquiet,butIalsoneedyoutouseyourpowerandinfluenceintheadvisorytostartmakingachange.’”Thegirlsweretakenaback.“Ididn’tknowthat,”Jamal’soriginalcombatant

said.ThensheaskedheraquestionthatShannonhadn’tanticipated.“She’slike,‘Well,canwetalktohim?’”Atfirst,Shannonbalked.She’dhopedthegirlscouldjustleadbyexample,respondingtoJamal’soutburstswithmoreequanimity.Shecertainlydidn’twanttocreateasituationthatwouldmakehimevenmorevulnerable.Butafterthinkingforaminute,shedecidedtoletthemtry.Theriskindrawingmoreattentiontoabehaviorproblemwasobvious.AswithDestiny,theoriginaltriggerforJamal’smeltdownswasoftenotherstudents.Givingthestudentsanopportunitytosharetheirfeelingscouldexacerbatetheteasing,makingJamalfeelworse.ButShannonalsoknewthatmiddleschoolwasacauldronofsocialrelationships,whetherteacherspaidattentiontothemornot.WhenDestinystormedoutofscienceclass,shewasgoneforthemoment,butsoonenoughshehadtoreturn,andwhenshedid,thestudentshadtofigureouthowtotreather.Similarly,Jamalandthesegirlssaweachothereveryday.Theywenttoclass,lunch,andrecesstogether.TheywereallonFacebook.Iftheydidn’ttalknow,inthesafetyofaconversationthatShannoncouldmoderate,theywouldtalksomeplaceelse.Plus,justasDeborahBallandMagdaleneLamperthadfoundwithTKOT,the

upsideofaconflict—thebehavioralequivalentofamathematicalmistake—wasachancetolearn.OpeningupJamal’sbehaviorproblemforcollectiveexaminationmighthelphimthinkaboutitdifferently.ThegroupmightdoitbetterthanShannoncouldonherown.“Socialproblemsolving,”researcherscalledsimilarapproaches.Still,whentheconversationbegan,Shannonwasnervous.Andthegirls

launcheditwithabomb.“Whenyougetangry,wegetangryback,”theysaid.“Whatdoyouexpectustosay?”ButtoShannon’samazement,Jamalrespondednotbylashingout,butbytalkingcalmly.Soonenough,allofthem—Jamalandthegirls—wereaskingShannontoletthemfinishtheconversationinprivate.Shedecidedtoletthemgoforit.Allofthestudentswereinheradvisory,andbythatpoint,shewasnotonlyholdingcultureconversationswiththem,butletting

studentsleadthem.Whatevertheysaid,overthenextmonththeiradvisorytransformed.When

Jamalhadanoutburst,insteadoflashingbackathimtheotherstudentswouldleadhiminaconversationonwhathewasdoingtochange:journalingordeepbreathingortakingaminuteinthehall.Themostpowerfulstrategyofallseemedtobenotanysingletechnique,buttheconversationsthemselves.“Evenwhenhehasaroughday,wetalkaboutitinadvisory,andhegetsitout,andhemoveson,”Shannonsays.Forhispart,Jamalbegantoseeschooldifferently.Earlyon,withallitscrazy

rules,Risehadfeltliketherestofhislife:aseriesofpersonalattacksalldevisedtobreakhimdown.ButasShannonGrandeandhisclassmatesworkedwithhim,Risestartedtofeeldifferent,evensafe.Thenewfeelingtransformedhim.“Risewasmyturningpoint,”hesaidthatyear.Thechangewasn’tacademic,butmuchmoreabstract.WhatRisegavehim,Jamalsaid,was“adifferentviewonlife.”Beforecomingtotheschool,hewasanexpertatnegativethinking.Hefeltalone,andhethoughtalotaboutdeath.AtRise,helearnedtoimaginesuccessasclearlyashecouldimaginefailure.Onemorning,heevenwokeuprememberingadreamhe’dneverhadbefore.“Iwaslivingbymyself,butwithmyfamily,inthisbighouse,anditwaspeaceful.Noyelling,noarguing.Nobodysayingsomebodystolethis.Nobodydying.Justonepeacefularea.”Before,hesaid,“Iwasexpectingtodie.”But“atRise,itgavemeanewfuture.Itgavemehope.”Educatorsoftentalkaboutdisciplineasachoicebetweenrulesandautonomy,

systemsandfreedom,“tight”and“loose”—asiftheyhaveonlytwochoices:eitherbuildelaboratebehaviorsystemsliketheBenchorletstudentsroamfree.AtRise,changingthewaytheschoolexertedcontrolbynomeansmeantlettinggoofit.Infact,itwastheopposite.JustasRuthHeatonandSylviaRundquisthadfoundattheSpartanVillageschool,givingstudentsmoreindependencemeanttheteachershadtodomorework,buildingmoreintricatesystemswithmoredeliberatesupports—thestuffteacherscall“scaffolding.”Theyweren’tlessstrict.Theyjustchangedthepointofintervention.Insteadofbuildingamillionrulestopreventmisbehaviorfromhappeninginthefirstplace,theyloosenedupatthestart—onlytoerectevermoreelaborateresponseswhen,inevitably,studentscrossedaline.Inadditiontocultureconversations,teachersincreasinglysoughtoutsidehelp.

AsPaulToughexplainsinHowChildrenSucceed,acombinationofresearchineconomics,psychology,andneurosciencehasshownthatthestudentstargetedbycharterschools—thechildrenoffamiliessufferingfrommultigenerational

povertyandahistoryofracism—facemorechallengesthantheirmoreaffluentwhitepeersface.Eventhebestteachersoftenneededthehelpofpsychologistsandotherprofessionalsforstudentswhocontinuedtostruggle.Sometimesteachersusedmorespecializedapproaches.“Doesitmakesense

foronefifth-gradertobringupaconcernaboutanotherfifth-graderinfrontofthirtykids?”saysMarielElguero,oneoftheschool’sfoundingteachers,whobecamedeanofinstruction.“Maybeinsomecontexts,yes,andmaybeinsomecontexts,no.Maybewhatwouldactuallymakesenseisifwegotthosetwokidstogetherandtheysatinthecornerbythemselves,andwegavethemtools,andtheyfigureditout.”Themorecomplexapproachdidnotsolveallbehaviorproblems,noteven

close.AlthoughRisewasreligiousinitsrefusalnevertoaskastudenttoleave(apolicytheschooldidnotsharewithallothercharterschools,oralldistrictschoolsforthatmatter),everyteachercouldstillrattleoffalistofthestudentswhomadethedecisionthemselves,resistingRise’sconsiderableeffortstochangetheirminds:Aisha,whotwicehadtobetakenfromtheschoolinanambulanceandoncethreatenedtokillbothofherparentsintheschool’smainoffice;Deon,whomissedtwomonthsofschooloneyearandfailedallofhisclasses;Abdul,thebestbasketballplayerevertoattendRise,butastrugglingstudentwhosemotherrefusedtolethimrepeatagrade.Somedays,evenafterJamal’sturningpoint,itwashardnottoworrythathewouldfalldownthesamepath.“Wehavealot,alotofkidsthatitdoesn’tworkfor,”Drewsays.“Wedon’thaveananswer.Wejustholdonaslongaswepossiblycan.”

AttheAcademyofthePacificRim,cultureconversationwasnotatermteachersused,andneitherwasTKOT.ButthemomentsthatRousseaurememberedbestfromschoolborestrikingsimilaritiestothoseconversationsatRise.Eachpunishmentcamewiththerequirementthattheoffendingstudentreflectonthemistakemade.Asaresult,studentsspentalmostasmuchtimetalkingabouttheirbehaviormistakesastheydidcomplainingaboutalltheschool’srules.SometimesthereflectiontooktheformofapublicapologyliketheonesRise

studentshadtomaketogetoffofChoices.Formoreseriousoffenses,APRrequiredstudentstowriteouttheirapologiesinanessay.Theprocesswas“whatIthinksuspensionshouldbe,”saysKevinThai.“Everytime,theysatmedown,theytalkedtome,theyfiguredoutwhatwaswrong,andtriedto[helpme]learn

fromthatexperience.”Theydidn’t“justthrow[me]intoaboxandsaygohome.”RousseauwentthroughasimilarroutinewithDougLemoveverytimehewas

senttothedean’soffice.Lookingback,thesewerethemomentsheappreciatedthemost,theminutesbetweenthedelinquencyandtheconsequence,whenthetwoofthemsatdownandtalked—notjustaboutwhathadhappened,butaboutwhy.Usually,Dougbeganbylistening.WhatwasRousseaustrugglingwith?Whathadmadehimcallout?Whyhadn’theturnedinhishomework?Thentheytalkedabouthisresponse—whycallingoutwasunproductiveforthewholegroup,orwhydisrespectingtheteacherpreventedRousseaufromworkingwellwithhimorher.DoughimselfhadgonethroughanevolutionparalleltoDrewMartin’sat

Rise,enhancingthesemorepurposefulmomentsovertime.Thatwasthebeautyofthecrucible.“Wewererebuildingthatmachineweekly,monthly,yearly,”hesays.TheschoolRousseauandhisfriendsarrivedat,inAPR’sfirstyearofexistence,wasnotthesameschooltheygraduatedfrom.JustlikeDrew,Dougquestionedalmosteverythinghedid.Andoneofthepracticeshethoughtaboutmost—changedthemost—wasdiscipline.Sodidmanyno-excuseseducators.TheevolutionatRisetrackedsimilar

changesatdozensofotherschools.AtthefirstKIPPreplicationschool,intheSouthBronx,thenetwork’scofounder,DavidLevin,neverusedtheBenchatall.TheoriginalKIPPschool,inHouston,replaceditsrigidruleswithamoreinvisible(andmoreintricate)structurethatgavestudentsthespacetomakemoremistakes.Andacrossthenetwork,officialsaddedresearch-basedsubstancetotheirintuitiveearlyideasaboutculture,creatingacharactercurriculumthathelpedgiveteacherslikeShannonGrandewordsandideastofleshouttheircultureconversations.Thesimplewaytounderstandthechangeovertimewasthateducators

collectivelydecidedtostopcrossingcertainlines.Andthatwaspartlytrue.Indeed,everyno-excuseseducatorseemedtohaveastoryforthemomenthedecidedtoactdifferently.ForDrew,itwaswhenhefoundhimselfhopingagirl’smotherwouldn’tcatchhimdiscipliningher—andrealizedheneverwantedtomakethatwishagain.ForDoug,itwasthetimeheyankedawanderingdogoutofAPR,onlytohaveastudentremindhim,sagely,“Mr.Lemov!He’sjustadog!”ChiTschanghadastorytoo.IthappenedmidwaythroughhistimeatKIPP

Fresno,whenhetooksomeofhisstudentsonafieldtriptovisittheclassroom

ofRafeEsquith,theCaliforniaeducatorandauthorwhoinfluencedmanyKIPPleaders.AfterRafe’sstudentsperformedaShakespeareplay,allofthestudentswentouttogethertoshareameal.“Oneofthethingsthatwerealized,”Chisays,“isthatRafe’skidsweresomuchnicerthanourkids.Somuchmorerefined,morethoughtfulandarticulate—andmoreconsiderate.”Heandacolleaguepuzzledoverthedifferenceonthebusridehome.“Andwhatwerealizedis,‘They’re10timesnicerbecauseRafeis10timesnicer.Rafeneveryells.’”Chichanged—andsodidhiscolleagues.Butrealitywasmorecomplicatedthanjustdecidingtoactmorehumanely.

Themostthoughtfulschools—theonesthatDougran,theoneslikeRise—hadwantedtoteachtheirstudentssomethingmorethanjustcompliancefromthebeginning.Andtogetthere,theydidmorethansimplyswingbackandforthbetweentwosidesofapendulum:looseandstrict.TheyreflectedonthesamequestionRousseauaskedhimself,aboutwhetherthegoodoutweighedthebad,orwhetherthebadwasevennecessary—andtheydecidedthat,yes,itwaspossibletopushstudentswithoutcrushingthem.Whatwasrequiredwasnotjusttherightmotivation,buttherightskill.Disciplinewasnotablackandwhitechoice—tightorloose,structuredorjoyful.Itwas,saysDavidLevin,“unstructuredstructure.”Anditwasmuchharder.Itrequiredskill.Ultimately,thatwaswhattheentrepreneursgainedovertime—notnewambitions,buttheexpertisetomaketheirfullestvisioncometrue.

What,then,explainedthecharterschoolinHarlem?TheonewhereRousseaufoundabuildingfullofteachers,religiouslyversedintheLemovtaxonomyandyetdefyingit?TheironywasthatDoug’sotherreasonforwritingthetaxonomy—justas

importantashiscommitmenttodevelopingasharedprofessionallanguage—wastoeliminatethepossibilityofsuchaschool.LikeChiandDrew,Doughadlearnedsomeofthemostimportantteachinglessonsthehardway,andhe’ddoneso,heknewalltoowell,onthebacksofsomechildren.(Indeed,henotonlyrejectedmanyofhisownearlypractices;herejectedthe“noexcuses”labelaltogether.)Whyshouldothereducatorshavetodothesame?“Culture,”ashecalledthedisciplineofdiscipline,wasoneoftheteachingproblemshe’dworkedonthemost.Andheknewitwasalsooneoftheeasiesttowreck.Teachers,especiallyteacherswhohadtaughtindysfunctionalschools,hada

tendencytoglobontodisciplinetools“likecatnip.”“Likeratsinthelab,you

keeppressingthelever,evenwhentheybecomebloatedanddistended,”Dougsays.Bybeingmeticulousaboutthedetails,byemphasizinglessonslike“purposenotpower”and“TheJFactor,”forjoy(TechniqueNo.46),hehopedtohelpmoreschoolsachievewhatafewschoolswerefiguringouthowtodo—howtogetstudentsnotjustcompliant,butinvested;notjustobedient,buthappy.Insomecases,thetaxonomyhaddonejustthat.Eightortenyearsago,Doug

says,“thenumberofschoolsthathadoutstandingculturewereveryfewandfarbetween.”Now“it’scommon.It’scommonasdaytohaveacharterschoolthat’sfiguredouthowtomanagebehaviorandculture.”Ifthetaxonomyhadn’tworkedforallteachers,perhapsitwasbecause—onitsown—abookcouldgoonlysofar.Rousseaucalledthedifferencebetweentheschoolswheredisciplineworked

andtheschoolswhereitjustdidn’t“thatintangiblepiece.”Whatwasthatextrapiece,exactly?Somecharterschoolteacherspointedtorelationships.Theteacherswhoreallygotkidstochange,theysaid,weretheoneswhobuiltstrongpersonalbondswiththem.MarielElguero,thedeanofinstructionatRise,talkedabouttheimportanceofexpectations.Earlyon,shesaid,“Wewerelike,fifth-graderscan’tdotalkingduringguidedpractice”(thepartoftheclasswhenstudentsworkonthelessonwithteacheroversight).”“Theycan’tgetalong!Thatwastheperception.”Now,“it’slike,ofcoursetheycan.Ithinkit’sjustexpectingmore.Expectingwhatyoudidn’tthinkwaspossible.”Doug,forhispart,saidthedifferenceboileddowntosomethingevensimpler:love.“Inyourheart,youhavetothink,‘Ilovethesekids,andIwantthebestforthem,’”hesays.Whenhebecameateacher,Rousseautriedtodoallofthosethings—build

strongrelationships,expectwhatdidn’tseempossible,teachwithlove.Buthefoundthattryingthesetechniqueslacked“thatintangiblepiece.”Ashesawit,thisintangiblepiecewaslikethepreparationhedidtoteachhistory.Gettingreadyforalesson,hewouldforcehimselftoimaginethementalstepsthestudentswouldneedtotaketoaccomplishthegoalofthelesson.Bywalkingthroughanassignmenthimselffirst,hecoulddoa“thinkaloud”whenitcametimetoworkwiththestudents,bringingtothesurfacetheinvisibleleapsthatcamenaturallytohimbutthatthestudentsstillneededtolearn.Withdiscipline,Rousseaudidsomethingsimilar,diggingintohismemoryto

recallhisownlowestmoments.“HowdidIdealwithitasakid?”he’daskhimself.“Howdokidsdealwithitnow?HowamIdealingwithitnow?Whathashelpedmetobreakthroughnow?HowcanIhelpakidbreakthroughnow

withthatsamething?”Teachingdisciplinerequiredthesameamountofmentalworkasteachinghistory,plusanextradoseofcourage.Butsoulsearchingwasnotthesameasteaching.OnceRousseaucouldseethe

ideahisstudentsweremissing,hestillhadtofigureoutawaytogiveittothem.Hehadtomarshalakindofknowledgethatdidn’tseemtohaveaname—aknowledgethatwasneitheraboutteachingingeneralnoraboutthesubjecthewastryingtoteach,butacombinationofthetwo.LeeShulmanwouldhavecalleditpedagogicalcontentknowledge,theskillsneededtoteachasubject.Rousseauneededaspecialknowledgeforteachingdiscipline.

DeborahBall’sandMagdaleneLampert’sresearchonpedagogicalcontentknowledgeinmathteachinghadparallelsinothersubjects,fromhistoryandsciencetoEnglishandevenphysicaleducation.Buttherewasnoparallelinthedisciplineofdiscipline.Researchershavebeguntouncoversomeofthedynamicsofdiscipline.When

workingwithdifficultstudents,researchershavefound,manyteachersleanheavilyonrulesandpunishments.Andthis“operantconditioning”seemstoworkintheshortterm,especiallywhenteachersfollowtheguidelinesoutlinedintheLemovtaxonomy.Iftheleastinvasive,mostpositive,andmostprivatecorrectionisused,studentsaremorelikelytocomplynotjust“grudgingly,”butwillingly.Butpsychologistshaveincreasinglyfoundthat,onitsown,this“conditioning”isnotenoughtohelpstudentsinthelongterm.Teachersalsohavetoteachtheirstudentswhattheresearcherscall“socialproblem-solving”—mentalandemotionalapproachestodealingwithinterpersonalchallenges.Butexamplesofthismorecomplexapproach—ofapedagogicalcontent

knowledgefordiscipline—werehardertofind.Theresearcherwhocameclosest,ateacherandeducationprofessoratNorthwesternnamedCarolLee,neverintendedtostudythesubject.InspiredinpartbyMagdalene’sandDeborah’swork,shedecidedtovideotapeherownclassroominaninner-citypublichighschooleverydayforthreeyears,hopingtogaininsightonteachingliterature.ButCarolfoundthathelpingherstudentsbecomebetterreadersrequiredafocusbeyondjustacademics.“Theframework,”shewroteinabookreflectingontheproject,Culture,Literacy,andLearning,“hadtoaddressthedevelopmentalaswellasthecognitiveneedsofstudents.”By“developmental,”shemeant“theprocessthroughwhichovertimehumanslearnhowtoaddressthechallengesofcultivatingandsustainingasenseofwell-beingandof

competence,ofnurturinginterpersonalrelationshipsfirstwithinfamiliesandlateracrosswidersocialnetworks,andofnavigatingobstacles.”Overthecourseofthethreeyears,Carolthusworkedontwokindsofteachingatonce.Thefirsthadtodowithliterature;thesecondfocusedondisciplineanddevelopment.Oneepisodeshowcasingthelatterkindofteachingoccurredin1997,atthe

startofherstudents’senioryear,whenCarolnoticedthatonestudent,agirlnamedTaquisha,wasreadingthatmorning’scopyoftheChicagoSun-Times.Afewminutesbefore,Carolhadshowntheclassafive-minutefilm,oneoftheeverydayculturalartifactsthatsheusedtopreparestudentstoanalyzetextsliketheToniMorrisonnovelBeloved.Shewasinthemiddleofaskingthemtocommentonwhatthey’dseenwhenshenoticedTaquisha’sunconventionalchoiceofreadingmaterial.Themomentposedachallenge.AsCarolrecountsinherbookdocumenting

theyear,“TaquishaisactuallyreadingthenewspaperwhileIamconductingthelesson.”AndshehadspentenoughtimeintheclassroomwithTaquishatoknowthatshewas“averystrong-willedyounglady...thesortofpersonwithwhomyoudonotpickafightunlessyou’rewillingtogotothematandbereadytostrikewithdefinitiveforcetowin.”Carolknewthatshehadseveraloptionsforhowtorespond.“Icouldhave

embarrassedher,punishedherwithadditionalwork,loweredhergrade,orsenthertotheoffice.”Butwhileshebelievedthatsomepunishmentscouldteach,shealsoknewthat,inTaquisha’scase,apunishmentlikesendinghertotheofficewouldgivethestudentexactlywhatshewanted—“toberemovedfromanyresponsibilityforactiveparticipation.”AndthatwastheoppositeofCarol’sgoal.Soinsteadofjabbing,shestruckaplayfultone.“Otherquestions.Other

questions,”Carolsaidcalmlybeforemakinghermove.“Taquisha,youhaveaquestioninsidethatpaperthere?”“Yup,”Taquisharepliedemphatically,retainingherfightingpose.Yes,Iam

indeedreadingtheChicagoSun-Timesduringyourlesson,Taquishawaseffectivelysaying.Themovewasataunt,asecondinvitationtospar.Butinsteadoftakingthebait,Caroldeployedaresponsethatshelatercalled“akindofTaiChimove.”Insteadofrespondingtothe“yup,”Carolsimplytiltedthesubjectinherdesireddirection.She“deflect[ed]hermotiontowardmebysimplygettingoutoftheway.”“What’syourquestion?”sheasked.Taquishapunchedagain,sayingshewantedtoknowwhattheshortfilmSax,

Cantor,Riff,byJulieDash,hadtodowiththebooktheywerepreparingtoread,Beloved.“Essentially,”Caroltranslates,“Taquishaispubliclyassaultingthedesignofmylesson.”Facedwiththisthirdattack,anotherteachermighthavefinallygivenin.But

Carol,determinedtoforceTaquishaintothediscussion,deployedanotherTaiChideflection.“Wellthatmightbeaquestionforme,”shesaid.Taquishahad,afterall,posedareasonablequestion—whyweretheydoingwhattheyweredoing;whatwasthepurpose?—andCarolwantedtoacknowledgeitassuch.“Well,”Taquishapersisted,herpermissiontochallengegranted,“whatdoes

thebookhavetodowiththegirlandthemansinging?”(Sax,Cantor,RiffdepictedasequencethatincludedawomansinginganAfricanAmericanspiritualandaJewishmansinginginHebrew.)“Saythatagain,”Carolsaid.“That’sagoodquestion.”Shecouldn’tquitehearTaquisha’sresponse—otherstudents,apparentlycuriousaboutthesamequestion,spokeoverher.“Whatdoesthegirlhavetodowithwhat?”Carolaskedagain.“Whatdoesthegirl[sic]havetodowiththegirlandthemansinging?”Taquisharepeated.Later,watchingtheexchangeonvideotape,Carolmarveledattheevolution.

Injustafewminutes,TaquishahadshiftedfromopendefiancetochallengingthelessonplantoaskingasophisticatedquestionthatwasexactlywhatCarolhadhopedforwhenshefirstlaunchedthediscussion.Thetwosequencesinthefilm—theyoungAfricanAmericanwomansinging,

ontheonehand,andtheJewishmansinging,ontheother—weredisconnectedscenes.Asfarastheviewerknew,thetwohadn’tevenseeneachother.ButTaquishamadetwoimportantassumptions:one,thattheauthor(inthiscase,thedirector)hadcreatedtheworkwithsomekindofintent;andtwo,thatherroleasareader(orinthiscase,viewer)wasto“imposesomeformofcoherence”ontheapparentlydisparatescenes.“Thatisabeautifulandsoundquestion,”Carolsaid,afterrephrasingit.

“FounditintheSun-Timestoo,didn’tyou?”“Yup!”Taquishasaid.Exceptthistime,theyuphadadifferentsound.She

wasnolongerresisting.

Inpart,CarolLee’spedagogicalcontentknowledgewasaperfectanalogueofMagdalene’sandDeborah’s.ToteachEnglish,Carolfoundthatsheneededtoknowhowpeoplelearnedit—whatdistinguishedanovicereaderfromanexpert?Shealsoneededtoknowthemistakesandmisconceptionsthatmight

causeayoungpersontostumble—forinstance,thefactthatincorrectlypluralizingawordlike“child”as“childs”isactuallyastepforwardforbeginningspeakersofEnglish,ratherthanastepback(themistakeshowsthatthestudentgraspstheconceptthatpluralwordsusuallyendin“s”).Andsheneededtounderstandthenuancesofthedisciplinethatmightescapeevenanexcellentreaderorprofessionalwriter—likepreciselyhowirony,satire,andunreliablenarrationdiffer,andhowthethreecanandcannotintersect.ButCaroladdedanotherdimension,onethatmatchedherdevelopmental

work.Shecalledit“theethicalandmoral”partofteaching.Ateacher,shesaid,“mustcometoknoweachstudentandthelifecircumstancesthatstudentbringswithhimwhenheentersaclassroom.”Thatdidn’tmeaneverysingledetail—ahopelesstask,especiallyforahighschoolteacherworkingwithahundredormorestudentsayear.But,likereadingormathmistakes,students’developmentalchallengescameinrelativelypredictablepatterns,soteacherscouldgettoknowthebroadstrokes.(Forherpart,CaroldrewonamixofherownexperienceandtheresearchoftheUniversityofChicagopsychologistMargaretBealeSpencer,whodescribesyoungpeople’sactsofresistanceas“maladaptivecopingstrategies.”)Thatway,meetingastudentlikeTaquisha,ateachercouldquicklypredicthowshewaslikelytothinkandact,withouthavingtotakeadetailedinventorywitheachnewstudent.Whereascharterschoolshandleddisciplineseparatelyfromacademics,Carol

blendedthetwo,notonlyinthesameclass,butinthesamediscussion.SherespondedtoTaquisha’sresistancenotwithaconversation,butwithasubtleinvitationtoparticipateinclassmoreproductively—andacareful,gentlemodelingofhowtodothat,allinthecontextoftheclosereadingofafilm.Similarly,althoughMagdaleneLampertdidnotusethesame“developmental”

frame,shedidtalkabouttheworkofclassroommanagement.Shecalledit“TeachingStudentstoBePeopleWhoStudyinSchool,”or,moreambitiously,“academiccharactereducation.”Thevaluesshetaughtwereversionsofdiscipline,justfusedwiththehabitsthatstudentsneededtodowellinmathclass(and,shethought,inlife)—an“inductiveattitude,”“curiosity,”andabroadsenseofselfas“apersonwhocouldhaveideas.”AndjustlikeCarolLee,Magdalenefoundshecouldteachtheseattitudesbestbyconnectingthemwithmathorotheracademicactivities.Thedifferenceinapproachhadsomethingtodowitheachwoman’sidentity

asateacherofanacademicsubject;thatwastheirprimaryfocus,sothatwashowtheylookedateverythingtheytaught,evenbehavior.Butitalsoprobably

stemmedfromtheirdifferentapproachestoteachingacademicsubjects.Akeydifferencewaswhattheirclassroomsdemandedofstudents.AsJamesStiglerfoundinhisTIMSSvideostudy,aprincipalcharacteristicofAmericanclassroomswastheexpectationofattention(alsoknownastheabilitytolockeyeswithanoverheadprojector,ateacher,oraworksheet).MagdaleneLampertandCarolLeeexcelledbecausetheystretchedthatexpectation.LiketeachersinJapan,Carolrequiredmoreelaborateactivitiesinher

classroom.Inordertoparticipatewell,Taquishadidn’tjusthavetothrowawayhernewspaperandstareattheboard.Shehadtoformulateaninsightfulquestion.Similarly,inMagdalene’sclass,Richard,oneofthestudentswhostruggledwithwhatMagdalenecalledacademiccharacter,neededtodomorethanjuststopfoolingaroundwithhisfriends.HealsoneededtolearnhowtogetstartedontheproblemofthedaywithoutaskingMagdalenewhattodo.Heneededtothinkaboutmathnotjustasanassignmentforcedonhimbyhisteacher,butasachallengethathecouldbecuriousabout—andapuzzlethatmadesense.Andheneededtofigureouthowtodisagreerespectfully,whetheraboutamathematicalideaorsomethingmorepersonal.InCarolandMagdalene’sview,gettingTaquishaandRichardtobehavewas

notasteptowardgettingthemtolearn—first,payattention;then,learn.Behaviorwas,instead,synonymouswithlearning.Thetwothingshappenedatthesametime.ThatwaswhyCarolrespondedtoTaquisha’sresistancenotbymountingadiscussionaboutit,butwithaseriesofpointedquestionsdesignedtoshowherhowtorespondmoreproductively.AnditwaswhyMagdalenegaveRichardnotjustalectureabouttheneedtostartonproblemsbyhimself,butalsoanewseatnexttotwostudentssheknewwere“helpfultotheirpeersbutnotinawaythatwouldbeembarrassing.”Thatway,hecouldworkonhisproblemofthedaywithouttheteacher’shelpbylearningtoturntoafellowstudentfirst.Perhapstheentrepreneurswererighttoseparatedisciplineintoitsown

subject.Bymakingaseparatespaceforcultureconversations,theygavethemmorecredence.Andtheseparatespacecertainlydidn’tprecludeblending“developmental”andacademicwork.Theycoulddoboth.Butitwasalsotruethatiftheywantedamoreintegratedpedagogy—onethat

couldsimultaneouslyteachastudentmultiplicationandcuriosity—theywouldhavetochangethewaytheytaught,andnotjustthewaytheytaughtdiscipline.Compliance,theendpointofasimplerapproachtoteachingbehavior,didn’tjustmakewayformoreattentivelearners.FortheentrepreneursasforsomanyAmericanteachers,compliancewasalsooftenwhattheirmath,reading,and

sciencelessonsrequired.MagdaleneLampertsometimestooktheargumentevenfurther.Certainkinds

ofteaching,sheargued,weresimplymorelikelytoproduceresistancethanothers.Classroommanagementchallenges,shecontended,couldbedealtwithinpartbyredesigningtheactivitiesteachersaskedstudentstodo.CarolLeefoundsomethingsimilarinherEnglishclass.Asthenewspaperexamplemadeclear,askingdemandingquestionsofTaquishaandherpeersdidatfirstmakesomeofthemresist.Butovertime,theapproachopenedthemup.Byaskingmoreofstudents,shealsogavethemmoreofavoice.Andinthisway,Carolcouldmakethemfeelsafer.Theclassroombelongedtothemasmuchasitbelongedtoher.Theideathatclassroommanagementchallengescouldbesolvedbywell-

designedlessonplanswasexactlythekindofargumentthatcausedsomeentrepreneurstorejectedschoolsinthefirstplace.Yetby2010,manyoftheentrepreneurshadbeguntowonderwhethertheacademicshadapoint.Inthetaxonomy—whichDougpublishedthatyearintheformofabest-sellingbook,TeachlikeaChampion—Douglistedfiveprinciplesforbuildingapositiveclassroomculture.Predictably,thefirstfourwerediscipline,management,control,andinfluence.ButthefifthwaswhatDougcalled“engagement,”theprocessofgettingstudentstodo“productive,positivework.”Rousseau’sfirstteachingassessmentsillustratedthisshift.Observinghim,his

principal,StacyBirdsellO’Toole,alwayssaidthesamething:hewasgreatatgettingthekidstobehave,buttowhatend?“Rousseauisanincrediblycharismaticteacher,andhismanagementisincredible.Heinvestskidswholeheartedlyinwhathewantskidstodo,”shesays.“Butwhatwereallyhadtoworkonis,‘Whatareyouaskingkidstoactuallydo?’”Later,whenStacybecamedirectoroftrainingattheMatchTeacher

Residency,aprograminBostondesignedtoprepareteacherstoworkinno-excusescharterschools(includingtheschoolassociatedwiththeresidency,alsocalledMatch),shefoundthatRousseauwasn’ttheonlyoneworkingonthisproblem.Allthecharterschoolsshevisitedweretalkingaboutthesamething.Stacyhaddiagnosedherselfwiththeproblemtoo.“Theabsenceofmisbehavior,”shehadrealized,“doesn’tmeanthepresenceofhighlevelsoflearning.”They’dcrackedthecodeofhowtogetkidstobehave.Buttheyweremissingavitalacademicingredient.“Rigor,”theycalledit.

*Thereissomeevidencetosupportconcernsthatcharterschoolsserveselectivestudentpopulations,eventhoughtheyaresupposedtobeopentoallchildren.Myownreportinghasfoundevidencethatsomecharterschoolstakeactionsthattailorthepopulationstheyserve,includingdiscouragingapplicantsand“counselingout”studentswhoarealreadyenrolled.ButIhavealsofoundcasesofschools,includingAPRandRiseAcademy(describedlaterinthischapter),thatactivelyopposetheseselectivepolicies.

8

THEPOWEROFANINSIDEJOKE

SenecaRosenbergenteredTeachForAmericain2001,elevenyearsafterWendyKoppfoundedtheprogramandhalfadecadebeforeDougLemovbeganhistaxonomy.PlacedatCassellElementarySchoolinEastSanJosetwoweeksbeforethestartofschool,shespentherfirstweeksasateacherlurchingthroughaseriesoftrials.Firstcamethedirt,athickfilmofwhichcoveredeverysurfaceofherclassroom.Althoughtheschooldidemployajanitor,hisresponsibilitiesapparentlydidnotincludescrubbingdowndesks.Nextcamethemusicalchairs.Ontheseconddayoftheyear,afterSenecahaddutifullymemorizedallherfourth-graders’names,theadministrationassignedherabrand-newclass.Amonthanddozensofnewnameslater,thesamethinghappenedagain.“AndIdidn’tgetthefirstclassback,ofcourse.Igotanewclassoffourth-graders,”shesays.WhatstruckSenecamostofall,however,wasnotthechaosofherown

assignments,buttheradicallydisparateexperiencesofherfellowcorpsmembers.Shenoticedthismostacutelyinherthirdyear,whenTFAmadehera“learningteamleader,”chargedwithcoordinatingagroupofcorpsmembersworkingacrosstheSouthBay.Theteachershadalmosteverythingincommon.Theyallcamefromthesame

trainingprogram(TFAfollowedbyacrashcourseatSanJoséStateUniversity);theyhadstudentsfromessentiallythesamedemographic(fourth-andfifth-graderslivinginapoor,urbanarea,manyofwhomspokedifferentlanguagesathome);theytaughtunderthesamestatestandards(California’s)andinthesamedistrict(AlumRockUnionElementarySchoolDistrict);andtheyhadroughlythesamenumberofyearsofteachingexperience(betweenoneandthree).ButasSenecatraveledfromschooltoschoolvisitingtheteachers’classrooms,orinvestigatedtheproductsoftheirstudents’workatmonthlymeetings,shesawthattheirteachingdifferedwildly.Fromthewaytheyorganizedtheirclassrooms

tothekindsofprojectstheyassignedandtheworkthathungonthewalls,almostnothingabouttheteachers’approacheswasconsistent.Therandomnesswasmostvisibleinstudents’writingsamples.“Length,the

strengthandclarityofanargument,complexityandvarietyofsentencestructure,thetypeofvocabulary,theaccuracyofconventions”—everyaspectvariedfromteachertoteacher,Senecaremembers.“Despiteallthatwehadincommonwithrespecttotrainingandstandardsandbeliefs,itactuallyseemedwemightbelearningquitedifferentthings,withprettydeepimplicationsforourstudents’learning.”Senecahadoriginallythoughtthattalentaloneseparatedoneteacherfrom

another.Someteacherssimplyfiguredouthowtohelptheirstudentslearnandothersdidn’t.Butitdidn’ttakeherlongtorealizethatthisexplanationdidn’tcapturetheproblem.Whatmatteredmost,forhercolleaguesatleast,wasnotwillornaturalskill,butluck.Whatworkshophadtheteacherhappenedtostumbleinto?Whoseclassroomdidshehappentogetplacednextto?Whichmentorhappenedtotakeaninterestinherwork?Thinkingback,Senecarealizedthatherowntrajectoryhaddependedonahandfulofaccidents.Ifshehadn’ttakenthatspecificworkshop,orhadn’tmetherteacherfriend,Laura,orhadn’tbeenassignedthatparticularsupervisor,herteachingwouldhaveevolveddifferently.Probablyforworse,butwhoknew?Maybeforbetter.Thewholearrangementseemed“absolutelyinsane,”shesays.Howhad

somethingsoimportantbeenlefttochance?Searchingforexplanations,Senecatooktotheweb.Surelyshewasnotthefirsttomarvelatthisrandomness;someeducationresearchermusthavestudiedtheproblem,maybeevensuggestedaremedy.Butinsteadofansweringherquestion,thepolicypapersshefoundskirtedtheissue.Onetypicalstudy,hostedonthewebsiteofaleadingeducationschool,

examinedparents—specifically,thekindsofteachersparentsrequestedfortheirchildrenwhenenrollingtheminanewgrade.Thestudyfoundthatpreferencesdiffereddependingonfamilies’demographicbackground.Low-incomeparentsofcolorcaredmoreaboutteachers’academicrecordsthantheirpopularitywithstudents.Wealthierparents,meanwhile,tendedtomaketheoppositechoice.Acrosstheboard,manyparents—30percent—requestedaparticularteacherwhengiventhechance.Theimplication,theresearcherspointedout,waspotentiallyprofound.Thenationaltrendtowardgreaterschoolchoicemightendupexacerbatingsegregationasparentswithdifferentraceandclassbackgroundslookedfordifferentstrengthsinteachers.

Anotherstudytookanovelapproachtoinvestigatingthechallengeofteacherturnover.Insteadoflookingatdataonteacherswholefttheclassroom,theresearchersstudiedteacherswhoreturnedtoit.Byfiguringoutwhythoseteacherscameback,theysurmised,theymightfindawaytopreventtheteachersfromleavinginthefirstplace.Indeed,thedatasuggestedthatthepoolofreturningteacherswaslarge.Morethan40percentofthoseinthestudywholefttheclassroomlatercameback.Thedataalsopointedtoanintriguingpatterninthosewholeftandthenreturned.Manyofthem,especiallywomen,weretheparentsofyoungchildren.Whentheyfirsttaught,theyhadnochildren;whentheycameback,theirchildrenwereoldenoughtogotoschool.Thepatternsuggestedthatdistrictscouldavoidthecostsassociatedwithretrainingreturningteachersbyinvestinginconvenientchildcareoptionssothattheywouldn’tleaveinthefirstplace.Thestudiesaskedimportantquestions,butthoughparentpreferencesand

teacherturnoverwererelatedtohowpeoplelearnedtoteach,theywereultimatelydifferentsubjects.Thenoneday,Senecastumbledontoaprofessor’swebpageattheUniversityofMichigan.Aphotoshowedanoldermanwithdowncasteyes,smilinginfrontofabedofflowers.Incontrasttotheotherstudies,thisprofessor’sresearchaskedthequestionsSenecahadbeenaskingherself,onlyinmoreformallanguage.Whereshethoughtaboutthe“randomness”ofwhatherfellowteachers’learned,hedescribedthe“inconsistency”of“instructionalguidance.”Whereshediagnosedteachers’variedlearningexperiencesasa“mess,”hedescribed“ablizzardofdifferentandoftenconflictingideas”thataddeduptoanoverall“variability”or,moreplainly,“incoherence.”Differentwords,butthesameconundrum.Evenmoreimportant,hehadanexplanationforthesourceofthetrouble.

Senecalaterlearnedthathisstudentshadcometonamethequandaryaftertheirprofessor:the“DavidCohencoherenceproblem.”

SinceleavingMichiganStatewithhiswife,MagdaleneLampert,in1993,Davidhadbeendoingmoreandmorethinkingaboutwhathadgonewrong.AndnotonlyinEastLansing,butalsoinCaliforniaandallacrossthecountry.WhydideveryAmericanefforttoimproveteachingseemtofail?FromtheslowdissolutionatSpartanVillagetothefalserevolutionsinCalifornia,didthedisappointmentshaveacommoncause?Overtime,Davidfoundhisanswerinhisoriginaldiscipline,history.

Specifically,herealizedthathecouldtracetheAmericanresistancetoreformbacktothefoundingfathersandtheirdisagreementaboutcentralizedpower.Shouldthefederalgovernmentholdthehighestpower,orshouldthestates?Thedebateforeshadowedmuchthatwastocomeineducation.Nearlytwoandahalfcenturiesaftertheconstitutionalconvention,thequestionofwhoshouldcontroltheschoolsremainedunresolved.AmericaneducationwaslikethestorythatDavid’soldfriendLeeShulman

toldaboutarabbimediatingadisputebetweentwomenovertheownershipofachicken.Afterthefirstmanexplainedwhythechickenwashis,Leesaidinatalkrecountingthestory,“therabbinoddedsagelyandstated,‘Youareright.Thechickenisyours.’”Whenthesecondmangavehistestimony,therabbinoddedagain.“Youarecorrect.Thechickenmustbeyours,”hesaid.Confused,therabbi’swifespokeup.“Mydear,itisimpossibleforthisonetoberight,andthatonetoo,”shesaid.“That’scorrect,”therabbirepliedathirdtime.“You’realsoabsolutelyright!”Similarly,inAmericanschools,thefederalgovernmentwassovereignandthe

statesweresovereign.Both.Andifyouthoughtthatsituationcouldn’tpossiblyhold,youwerecorrectaboutthattoo.Insteadofguidance,Americanschoolsenduredmassconfusion.Principals

receivedmandatesfromthefedsandfromthestateandfromthedistrict,sometimesmatchingandsometimesnot(andonlysometimesfunded).Teachersgotadviceandordersjustascontradictoryasthedirectivestheirbossesreceived.Theirlocalcurriculumsaidonething;theireducationschoolanother.Andthetextbook,whentherewasatextbook,saidsomethingelsealtogether.Withfiftystates,morethanfourteenthousandschooldistricts,andnearlyahundredthousandschools,thelawoftheeducationallandwasincoherence.Incoherencesabotagedquality.Ifteachingwasaskillortradetobemastered,

thenteacherswerealsoapprentices,studentsofanotherkind.Likestudents,theyeitherhadtofigureoutthematerialontheirown,ortheyhadtobetaught.Thelawofincoherencemeantthatinsteadoftrainingwithonegoodteacher,theyreceivedtheequivalentofseventeenbadones,eachonesayingsomethingcompletelydifferent.Theluckyonesmadeprogressagainsttheodds.Likediligentstudentsin

chaoticschools,theseresourcefulapprenticestookclearguidancewhenitemergedandignoredtherest.Themajority,meanwhile,tookpragmaticstepstoinurethemselvestochaos.Facedwithyetanotherconflictingorder,theyrespondedwithwhattheeducatorLovelyBillupsoncedescribedasthe

Americanteacher’screed:“Thistooshallpass.”Nodpolitely,thankthestate/district/professionaldeveloper/professorforthesuggestion,andthen,asBillupsdescribedinaspeech,“closethedoorandgobacktowhatyoubelievein.”Often,thosestillopentochangeendeduplikeMrs.OublierofCalifornia,whoseteaching“revolution”boreonlysuperficialresemblancetothestate’sintendedreforms.Theseteacherstookthenewideasandincorporatedthemintotheverydifferentkindofteachingthey’dlearnedsomewhereelse.ImpressedbyDavidCohenandhiswork,Senecadecidedtogotogradschool

andlearnfromtheprofessorhimself.Overthenexteightyears,shefoundherselfespeciallystruckbytheflipsideofcoherence—allthestuffthatcouldn’texistwithoutit,theinstitutionsandsharedknowledgebasethatincoherencehadpreventedAmericanschoolsfrombuilding.Davidcalledthis“infrastructure.”Thedictionarydefinedinfrastructureas“thebasicfacilities,services,andinstallationsneededforthefunctioningofacommunityorsociety”—buildingblockslikeroads,bridges,andpowerlines.Educationalinfrastructure,asDaviddefinedit,wasaschoolsystem’sintangibleequivalent,thefoundationforallteachingandlearning.Itcomprisedthreemaincategories:acommoncurriculumsuggestingwhatstudentsshouldstudy,commonexaminationstotesthowmuchofthatcurriculumthestudentshadgrasped,andteachereducationtohelpthefacultylearntoteachexactlywhatstudentsweresupposedtolearn.Actinginanenvironmentofincoherence,theU.S.governmenthadneverbuilt

educationalinfrastructure.Withoutinfrastructure,meanwhile,schoolsalsofailedtodevelopothercrucialresources.“Chiefamongthese,”Davidexplained,inabookhecowrotewiththepoliticalscientistSusanMoffitt,“isacommonlanguageconcerningteaching,learningandacademiccontent.”DoctorshadtheirPhysicians’DeskReference,withitstechnicalterminologyanditsevolvingdescriptionsofcommonproblemsandtreatments.Electricians,plumbers,andpilotshadcontinuouslyupdated“standardoperatingprocedures”outliningbestpractices.Teachershad—well,theyhadabunchofquestionmarks.Noagreementonwhattheirworkshouldaimtoteach,nocommonvocabularytodescribehowtodoit,andnostandardmeasurestoknowwhethertheyhadsucceeded.NowonderSenecaandherfellowTeachForAmericacorpsmembersentered

asingleschooldistrictandencounteredadozendifferentexperiences!Withnoinfrastructure,theywerelikeacrobatswalkingacrossamovingtightropeblindfolded—nospotter,nosafetynet,andnomap.Itwasnosurprisethatsomanyofthemtumbledtotheground.

Senecaarrivedingradschoolin2004,twoyearsintothelifeofthelandmarkNoChildLeftBehindeducationlaw,whichtookthestandardsmovementandnationalizedit,requiringeverystatetosetlearninggoalsandjudgeschoolsaccordingtowhethertheymetthem.Inmanyways,theaccountabilitylawwouldseemtobetheperfectsolutiontotheDavidCohencoherenceproblem.Marshaledbyahistoriccoalitionthatincludedlaborandbusinessleaders,RepublicansandDemocrats,andrepresentativesofmultiplebranchesofgovernment(notonlycongresspeopleandsenators,butalsoagrouprepresentingstateschoolsuperintendents),NCLBprovedthatAmericanscouldtakecommonactiononschools.Andbyrequiringthatstateswritestandardsforwhatstudentsshouldlearn,ittookasteptowardcoherence.Butwatchingtheeffectsofthelawunfoldacrossthecountry,Senecasawthat

NoChildLeftBehindwasnotcreatingtheinfrastructurethatcoherencewassupposedtobring.Inplaceofcommoncurricula,tests,andteachereducation,NCLBcreatedstandards,tests,andaccountabilitymeasures.Theonlyoverlap—tests—werehardlythekindimaginedinDavidCohen’svision.Foronething,thenewstatetestswererarelytiedtoaclearcurriculumoutliningwhatstudentsshouldstudy.Thatwasn’tsurprising,giventhatmoststatesdidn’thaveacommoncurriculum.Butstandardsdidn’tclarifythemattereither.Theyofferedlearninggoals,whereascurriculaprovided,inthewordsofonewriter,a“day-to-day,week-to-week,year-to-yearroadmapforreachingthosegoals.”Drawingthisroadmapwasstillleftuptoindividualschooldistrictsor,inmanycases,theteachers.Accountabilitymeasuresmighthaveactedasaformofteachereducation,

levyingconsequencestoschoolsthatfailedtomeetstandardsandtherebyatleastsuggestingwhenteachersneededtoimprove.Somighttests,whichcouldgiveteachersareportonwhattheirstudentshadandhadn’tlearned.ButasDavidknewfromhisresearchinCalifornia(andasSenecahadlearnedthroughherexperienceinSanJose),standardsandmatchingtests—whileagoodstart—werestillnoguaranteethatteacherswouldlearntoteachinabetter,orevenuniform,way.Ifwhateducationneededwasinfrastructure,NoChildLeftBehindwas“best

understoodasasortofexoskeleton,”Davidwrote.Itoutlinedgoalsandofferedconsequencesforfailingtomeetthem,butitonlyskimmedthesurfaceofschools’corework.Teaching—thatdailycrucibleonwhichchangedepended—

wasleftuntouched.Accountabilityprovidedabenchmark,butnoguidanceforhowtogetthere.AsfarasDavidcouldtell,Americanschoolsstilloperatedmoreorlessthesamewaytheyhadforyears,justwithmoretests.AsDavid’sstudent,Senecahadnoreasontothinkotherwise.Andso,onthe

dayin2005thatSenecadiscoveredacaseofburgeoninginfrastructureinAmericaneducation,therealizationstruckherlikea“lightningbolt.”ShewassittinginanauditoriuminWashington,DC,withhundredsofotherTeachForAmericaalumni,theretocelebratetheorganization’sfifteenthanniversary(atthatpoint,TFAhadtrainedmorethantenthousandcorpsmembers),whenthespeakeronstagecrackedajoke—someinsidelineaboutTFA—andthewholeaudiencelaughed.Aperfectlybanalmoment.ButtoSeneca,itwasarevelation:thewayagrouprepresentingfifteenyearsofalumslaughedwithonevoice.“Ihadjustbeenreadingabouthallmarksofaprofessioninotherprofessions,”

shesaid,“andthinkingaboutthislackofcommonlanguagething,andourinabilitytocommunicateinanysubstanceordepth.”Butherewasaroomfullofstrangers—educationprofessionalsofvaryinglevelsofexperience—alllaughingatthesamejoke.Thatwasthelightningbolt.“Ohhhh!”shethought.“TeachForAmerica!”TeachForAmericawastheorganizationthathadintroducedhertothe

coherenceproblem,butsincethen,ithadbuiltanimpressivecommunityforcorpsmembers,withsharedjokesandanexpandingcurriculum.Andthiswasnothingcomparedtowhatitsalumniwerebuilding—anewparallelsystemofpubliceducation,composedmostlyofcharterschools,andincreasinglyspeakingthecommonlanguagespelledoutinDougLemov’staxonomy.Seneca’sfriendshadtoldherallaboutthisnewentrepreneurialworld.The

schoolnamessoundedlikeBoyScoutbadges:theKnowledgeIsPowerProgram,UncommonSchools,AchievementFirst,AspirePublicSchools.Butuntilthatmoment,shehadmarveledattheirwork—thestrangelydeliberatechants,thealmostmilitaristic“noexcuses”strictness,thesuperhuman,TFA-poweredworkforceofmainlychildlessyoungpeople—withoutthinkingmuchaboutwhatitallmeant.Nowshebeheldtheentrepreneursinanewlight.Senecahadbeenstudying

theinfrastructureforteachingbyexaminingitsabsence.Wasitpossibleheroldfriendswereactuallybuildingareal-lifeversionofit?

DavidlovedworkingwithSeneca.Likemanyofhisbestcollaborators,she

playedPoohtohisEeyore,balancingouthisperpetualcynicismwithanunblemishedfaithinthepossibilityofchange.ButwhenshecametohimwithherideaaboutTFAandtheno-excusesentrepreneurs,hewasincredulous.“Iwouldbeshocked—shocked,shocked—ifanyoftheseorganizationsweredoingsomethingdifferent,”Senecaremembershimsaying.Thereweremanyreasonstodoubtherhypothesis—andnotjustthefactthat

DavidhadspenthisentirecareerdocumentingthefactorsthatmadeaspontaneousemergenceofAmericaneducationalinfrastructureunlikely.Forone,TFAandtheno-excusesschoolsseemedtobedistinguishednotbyhowtheyworked,butwithwhom.TFAfamouslyrecruitedhigh-achievingcollegestudents,manyofthemIvyLeaguers,theideabeingthattheywererecruitingnotjustteachers,butanewgenerationofleaderstosolveeducationalinequity.Critics,however,arguedthatthismerelylayeredsmartpeopleontopofabrokensystemratherthancreatingfundamentalchange.Moreover,theprogramseemedtoeschewcraft,sendingbrightyoungpeople

intoclassroomswithjustfiveweeks’summertraining.Brand-namediplomasandhighhopes,thesecriticssaid,couldhardlymakeupforalackoftrainingandexperience.Indeed,eventhemostoptimisticresearchersfoundthatcorpsmembershadanunevenimpactonstudents’learning.Studiesfoundpositiveeffectsonstudents’mathachievement—theequivalentofaboutamonthofextrainstruction,byoneestimate;morethantwoandahalf,byanother.Butwhenitcametoreading,thebestyoucouldsaywasthatcorpsmembersdidnoharm.Therewasalsothefactthat,afteryearsofsearching,theonlycontemporary

casesofastrong,coherenteducationalinfrastructurethatDavidhadeverseenwereoutsidetheUnitedStates.IncountrieslikeJapan,France,andSingapore,nationaleducationministrieswerestrongenoughtowriteclearcurricula,andtherestoftheeducationalmachinery—educationschools,textbooks,testmakers—aligneditselfaccordingly.Asforhisowncountry,thehistoricambivalenceaboutfederalpowermadeconsensusimpossible.“Thedisputehasdeeproots,”DavidwroteinapaperwithJimSpillane,“itwouldbeastonishingifitweresettledeasilyorsoon.”DavidhadfoundonlytwoAmericanprogramsthatcamecloseto

infrastructure—apairofwhole-schoolreformprojectscalledAmerica’sChoiceandSuccessforAll.Althoughtheydidofferrealcurricula,plusmatchingtestsandteachertraining,theprojectshadtoimplementtheirprogramsontopoftheexistingschoolsystem,whichsnarledtheirefforts.ButAmerica’sChoiceandSuccessForAllwerepromising.AndifSeneca’s

hypothesiswascorrect,thenTFAandthecharternetworksmightrepresentthenextevolutionoftheirmodel.Operatingoutsidethetraditionaldistrictsystem,butnotdependingonit,charterschoolscouldbuildinfrastructurefromscratch.ThepresumptuousnessoftheentrepreneursnauseatedsomeofDavid’scolleagues—thewaythesearrogant,self-righteous“movement”typesmarchedintopubliceducationliketheywerethefirsttodiscoveritsdysfunction,andespeciallythewaytheydismissedtheirpredecessorsaspartoftheproblem.Nevertheless,theentrepreneurshadfiguredoutawaytobuildfromscratch,andthatwasundoubtedlyanadvantage.Anotherproblemwasthatthemovementwastiny,especiallycomparedtothe

vastU.S.schoolsystem.In2005,thenumberofTFAcorpsmembersandalumniworkinginschoolstotaledonlyaboutseventhousand,lessthan1percentofthe3.6millionteachersthenworkinginallU.S.schools.Andthatyear,amillionstudentswereenrolledincharters,comparedtoalmostforty-eightmillionintraditionalpublicschools.AndonlyafractionofthecharterssubscribedtothelearningculturethatDougLemovandhiscolleagueswereshaping.Evenso,Davidwantedtobelievethatinfrastructurewaspossible.Hisadviseewaslikelytobedisappointedbyherresearch.Butwhynottryandsee?Senecabeganwitha“reallymotleycrew”ofinterviewswithno-excuses

teachersfromherpersonalnetwork.Bytheendofherresearch,she’dconductedformalinterviewswithforty-oneofthem.ShealsoanalyzedthenewprojectsthatTeachForAmericahadundertakensincesheleftit.“Ikeptthisasanempiricalquestion:Weretheyactuallydoingsomethingdifferent?”shesays.Thedeepershelooked,themoreshefeltthattheywere.OneprojectwasnotunlikeDougLemov’staxonomy.Aftertwodecadesof

observing,interviewing,andsurveyingtheorganization’smosteffectiveteachers,TeachForAmericahaddistilledtheircommonattributesintoaframeworkitcalledTeachingasLeadership.Theframeworkhadbecomeatouchstone—theorganization’s“intellectualcenterpiece,”inofficialTFA-speak.ItinformedeverythingfromTFA’srecruitmentofnewcorpsmemberstoitsexpandingeffortstotrainteachers,includingreliableaccesstothementorshipopportunitiesthathadarisensohaphazardlyforSeneca.Senecafoundherselfespeciallydrawntotheworkofthecharternetworks.

Selectingonenetworkforcloserstudy,theAchievementFirstcharterschoolsinNewYorkandConnecticut,Senecafoundfurtherevidenceofadevelopinginfrastructure.AchievementFirstemployedastandard“CycleofHighlyEffectiveTeaching”tostructureteachers’work,fromsettinggoalstoplanning

unitsandlessonsandthenrevisingtofitstudents’evolvingneeds;“scopeandsequence”documentsforeachmajorsubjectthatoutlinedperiodiclearninggoals;regularlow-stakestests,calledinterimassessments,designedtohelpteachersdiagnosehowtheirstudentswereprogressing;an“EssentialsofEffectiveInstruction”documentnamingthetwenty-fourelementsrequiredtoteachwell,intheorganization’sview;andaseriesoftrainingsdirectlyconnectedtotherestoftheinfrastructure,includingweeklyjugyokenkyu-stylesessionsforteachers.TheprogramofferedAchievementFirstteachersnotonlystandards,but

infrastructure;notonlysupport,butcoherentsupport.Thecycleofhighlyeffectiveteachingmappedontothescopeandsequencedocuments,thescopeandsequencedocumentsmappedontotheinterimassessments,andtheregularprofessionaldevelopmentsessionsweredesignedtosupporttheentirestructure,from“datadays”forstudyinginterimassessmentresultstoaformalcoachingsystempairingeveryteacherandprincipalwithsomeonechosenspecificallytohelpthemimprove.Infrastructuremeantthat,whereothershadfourwallsandalockeddoor,

AchievementFirstteachershadaherd.Atheroldschool,anAchievementFirstteachertoldSeneca,theattitudewas“dowhatyouwill.”Whenshedidn’tknowhowtoteachacertaintopic—sheparticularlystruggledwithmath—sheresortedtotheonlyavailablerecourse.“Guys,”shewouldtellherstudents,“let’sjustdomultiplicationagain.”LikemostAmericanteachers—likeSenecaherselfbackinSanJose—shewasonherown.AtAchievementFirst,meanwhile,theteacherhadaframeworkaroundwhichtobuildeachday’slesson;prewritteninterimassessmentstogetaregularpeekinsideherstudents’minds;specialdesignateddatadaystodigintotheresults;andanarmyofcolleaguestohelpherthinkthroughtheproblemsthatteachingpresentedeveryday.Anelementaryschoolteacher,shedidnothavetoplanlessonsforallfourofthecoresubjectsonherown.Instead,mimickingacommonpracticeinJapaneseelementaryschools,AchievementFirstteacherssharedtheplanningworkamong“grade-levelteams,”withamoreexperiencedteachertakingresponsibilityforthetoughestlessons,whilenoviceshandledtheeasierplans.Whenshereallystruggledwithaparticulartopic,theteachertoldSeneca,hercoachwouldliterallystandinfrontofherclassroomwithher.“Look,thisishowyou’resupposedtodoit,”thecoachwouldsay.WitheachnewdispatchfromSeneca’sfieldnotes,Daviddialedbackhis

skepticism.“AchievementFirstwasbuildinganeweducationsystem,”hesays.

“Andthatwasveryexciting...HerewasthisorganizationthatwasbuildingaversionofwhatAmericahasnever—orhardlyever—had.”Senecahaddiscoveredasystemthroughwhichteachingmightbeimproved.

Andnotjustforoneortwogiftedteachers,butforawholeschooldistrict.

WhenSenecapublishedherdissertation,in2012,herfinalassessmentofAchievementFirst(abbreviatedAFinherpaper)wasoverwhelminglypositive.“AFprovidesarichandgenerativenewmodelforthinkingaboutwhatorganizingforqualityteachingandlearningmightlooklikeintheUScontext,”shewrote.Butshealsodescribedchallengesthatcouldimpedetheorganization’ssuccess.Onehadtodowiththemodel’sabilitytobereplicated.Thenetwork’sinfrastructurecouldeasilygrowtoservemorestudents.Butanotherkeyfactor—AchievementFirst’sunusuallytalentedandhardworkingstaff—wouldbehardertoextend.Anotherchallengewastheproblemofrigor.LikeRousseauMieze’soldprincipal,StacyBirdsellO’Toole,someleadersat

AchievementFirstworriedthattheirstudents’learningwastoosuperficial.Thiswasespeciallytrueinmath.Studentsdidwellonstatestandardizedtests—evenbetteronthemathtests,infact,thanontheEnglishones.Butdidtheyreallyunderstand?Wouldtheycontinuetolearnandeventuallybepreparedforcollege?“I’mwatchingthemcountobjectstoaddthemtogether,”athird-gradeteacher

toldSenecainoneofherinterviews.Givenasetoffive,thestudentshadtocount,“one,two,three,...”whentheyshouldhavejustbeenabletolookandknow,five.Givenasetoften,withfiveobjectsononerowandfiveidenticalobjectslineduprightbeneath,theycouldn’tjustcountthefirstrowanddoubleit.Theycountedthesecondonetoo:one,two,three,...nine,ten.”“Ithinkallofthoseshouldbemasteredandsolidbytheendofsecondgrade,”theteachertoldSeneca,“andthey’renot.”Theteacherfeltjustasculpableasthesecond-gradeteacherswhosent

studentstoherunprepared.Inthirdgrade,studentsweresupposedtomasterfractions,butsheneverfoundenoughtimetogetthemtoreallyunderstand.Theymovedontofourthgradeabletomasterthestatetest,butwithverylittleideaofwhatkindofnumberafractionactuallyrepresented.Senecathoughtthatthesuperficialitymighthavetodowiththenetwork’s

emphasisonpostingstrongresultsonstatetests.Thetestssetrelativelylowbarsforlearning,emphasizingawidebutshallowsetofskillsinsteadofasteady

progressionofdeeperunderstandings.Manyteachersfeltthatthetestsdidn’tmeasurethehigher-orderskillschildrenneededtoreachandsucceedincollege.OneacademicdeantoldSenecathatwhilesheandherteacherspreferredacurriculumthatemphasizeddeeperunderstanding—aTKOT-likemathtextbookcalledInvestigations—thecurriculumclashedwithwhatstudentsneededtomasterinordertodowellonthestatemathtest,and,therefore,withthe“scopeandsequence”AchievementFirsthadwrittentopreparethemforit.Andforanetworkofcharterschools,testscoresmattered.Scoresdetermined

notonlywhethertheschoolsstayedopen,butalsowhethertheinfrastructurecontinuedtoreceivethesupportoftheprivatedonorswholookedtothetestsasindicatorsofaschool’ssuccess.ThesameforcesthatenabledAchievementFirsttobuildastronginfrastructureforteachinghadalsoconspiredtomaketheteachingwithinthatinfrastructureutterlyconventional.SenecaobservedastrikingcontrastbetweenhowAchievementFirsttaughtits

teachersandhowittaughtitsstudents.Workingwiththeirdesignatedcoaches,teachersfocusedtheirstudiesononlyoneortwolearninggoalsatatime.Butwithstudents,evenwhenteacherswantedtospendmoretimeonasingle,complexgoal—likeunderstandingfractions—thestatetestthwartedthem.Takingmoretimeforfractions,afterall,meanttakinglesstimeforanotherunit,likemoney.Andwhenitcametimeforthetest,oneeducatortoldSeneca,“youknowthatyou’regoingtohavethreequestionsonmoneyandifyounevergottothemoneyunit...you’renotsurehowyourkidsaregoingtodo.”Havingsomeinfrastructurewascertainlybetterthanhavingnone.Butthebig

questionremained.CouldanAmericaninfrastructuresupporthigh-levelteachingatscale?Thinkingoverthatpuzzle,SenecafoundherselfturningnottoDavidbuttoDavid’swife,MagdaleneLampert.

BothMagdaleneandDavidhadbeendespondentintheyearsafterfleeingMichiganState.ForDavid,thedisappointmentwasanacademicproblem,anothereducationalfailuretoanalyze.ButMagdalenehadgivenherentireselftothework.AtMichiganState,shehadmadeherselfthetemplateforboththenewmathteacherandthenewedschoolprofessor.Thenationalreformgroupshadheldherup(alongwithherstarprotégé,DeborahBall)astheAmericanexemplar,theonewhodemonstratedwhatwaspossible.WhenfirsttheMichiganStateexperimentandthenthemathreformsfailed,oneaftertheother,Magdalenefeltthatshehadfailedtoo.

Amomentin1991hadexemplifiedthepain.AskedtopresenttoacommissionadvisingPresidentGeorgeH.W.Bushonneweducationstandardstotakeeffectbytheyear2000,shehadgonetoDCwithwhatwasbythenherusualspiel.Tohighlightthechangesthatbothteachersandstudentswouldhavetoundergo,shedescribedadayinherfifth-gradeclassroomatSpartanVillage.Shedidnotsugarcoatthedifficulties.“Unfortunately,”shesaid,“veryfewAmericans—andrememberthatAmericanteachersareonlyasubsetofAmericans—haveanyideawhatamathematicalcommunityisorwhataconjectureisorwhatitwouldlookliketodomathematicalreasoning.Mostofushaveneverdonethat.”Shewenton,“Thegoalthatallstudentsbysomeyear,whetherit’s2000or2061orwhateveryearyouwanttopick,aregoingtobeabletodothisthingthatmostAmericanshavenosenseofrightnow,letalonemanyteachers,seemslikearatherambitiousgoal.”Shewasnotsayingthatthecountryshouldn’ttry.Shewassimplydrawingthe

obviousconclusion.Change—realchange—wouldrequirealotoflearning,alotofsupport,andalotoftime.Butinsteadofembracingthesechallenges,thecommissionattackedher.“Let

meuseananalogy,”saidthechairman,RoyRomer,thetough-talking,square-jawedgovernorofColorado.“InDesertStorm,whenthepresidentwantedtomove,hecalledinthegeneralsfromSaudiArabia.Youknow,flewthemin.Hesaid,givemeaplan.”Buttheplantheydevelopedcalledforspendingwaytoomuchtimeontheground—awholeyear.Sothepresidentdemandedanotherplan,andwhatdidthegeneralsdo?“Theycameupwithanotherplanthatdidwork.”Theimplicationwasclear.IftheworkasMagdaleneimagineditwouldtaketoomuchtime,thensheneededtoimaginesomethingelse.Later,whenshepublishedtheresearchthathadinformedhertestimonyto

Romer—adetailed,five-hundred-pagebookdocumentingayearinsideherclassroomatSpartanVillagecalledTeachingwithProblemsandtheProblemsofTeaching—thepublic’sreactionechoedthegovernor’s.“Theresponseinitiallywas,thisiswaytoocomplicated.Ifittakes[five]hundredpages,youknow,like—thisisamazingwhatyou’redoinghere,butanynoviceteacherisgonnareadthisandsay,youknow,I’llneverbeabletodothis,”Magdalenesays.“Andanyexperiencedteacherisgoingtosay,Idon’thavetime.”Shehaddedicatedhercareertomakingherworkaccessibletootherteachers,

butstillreadersrejectedtheworkastoohard,toocomplex,impossibletoscale.Whenhersabbaticalyeararrived,shepickedadestinationasfarawayasshecouldimagine:Rome,whereherplanwastospendthreemonthslearningItalian.

“WhatIneededwasjustsometimeofffrombeinginthecenterofthiscontroversy,”shesays.ButafterjustafewweeksatItaliaidea,hernewlanguageschool,Magdalene

foundherselfthinkingaboutteaching.Shecouldn’thelpit.HerItalianclassfelteerilyfamiliar.First,therewasthewaytheclasswasstructured,alwaysstartingwithsomekindofproblem(howdoyouorderoffamenu?orhowdoyoumakeacomplaintpolitely?);thenmovingontohypothesesmadebystudents,whichtheteacherwroteupontheboard;andfinally,endinginadiscussion.“Inourvery,veryhaltingItalian—becauseyoudidn’tspeakawordofEnglishinthatschoolfromdayone—weweremeanttoconsidereachhypothesisandtalkaboutwhyitmadesenseordidn’tmakesense,”shesays.“AndI’mthinking,waitaminute.ThisishowIteachmath!AndeventhoughIdidn’twanttobethereasaneducationalresearcher,Istartedthinking,wheredidtheylearntodothis?”Thequestionstruckheragainonedayearlyinthecourse,when,comingback

fromabreak,shenoticedthattheteacherhadreroutedthegroup.Insteadofthetaskthey’dbeenworkingon,theynowfoundontheirdesksphotocopiesofanewspaperarticlealongwithanassignmenttounderlineallthepersonalpronouns.Thechangewasclearlystrategic.Beforethebreak,theteacherhadbeenwalkingbetweentheirdesks,observingthestudents’work.He’dseenthatmanyofthemwerestrugglingwiththesamechallenge,theplacementofpersonalpronounsinrelationtoverbs.Thenewassignmenthelpedthemcorrectthemisunderstanding.InbetweenItalianclasses,MagdalenehadbeensittinginRomancafés,

editingthepageproofsofherbook,whichdevotedconsiderablespacetodefiningthispreciseactivity—“theworkofteachingwhilestudentsworkindependently,”shecalledit.“AndagainIthought,that’sreallyprettycomplicated.Wheredidthesetaskscomefrom?Isitonlymyteacherwho’sdoingthis?Didhereadmybook?”Atfirst,sheaskednoquestions.Afterall,shewastheretolearnItalian,notto

doresearch.And,givenItaliaidea’sno-Englishrule,shecouldn’thaveposedthequestionsevenifshe’dwantedto.“Firstofall,Ididn’tknowhowtoask,”shesays.“Andsecondly,Idon’tknowhowIwouldhaveunderstoodtheanswer!”Butastheweekswentby,shenoticedpatterns.StudentsatItaliaidea

transitionedtoanewteachereverymonth.Magdalenetooknoteofeachinstructor’sstyle.Theroutinestayedthesame—thesamelessonstructure,thesameteachingwhilestudentsworkedindependently,thesamehabitofregularlyrevisingtheplanmidclass.Herfirstteacherwasnotanexception;atItaliaidea,

hewastherule.Theimplicationsforheroldworkwereprofound.ThestudentsatItaliaidea

hadallsignedupfortheclassvoluntarily,buttheyhadavarietyofacademicandclassbackgrounds.Sodidtheteachers,amixoffull-andpart-time,experiencedandnoviceteacherswhowerenotparticularlywellpaid,hardworking,orreform-minded.IfamodestItalianlanguageschoolinRomeachievedroutinelyhigh-levelteaching,whycouldn’tAmericanschools?Afterhersabbaticalended,MagdalenereturnedtoRome,studyingtheschool

deliberatelythistime,asaresearcher.Italiaidea’ssuccess,shelearned,dependednotjustonanimpressivebankofresources—thenewspaperarticleonpersonalpronounswasjustoneofhundreds.Italsodependedonateachereducationprogramthatcarefullytrainedteachersintheschool’sspecialmethod.BeforeMagdalenewenttoItaly,sheknewthatwhatDavidcalled“coherence”

wastechnicallypossible—thatcountrieslikeJapanhadit,andthatitenabledthemtoteachatahighlevelinlargenumbers.ButuntilshesawItaliaideaherself,shedidn’treallyunderstandwhatcoherencecouldmeanforherandforAmericanschools.JohnDewey’sfantasyaboutpreventing“wasteandloss”because“thesuccessesof[greatteachers]tendtobebornandtodiewiththem”waswithinreach.Greatteachingdidnothavetoperishwiththeteacher;therightsystemcouldteachmorethanjustonepersontodoit,withoutsacrificinganycomplexityintheprocess.

WhenSenecatoldMagdaleneLampertabouttheworkgoingonatAchievementFirst,Magdalenecouldn’thelpbutnoticetheparallelstoItaliaidea.Likethelanguageschool,AchievementFirsthadcreatedadetailedsetofresourcesthatteacherscouldshare,plusanorganizationdesignedtohelpteachersasmuchasstudents.Bothorganizationshadcreatedinfrastructure.Theonlydifferencewasthelevelofteaching.AchievementFirsthadallthesupportsshe’dseenatItaliaidea,butlessoftheTKOT-likerigor.MagdalenediscoveredSeneca’sresearchin2009.Aroundthesametime,her

colleagueAnthonyBryk,asociologist,invitedMagdalenetospeakataconferencehostedbytheNewSchoolsVentureFund,aphilanthropywhosedonationshadhelpedbuildtheentrepreneurialeducationworld.(Outof$248millionthatNewSchoolsinvestedbetween2012anditsfoundingin1998,AchievementFirstreceivedover$6million;UncommonSchools,morethan$7million;andKIPP,morethan$6million.)Theconferencewasmeanttotarget

oneofthecharternetworks’latestchallenges—a“painpoint,”inNewSchools-speak.Inworkinggroups,conversations,andboardmeetings,theentrepreneursall

describedthesameproblem.Somecalledit“humancapital.”DougLemovcalleditthe“buildit/buyit”challenge.Eitherway,thepointwasthesame.Intheirearlydays,thechartershadhiredthebestteacherstheycouldfind.Butastheygrew,theycouldnolongerrelyonrecruitingthecreamofthecrop(“buyit”).Theyhadto“buildit”—toteachtheirteachershowtoteach.Theconferencewasoneofaseriesofeventsdesignedtolaunchanew“portfolio”offundingforprojectstacklingthetrainingproblem.FromMagdalene’sperspective,speakingattheNewSchoolsconferencewasa

risk.Sheknewtheentrepreneursmightlumphertogetherwithotheredschoolprofessors—aspartoftheproblem.ButaftertalkingwithSenecaaboutAchievementFirst,shewasintriguedtomeetthem.Plus,asTonyBrykpointedout,notonlyhadshespentmostofhercareerthinkingaboutthebestwaytotrainteachers;afterherresearchinItalyshewasbuildinganewmodelattheUniversityofMichiganthathadhermoreoptimisticthanever.Asummerprogramforteachers,itbuiltontheideasshe’dlearnedatItaliaidea’steachertrainingschool.ShetoldBrykyes.Attheconference,someoftheentrepreneursdisplayedtheblusterthat

Magdalenefeared,makingtheirdisinterestinherworkclear.Butotherswerefriendly.Onestunnedherbywalkingupandcitingherresearch.“Ireadyourbook,”hesaid,meaningthefive-hundred-pagetomedescribingayearinsideherclassroomatSpartanVillage.“Itwasawesome.”Theconference-goer’snamewasJesseSolomon.Jesse,Magdalenelearned,

hadtaughtmathintheBostonpublicschoolsbeforeteachingatoneofthecity’soriginalcharterschools,CityonaHill.There,afterrunningintohisownversionofDougLemov’sbuildit/buyitproblem,he’dstartedaprogramcalledtheTeachersInstitutetohelppreparenewteachers.TheinstitutehadsincegrowntoservenotjustCityonaHill,buttheentireBostonpublicschoolsystem.ItsnewnamewasBTR,fortheBostonTeacherResidency.EightyearsintorunningBTR,Jesse’schallenge,likethatfacingAchievement

First(and,itturnedout,mostoftheotherentrepreneursattheconference),wasacademicrigor.ForJesse,theproblemwasespeciallypressing.AprofessoratHarvardhadjustcompletedamultiyearstudyoftheBostonTeacherResidency,andtheresultsweredisturbing.AlthoughBTRgraduatesweremorelikelytocontinueteachingthanweretheircounterpartsfromotherprograms,theywere

nobetteratraisingstudents’testscoresinEnglishthanwastheaverageBostonteacherwiththesameamountofexperience.Andinmath,theywereworse.Somethinghadgonewrong,andJesseneededtomakeachange.AfterwatchingMagdalene’spresentationonItaliaidea,hemadethemental

leapTonyBrykhadbeenhopingfor.HerealizedthatBTRneededMagdaleneLampert.

9

THEHOLYGRAIL

JesseSolomonwasespeciallytakenwithanideathatwasatthecoreofMagdaleneLampert’sfindingsaboutItaliaidea:theconceptofinstructionalactivities,orIAs.Thehardpartaboutgettingteacherstoteachatahighlevel,Magdalene

explained,wasnottosacrificecomplexityforthesakeofaccessibility.Thiswasnotsodifferentfromthechallengeofhelpingstudentswhoknewverylittleaboutmathtoneverthelessgraspthebignessofit—gettingthemnotjusttomemorize,butalsotoreason,conjecture,prove,andunderstand.Itwasn’teasy,butwithawell-chosenproblemateachercouldmakethesubject’sbigideascomealive,eventolittlechildren.Thesameheldforteaching:focusononlythesimplerpartsofinstruction,andteacherswouldlearnonlysuperficialtechniques.Thetrickwastogetnewteachersteachingrigorouslyrightfromthestart.AtItaliaidea’strainingschool,aplacecalledDilit,teacher-educatorsdivided

Italianteachingintofourteencoreinstructionalactivities.EachIAwaslikearichmathproblem.Evenabrand-newteachercouldtryitout,itcouldbeadaptedacrossanygradeorcompetencylevel,anditwasbothaccessibleandrigorous.TakeoneIA,called“ConversationRebuilding.”Intheclassroom,theroutine

resembledagameofcommunicationPictionary.Theteacherbeganbypantomimingaconversation,usingonlygesturesanddrawings.Shespokenowords.Then,lettingthestudentsspeakonlyItalian,sheinvitedthemtoimaginewhathadbeensaid.Whatwouldapersonorderingamealinarestaurantsaytogetthewaitertobringoverawinelist?Oncethelistarrived,howmightthepersonrespond,ifshestillwasn’tsurewhatshewantedtodrink?Asstudentsproposedhypotheses,theteacherhelpedsteerthemtowardanunderstandingofhowtheconversationcouldhaveactuallyproceeded.(Whenahypothesismadesense,theteachersignaledthatbyhavingthewholegrouprepeatit;whenit

didn’t,shesaid“excuseme,”mimedtheactagain,andgotthemtostartover.)Alongtheway,thestudentslearnednotjustnewvocabularywordsandgrammar,buthowtofeeltheirwayintothelanguage,tocommunicate.Steeringtheconversationdemandedacomplicatedsetofmaneuversfora

beginningteacher,butDilitmadeiteasierbyspellingoutthestepsandhavingtheteacherstrythemout,firstwiththeprofessorandotherstudentsactingintheroleofstudents—theteacher-educatorthrowingoutcommonstudenterrors—andthenwithrealstudents.Duringrehearsals,Dilitteacher-educatorsgavelivesuggestionsinthemiddleofanactivity.TheyremindednewteachersnottoforgetkeypiecesoftheIA,likealwaysmakingastudentrepeatacorrecthypothesis.Later,asthetraineeteachersbecamemoreadvanced,theylearnedtoanalyzestudents’thinking,ignorelikelydiversions,andguidestudentstowardincreasinglyaccurateresponses.Bytheendofasession,thewholegroupbegantochimein,givingeachotherremindersandsuggestionsabouthowtoproceed.BeforeshebeganworkinginBoston,Magdalenehadbeentryingtodothe

samethingattheSummerLearningInstituteshehadbuiltinAnnArbor.IAs,shesaid,werelike“containers.”Theyletnewteacherslearnwhattheyneededtoknow.Onepieceofthatlearningconsistedofpractices,theactionsrequiredtohelpchildrenlearn.Inthe“ChoralCounting”IA,forexample,teacherslearnedhowtoleadagroupofstudentsincountingaloudbyaparticularnumber(tens,say,ortwos);howtowritethesequenceontheboard(forinstance,usingcolumns,sothat,countingbytwos,2,12,22,and32wouldsitsidebyside,helpingthechildrenseeapattern);howtostopthecountatadeliberatelychosennumbertoaskaquestion,like“What’sthenextnumber?”;howtohelpthestudentslookforpatterns;and,finally,howtofacilitateadiscussionleadingtothekeymathematicalidea.TheIAsalsoletnewteachersworkonthecoremathknowledgetheyneeded

toteach—thestuffDeborahBallandHymanBasshadnamed“MathematicalKnowledgeforTeaching,”orMKT.(InChoralCounting,thisincludedanunderstandingofmathematicalpatterns,thecommonwaysstudentscometounderstandnumbers,andrepresentationsthatteacherscouldusetoadvancethestudents’understanding.)FollowingtheDilitmodel,theSummerLearningInstitutehadgroupsworktogetherbetweenrehearsalstogiveeachotherfeedbackandcontributeideasandtechniquestoimprovestudents’numbersense.Finally,theytriedtheIAswithlocalchildrenenrolledinthesummerprogram.JesseSolomonwantedtoincorporateIAsintotheBostonTeacherResidency.

Withinayear,therestoftheBTRleadershadtraveledtwicetoMichiganto

watchtheSummerLearningInstituteinaction.By2011,theyhadaskedMagdalenetocomeworkwiththemfulltimetoredesigntheentireBTRprogram.TheBostonprogramposedgreaterchallengesthanthesummerprogramin

AnnArbor.Residentswereplacedinsomeofthecity’smostdifficultschools,includingseveral“turnaround”schools,representingBoston’sportionofthecountry’sfivethousandworst-performingmiddleandhighschools.WhilethestudentsMagdalenehadworkedwithinMichiganwereraciallyandculturallydiverse,thestudentsinBostonweremorelikelytobeimpoverished,morelikelytobenewspeakersofEnglish,stilllearningthelanguage,andmorelikelytostrugglewithlearningandemotionaldifficulties(20percentofstudentsintheBostonpublicschoolsareclassifiedasneedingspecialeducation).Andyet,whentouringtheBostonschools,sittinginclassroomsthatwere

oftenchaoticandunruly,Magdalenealwayshadthesamethought.Theproblemsshesaw,allthechallenges—theyweredifficult,buttheywerealsosolvable.TheBTRteachers,sheknew,couldgettheirstudentstolearn.Theyonlyneededtobetrained.So,whenJesseaskedhertoleaveMichiganandworkatBTRfull-time,Magdalenesaidyes.

Twoyearslater,MagdaleneLampertfoundherselfstandinginthefirst-gradeclassroomofaBTRresidentnamedSabineFerdinand,holdingupaniPadtorecordalessonthatwouldhelpdeterminewhetherBTRwouldawardSabinethecertificationsheneededtoteachinMassachusetts.Technically,theclassroombelongedtoIleneCarver,afifteen-yearveteranteacher.Butoverthecourseoftheyear,Sabinehadtakenmoreandmoreresponsibility,becomingjustasmuchtheteacherasIlene,atleastintheeyesofthestudents.Thatday,shewasleadinganactivitycalled“QuickImages,”anIAadaptedfromthemathcurriculumusedthroughoutBostonelementaryschools.ThelessonbeganwithSabinecountingdown—“eight,seven,six,...”—as

thestudentsarrangedthemselvesontheclassroom’srectangularrug,sittingonmaskingtapeX’swiththeirnameswritteninmarker.“Three,two,one,”Sabinesaid,pausingpatientlybetweeneachnumber.“Theexpectationisthatyou’reinyourrugspotwithyourpencil.”Sabinesatintheusualteacherspot:thecornerclosesttothedoor,nearthe

placewheretheclass’sclothcalendarhungonthewall.“MARCH,”itsaid,countingoutthedaysinbrightredandwhite.

“You’resittingonyourbottoms,crisscrossapplesauce,”shesaid,warmly.“Idon’twanttoremindyouagain.Thankyou.”Thensheshiftedintotheworkofthemoment.“Whohereremembersearly

on,whenweusedtodoQuickImages,withthedots?”Handsshotup.Onesquealingstudentgulpedandjumpedfromherbottomtoherkneesinglee.Theyreviewedtherules:Theteacherflasheseachimageonlytwice,andonly

verybrieflyeachtime.Aftereachflashoftheimage,thestudentswritedownwhatthey’veseen.Butwhiletheimageisup,theycanonlythink—nopencils.Onthisdaytheywereworkingongeometry,sotheimagesSabineshowed

wouldn’tbedotstocount,butshapestodraw.“Ready?”sheasked.“One,two,three.”ThestudentstookindeepbreathsasSabineflashedthedrawing,rotatingitforeveryonetosee,VannaWhite–style.Aperfectsquareonawhitesheetofpaper.Afterthesecondviewing,shepinnedthedrawingtoaneaselonherleft.“All

right,”shesaid.“Somyquestionis,howcanwedescribethisshape?”Therewasanothershowofhands,butSabinewaitedpatiently,givingmorestudentsanopportunitytothink.“Howcanwedescribethisshape?”sherepeated.“Rafael?”“Uhh,”Rafaelsaidthoughtfully.Hewasaheavysetchildwithabig,nervous

smile.“It’sasquare.”Sabinecouldhaveleftitthere—yes,asquare—andmovedontothenextshape.ButshecontinuedtoprobeasMagdalenewatched.“WhoagreeswithRafael?”sheasked,holdingupamodelthumbtoherchest

tosuggesthowstudentscouldsignaltheiranswer,upordown.“Stephanie,”sheasked.“Doyouhaveanythingyouwanttoaddon?Whatelse—howcanyoudescribeyourshape?”Stephanie,anenergeticgirlwhosatinaspecialchaironthesideoftherug,

presumablytokeepherfocused,mulledthatover.“Um,”shesaid,andthenannounced:“Itisnotlong!”“Canyousaymoreaboutthat?”Sabineasked.“What’snotlong?”“Thesidesarenotlong,”Stephanieoffered.Malcolmhadhishanduptoo.“Malcolm,whatdoyouwanttosay?”Sabine

asked.“Ithas”—hepausedtocount—“foursides!”Theyweregettingmorespecific,butSabinedecidedtheycouldsayeven

more.“Now,”shesaid,“whatdowenoticeaboutthesesides?”“They’remedium-sized,”offeredOscar,fromtheback.“True,”shesaid.“Danica,”shecontinued,turningtosomeoneelse,“whatdo

younoticeaboutthesides?”“IwanttoaddontowhatOscarsaid,”Danicasaidthoughtfully.Magdalene

tooknoteofherphrasing—herewasafirst-graderengaginginamathematicaldiscussion,intheclassroomofafirst-yearteacher.Itwasremarkable.Danicawenton.“Theyarelarge,”shesaid,“butonthetopofit—theyare

large—onthesides,they’reevenlonger.”Danica’sdescriptionwasn’taccurate,ofcourse;theshapewasasquare,andsothesideswereactuallyequal.Butshewasthefirstintheclasstocomparethelengthsatall,andthatpulledthediscussioninanimportantdirection.Sabinerepeatedtheobservation,pointingtothedrawingontheboard:thesides,Danicawasarguing,wereevenlongerontheleftandrightthantheywereonthetopandbottom.“Interesting,”Sabinesaid.Thestudentsweretreadingintosignificantmathematicalterritory,andatjust

therightdevelopmentalmoment.Bythespringoffirstgrade,thesestudentsclearlygraspedthedifferencebetweenbroadgeometriccategories,liketrianglesversussquares.Butgrapplingwithfinerdistinctions—thedifference,forinstance,betweenarighttriangleandanisoscelestriangle,orinthiscase,betweenarectangleandasquare—provedmoreofachallenge.Thechildren’sideassuggestedtheyhadsomeunderstandingofthedifference(therelationshipbetweenthesides),buttheywerestrugglingtodescribeit.Weretheleftandrightsideslongerthanthetopandbottomones,orweretheythesame?Thediscussionnowmovedintomoreimportantterrain:theshiftfromwhat

thepsychologistJeanPiagetcalled“animism”—theideathatobjectshavetheirownconsciousnesses,likepeople,andsocanmoveandchange,ratherthanstayingstableandconstant—toamoreabstractunderstandingofasquareasacategorydescribingshapeswithfourequalsidesofunchanginglengths.Forchildrenstillthinkinganimistically,asquarewasnotasolidandpermanentfact,butanobjectthatcoulddecidetoexpandinanydirectionifitchosetodoso.NotlongafterDanica’smisguidedcommentaboutthesquare’slongervertical

sides,agirlnamedLuisamadetheobservationthattuggedtheclassinthecorrectdirection.Theshape,shesaid,actuallyhadfourequalsides.“Luisa,”Sabinehadasked,seizingtheopportunitytounderscoreanimportant

point,“whywereyousuretosayequalsides?Whatdoesthatmean?”Clarifyingfortherestoftheclass’sbenefit,Luisahadrepliedthatequalmeant“thesameas.”Yetsomestudentsstillseemedconfused.BuildingonDanica’scomment,

Oscar,theeagerboyintheback,hadproppedhimselfuponhiskneestoshareanidea.“Ifyouputitalittleup,andalittleup,”hesaid,motioningtoshowhowhecouldmovethetopandbottomsidesfartherapart,then,heexplained,“it

wouldbelonger,becauseyou’reputtingitalittleupper.”Butwhiletherightandleftsidesthenwouldhavetogetlonger,thetopandbottomwouldbecomeshorter,hesaid.“Soareyousayingifweweretosquishthisshape?”Sabineasked,toconfirm.

“Yeah,”hesaid,nodding.Onepurposeofstudyingmathinschool,Magdaleneknew,wastohelp

childrenwrestlewithjusttheideasOscarwasworkingon.Couldsquaresreallysquishthemselves?Orweretheymorestablethanthat?“But,”SabineaskedOscar,“whatdidLuisatellusaboutthisshape?

Malcolm?”“Shesaidit’sfourequalparts,”Malcolmsaid.“Equalparts,”Sabinerepeated.“Equalsides.”Asamoreexperiencedteacher,Magdaleneknewthattherewereotherways

Sabinecouldhavehelpedthestudentsworkontheseideas.Togetthemclosertograspingthedistinctionbetweenarectangleandasquare,forinstance,shecouldhaveusedDanica’sincorrectobservationaboutthesidesasanopportunity.“Icouldhavepulledoutapictureofarectangleandsaid,‘Arethesethesameoraretheydifferent?Inwhatwaysaretheythesameandinwhatwaysaretheydifferent?’”Magdalenesays.Butthatkindofresponsetakeslongertocultivate(startingwithlearningto

recognizewhatallthisstrangesquishingwasabout—nosimplething),andshedidn’texpectafirst-yearresidenttofigureitoutonthefly.WhatSabinewasdoingwasexactlywhatMagdalenehopedfor.Usingaroutineshe’drehearsedmanytimesbefore,shewasabletokeepthestudentsfocused—and,atthesametime,tolistentotheirmath.Herpreparationhadhelpedherlearnnotonlywhattodo(thestepsofchoralcounting)buthowtomakesenseofthemaththestudentswereworkingon.Asaresult,shehadgottenthekidsthinkingaboutfundamentalconceptsingeometry,andwhenwrongideasarose,shedidn’tjustswatthemaway;sheputthemonthetablefortheclasstoprobe.Ultimately,shehadmanagedtoelicitthepivotalideaaboutfourequalsidesfromLuisa.SowhenOscarbroughtuphisanimisticideathattheshapecould“squish,”SabinecouldholditoutagainstLuisa’smoresophisticatedconjecture,helpingOscartoreconsiderwhatitmeanttobeasquare.Evenifthestudentsdidn’tendthatparticulardiscussionfullygraspingthe

differencebetweenarectangleandasquare,orthedifferencebetweenanabstractshapeandaliving,elasticobject,theyhadmadeimportantprogress.“They’restrugglingwithafundamentalconcept,andtheyshouldbe,”

Magdalenesaid.Itwasmorethancouldbesaidofmanyfirst-gradeclassrooms.Itwasexciting.Later,aftertheyfinishedtheQuickImagesIA,Sabineintroducedaproblem

aboutaddition.Sheshowedthestudentsapuzzleandthengavethemachartthattrackedtheblocksshe’dusedtocompleteit—“twohexagons,zerotrapezoids,onebluerhombus,zerosquares,threetanrhombuses,andsevengreentriangles,”shereadoutloud.Nowtheirchallengewastofindthetotalnumberofblocks.MagdaleneknewSabinehadselectedthenumbersdeliberatelytoadduptoa

sumgreaterthan10(13).They’dbeenworkingonmorecomplicatedmethodsofaddingnumbers,like“countingup”fromthelargestnumberorbreakinganunfamiliarproblemintofamiliarpartsorusinganumberlinetoskipfromonenumbertothenext.Aproblemwithasolutionlargerthan10wouldnudgethestudentstotryoutthenewmethodsforthemselves,ratherthanusingtheonethatmanyofthemstillpreferred:countingontheirfingers.Indeed,justasSabinehadhoped,thestudentswalkedthroughallkindsof

novelcombinationsofthemethodsthey’dbeenworkingon.Magdalenewatchedasonegirl,lyingonherstomach,wroteouttwonumbersentences—3+3=6and6+7= —andthenfilledintheemptyboxbystartingwith7andthendrawing6lines:

Shecaughtanotherstudentwritingoutdifferentsetsofnumbersentences:

Anotherstudent,Faith,tookasimilarapproach.“Thatisverycool,”Magdalenetoldher,asFaithshowedoffwhatshe’ddone:

Later,asthelessonmovedfromindividualworktimetogroupdiscussion,SabineinvitedaquietboynamedKevintosharehisstrategy.“Ididthreeplussevenequalstenandthen—”hebegan,beforeSabine

interrupted.“Howdidyouknowthatthreeplussevenequalsten?”sheasked.“BecauseIknewmycombinationsoften,”Kevinreplied.“Sothreeandseven’sjustanothercombinationoften,”Sabinerepeated,

turningtotherestofthestudentstomakesurethey’dunderstoodKevin’sstrategy.“Soyoucanusewhatyoualreadyknowtohelpyoufigureoutthisproblem.Soheknewthreeplussevenequalsten.”SheturnedbacktoKevin.“Goon.”Kevindescribedhisnextstep.Hewasleftwith2and1,andheknewthat2+

1=3,soheaddedupthetwofinalsums,10and3.“Andyougot?”Sabineasked.“Thirteen,”hesaid.Sabineaddedthattotheboard,whereshewaschroniclingeachstudent’ssteps:

Butbeforeshecouldsummarizetheimportantpoint—onceagain,Kevinhadusedacombinationhealreadyknewtofindthefinalsum—anotherboyblurtedoutanideafromthecarpet.Earlier,he’dbeensquirmingandtalkingoutofturn.ButnowhewasinterruptingwithanobservationaboutKevin’sstrategy.“Ifyoutakeawaythezero,”hesaid,pointingto10,“andputthethree,it’sthirteen!”SabinelookedatMagdalene.Acommoncourseforyoungchildrenwastosee

“3+10”andmistakenlyaddthethreeandonetogether,sincetheoneisclosesttothethree,getting4.Then,notknowingwhattodowiththezero,andnotfullygraspingthedifferencebetweenthetensandtheonesplaces,theywouldwriteazeronexttothefour:3+10=40.Thisboy,stilljustafirst-grader,hadleapt

headfirstintothecorrectidea:threeonesandonetenmeantthatthethreecouldeffectivelyreplacethezero:13.Hehadintuitedplacevalue.SabineandMagdalenesmiledateachother.“Iseewhatyou’resaying,”

Sabinetoldtheboy.Andtheclassmovedon.

JesseSolomonwasn’ttheonlyentrepreneurtoseekhelpfromtheacademics.HeatherKirkpatrick,aleaderattheAspirecharternetworkinCalifornia,cametotheLearningtoTeachsummitfocusedonthesameproblemastheothers.“Welookedsogoodonpaper;wewerekindofkillingit,”Heathersays.“Butweallfeltlike,jeez,whenwewalkintotheclassroom,we’renotwherewewanttobe.”Whattheywantedwasrigor—morespecifically,somethingtheycalled

“academicdiscourse.”Tothem,discoursemeantfourthings.First,adultscouldn’tdoallthetalking(andthereforeallthethinking).Second,thestudentshadtotalkabouttheacademicideaathandand,third,theyhadtotalkusingacademicvocabulary.Finally,theyhadtodowhatAspirecalled“bringingevidencetobear”—quotingthetextinEnglishclass,citingaprimarysourceinhistory,reasoningthroughaproofinmath,pointingtoexperimentalevidenceinscience.“Itwasthosefourthings.Andwesaidweshouldbeabletoseethatinmath,

science,Englishlanguagearts,history.Thatistheholygrail,”Heathersays.“Thenwesaid,okay,howdowegetthere?”Heatherwasstrugglingwiththisquestionwhensomeonesuggestedshetalkto

PamGrossman,aprofessoratStanford’sedschoolandoneofLeeShulman’sfirststudentsafterLeeleftMichiganStateforStanford.PamhadcometogradschoolafternearlyadecadeofteachinghighschoolEnglish.DuringhertimeatStanford,Leedispatchedagroupofhisstudentstostudytheteachingofindividualacademicsubjects;PamselectedEnglish.Overtime,shecametothinkofLee’sstudentsinfamilyparlance.WithLeeastheirsharedmentor,DeborahBallandtheotherswerelikePamGrossman’sacademic“cousins,”workingonthesamequestions,justatdifferentuniversitiesandindifferentsubjects.TherewasoneotherdifferenceforPam:insteadofexperimentingwithherownteaching,shestudiedotherteachers’work.Oneepisode,caughtonvideotape,showedsevenstudentsatastruggling

urbanhighschoolinSanLorenzo,California,discussing“TheYellowWallpaper,”theshortstorybyCharlottePerkinsGilman.Theirteacherwasnot

visibleinthevideo,butthestudentscarriedonasifhewasrightthere,pagingthroughtheXeroxedstoryinfrontofthemandevencallingoneachothertospeak.“Whatdoyouhavetosay,Jim?”ablondegirlnamedAmywasaskingtheboy

acrossfromherwhentheclipopened.“Myinterpretationofthis,”Jimsaid,“goesbacktowhatMs.McWilliams”—hisstudentteacher—“saidbeforeweevenreadthestory,abouthowitgaveherchills.”Jimworeglassesandhadaknackforthetheatricalpause.“Andactually,myinterpretationofthisisthatshewasdeadfromtheveryendofpagethirty.”Theotherstudentslookedupfromtheirpapers.Thestory,writtenasaseries

ofdiaryentriesbyawomansufferingfromanxiety,usedtheworddeadonlyonce,andthatwastodescribethepaperonwhichthewomanwroteherdiary.Butwhilethediarydidchroniclethewoman’sworseningconditionafterherhusband,aphysician,orderedthatsheisolateherselffromworkandsociety,itnevermentionedthatthewomanwasnotalive.NowJimwassayingshe’dbeendeadsincepagethirty.“What?”onestudentasked.“Thatwholeconversation”onpagethirty,Jimcontinued,“theverylastline

says,‘Iamsecurelyfastenednowbymywell-hiddenrope—youdon’tgetMEoutintheroadthere!’”Thelinedescribedhowthenarrator,afterfeelingtrappedbehindthewallpaperofherisolatedroom,hadusedaropetoescapeit.Jimcontinued,“Ithinkatthatpoint,she’sdead.ThisishertalkingtoJohn”—thenarrator’shusband—“asaghost.”“Ah!”exclaimedJade,agirlindenimwhohadbeenlisteningquietly,with

oneeyeonthepageandanotheronJim.Sheboltedup,puttingahandoverhermouth.Thegirlnexttoher,Sariah,hadhermouthwideopentoo.“She’sfreeinthehouse,”Jimwenton,“butsheisnever,like,free—”“—OUTSIDEOFTHEHOUSE!”JadeandSariahshoutedinunison,asthe

restofthegrouptalkedovereachotherinanexcitedrush.ButAmy,theonewhohadcalledonJiminthefirstplace,wasn’tbuying

Jim’sidea.“Sothen,wait,wait,”shesaid.Shepointedtoanotherpassagethatdidn’tseemtofitJim’sstory.Thelineaboutthe“securelyfastened”ropewasprecededbyanother,speculatingthatotherwomenmighthavemadethesameescapeasthenarrator,fleeingfrombehindtheroom’soppressivewallpaper.“Rightthere,”Amysaid,“itsays,‘Iwonderiftheyallcomeoutofthat

wallpaperasIdid?’”HowdidthatdescriptionjibewithJim’sinterpretation?“Doesthatrepresentthepeoplewhodiedjustbeforeher,orsomething?Otherpeoplewho’vedied?”AfewstudentsattemptedanexplanationbeforeJim

spoke.“Iwonderifitsortofrepresentssociety,”hesaid.“Becauseshe’sfreeingherself,andshe’swondering,arealltheotherwomendoingthistoo?”“Soherwayoffreeingherselfwaskillingherself,”Amyreplied,repeatinghis

point.Youcouldconnectthetwopassages,Jimwassaying,byinterpretingallthewomen’sescapesfrombehindthewallpaperassuicides.SoonJadehadaquestion.“Butwhataboutthishouse?”sheasked.“This

house!Thishouse!Thishousehastorepresentsomethingtoo.”Amytooktheopportunitytoofferherowninterpretationofthestory.“Maybe,”shesaid,“maybethehouseandtheareacanrepresentlife,right?Therearepartsoflife,placesinlifeyouwanttogo,thingsyouwanttodo,right?Shewastalkingaboutthatoneroomshewanted,butherhusbandsaidno.”Jadenodded.Shewaspersuadedbythisinterpretationtoo.“Thedifferent

roomscouldbedifferentlifestyles!”shesaid,jumpingin.“Ordifferentthingsshecanorcannotdo,”Amysaid.“Or,”Jimsaid,quietly,“differentpartsofherlife.”“Yeah,”Amysaid,pointingathimwithherpencilandnodding.Theyhaddifferentinterpretations,buttheywereonthesamepage.

ThevideoshowedjustthekindofconversationHeatherandherteamwantedtocultivateatAspire—apristineexampleof“academicdiscourse.”Theteacher,PeterWilliamson,mightnothavebeenonthescreen,but,asPamexplained,hisworkwasalloverthelesson.Morespecifically,hehadsetthestudentsuptohaveaproductivediscussion,firsthavingthemwriteouttwotypesofquestions,literalandinterpretive;thenhavingthemgooverthequestionswitheachother,gettingfeedbackonhowtoimproveonthem;andfinally,afterthey’dfinishedtalking,leadingadebriefingoftheconversationcenteredonhowtheycouldhavegottenevenmoreoutoftalkingtoeachother.(ThatwasonereasonPeter,wholaterbecameaprofessorofteachereducationattheUniversityofSanFrancisco,hadvideotapedthesession—sothatthestudentscouldwatchitandthinkaboutwhattodobetternexttime.)AndthesestepswereonlywhatPeterhadtodotoprepareforthesingle

“YellowWallpaper”lesson.Ithadtakenhimmoreworktogetthestudentstothatpoint.Eventually,PamandhergraduatestudentsbrokethepracticeofEnglishteachingdownintokeyparts—“corepractices,”Pamcalledthem,anEnglishcounterparttoMagdalene’sinstructionalactivities.AmongthepracticesPamoutlinedwas“modeling.”Thiswasacorepartof

thebestEnglishteachers’repertoire,awayofwalkingstudentsthroughthe

processestheyneededtoperforminEnglishclass—notjustreadingandwriting,buttheircomponentparts,likeannotatingatexttohelpunderstanditsmeaningorusingevidencetoconstructanexplanation.Toteachstudentseachpart,ateachernotonlyhadtowalkthemthroughwhat,forinstance,anannotationlookedlike(herearemyhighlights!)orshowthemanexplanation(thissentencerighthere!);shealsohadtobreaktheactivitydownintoitsinvisiblementalsteps.Pamcalledthis“makingyourthinkingvisible.”Modelingworkedbestontextsthatresonatedwiththestudents.Evenbetter,

theteachercouldusethestudents’ownwork.Forinstance,ateachermighttakethedraftofastudent’spersuasiveessayanduseittomodel,say,thewritingofexplanations,walkingstepbystepthroughtheevidenceandnarratinghowawritermightthinkaboutusingthatevidencetosupportapoint.“‘Sowhat?’isthequestionIneedtoask,”theteachercouldtellthestudents.“Andmyanswershouldtellyou...oh,that’swhythisevidenceissoimportant!”AnothercategoryinPamGrossman’staxonomyofEnglishteaching,

“classroomdiscourse,”helpedteachersworkwithstudentsontheirideas.Aclassroomdiscussionshouldn’toperateasafloatingalternatereality,theentertainmentbeforetherealworkbegins.Attheirbest,discussionswerethefirststepinthewritingprocess,verbaleditingsessionsinwhichstudentsworkedtogethertosharpentheirideas.Whatdidthetextliterallymean?Whatdiditmeansymbolically?Ifthediscussionwentwell,then,bytheendofthelesson,aclassroomfullofblandobservationswouldtransformintothirtywell-articulatedinterpretations.WhenPamstartedgradschool,scholarsofEnglishteachinghadwrittenabout

theimportanceofdiscussioninaliteraryclass.StudyingAmericanclassrooms,theyhadalsodiscoveredhowrareitwas.Butfewhadthoughtabouthowtohelpteachersdomoreofitanddoitbetter.Pamandherstudents“decomposed”discussion,breakingthepracticedownintoteachableparts.Whattheyfoundwasthatgreatdiscussionsdidnothappenbyaccident.They

requiredserious,deliberatepreparation.OneteacherwhosepracticePamstudied—YvonneDivansHutchinson,whotaughtintheLosAngelesUnifiedSchoolDistrictatahighschoollodgedbetweentheneighborhoodsofWattsandCompton—handedherstudentsdetailedlistsofwhatshecalled“stockresponses,”possiblewaysofparticipatinginadiscussion,includinghalfadozenalternativestoashrug:

• Youdon’tknowtheanswer?Trysaying,“Idon’tknow,butIwilltrytofind

outtheanswerandgetbacktoyou.”• Youdidn’tcomepreparedtotalk?“IregrettosaythatIamnotprepared.”• Youdidn’tunderstandthequestion?Justask,“Wouldyoupleaserepeat(orrestate)thequestion?”

• Youdidthehomeworkandunderstoodthequestion,butstillcouldn’tcomeupwithananswer?Howabout,“Pleasecomebacktome;I’mstillthinking.”

Thestockresponsesmightseemforced,butwithoutthemtherewasnoguaranteestudentswouldtalkatall.“You’renotbornwithagenethattellsyouhowtotalkaboutBeloved,”Pamsays.“Actually,that’ssomethingyoulearntodoovertime,andtherearethingsthatteacherscandotomakekidssuccessful.”Yvonnealsowroteoutsuggestionsforwaysofmakingacontribution.To

disagree,firstsayso:“Irespectfullydisagree.”Thengiveyouropposingidea—“andjustifyit.”Toagreeandthenextend,say,“Iwanttoaddtowhat(person’sname)said.”Otherrulesaddedtotheclass’sdiscursiverepertoire.Tomakesureawide

varietyofstudentsspoke,andtoincreasethelikelihoodofgettingananswer,Yvonnetookadvantageofpeerpressureandhadstudentscalloneachother.Askedforaresponsebyapeerratherthantheteacher,shefound,teenagersweremorelikelytocomply.Shealsopreparedforthecaseofastudentwithnothingtosay.Sheoftenremindedherclassestopause,givingthestudentsYvonnecalled“reticent”moretimetoputtheirthoughtstogether.Andthroughhermodeling,thestudentslearnedhowtocoacheachothertoo,coaxingcontributionsfromeventhequietestpeers.Thatwasjustthebeginning.InYvonne’sclass,everydiscussionbeganwith

an“anticipationguide,”alistofquestionsdesignedtogetthestudentsthinkingaboutsubjectscoveredinareadingbeforetheybeganit.Nextcamea“readingresponseprompt”thateachstudentansweredindividually,completewithremindersaboutthebestwaytoread—“markupthetextinthewayyouchoose,”theinstructionssaid,“includingtheuseofhighlightersandmetacognitivemarking”—andinstructionsaskingthestudentstowritequestionsoftheirown.(InYvonne’sclass,evenquestionshadacarefultaxonomy,frombasicfactual“rightthere”questions[levelone]to“global”questions[levelthree]thattookatext’ssubstanceandexpandedbeyondit;foroneprompt,thestudentsweretowritetwolevel-onequestions,threeleveltwos,andoneortwolevelthrees.)Finally,intheminutesbeforethewhole-groupdiscussion,they

heldminiconversationsinsmallgroups.“Iftheycometotheworkwiththeirownframeofreference,thenthey’remuchmoreapttobeengaged,”Yvonneexplained.Theplanninggotthestudentstothestartingline,buttopulloffalivelyand

productivediscussion,Yvonnehadtoteachinthemomenttoo.Pamandanotheroneofhergradstudents,LisaBarker,usedvideosfromYvonne’sclassandotherstofurtherbreakdowntheartofleadingadiscussion.Drawingonatermcoinedbyearlyscholarsofclassroomdiscussions,PamandLisacalledoneofthepracticesYvonneoftendeployed“uptake.”Ateacherpracticeduptakewhenshelistenedtoastudent’scontributionandthenrepeateditinsomeway,bysummarizingtheidea(Soherwayoffreeingherselfwaskillingherself),elaboratingonit,orpushingthestudenttodothesame.WorkingwithPam,Lisabrokedown“uptake”intoninesubparts,which

teachersusedatdifferenttimes.“Restatement,”thesimplest,involvedsummarizingastudent’sclaim,butthistimeaddingacademiclanguage,suchasbettergrammarormorepreciseterminology.“Revoicing,”asubsetofrestatement,summarizedastudent’scontributionfortheevenmorespecificpurposeofaligningitwiththeparticularsideofthediscussionitbelongedto—AmyisclarifyingJim’sstatementabout“freeingherself”inordertosupporthisinterpretationthatthewomanisaghost.Othermoveshadtheteacherdirectlypushingstudentsforbettercontributions.

A“challenge”moverespondedtoaclaimbytakingtheoppositestance,justforthesakeofargument.“Press”askedthespeakerformoreinformation—evidenceofaclaim,maybe,orclarificationofmeaning.“Post”heldupastudent’sclaimandsolicitedcommentsonit—WhothinkstheycanarticulatewhatJimistryingtosay?NotonlyhadPeterWilliamson,theteacherwhoassigned“TheYellow

Wallpaper,”masteredclassroomdiscoursehimself;hismasteryservedasamodelforhisstudents,whouseduptaketodiscussthestoryontheirown.Amyknewtoaskforclarification;JadeknewtorepeatJim’sclaimtomakesuresheunderstooditandtopresshimtoelaborateontheideawhenshewantedtochallengeit;andattheend,whenAmyputforwardherowninterpretation,Jimknewhowtouse“uptake”tobuildontheidea,listeningasshedescribedthehouse’ssymbolicmeaningandthenhelpingherburnishherexplanation.Theroomsrepresentednotjust“differentthingsshecanorcannotdo,”but“differentpartsofherlife.”HeatherKirkpatricklovedPeter’svideo.ShetalkedwithPam,andinnotime,

PamandLisawerecomingtoAspiretoteachasessionatitssummerretreat.

Onewaytothinkaboutwhattheacademicsofferedtheentrepreneurswas“content.”WhereastheentrepreneurslikeDougLemovlookedatteachinggenerically,acrossallkindsofsubjects,MagdaleneLampertlookedonlyatmathandPamGrossman,onlyatEnglish.Butjustasimportantastheircontentknowledge,andmaybemoreso,wasthe

academics’theoryoflearning.Ironically,thiswasalegacyofthesameacademicstructurethathadoncehinderedresearchonteaching:thecloserelationshipbetweeneducationresearchandpsychology.Itwastrue,asLeeShulman’spredecessorNateGagehaddiscovered,thatthescienceofteachingwasnotsimplytheinverseofthescienceoflearning.Butthecorollarywasalsotrue.Itwasn’tpossibletounderstandteachingwithoutunderstandinglearning.Perhapsunintentionally,thecharterschooleducatorshadadoptedalinear

modeloflearning.Learners,theyassumed,startedwiththebasicfluencyskillsneededtodowhattheycalled“higher-order”work.Inmath,thatmeantmemorizingthemultiplicationtablesbeforeworkingonproblemsolving;inEnglish,itmeantmasteringsimplevocabularywordsbeforelearningtoconstructanargument.Theythoughtoflearningasifitwerearchitecture:afantasticdesignwasnothingwithoutthematerialstobuildit.Somethingcomplexandbeautifulcouldnotbeaccomplishedwithoutfirstmasteringthemundane.Theideathatfactslaidthefoundationforconceptsyieldedabasically

behavioristtheoryoflearning.Iflearningbeganwithfacts,andfactsbeganwithmemorizing—becausememorizing(or“fluency”)wasseparatefromconcepts(“criticalthinking”)—thenthebestmethodtoteachchildrentolearnwasnotsodifferentfromwhatEdwardThorndikehadhopedtoaccomplishwithhiscats.Practice,practice,practice,withregularpunishmentandrewards.The“rigor”couldcomelater.Theresultingteachingstylewasespeciallyclearinthehandlingofmistakes.

Inabehavioristmodel,everymistakeshouldbegreetedwithaquickandfirmcorrection.Otherwise,studentswon’tlearnthatanideaiswrong.Thebestcharterschoolteacherstookthismaximseriously.Onemathteacher,heraldedasoneofthebestintheKIPPnetwork,decidednevertogivehisstudentschancestopracticeproblemsathomesthattheyhadn’talreadybeentaughthowtosolve.Thedanger,heexplained,layinthelikelihoodthat,aloneathomewithoutthe

teachertostopthem,theywouldpracticedoingthestepswrong.Absentaresponsethatcorrectedorapprovedthestep,themistakemightbeingrainedinthecategoryofuncorrected,andthereforeaccurate,truths.SeveralofthetechniquesinDougLemov’staxonomy(forexample,“DoIt

Again”)restedonthisbelief.Teachingbehavior,intheworldofthetaxonomy,oftenboileddowntotheimperativeofrespondingtoeveryvisiblemisbehavior.Ateacherwasboundtogiveaswiftandclearcorrectiontoeverymistake.Dougappliedtheideatoteachingacademiccontenttoo.Writingabouthowtoteachchildrento“decode,”theworkofdecipheringastringoflettersintoapronounceableword,heemphasizedtheimportanceoflettingnoerrorgounnoticed.“Giventhebedrockimportanceofdecodingateverylevel,”hewrote,“teachersshouldstrivetocorrectdecodingerrorswheneverpossible,nomatterwhatsubjectorgradeleveltheyteach.”“PunchtheError”wasthenamehegavethetechniqueofnotifyingastudentswiftlyofhermistake.ButbythetimePam,Deborah,andMagdalenestartedtheirstudyofteaching

inthe1980s,researchhadbeguntoshowthelimitsofthisbehavioristview.Learningamonghumans,psychologistswerediscovering,wasmorethanjustasumofexperiencedstimulus-and-responseyes-nopairs,andconceptsdidn’twaitforfactstoaccumulate;thetwowereenmeshedtogether.Thebestmemorizers,forinstance,succeededbyembeddingtheirobjectof

studywithinamoreabstractmapofbigideas.Onepsychologist,studyingacollegestudenthecalled“S.F.,”foundthatthestudentcouldmemorizelongstringsofnumbersonlybyattachingthedigitstoothersthatheldmoremeaning.Acompetitiverunner,S.F.translatednumbersintoracetimes;3492,forinstance,became“3minutesand49point2seconds,nearworld-recordmiletime.”Just3.492wouldn’thavebeenenough;healsohadtoplacethenumberinacontextthatmadesensetohim.Afterayearandahalfofusingtheracingmnemonic,thenumberofdigitsS.F.couldmemorizehadgrownfrom7to79.Theonlycaseswherehestumbledwerenumbersthatsimplycouldn’tbemappedbacktoamemorablerace.Children,similarly,learnedtoaddandsubtractthroughstrategiesthatbuilton

theirintuitivesenseofnumbers,notwhattheirteachertoldthemwascorrect.LiketheBrazilianstreetchildrensellingfruit,whomanagedtomakemultidigitcalculationsintheirheads,theycounted,grouped,andregroupeduntiltheyarrivedatasolutionthatcorrespondedtowhattheyknewabouthownumbersworked.Humansappearedtopracticethisreasoning—“criticalthinking”or“rigor,”

theentrepreneurialeducatorsmightcallit—practicallyfrombirth.Inexperimentafterexperiment,psychologistsstudyinginfantsshowedthattheylookedattheworldnotviaasystemofrewardsandpunishments,butthroughawebofgeneralizations,rules,andprinciplesderivedfromobservations.Inoneexperiment,psychologistspushedabluecylinderdownarampuntilit

hitatoybug.Theirsix-and-a-half-month-oldsubjectswatchedasthebluecylinderpropelledthebugforward,sothatittraveledallthewaytothemiddleofahorizontaltrack.Thentheresearchersrolleddowntwomorecylinders,alargeryellowoneandasmallerorangeone.Predictably,thelargeryellowcylinderknockedthebugfartheralongthetrack,allthewaytotheend.Buttheorangecylinder,althoughsmallerthanbothoftheothercylinders,neverthelessmovedthebugtotheendofthetrackaswell.Presentingthesamestrangeeventstoadults,researchersfoundthattheyreactedwithsurprise.Butwouldinfants,whohadneverbeentaughtthelawsofphysics,dothesame?Theydid.Shownthesurprisingcaseofthesmallerorangecylinderthat

knockedthetoybugfartherthanmadesense,infantsstaredlongerthanacontrolgroupofinfantsshownasequenceofeventsthatdidnotviolatephysics.They’dbeenonEarthforunderayear,andcertainlyhadneverbeengivenagoldstarforknowingthatlargercylindershavegreatermassthansmallerones.Butaftertakingintheworld’sdata—allthetimesthatlargeobjectspushedthingsfartherthansmallerones—theyhadcomeupwiththeabstractmentalmodelthatmadesense.Thetakeawaymessagewasnotthatconceptualunderstandingismore

importantthanmemorization;itwasthatthetwoareinextricablyenmeshed.Anysupposeddichotomybetweenthemwasfalse.Magdalenesummarizedthelessoninasinglephrase.Children,shesaid,were“sensemakers.”Likethebabiesstaringatthecylinders,theytookindataandreasonedaboutit,workingfromtheirownevolvinggraspofhowtheworldworked.Educatorswhoimaginedotherwise—assuming,forinstance,thatmemorizationtookplaceoutsidethecontextofconceptsandprinciples,orthatrepeatedrewardsandpunishmentswereenoughtohelpapersonlearn—didsoattheirownperil.Childrenwouldtrytomakesenseofrules,evenrulesthatmadenosense.Then,whenviolationsinevitablyarose,theywouldapplytherulesanyway,astheCaliforniateacherwhooveremphasizedsubtractionwithregroupingfoundwhenherstudent,toldoftheimportanceofborrowing,begandoingsooneveryproblem,nomatterwhatsizethebottomnumberwas.MagdaleneandPamandDeborah’skindofteaching,TKOT,wasmore

academicallyrigorousnotbecausetheirproblemswereharder,ortheirexpectationshigher,ortheirgradingcurvesteeper,butbecausetheirvisionoflearningwasmorerefined.Notonlyhadtheyreadthegeneralresearchonlearning.Theyhadalsostudiedthespecificrulesof“knowing”—theepistemology—fortheindividualsubjectstheytaught.Eachfieldhaditsownspecializeddefinitionofwhatitmeanttoknowsomething—oftheway,inmath,conjecturesbuilttoproofs,or,inliterature,evidencebecameexplanationandfinallyinterpretation.Becausethedefinitionswerenotallthesame,neitherwastheteachingthey

arguedfor.Inmath,forinstance,the“You,Y’all,We”lessonpatternpopularizedinJapan(aswellasinMagdaleneandDeborah’smathclassrooms)madesenseforstructuringinvestigationsofbigideas,likethemeaningoffractionsornegativenumbers.InEnglish,meanwhile,wherestudentsneededtolearnspecificreadingandwritingstrategies—howtofigureoutthemeaningofanunfamiliarword,forexample,orhowtobuildideasforanessay—the“I,We,You”patternofmodelingfollowedbyguidedpracticewasmoreappropriate.Andwithineachsubject,differenttopicscouldcallfordifferentstructures.Drawingontheseveryspecifictraditions,Magdalene,Pam,Deborah,and

theircolleagueshadaneasiertimeachievingtheacademicrigorthattheno-excusesteachersalsolongedfor.Theytaughtbyhelpingstudentsseetheworlddifferently,pushingtheirintuitiveknowledgeclosertothebankofunderstandingsandrulesofoperationthatmathematicians(andscientists,historians,literarytheorists,andsoon)havearrivedatovercenturies.Teaching,inthisview,beganwithlistening.“Partofinteractingwithkids,”Magdalenesaid,“isassessingwheretheyareandthinkingaboutwhatexperiencesyoucangivethemthatwillchallengetheirwayofseeingtheworld.”ThedifferentapproachtolearningalsoledMagdalene,Pam,andDeborahto

takeadifferentviewofchildren’smistakes.InTKOT,mistakeswerenotworrisomeillstostampoutonsight,butpreciousopportunitiestobeginthelongerprocessofcorrectingmisunderstandingsovertime.Onepurposeofteaching,intheirview,wastodrawoutmistakes.ThebestEnglishteachers,Pamsaw,helpedchildrenwritebetterbyshowcasingrealexamplesofstudentwritingthatneededwork—andthen,holdingweakmodelsupagainstthestrong,bydescribingexactlywhatstudentscoulddotoimprove.MagdaleneandDeborah,similarly,builttheirproblemsofthedayaroundthegoalofelicitingmisunderstandingsthatcouldmovetheclasstowardmoreaccurateideas.SomeJapaneseteacherstookthisnotionevenfurther.InJapan,theportionof

thelessonthatMagdalenecalled“teachingwhilestudentsworkindependently”actuallyhadtwocompetingnames:kikan-shidoandkikan-junshi.Thefirst,kikan-shido,describedtheactofobservingstudents’effortstosolvetheproblemofthedayand,whennecessary,interveningtoresolvetheirconfusionbyofferingahintoranextrainstruction.Butthesecond,kikan-junshi,adoptedbyacontingentofpurists,describedobservingwithoutcomment.Whenastudentmadeamistakeorbecameconfused,theteachersimplynotedtheerror(maybeonapadofpaperormaybejustinherhead),nodded,andwalkedonby.AnEnglishtranslationclarifiedthedifference:kikan-shidomeant“betweendesksinstruction,”whereaskikan-junshimeant“betweendeskspatrolling.”Studentslearnedbetterwhentheysawtheerroroftheirideasontheirown,

thekikan-junshipuristsfelt.Andtheteachermadesuretheydidseeit,inthecourseofthe“We”partofthelesson,thegroupdiscussion.Inthisregard,DougLemovseemedconflicted.Ononehand,asthe“Punch

theError”techniqueexemplified,muchofhistaxonomywasbuiltaroundtheeradicationofmistakes.YetDougalsowroteabouttheimportanceofmakingclassasafespaceforerrors.Indeed,“NormalizingError”wasTechniqueNo.49,thelastoneinthetaxonomy.Itdescribedhowteacherscouldgetstudentsfeelingcomfortablewithmistakes.Andso,inTeachlikeaChampion,onthesamepagethatDougemphasizedtheimportanceoffixingerrors“asquicklyaspossible,”healsocalledthem“anormalandhealthypartofthelearningprocess.”ThetensionwasmuchlessapparentinDoug’sworkteachingadults,his

teachertraining.Inthisregard,theentrepreneursandtheacademicstookastrikinglysimilarapproach.Attaxonomyworkshops,attendeespracticedtechniquesinsimulationsthatlookedpracticallyidenticaltothoseusedatDilitinItaly.Dougalwaysemphasizedthatteachersshouldusetheseevolvingtechniquesonlyiftheymadesense.Thejobofadministrators,meanwhile,wasnottopunishbadperformersforpoorteaching.Itwastogivethemopportunitiestolearn.Toteachthem.Andovertime,evenwithoutdirectinterventionfromtheacademics,the

entrepreneurs’approachtoteachingchildrenwasbeginningtobearmoreresemblancetotheirapproachtoteachingadults.In2013,Dougbegancrafting“Taxonomy2.0,”asecondeditionofTeachlikeaChampion,inwhichherevisedlargeportionsofhisapproachtoerror.Insteadoffocusingonwaysthatteacherscouldeliminatemistakesassoonastheyarose,thenewdocumenttriedtogivethemtoolstouseerrorsaslearningopportunities,namingnewtechniquestheycouldusetohelpstudentsfeelcomfortablemakingmistakes.

AsDoug’schangingideasmadeclear,thebiggestquestionwasnotwhethertheentrepreneurs’teachingwouldevolveovertime.Theirteachingalreadywasevolving,evenwithouttheacademics’help.Thebiggestquestionwaswhethertherestofthecountry’steachingwouldchangetoo.AcademicslikePam,Magdalene,andDeborahstillmadeuponlyaminorityofedschoolprofessors.Theentrepreneurs,meanwhile,weregrowinginnumber,butby2011,charterschoolsstillreachedonly4percentofAmericanpublicschoolstudents.Andalthoughtheoutsideworldwaspayingmoreattentiontothecharters,thelessonsthatobserversdrewdidn’tnecessarilyreflecttherealityinside.Instead,asusual,theobserversfocusedontheideathathadspawnedcharterschoolsinthefirstplace:accountability.

10

APROFESSIONOFHOPE

In2004,asDougLemovbeganthinkingabouthistaxonomy,DeborahBallfoundherselftalkingaboutherfuturewithtwoofhermentors—DavidCohenandtheUniversityofMichigan’sprovost,PaulCourant.AfterspendingeightyearsatMichiganState,DeborahhadfollowedDavid

andMagdaleneLamperttotheUniversityofMichiganinAnnArborin1996.There,hercareerhadblossomed.HervideotapesofSean,Mei,andtherestinherclassroomatSpartanVillagehadgainedagrowingfollowingamongacademicsandmathteachers,andsohadherresearch.ShehadcowrittenseveralpaperswithDaviddescribingtheinfrastructureproblem.And,workingwiththemathematicianHymanBass,shehadbuiltonthecorpusofMathematicalKnowledgeforTeaching,MKT,expandingthefocusfromcontentknowledgetoaccompanyingpracticesthatcouldbetaught.Andthatyear,anotherprestigiousuniversityhadbegunrecruitingherforits

edschool.ShewasdiscussingheroptionswithDavidwhenheaskedheraquestion.“Somethinglike,‘Whatdoyouactuallywanttodo?’Like,notwheredoyouwanttolive,butwhatdoyouactuallywanttodo?’”Deborahrecalls.Theanswerspilledout.“Iwanttocompletelychangethewayteacher

educationworksinthiscountry.”Verylittlehadchangedoverthetwodecadesshe’dbeenstudyingteaching.Thenewentrepreneurialsectorwasanintriguingexception,butitservedonlyatinyfractionofAmericanstudents.ThevastmajorityofkidsstilllearnedwithteacherswhowereasunpreparedasDeborahhadbeenwhenshefirstcametoSpartanVillage.Atuniversityedschools,aspiringeducatorsstillsatinfive-hundred-personlecturesliketheonesLeeShulmanhadtaughtatMSUinthe1970s.EvenTeachForAmerica,despiteitsimprovements,struggledtoensurethatallitscorpsmembersenteredtheclassroomreadytohelpstudentslearnatahighlevel.Theclassroomwasnodifferent.Curriculastillvariedfromstatetostate,

districttodistrict,evenschooltoschool.Testsstillconfusedratherthancomplementedeachcurriculum—orsimplyoverrodeit.Professionaldevelopmentwashaphazardatbest.TheDavidCohencoherenceproblem,inotherwords,wasstillalive,well,andwidelyignored:Americansstilllackedanydiscernibleagreementonwhatstudentsweresupposedtolearn,andteacherswerestillleftalonetohelpthemlearnit.Thewholeeducationworldlivedwiththeconsequencesofincoherenceeveryday,yetthenumberofpeoplewhoreallyunderstoodwhateducationalinfrastructuremeantcouldbecountedonafirst-gradepatternblockset,andallofthemseemedtoworkinthesamebuildinginAnnArbor.WhatdidDeborahreallywanttodo?Shewantedtobuildtheinfrastructureto

support“responsibleteaching”(thephraseshepreferredover“TKOT”)—andnotjustforherstudentsatMichigan,butforteachersandstudentsallacrossthecountry.ByDavid’sdefinition,infrastructurehadthreekeyelements:acommoncurriculumsuggestingwhatstudentsshouldstudy;commonexaminationstotesthowmuchofthatcurriculumtheylearned;andfinally,teachereducationtohelpteacherslearntoteachexactlywhatstudentsaresupposedtolearn.Sinceherexpertisewasinthethirdcategory,Deborahthoughtshecouldstartthere.Deborahstartedlookingahead.Itwascurrently2004.Forthe2007–08school

year,nearlytwohundredthousandnewteacherswouldenterclassroomsforthefirsttime,upfromsixty-fivethousandjusttwentyyearsearlier.By2011,3.7millionpeoplewouldworkintheprofession.AndthemodalnumberofyearsofexperienceoftheAmericanteacher—fifteenyearsin1987—wasnowjustone.Ifthesenewteachersweregoingtocometotheclassroomreadytoteach,somebodyneededtohelpthemprepare.AtMichigan,Deborahcouldtestamodelthatwouldarmteacherswiththe

knowledgeandpracticestheyneededtoteachstudentswell.Ifthemodelworked,shecouldexpandittotherestofthecountry.DavidandtheprovostgaveDeborahtheirfullsupport.Ifwhatshewantedto

dowastransformteachereducation,theysaid,“thenthat’swhatyoushouldbedoing.”ShedecidedtostayinAnnArbor,whereshebecamedirectoroftheuniversity’steachereducationprogram,andreceivedasignificantgrantfromtheprovosttoreshapetheprogramfromscratch.Thenextyear,shebecamedeanoftheschoolofeducation.

AsDeborah’sprojecttookoff—theTeacherEducationInitiative,shedecidedto

callit—hertimingbegantolookremarkablyapt.OfthethreeelementsofaDavidCohen–esqueinfrastructure,she’dpicked

teachereducationpartlybecauseitseemedespeciallyimportantandpartlybecauseitwaswhatsheknewbest.Butsoon,signsoftheothertwoelements—acommoncurriculumandassessmentstomatch—alsobegantoemerge.ThedrivingforceweretheCommonCorestandards,anewattempttowritenationaleducationgoalsforallAmericanstudents.TheCommonCorestandardsweren’tthemselvesacurriculum,andtheyweren’tassessmentseither,buttheypavedthewayforboth.Atfirst,theeffortseemedjustasquixoticasDeborah’sTeacherEducationInitiative.Everypreviousefforttowritenationalstandardshadimploded.Closereadingofthemasterdocumentalwayssetoffdebate;criticsfoundtoomanyinstancesofHarrietTubmanandtoofewofRobertE.Lee,orareadinggoalmatchedtothirdgradeinsteadoffirst,andpoof!,thecoalitionbackingthestandardswoulddisintegrate.ButtheagitatorsfortheCommonCorehadlearnedseverallessonsfromtheir

predecessors.Theyassembledthestandardsinrelativesolitude,avoidingabigpubliccampaign.Theydeliberatelysoughtinputfromstates,organizingnotthroughafederalgovernmentagency,butthroughtheNationalGovernorsAssociation,andtherebypreemptingcriesoffederalintrusion.Theyalsohadtheadvantageoftime;afterseveralroundsofmathandreadingwarsinthe1980sand1990s,certainceasefireshadbeenwrought.Readingexpertsnowlargelyagreedthatbothphonicsinstructionandanemphasisoncomprehensionwereimportantforteachingchildrentoread,andacoregroupofmathematicianshadcometoacceptthateducatorsmightbeontosomethingwiththeir“fuzzymath.”Inevitabledisagreementsremained,especiallyinthelessorganizedmiddleandhighschoolEnglishcommunity.Nevertheless,lessthantwomonthsafterthestandardswerereleased,inJune2010,twenty-sevenstateshadvowedtoadoptthestandards.Bytheendof2013,thenumberwasforty-five(plustheDistrictofColumbia).Withsomanystatessigningup,commoncurriculaandcommonassessmentsweren’tfaroff.Theremaininglegoftheinfrastructuretriangle,teachereducation,was

perhapsthehardesttobuild.Afterall,reformershadbeentryingtoreinvigorateteachereducationfordecadeswithlittlesuccess.Buthereagain,Deborah’stiminggaveherauniqueopportunity.By2004,whentheTeacherEducationInitiativebegan,researchersknewmorethaneverabouthowtoteachteacherstoteach.Inlargepart,thiswasJudithLanier’slegacy.HerownreformeffortmighthavefailedatMichiganState,butthefacultysheandLeeShulmanhadrecruited

twenty-fiveyearsearlierhad,overtwoandahalfdecades,uncoveredagreatmanypracticesthatsuccessfulteachersemployed.Theyhadbeguntocodify“thewisdomofteachers.”Thatmeanttheycouldlayoutindetailthethingsanewteacherneededtolearnhowtodo.AndasMagdaleneLampertandPamGrossmanshowedwiththeirinstructionalactivitiesandcorepractices,theyhadalsobeguntodevelopwaysofpassingthatwisdomontonewteachers.JudyLanier’sfacultymembersatMichiganStatehadbeenconfinedtogeneral

goalslike“connectteachereducationmorecloselytotheclassroom”or“maketheacademicpreparationofteachersmoreintellectuallysound.”By2004,DeborahandherfacultyattheUniversityofMichigancouldbemuchmorespecific.DrawingontheresearchfromJudyLanier’sInstituteforResearchonTeaching,theycoulddraftacurriculumfornewteachersthatdescribedafullcourseoftechniques:“high-leveragepractices,”theMichiganfacultycalledthem.Thefirsthigh-leveragepractice,forinstance—“makingcontentexplicit

throughexplanation,modeling,representations,andexamples”—drewonthefocusbyPamGrossmanandotherresearchersonmodeling.BothPam’sandMagdalene’swork,meanwhile,inspiredthesecondhigh-leveragepractice(“leadingawhole-classdiscussion”)aswellas“elicitingandinterpretingindividualstudents’thinking,”whichwashigh-leveragepracticenumberthree.Andthepracticesrelatedtomathematicalknowledgeforteaching,Deborah’sMKT,helpedgroundhigh-leveragepracticenumbersfiveandsix:“recognizingparticularcommonpatternsofstudentthinkinginasubject-matterdomain”(likethetendencyofelementaryschoolchildrentomistakethe“R”intheirremainderfindingsforadecimalpoint—turning,say,“1R5”into“1.5”)and“identifyingandimplementinganinstructionalresponsetocommonpatternsofstudentthinking”(likedecidingonawaytohelpfifth-gradersnoticetheimportanceofdefiningthewholeofanyfraction).CollaboratingwithhercolleagueFrancescaForzani—aMichigangraduate

studentwhohadbegunworkingwithDeborahontheproject—Deborahalsodrewontheworkoftheentrepreneurialeducationmovement(ofwhichFrancesca,aTeachForAmericaalumandformerstaffer,wasamember).Liketheacademics,theentrepreneurswerebusycodifyingteaching.Inparticular,DeborahdrewfromthecurriculumatateacherresidencyprogramspunofffromtheBostoncharterschoolMatch—theonewhereRousseauMieze’sformerprincipal,StacyBirdsellO’Toole,worked.Inspiredbytheschool’sfoundingprincipal,abelovededucatornamedCharles

Sposato,whodiedofcancerin2007,theMatchtrainingprogramdistilledSposato’smagicintoateachablescience.Akeyelementwasthewayhehadestablishedexceptionallystrongrelationshipswithstudentsandtheirfamiliesthroughmethodicalhabit.EveryAugust,beforeschoolstarted,hewouldtelephoneeachfamilytobuildwhathecalled“relationshipcapital.”Hecontinuedcallingthroughouttheyear,makingsuretovarythekindsofconversationssothathedidn’talwaysbearbadnews.TheMatchtrainingprogram,inturn,requiredthateachofitsteachercandidatespracticesixdifferenttypesofphonecalls,fromthe“praisequickie”tothe“powwow.”Thecurriculumalsorequiredseveralhoursofcallstodifferentparentseachweek:onehouranighteachweekdayandtwohourseachweekend.“Whenhecalled,youdidn’tknowwhathewascallingfor,”saysVenecia

Mumford,themotheroftwoMatchgraduates,whosavedavoicemailfromSposato,leftjustbeforehepassedaway,foryearsafterhedied.“HeyVenecia,”hesaidinthemessage,“I’msoproudofEd.”(Venecia’ssonEdhadjustmadethehonorrollduringhisfirstyearatVirginiaState.)“Wouldyoutellhimcongratulationsandpleasekeepthehardworkup?Andthankyouforalwaysthinkingofus.Iloveyou.”TheideaofmethodicalrelationshipbuildingresonatedwithDeborah,who

hadmaderegularcontactwithherstudents’familiesatSpartanVillageandfounditimmenselyhelpful.So,inadditiontomodeling,leadingdiscussions,andelicitingthinking,thenineteenhigh-leveragepracticesincluded“engaginginstrategicrelationship-buildingconversationswithstudents”and“communicatingaboutastudentwithaparentorguardian.”Noneofthehigh-leveragepracticeswereeasy.Allrequireddiligence,care,

thought,andacertainamountofcourage.Buttheyhadanoutsizedimpact;ifateacherwasgoingtospendhertimeonsomething,itwouldbestbespentononeofthehigh-leveragepractices.Andifteacherswereencouragedtomakehabitsofthepracticesfromtheirfirstdayinedschool,theymightcontinuethemfortherestoftheircareers.Deborah’sfinalstrokeofluckcamefromanunexpectedsource—notthe

schoolofresearchonteachinglaunchedbyherownmentor,LeeShulman,buttheotherone,createdbytheeconomistEricHanushek.

WhenEricHanushekfirstproposedtheaccountabilityideabackin1972,arguingthateducationspendingdidn’tmatterunlessitwaspairedwith

expectations,hewasreceivedasagadfly—“theneighborhoodkook,”Hanusheksays.Butbythefirstdecadeofthetwenty-firstcentury,asfirstRepublicansandthenmanyDemocratscametoagreewithhim,theideabecamepolicyinstatesacrossthecountry.WiththepassageoftheNoChildLeftBehindlaw,thekookbecametheestablishment.ButthesecondpieceofHanushek’sargumenttooklongertocatchon.That

washiscaseforwhathecalled“TeacherAccountability.”SincehisearlyworkstudyingteachersinCalifornia,Hanushekhadcontinuedtofindthatlargedifferencesineffectivenessexistedbetweenthebestandworstteachers.Thegapspersistedevenasherefinedhis“value-added”calculation,thestatisticaltechniquethatheborrowedfromtheliteratureontheproductivityofindustrialfactories.Eachfindingreinforcedtheideathatbyusingthevalue-addedestimatestorewardtopteachersandfirethelowestperformers,Americaneducationcouldbefundamentallytransformed.OneHanushekcalculationcomparedAmericanstudents’educational

performanceandthatoftheirCanadianpeers,whoperformed,onaverage,halfastandarddeviationhigheroninternationaltests.(Canadianstudentswereaboveaverage,amongthetoptenofyoungpeopleincountriesbelongingtotheOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,whereasAmericanstudentsjustbarelyescapedthebottomten.)Theentiregapcouldbewipedaway,Hanushekrealized,byeliminatingthebottom6–10percentofAmericanteachersasjudgedbyvalue-addedscores,or,ataschoolwiththirtyteachers,byfiringtwo.AmongtheearlyskepticsofHanushek’svalue-addedcalculationsforteachers

wasTomKane,anothereconomiststudyingeducation.Kanedidn’tbelievethevalue-addednumbers.Atleast,hedidn’tbelieveanyoneshouldtakethemtooseriously.In2002,whentheFederalReserveBankofBostoninvitedKanetorespondtoanewpaperofHanushek’s,heairedhisconcern.“Value-addedmightbeausefulconcept,”histhinkingwent,“butthere’ssomuchnoiseinthemeasurethatit’shardtoimagineiteverbeingausefulthing.”Kanehadgoodreasontobeskeptical.Ayearbefore,asCongressbegan

consideringPresidentGeorgeW.Bush’sproposededucationbill—theonethatwouldbecomeNoChildLeftBehind—heandanothereconomist,DouglasStaiger,ranananalysisoftheyear-by-yeartestresultsthatwoulddeterminewhetherschoolsreceivedrewardsorpenalties.Theyfoundwidespreadvariability.Aschoolonamostlygoodtrajectorycouldhaveonebadyearandthus,intheeyesofthebill,bedeemedafailure.KaneandStaigersummarized

theirfindingsinanop-edintheNewYorkTimes.“Becausetheaverageelementaryschoolhasonly68childrenineachgrade,”theywrote,“afewbrightkidsoneyearoragroupofrowdyfriendsthenextcancausefluctuationsintestperformanceevenifaschoolisontherighttrack.”ThevariabilitywassopervasivethatifNoChildLeftBehindhadbeen

enactedinNorthCarolinaandTexasasthebillwaswritten,only2percentofthestates’schoolswouldhavemetitsstandardofcontinualprogress—andthatwasinaperiodwhenbothstatesshowedsignificantacademicgrowth.“Atthetypicalschool,twostepsforwardwereoftenfollowedbyonestepback.”Ifthelegislationremainedaswritten,theyconcluded,thelaw“islikelytoendasafiasco.”AttheFederalReserveBankofBoston,Kane’sremarksaboutteachers

reflectedhisexperiencestudyingschools.Ifschools’year-to-yeartestscoreresultsfluctuatedthatmuch,eachteacher’shadtobeevenmorevolatile.Afterall,thecorecauseofvariabilityforschoolsseemedtobethesmallsamplesizeofstudentstheyworkedwitheachyear.Teachershadevenfewerstudentsperyearthanschoolshad,meaningthatmorevariabilitywaspracticallyguaranteed.Surely,value-addeddataforthemwouldproveevenlesstrustworthythantheaccountabilitydataonschools.AfterKaneandStaiger’sstudyattractedpublicity,Congressrewrotethebill’s

definitionofwhatwascalled“adequateyearlyprogress,”significantlyreducingtheimpactoftheyear-to-yearvariability.StruckbytheinfluenceofhisresearchcomparedwiththerelativelysmallamountofworkheandStaigerhadputintoit,Kanedecidedtotakeonthenextnaturalquestion—teachers.“Wethought,‘Ohit’sgottabeworseattheteacherlevel,becausethesamplesizesaresmaller,’”Kanesays.Theysettoworkonadatasetoftheirown,fromtheLosAngelesUnifiedSchoolDistrict.Thedatatookthembysurprise.Justastheyhadpredicted,teachers’value-

addedscoresfluctuatedfromoneyeartothenext,thesamewayschools’resultsdid.ButthefluctuationswerenotnearlyasarbitraryasKanehadexpected.Indeed,theteacherscoreshadthesamepredictivepowerastheschoolscores,despitethesmallersamplesize.“Therewas,”Kanesays,“moresignaltodetect.”Theeffectoftheindividualteacherwas,inotherwords,actuallystrongerthantheeffectoftheschool—somuchsothatitresonatedeventhroughthestatisticalhazeofassortedbrightkidsandrowdyfriends.Indeed,theeffectofateacherwasstrongerthantheeffectofanyothereducationalvariablethatKaneandStaigercouldidentify.Putastudentwithatop-ratedteacher,theyfound,andshe

scoredanaverageof5percentilepointshigherthanasimilarstudentassignedtoamiddle-ratedteacher.Putherwithabottom-ratedteacher,andherscoresfellanequalamountintheoppositedirection.KaneandStaigerranafewcalculations,andtheresultsastonishedthem.The

sizeoftheachievementgapbetweenblackandwhitestudents,theyknew,wasabout34percentilepoints.“Therefore,”theyestimated,“iftheeffectsweretoaccumulate,havingatop-quartileteacherratherthanabottom-quartileteacherfouryearsinarowwouldbeenoughtoclosetheblack-whitetestscoregap.”ThefindingsmatchedalmostperfectlywhatHanushekhaddiscoveredthirty

yearsearlier.Kanehadtoconcedethattheothereconomistwasontosomething.Noisysignalsmightbedistracting,hesaid,but“iftheunderlyingeffectsarebigenough,”thatwouldoutweightheproblemofvariability.Takesmokedetectors.Theymightgivesomefalsealarms,but“wedon’tcompletelyignorethem,”Kanesaid,“becausetheycouldsaveourlives.”Andunlikein1972,whenHanushekfirstmadehisvalue-addedcalculations,

in2006,whenKane,Gordon,andStaigerpublishedtheirfindings,therestoftheworldseemedreadytolisten.Bythattime,theaccountabilityideawasnotonlyconventionalwisdombut,judgingbythewell-publicizedsuccessesofcharterschoolslikeKIPP,itseemedtobeworking.AndthekeytothesuccessofschoolslikeKIPP,observersincreasinglyconcluded,wasnotjustschoolexpectations,butteacheraccountability.Unfetteredbyunions,charterschoolswereabletodojustwhatHanushekhadsuggested—hireandfireonthebasisofperformancealone.Theyimprovededucationbyholdingtheirteachersaccountableinwaysnoschoolhadeverdonebefore.InthewakeofKaneandStaiger’sfindings,gatheredtogetherandpublished

forpopularconsumptionbytheBrookingsInstitution’sHamiltonProject,Hanushek’ssecondkookyideafinallybegantogomainstream.Indeed,KaneandStaiger’sHamiltonProjectpaper—cowrittenwithRobertGordon—producedevenmoreimpressiveresultsthantheirworkonNoChildLeftBehind.In2007,presidentialcandidateBarackObamareferencedtheHamiltonProjectfindingsinhismajoreducationspeech.“Fromthemomentourchildrenstepintoaclassroom,”hesaid,“thesinglemostimportantfactorindeterminingtheirachievementisnotthecoloroftheirskinorwheretheycomefrom;it’snotwhotheirparentsareorhowmuchmoneytheyhave.It’swhotheirteacheris.”“Perhaps,”wroteNewYorkTimescolumnistNicholasKristoftwoyearslater,

citingthecalculations,“weshouldhavefoughtthe‘waronpoverty’withschools—or,”headded,“withteachers.”

ForDeborahBall,thesuddenswellofinterestinteachersseemedtoofferthefinalboostherprojectneeded.TheCommonCoreofferedcoherence,theresearchonteachingandteachereducationofferedastartingpointforacurriculum,andtheentrepreneursaddedpassionandalaboratoryforexperimentation.NoweconomistslikeEricHanushekandTomKaneprovidedawarranttoproceed.Ifteachingreallywasthemostimportantofalltheeducationalinterventions,thentheonlylogicalconclusionwasthatAmericaneducatorsoughttobuildacoherentinfrastructure—cleargoals,accuratetests,trainedinstructors—toteachteaching.

TomKanedidn’tknowDeborahBall,andhedidn’tknowabouttheDavidCohencoherenceproblem.Heonlyknewwhathisdatatoldhim.So,whenhewroteuphisHamiltonProjectreportwithDougStaigerandthepolicymakerRobertGordon,hemadeadifferentsuggestion.Lookingatvalue-addedscores,Kaneandhiscolleagueshadbeensurprisedto

findthattheidentityofastudent’steachernotonlydwarfedthepowerofkey“school-levelvariables,”predictingsuccessmorereliablythanthesizeoftheirclassesorthefundingallottedtoeachstudent.Theyalsooutpacedeveryfactorcurrentlyusedtohire,fire,andrewardteachers.Whetherateacherwascertified,forinstance,borealmostnorelationshipatall

towhethertheteacher’sstudentsperformedwellonachievementtests.Nordidthescorescorrelatewithateacher’slevelofgraduateeducation,even

thoughmostschooldistrictsrewardedadvanceddegreeswithsalaryincreases.Tryingtofindsomethingtocontradictthisfinding,Kaneandsomecolleaguesranastudytheyjokinglycalledthe“kitchensink”test,lookingateverythingfromSATscoresto“extraversion”inNewYorkCityteachers.Nomeaningfulexceptionsemerged.WritingaboutthefindingsintheNewYorker,MalcolmGladwellnamedthe

dilemmathe“quarterbackproblem.”JustastheNFLCombine’spredrafttests(benchpress,forty-yarddash,andsoon)appearedtobearnorelationshiptoaquarterback’sabilitiesinthegameitself,thereseemedtobenowaytopredictwhetherateacherwouldsucceeduntilheorsheactuallytaught.Professionslikefootballaddressedthisproblemwithruthlesspragmatism.

Whenquarterbacksfailed,coachespulledthemoutofthegameand,eventually,cutthemfromtheteam.Schoolsystems,meanwhile,didalmosttheexactopposite,investingheavilyinthefactorsthatpredictedteachers’successthe

least.Likewise,theyignoredtheoneareawheretheresearchsuggestedteacherscouldbegradedaccurately.Almostnostatesperformedon-the-jobevaluationsusingvalue-addedscores,themeasuretheeconomistshadfoundtobemostpredictiveofsuccess.Manystatesevenprohibitedthecollectionofthedatathatwouldallowdistrictstocalculatethesescores.Whendistrictsdidperformevaluations,theyrarelyusedvalue-addedmetrics—andrarelyfoundpoorteachers.Surveyingfifteenthousandteachersintwelveschooldistrictsacrossthecountry,aresearchgroupatTheNewTeacherProjectfoundthat,ofalltheteachersinallthedistrictstheypolled,lessthan1percenthadeverbeendeemedunsatisfactory.IntheHamiltonProjectpaper,Kane,Staiger,andGordonlaidouttheobvious

conclusion,thesameonethatHanushekhadreachedthirtyyearsearlier:ifallthevariablescurrentlyusedtohire,fire,andrewardteacherswereuselessatpredictingstudentachievement,thentheyshouldnotbeusedatall.Insteadoferectingbarrierstoentry,districtsshouldhireatwill(orrandomly),steeringthebestteacherstotheneedieststudentsandthenweedingouttheworstwithevaluations—evaluationswithrealteeth.Usingvalue-addedmeasurestodeterminewhetherateacherkeptherjob,forinstance,couldgivestudentsasubstantialacademicboost.Kane,Staiger,andGordonestimatedthat,inLosAngeles,lettinggoofteacherswhoscoredinthebottom25percentwouldraisestudenttestscoresbyabout14percentilepoints—aboostequivalenttoasmuchas$169,000extraineachstudent’scareerearnings.(In2013,workingwithamoreprecisedataset,RajChetty,JohnFriedman,andJonahRockoffreachedasimilarconclusion.Replacingateacherinthebottomfifthpercentilewithanaverageteacher,theyfound,wouldincreasestudents’lifetimeearningsbyroughly$250,000perclassroom.)Allschoolsneededtodowasthinkmorecarefullyabouthowtheysortedteachersaftertheyhiredthem—whichonestheykept,whichonestheyrewarded,andwhichonestheyletgo—andtheycouldgeneratedramaticchange.GladwellsummarizedthesuggestioninhisNewYorkerarticle,withonly

slightexaggeration.“Teaching,”hewrote,“shouldbeopentoanyonewithapulseandacollegedegree—andteachersshouldbejudgedaftertheyhavestartedtheirjobs,notbefore.”Theargumentwasseductive,especiallybecauseitseemedtoexplainthe

successoftherisingentrepreneurialeducationmovement.Hadn’tcharterschoolslikeDougLemov’ssucceededbyactinglikethemostcutthroatNFLfranchises,recruitingandkeepingonlytheverybestteachers?Unfetteredbythe

usualunionandtenureprotections,theyhadmadegainsbydiscardingthosewhocouldn’tkeepup.Butwhatsoundedtotheeconomistslikesimplelogic—tryalotofteachers,

keepthebest,firetherest—soundedtoDeborahlikearecipeforeducationalmalpractice.Dropanunpreparedquarterbackinagame,andtheonlyriskwaslostpoints.Putanunpreparedteacherintoaclassroom,andthestudentswouldsuffer.Theeconomists’ownvalue-addedresearchshowedhowgraveariskthatwas.ByKane,Gordon,andStaiger’sestimates,ayearwithoneweakteacheraddeduptoadropof5percentilepointsinacademicperformancerank.ThestudybyChetty,Friedman,andRockoffhadgoneevenfurther,connectingstrongteachersnotonlytotheirstudents’futureearninglevels,butalsolowerteenagepregnancyratesandhighercollegeattendance.Theideanotonlydiscountedandignoredtheneedsofthechildrenthat

“anyonewithapulse”wouldberesponsibleforhelping.Italsofloutedtheprevioustwenty-fiveyearsofresearchonteaching,allofwhichsuggestedthatgoodteachingwasnotaninnatequality,amysteriousidiosyncrasysomepeoplewererandomlyassignedatbirth.Justasmostbrilliantfuturemathematicianscouldn’treinventcalculusontheirown,eventhemosttalentedfutureteachershadtobetaught.Butgivenrigorousandregularopportunitiestoworkonthecorepracticesofteaching,anewteachercouldlearntohelpherstudents.Deborahalsoknewthatmostoftheso-calledhurdlestheeconomistspilloried

—thecredentialsandlicensesandmaster’sdegreesthatdeterminedwhocouldteach—were,inpractice,notmuchofahindrance.Prettymuchanyonewithacollegedegreecouldbecomeateacher.InNewYork,forinstance,thepassratefortheteachercertificationexamin2009was92percent.Bycomparison,thepassrateforthecosmetologycertificationexamwas59percent.Asforsuccessfulcharterschools,theymightnothavelaborcontractsor

districtguidelinesonwhotohireandfire.Butthatdidn’tmeantheyusedtheirfreedomtodumpthebottomquarteroftheirteacherseachyear.AsSenecahaddiscovered,inthecharterschoolworld,performanceevaluationwasjustoneofmanyspokesinthecomplexinfrastructurethathelpedteachersachievetheirmission.PlaceslikeUncommonSchools(whereDougLemovworked),KIPP(thenetworkwhereDrewMartinandShannonGrandetaughtatRiseAcademy),andAchievementFirst(theinfrastructure-buildingnetworkthatSenecaRosenbergstudied)evaluatedtheirteachers’performance,andtheydidletsomeunsuccessfulteachersgo.Buttheyalsoworkedonrecruitment,selection,incentives,materialresourcesliketextbooksandtests,andprofessional

development.OnestudyofAchievementFirstbythegroupEducationResourceStrategiesfoundthatthecharterschoolnetworkspentlessthan1percentofitsoperatingbudgetonteacherevaluation,comparedtonearly10percentontimeforteacherstolearn.Indeed,whattheentrepreneurswereclamoringforwasnotmoreevaluation,

butmoreguidance.Howcanwegetmorerigorous?theyasked.Andwhentheysawsomethingpromising,theyleapttotryit.TheireffortstoadjusttothenewCommonCorestandardsmadethatclear.

“Thankgoodnesssomeone—notsomeone,agroupofreallythoughtfulpeople,didthis,”saidJoeNegron,amiddle-schoolmathteacherandthefoundingprincipalatKIPPInfinityinHarlem.Asateacher,Joe’sreputationcrossedstatelines.RyanHill,thefounderandexecutivedirectoroftheNewarkKIPPschools,calledJoeoneofthebestmathteachersintheentirenetwork.WhenDrewMartinatRisefoundhimselfcompetingtohireateacher,KIPPInfinitywasoneoftheonlyrivalsthatmadehimnervous.ButNegronhadspenttheyearsbeforetheCommonCorefeelingdeeplyfrustrated.Thestudentspracticedstrategiesandmemorizedtechniquesuntiltheir“eyespoppedout,”butaskthemtoexplainwhatthestrategymeant,ortoreasonaboutwhytheiranswermadesense,andtheycouldn’tevenbegin.“Iwouldgohomeandbelike,‘I’mmakingrobots,’”hesays.“ButIdidn’tknowhownotto.”TheCommonCorechangedJoeNegron’swholeapproach.Forinstance,he’d

alwaystaughtthedivisionoffractionsthroughmnemonics.“Keepit,switchit,flipit”remindedstudentstokeepthefirstfractionthesame,switchthedivisionsigntomultiplication,andthenflipthesecondfraction(“THAT’SIT!”hesanginasongtoremindthemcalled“FractionsandWeKnowThem,”modeledoffofthesong“SexyandIKnowIt”byLMFAO).Now,readingoverthestandardsandotherresourceshefound(heespeciallyappreciatedbooksbytheCaliforniamatheducatorMarilynBurns,whohelpedteacherslearnaTKOT-styleapproach),Negroncreatedtasksthathelpedstudentsunderstandwhatdividingfractionsreallymeant.Hewantedhisstudentstounderstandfractionsastheirownkindofnumber,participantsonthenumberline.Hemadethemnotonlywriteouttheequations,butalsodrawpicturesdescribingwhatthefractionsrepresented.Butforalltheexcitingchanges,Negronwasstrugglingtokeepup.Thatyear,

he’dpassedtheprincipalshipofKIPPInfinitytoacolleagueinordertoreturntoteachingfull-time.Theswitchshouldhavegivenhimmorefreetime.Instead,hefoundhewasworkingjustashard,ifnotharder.Everynight,hestayeduplate,

reworkinghislessonplansfromscratch.Whatheneededwasguidance.Help.Acoach.TheHamiltonProjectreportlookedathigh-performingteacherslikeJoe

Negron(whopresumablyachievedahighvalue-addedscore)andsawstars.Bythereport’slogic,Joeandotherteacherswhooutperformedtheirpeerswouldgetrewardsbutreceivenofurthertraining.ButasDeborahsawit,leavingtheNegronsoftheworldtotheirowndeviceswouldbeliketellingtalentedhighschoolmusiciansthey’dmadethesymphony—andthenaskingthemtolearntherepertoireontheirown.IfsheandFrancescahadtheirway,theCommonCorewouldbejustthebeginning,engenderingmaterialstohelpallteachersachievethestandardsandtopropeltalentslikeJoetonewlevelsofexpertise.IftheHamiltonProjectargumentwassustained,theCommonCorewouldbecomeonemorepiecemealmandatehandedtoteacherswithoutanyguidanceonwhattodo.Anotherincoherentlayerinanincoherentsystem.“Wehaveamomentwhenwecoulddosomethingdifferent,”Deborahsaid

oneday,sittinginacoffeeshopinAnnArbor.“Butifeverybodydoesittheirownway,forgetit.It’sgoingtobethesamethingagain.”

Forbetterorworse,theHamiltonProjectpapergainedtraction.In2007,BillGatesreadacopy.Afewweekslater,TomKanemethiminManhattantodiscussit.Thenextyear,Gatesannouncedamajorshiftinhisphilanthropy.Insteadofinvestinghundredsofmillionsofdollarsinsmallhighschools,hisfirstbigideaabouthowtoimproveschools,theGatesFoundationwouldnowdevoteitseducationresourcestotheteacherqualityproblem.Theoldproject,GatesexplainedinaTEDtalk,“hadagoodeffect.Butthemorewelookedatit,themorewerealizedthathavinggreatteacherswastheverykeything.”Gatesdescribedthedifferencesbetweentopandbottomteachersasmeasured

byHanushek’svalue-addedstatistics.“IftheentireU.S.,fortwoyears,hadtopquartileteachers,theentiredifferencebetweenusandAsiawouldgoaway.Withinfouryearswewouldbeblowingeveryoneintheworldaway.”Theconclusion,hesaid,was“simple.Allyouneedarethosetopquartileteachers.”HisanswersechoedtheHamiltonProjectpaper:useon-the-jobperformancedatatokeeptopperformers(andnotothers),steerthemtotheneedieststudents,andgivethemraises.Tohelpdistrictsdothat,Gatespromisedtoinvest$45milliontoward

designingbetterteacherevaluations.HehiredKanetoleadtheproject,calledthe

MeasuresofEffectiveTeachingproject,orMET.Fourschooldistrictswerealreadyonstandby,readytoimplementtheMETconclusions.EvaluationwasnottheonlyinvestmentGatesmadeinhiseffortstoimprove

teaching.Fromthebeginningofhiseffortstogrowwhathecalled“teachereffectiveness,”healsowantedtohelpthemgetbetter,accordingtohisleadeducationadviser,VickiPhillips,aformersuperintendentandteacher.Indeed,Phillipssaysthatfromthebeginning,thefoundationsoughttobuild“developmentandevaluationsystems.”But,especiallyforthefirstseveralyearsoftheirwork,itwastheevaluationworkthatcameoutfirst,andtheevaluationworkthatgotthemostattention.Thencameanewforcethatpushedthecountryevenmoreinthedirectionof

evaluation.TheimpetuscamefromBarackObama.Nowpresident,hehadhiredRobertGordon,KaneandStaiger’scoauthor,tohelpleadhisOfficeofManagementandBudget.Andin2009,announcinghisowneducationplan,ObamaechoedtheHamiltonProjectpaperonceagain.Recommendationfiveofthepaperread:

Providefederalgrantstohelpstatesthatlinkstudentperformancewiththeeffectivenessofindividualteachersovertime.

TheObamaadministrationcalledthegrantprogramitcreated“RacetotheTop.”Acompetitivefund,RacetotheTopofferedgrantsonlytothosestatesthatwerewillingtooverhaultheirteacherevaluationsystems—identifying,promoting,andrewardingeffectiveteachersandremovingthose“whoaren’tuptothejob.”RacetotheTopdidn’tonlyrecommendevaluation.Thelegislationalso

includedotherpolicysuggestions,likeurgingstatestogiveteachers“effectivesupport”andimprovingtheirlocalteacherpreparationprograms.Butofthetotalfivehundredpointsavailableinthecompetitivescoringsystem,thelargestportioncamefromacategorycalled“greatteachersandleaders.”Andwithinthatcategory,thelargestfactorbyfar,atfifty-eightpoints,was“improvingteacherandprincipaleffectivenessbasedonperformance,”meaningevaluation.Aspecialconditionfurtherencouragedevaluationsbydisqualifyingstatesthatbannedassessingteachersbystudents’testscores—arestrictionthatledseveralstatestorevisetheirlaws.WithRacetotheTopnudgingthemalong,schooldistrictsincreasinglysaw

teacherevaluationsastheirmostimportanttoolforimprovingteacherquality.

By2012,alltwelvestatesthatwereawardedRacetotheTopgrants,andmanythatweren’t,hadoverhauledtheirteacherevaluationsystems,including,inmanystates,raisingthestakessothatwell-ratedteachersstoodtoreceivebonuses,highersalaries,andtenureprotection,whilepoorlyratedteacherscouldbedeniedtenureorfired.Exactlyhowschooldistrictsexpectedtougherevaluationstoleadtobetter

teachingdependedonthedistrict.Onecommontheory,stemmingfromtheHamiltonProjectpaper,claimedthatachievementswouldbegainedthroughbettersorting.Bysteeringthebestteacherstothestudentswhoneededthemthemostandremovingtheworst,districtscouldarrangetheirteachingforcesothattheyhad“therightpeoplestandinginfrontoftheclassroom,”asKane,Staiger,andGordonputit.Interviewswiththirteenstatepolicymakersshowedthatsomeeducationleadershadpickedupontheidea.Theyintendedtoimprovetheteacherpoolbyweedingoutthebadones.“We’retalkingemploymentdecisions,”oneintervieweetoldresearchers.“Twoyearsofineffectiveteachingmeansthatateachershallnotbereemployed.”Increasingly,however,educationleaderswerevoicingathirdidea,onethat

didn’tcomefromtheHamiltonProjectpaper:theideathatevaluationscouldservenotassortingtools,butasdiagnostictools.Byknowinghowtheyperformed,teacherscouldfigureoutwhattheyneededtodotoimproveinthenextyear.“Thepurposebehinditisreallytohelpteachersthatarestrugglingtobebetterteachers,”anotherstateofficialtoldthegroupofresearchers.“We’rehoping,”saidanother,“thattheevaluationisdesignedtogiveveryspecificandactionablefeedbacktoteachers.”Measuresomething,thethinkingwent,anditwillgetbetter.“Simple,”asBillGatessaid.

Couldevaluationsreallyhelpteachersgetbetter?Therewassomeevidencetosupporttheidea.OneteacherevaluationprograminCincinnatigaveteachersfocusedfeedbackonspecificteachingpractices,fromthelevelofclassroomdiscoursetothequalityofthequestionstheyasked.AstudyoftheCincinnatiprogramfoundthatstudentsperformedbetterintheyearsaftertheirteachersreceivedfocusedevaluations.Butevaluations,astheyhadbeenconceivedbymoststates,wereessentiallyatwo-stepprocess.Theteacherwasobserved,andthentheteacherreceivedagrade.AskingteacherstolearngranularteachingpracticesfromthissystemwouldbelikeaskingstudentstofigureouttrigonometryfromtheirSATscores.

Anothereffort,ledbyPamGrossman,tookanobservationrubricthathadbeenstudiedasapossibleevaluationdeviceandadapteditintoanactualprofessionaldevelopmenttoolforusewithagroupofurbanteachers,withimpressiveresults.Therubric,calledPLATO,fortheProtocolforLanguageTeachingObservations,wasoneofseveralthatTomKaneandtheGatesFoundationusedaspartoftheirMETstudy.Comparingtwenty-fivethousandvideotapesofthreethousandteachersatworkagainsttherubrics,thestudyhadsoughttodiscernwhethercertainteachingpracticesledtogainsinstudents’learning.Manyofthepracticesdid,includingseveraloftheelementsinPLATO,suggestingthattherubricscouldbeusedtoevaluateteachers.Pam’sprofessionaldevelopmentprojectbegan,likeMET,byscoringteachers’

lessonsagainstthePLATOrubric.Atfirst,theteachers’PLATOscoresroughlymatchedthosefromtheMETstudy:onaverage,teachers’scoreswereadisappointing2outof4;onthecrucial“strategyinstruction”component,thescorewas1.33.*Ininterviews,onlyoneteacherdemonstratedanunderstandingofwhatstrategyinstructionwas.Amongtheelevenwhodidn’t,oneteacherwhomentionedusingastrategytalkedaboutteaching“organizationandself-direction”—notanythingtodowiththeskillsstudentsneededforEnglishclass.ButbytheendofPam’sproject,justasinCincinnati,thingshadchanged.Theteachersnoticedthedifferenceasmuchastheresearchers.Afterthefirst

PLATOtrainingsession,LorraineMcLeod,atwenty-five-yearveteranwhotaughtsixth-gradeEnglishintheSanFranciscoUnifiedSchoolDistrict,saidsheimmediately“starteddoingthingsdifferentlyinmyclassroom.”She’dalwayspridedherselfonhercharismawiththestudents.Her“PharaohGame”lesson,inwhichshedressedupasanEgyptianmonarchandtheatricallymimickedknockingdownthestudents’paper“pyramids”whentheyweren’tsturdyenough,gotstudentshystericaleveryyear.HerwritinglessonshelpedevenhermanystudentsforwhomEnglishwasasecondlanguagecraftdecentpersuasiveessays.ButPLATOstretchedherideasinnewandhelpfulways.PLATO’s“strategyinstruction”unit,forexample,helpedLorrainebreakdown

thedraftingandrevisingprocessesintosmallerparts.Inthecaseofapersuasiveessay,forexample,studentsshouldlearnnotjusttoidentifyevidence,buttodiscoverwaystocollectit(byhighlightingandmakingdeliberateannotations)andexplainit(builditintoanargumentbydescribingitsimportance).Lorrainedesignedspecificlessonsabouteachstrategy.Bymodelingwhatitlookedliketoidentifyandthenexplainevidence,shehelpedherstudentstotaketheirwriting(andtheirthinking)toahigherlevel.Asaresult,whensheassignedanessayon

whetherEmperorQinwasaneffectiveleader,herstudentsdidn’tjustdeclarethattheemperorwasaneffectiveleaderbecausehestandardizedcurrency;theyexplainedthat,bystandardizingcurrency,hehadhelpedstrengthentheeconomy,therebyimprovingthelivesofhissubjects.PLATO’s“classroomdiscourse”unit,meanwhile,helpedherstructurepathsforherdiscussionstoassistchildreninlearninghowtotalkaboutideas.ThePLATOapproachturnedevenLorraine’sfavoritelessonsintogems.One,

aunitonpoetryinwhichstudentslistenedtoBillyJoelsongs,hadalwaysbeenfuninthepast.(Shelovedgettingheryoungchargestofallforheroldmusic.)Buttheclassusuallygotstuckwhenshetriedtotransitionthemfromsingingalongwiththesongstothinkingaboutthemetaphorsinthelyrics.“Theydidn’tgetit,andIhadtoexplainitoverandoverandoveragain,”shesays.Eventhen,“onlysomekidsgotit.”InspiredbythePLATOtrainings,Lorrainerevampedtheunit,injectingitwith

strategyinstructionanddiscussion.Insteadofjustlisteningtothesong,shehadthechildrenlistenwhilefillingoutblankwordsinahandout.Then,whenallthewordsturnedouttobelandforms,shetransitionedintoastrategylessononhowtospotametaphor—andthenanotheronhowtowriteone.Fromthere,thestudentsfilledoutagraphicorganizer,brainstormingfourdifferentlandformsandtheirpossibleassociatedemotionsandpersonifications.OnlythendidtheywritepoemsmodeledaftertheBillyJoelsongs.Forthefirsttimeinhercareer,notjustafew,butall,ofthepoemsshowed

metaphoricalskill,atleastforsixth-graders.“Amountainofanxiety/fulloffear.../Amysteriousswamp/youbetterveer”;“Aplateauasflatasbirdwings/passionatebutblind”;“Thefeeblecliffofoldage”;“Avolcanothrowingfuriousfists.”BeforePLATOtraining,sheknewintheorythatallkidswerecapableofsymbolicexpression.AfterPLATO,shesawtheevidence.“Itwasn’tjustyouhavetohavepoetryinyoursoul,”shesaid.Anystudent,properlytaught,couldmakewordssing.Lorrainewasn’ttheonlyone.BythespringofthePLATOstudy’sfirstyear,

teachersacrosstheprojectweredescribingbigchangesintheirclassrooms.PLATOtraining,oneexperiencedteachertoldPamandherstudents,“hastaughtmehowtoteach.”Whentheresearchersrescoredtheteachers,theimprovementswereconfirmed.Afterjustthreecyclesofprofessionaldevelopment,theaveragePLATOscorehadsignificantlyimproved.

PamwasquicktopointoutthedifferencesbetweenPLATOasusedintheMETstudyandPLATOasusedintheirprofessionaldevelopmentprogram.TheyhadthesamenameandthesamefoundationalideasaboutgoodEnglishteaching,butthatwasaboutit.Forteachers,thePLATOrubricsusedforevaluationmeantthateither

someonecameintoyourclassroomtowatchyouteach,oryouinstalledavideocameraforadayortwoandsomeoneyounevermetwatchedthefootage.Theonlyopportunitytoimprovewouldarrivewhenthescorescameback,especiallyifthepersonwho’dseenyouteachorreviewedyourtapehelpedyouthinkabouthowyoumightdobetternexttime.Butatmost,thereviewwouldconsistofaseriesofconversations.Theevaluation’smainfunction,atleastasitwasusedintheGatesMETstudy,wasidentification(whotaughtwellandwhotaughtweakly?),notimprovement.PLATOasateachingtooldrewonstudiesoflearning.Likechildren,adults

neededchancestomakeconnectionsbetweennewcontentandwhattheyalreadyunderstood.Theyalsoneededresourcestohelpthemmaketheconnections,andtheyneededtofeelownershipoftheirownlearning.Asaresult,thePLATOtrainingbegannotbygivingteacherstheirindividualscores,butbysharingtheiraggregatescores—thegroupaverage,brokendownbyeachoftheprogram’sthirteenelements.ThenPamandherteamofgradstudentcollaboratorslettheteachersdecidewhichtwooftheelementstheywantedtoimprove.Lorraine’sgrouppickedstrategyinstructionandclassroomdiscourse,thetwoelementsonwhichtheirscoreshadstartedouttheweakest.Intheworkshopsthatfollowed,Pamandhergradstudentsdissectedthetwo

elements.Teachingteacherstousetheelementsforcedtheteamtodevelopmaterialsbeyondwhatwasintherubric.Thestartingpointwasdescription.Acorepracticelike“uptake,”forinstance,includesthreesubmoves—pressing,revoicing,andconnectingtothespeaker’sideas—allofwhichrequireddefinitionsoftheirown.Next,Pamandherteamdevisedrealexamplesofthesemovesinpractice,drawingonpreexistingclassroomvideotapesorcreatingtheirown.Finally,theycameupwithwhatPamcalled“approximationsofpractice,”exercisesdesignedtogivetheteachersachancetotryitforthemselves.Pamassigneddifferentteacherstodifferentactivitiesaccordingtotheirstartingpoints.ThoselikeLorraine,withmoreexperienceleadingadiscussion,practiced“uptake”inasimulatedwholegroup.Thosewithlessexperiencepracticedinasmallgroup.Asaresult,whenLorraineworkedonstrategyinstructionorclassroom

discoursewithherstudents,shehadmoretoturntothanvaguebuzzwordsorthescoresonherevaluation.Shenowdrewontangibleexamples(sheespeciallylikedvideosofPam’soldcollaboratorfromLosAngeles,YvonneDivansHutchinson)andherexperiencepracticingwithfellowteachers.SheevenadoptedspecialmaterialsdesignedbyPamandherteam,likesentencestemstohelpstudentsparticipateinadiscussionandanticipationguidestogetthemthinkingaboutthereadingbeforediscussingitwiththeirpeers.Infact,Lorrainedidn’trealizethatPLATOhadanyevaluationaspectatall.Asfarassheknew,itwasprofessionaldevelopment—therarekindthatactuallyhelpedhergrowratherthanwastinghertime.PLATOthedevelopmenttoolwasmuchmorethananevaluationsystem;itwasaneducationinhowtoteach.

Mightthestates’evaluationsystemsofferthiskindoflearningexperience?Theearlysignswerenotpromising.Onechallengewasthat,atthedistrictlevel,mostoftheobservationinstrumentsweregeneric,meaningtheycouldapplytoanyacademicsubject,frommathtoEnglishtohistorytoscience.Genericinstrumentssavedmoney,butusingthemmeantthatanyfeedbackwouldbegenericaswell.AndthoughtheMETstudydidnotproduceclearfindingsaboutclassroom

practice,itdidrevealthatteachersneededthemostworknotonthegenericelementsofteaching—classroommanagementchallengeslikekeepingthestudentsfocusedandengaged—butonacademicones,likefacilitatingdiscussions,speakingpreciselyaboutconcepts,andcarefullymodelingthestrategiesthatstudentsneededtomaster.Itwouldbedifficultforevaluatorstoexplorethesespecificshortcomingswith

eachindividualteacher,especiallygiventhatthedesignatedobserverinmoststateswasnotsomeonewiththesamesubject-matterspecialty,buttheschoolprincipal.Principalsoftenhadteachingexperiencethemselves,butrarelydidtheyhaveexperienceacrosseverygradeandsubject.Earlystudiesindicatedthatprincipalslackedthekindofpedagogicalcontent

knowledge—likeMKTinmath,ortheequivalentsinEnglish,history,andscience—thatwouldberequiredtohelpateacher,say,comeupwithabetterrepresentationofdividingfractions.Onepairofresearchersasked430principalstocommentonateachingcasestudy—theexactactivitytheywoulddowhenevaluatingtheirteachersforthedistrict.Intheexample,ateacherencouragedstudentstodiscusswhether5canbedividedby39.Intheirresponses,almost

halfoftheprincipalsmadenoreferencetothemathathand,andanother25percentmadeonlycursoryreferences.Theabilityofevaluationstoimproveteachingwasalsohinderedbythe

individualvalue-addedscoresthatmadeupasubstantialportionofteachers’ratings.Kanehaddemonstratedthatteachereffectswerelessmeaningfullyvolatilethanschool-wideresults.Andinthelongterm,thescoresseemedtobeimpressivelypredictiveofateacher’sperformance.Butthatdidn’tmeanthescoreswereperfectmeasures.Whileateacherjudgedeffectiveoneyearbyvalue-addedtechniqueswaslikelytocontinuetobejudgedeffectivethenextyearandtheyearafterthat,inpracticemanyteachersstillwoundupmislabeled.Measurementerrorandstatisticalrealitiesoflargenumbersmeantthatsometeacherswhoweregoodwouldinevitablybelabeledneutralorevenbadbytheirvalue-addedscore,evenifthepercentageofthemisidentifiedwasrelativelylow.Otherteacherswouldreceivevalue-addedscorescallingthemineffectiveoneyear,thenveryeffectivethenext—andviceversa.Itwasonethingtousetheestimatestostudytheteacherpopulationinthe

aggregateandquiteanothertousethemtomakedecisionsaboutindividualteachers’careers.WhentheeconomistSeanCorcoranlookedatvalue-addedscoresofNewYorkCityteachers,roughly12,000ofwhomreceivedratingsinthe2007–08schoolyear,hefoundthat31percentofEnglishteacherswhorankedinthebottomquintileofteachersin2007(thatis,thosewhowerelesseffectivethan80percentofteachers)hadjumpedtooneofthetoptwoquintilesby2008(moreeffectivethan60percent).Inotherwords,assuminghalfoftheratedteacherstaughtEnglish,ofthe1,200“worst”EnglishteachersinNewYork,372ofthembecameaboveaveragejustoneyearlater,atleastaccordingtothevalue-addedrankings.Ifthebottomquintilehadbeenfired,thedistrictwouldhavelostnearlyfourhundredteacherswhoweredestinedforeffectiveness.Ofcourse,nobodywassuggestingthatvalue-addedrankingsstandalone.

Eventhestrongestsupportersofthemeasuresadvocatedusingthemasjustaportionofateacher’srating.Butthatportion—50percentinsomecases—stillhadpower.Inapapersummarizingthechallengesofusingevaluationasanimprovement

tool,PamGrossmanandHeatherHillwrote,“Changingpracticeisslow,steadywork.”Ifpolicymakerswantedtohelpteachersimprove,theysaid,theyhadto“engageinthekindofhigh-demand,high-supportpoliciesthat...helpteacherslearn.”

DeborahBallapproachedthechallengeofrespondingtowhatshecalledthe“evaluationtidalwave”inthewaythatfeltmostfamiliar:asateachingproblem.Thanksinlargeparttothevalue-addedresearchpublicizedbyTomKane’sHamiltonProjectpaper,peopleallacrossthecountrywerebeginningtoseetheimportanceofhigh-qualityteaching.Whattheystilldidn’tunderstand—whatDeborahandothersneededtoteachthem—wasthebestwaytogetmoreteacherstodoit.Justasshehadalwaysdonewithherstudents,Deborahtargetedherresponse

atwhatseemedliketherootofthemisunderstanding:thewidespreadideathatteachingwasanaturalgift,somethingyoueithercouldorcouldn’tdo.Followingthatlogic,itmadesensetotrytoimproveteachingthroughsorting.Ifsometeachersweresimplyborntothejobandsomedestinedtofail,thelogicalcourseofactionwastothrow“anyonewithapulse”intotheclassroom,andthen,afterseeinghowtheydid,dispensewiththedudsandsavethestars.Butinfact,asDeborahexplainedtoanyonewhowouldlisten—agroupthatbegantoincludestatelawmakers,philanthropists,andcongresspeople—teachingwasanythingbutnaturalwork.Shecouldprovethatwiththosesamemathproblemsshe’ddevelopedbackingradschool,theonesthatonlyatrainedteachercouldsolve.Shecouldalsoproveitwithsimplelogic.Think,shetoldpeople,aboutallthewaysgoodteachersneedtodepartfrom

normalhumanprotocol.Ineverydaylife,whenconflictemerged,thepoliteapproachwastosmoothitover,smilingawaydifferencesofopinionorpretendingnottonoticewhenafriendmadeamistake.Teachers,bycontrast,hadtodeliberately“provokedisequilibrium,”DeborahandFrancescaForzaniwroteinanessay.Similarly,whileeverydaylifecalledforimmediatelyhelpingpeopleinneed,teachers,inordertohelptheirstudentsreallylearn,sometimesfirsthadtoletthemstruggle.Andwhileeverydaynormsrequiredpeople“toassumecommonalitywithothers’understandingofideasandargumentsandwithothers’experienceofevents,”teacherscouldnotrestonthecomfortablepresumptionofcommonground.Theyhadtoprobe.Theunnaturalnessoftheprofession,combinedwiththespecialized

knowledgeandskillitrequired,meantthatimprovingteachingsimplybysortingthebetterandworseamongtheuntrainedwouldbenotonlyineffective,butirresponsible.“Wewoulddothatinnoothersector,”Deborahsaidinaspeechin2012.“Innoothersectorinthissocietywouldwethinkthewaytosupply...

skillfulwork,wouldbetogofindpeople,hopetheydoitwell,leavethemontheirowntofigureitout.Wedon’tdothatwithnursing,andwedon’tdothatwithsurgery.Wedon’tdothatwithhairdressing,”shejoked,“andI’mprettyhappyaboutthat,totellyouthetruth.”Herpunchlinecomparisonwaspilots.“EverysingletimeIgetonaplane,”shesaid,“I’mreallygladthattheplaneisnotbeingflownbysomeonewhojustalwayslovedplanes...Butthat’swhatwedointhiscountry.Wetakepeoplewhoarecommittedtochildren,andwesayhere.Youknow,it’sindividual,workonit,figureitout.”By2013,Deborahthoughtshewas,ifnotwinning,atleastgettingmuch

betteratexplaining.AcombinationofprivatedonorsandsupportfromtheUniversityofMichiganhadhelpedDeborahandFrancescataketheirTeacherEducationInitiativenational,forminganeworganizationcalledTeachingWorks.AttheUniversityofMichigan,theSchoolofEducationfacultyhadincorporatedhigh-leveragepracticesandrestructuredtheteachereducationprogram.Prospectiveteachersnowhadchancestolearnthecoreskillsandthenpracticetheminincreasinglyauthenticsettings.Andstudentscouldn’tgraduateuntiltheypassedaseriesofassessmentsdeliberatelydesignedtomeasurewhetherthey’dmasteredthekeypractices.AtTeachingWorks,DeborahandFrancescadesignedacommoncurriculum

forteachereducation,completewitheverythingfrommodels(“exemplar”videosofteachersworkingonthehigh-leveragepractices)toinstructionalactivities(thebestwaytohelpafutureteacherlearndiscussionleading,forinstance),toassessmentsthatcouldbeusedbyanytrainingprogram,whetherattheschool,district,orstatelevel.ThenewTeachingWorkscurriculumalsoincludedarevisionofthehigh-leveragepracticesandaddedanewlistof“high-leveragecontent,”thetopicsintheK–12curriculumthatallteachersneededtoknow,nomattertheirsubject(thingslikehowtowriteathesisstatement,butnotamoregranularandlessessentialidealiketheintricaciesofrhymeandmeterinpoetry).Someresearchersremainedskepticalaboutthepossibilitiesofhelping

teacherslearntoteach.Pointingtothereamsofstudiesshowingnopositiveeffectsofprofessionaldevelopment,EricHanushek,forhispart,deemedeffortstorevampitafool’serrand.Butothersdemurred.ThatgroupincludedBillGatesandTomKane,whonowemphasizedthepowerof“feedback”andcoachinginadditiontoevaluation.Afterleavingthefoundation,KanereturnedtoHarvardtotakeonamajornewstudyexaminingtheeffectoftargetedfeedbackonteachingquality.AndtheGatesFoundation,inturn,issuedamajorgranttohelp

TeachingWorksexpanditsinfrastructure-buildingefforts.Butwhiletheinfrastructureideawasunderstandableenoughintheory,

enactingitwasmuchmoredifficult.ItwouldbeonethingsimplytoinjecttheTeachingWorkscurriculumforteachereducationintotheentrepreneurialworldthatwasalreadybuildinganAmericanversionofeducationalinfrastructure.ButDeborahandFrancescawantedtoreachalargergroupofteachersthanthat,sotheyhadtoworkwiththepatchworkthatdidexist—incoherenceandall.Deborahalsosawthegrowingsignsofabacklashdevelopingagainst

evaluationsthatswungintheopposite(butequallyflawed)direction.Likethecharterschooleducators,MagdaleneLampert,DavidCohen,PamGrossman,HeatherHill,andtheteachersinJapan,Deborahdidn’topposeteacherevaluation.Shejustdidn’tthinkthat,onitsown,evaluationcouldimproveteaching.Butastheevaluationmovementgainedmomentum,manyteachersunderstandablyturnedtheirfrustrationwithaccountabilityintoanargumentforitsopposite.Theonlywaytogetbetterteaching,theyargued,wastoleaveteachersalone—“liberate”them,onecolumnistputit,and“letthembethemselves.”YetleavingteachersalonewasexactlywhatAmericanschoolshaddoneforyears,withnogreatsuccess.TheCommonCorestandards,vitaltoestablishingcoherence,cameundera

similarpressure.InJuneof2013,Deborahwatchedwithdismayaslawmakersinherstate,Michigan,votedtoblockfundingthatwouldhavesupportedimplementationofthenewstandards.Later,legislatorsvotedthefundingthrough,butattheendof2013theywerestilldebatingwhethertofundnewCommonCore–alignedtests.Otherstateswerebackingawayfromthestandardsbyoptingoutoftheteststhatwerebeingbuilttomeasurethem.Thestandardswere,theircriticssaid,anunwelcomefederalintrusionoreven,accordingtosome,amarchtowardfascism.(“Ifthisisn’tNazism,Communism,Marxismandallthe‘ism’s,’Idon’tknowwhatis,”onecriticsaid.)Thetidewasturningtowardautonomy.Butautonomyofferedthesameprescriptionasunsupportedaccountability:anabsenceofinfrastructure.EvenifDeborahandFrancescacouldwriteacurriculumforteachereducation

thatwouldreceivewidesupport—andtheybelievedtheyweredoingjustthat—thetwoeducatorsstillfacedaslewoftacticalquestions.HowquicklyshouldtheyexpandtheTeachingWorkscurriculum,andtohowmanyteacher-traininginstitutions?AndhowcouldtheyensurethatthenewteachertrainerswouldteachtheTeachingWorkscurriculumeffectively?Agrowingnumberofedschoolprofessorsandentrepreneurswhotaughtteacherswereembracingan

approachthatPamGrossmancalledthe“practice-basedteachereducation”movement.Theyappreciatedteachingthataspiredtogetstudentsreallythinkingandlearning,strivingtowardTKOT.Andtheyhadexperiencedoingitthemselves.Buttheywerestillaminority.Eventheentrepreneurs’infrastructureofpracticewasfullofuncertainty.

DougLemovmighthavebeenworkingonamorerigoroustaxonomy2.0,andschoolslikeRiseAcademymightbeevolvingtheirapproachtodiscipline.Butwhethertherestofthemovementwouldfollowthemwasnotclear.RousseauMieze’sexperienceattheHarlemschoolpresentedanalternative

path,andnotnecessarilyabetterone.Manychartersmaintainedhighstandardsforteachertraining,butunderpressuretoreplicatetheirschoolsquickly,theysometimesfailedtoextendthelearningculturetoeverynewfranchise.Somebecamemerelysuperficialreplicas,enforcingcertaintechniqueswithoutinculcatinganunderstandingofwhytheymadesense—or,evenmoreimportant,revisingthemwhentheydidn’t.Therewasarealtensionbetweenthedesiretoscaleprogramsandtheimperativetopreservethoseprograms’quality.Forherpart,Deborah’smostoptimisticestimatewasthatTeachingWorks

wouldtakeatleasttenyearstohaveaneffect.Yeteventhiscautiousoutlookfellshortofexpectations;everyoneelseshedealtwithoperatedonmuchtightertimelines.Thestateandfederaleducationofficialsandthenationalphilanthropiststheydependedonforsupportwantedschoolsbetternotadecadefromnow,buttomorrow.“Everyonegetsimpatient,buttenyearsfromnow,ifwehadadifferentsystem,thatwouldbearevolution,notamodestchange,”Deborahsays.Thequestionwaswhetherthepiecescouldactuallyfallintoplacewithouttheirbackersmovingontothenextbigthing.Deborahisnotthekindofpersontoletthesechallengesdeterher.Inher

officehangsanexcerptfromLewisCarroll’sAlice’sAdventuresinWonderland:

“Thereisnouseintrying,”saidAlice;“onecan’tbelieveimpossiblethings.”“Idaresayyouhaven’thadmuchpractice,”saidthe

Queen.“WhenIwasyourage,Ialwaysdiditforhalfanhouraday.Why,sometimesI’vebelievedasmanyassiximpossiblethingsbeforebreakfast.”

Teaching,DavidCohenoncesaid,isaprofessionofhope.Itrequires,ontop

ofeverythingelse,aleapoffaith.Awillingnesstobelievethatsomethingthatdoesnotcurrentlyexistmightonedaycometolife.Deborahwasagreatteacherbecauseshehadspentalongtimelearninghowtoteach.Butshewasalsoagreatteacherbecausesheknewhowtohope.WhoevermadetheAliceinWonderlandposterforherhadhighlightedthelast

line:sometimesI’vebelievedasmanyassiximpossiblethingsbeforebreakfast.Deborahhungitonherdoor,likeaconjecturemadebyoneofherSpartanVillagestudents.Everytimesheleftheroffice,thereitwas,remindingher.

*ThepoorperformancematchedthedisappointingteachingqualitythattheMETresearchersfoundnationally.Nearlytwo-thirdsofteachersscoredlessthanproficientonPLATO’smeasuresof“intellectualchallenge”and“classroomdiscourse,”andmorethanhalfofalllessonswereratedunsatisfactoryfor“explicitstrategyuseandinstruction”and“modeling.”

Epilogue

HOWTOBEATEACHER(PartTwo)

Onedayin2013,midwaythroughthewritingofthisbook,IfinallyletoneoftheteachersIhadbeenobservingbeatmeinanargument.ImetAndySnyderataneventhostedbythenewsorganizationwhereIwork,

Chalkbeat(thenGothamSchools).Later,amutualfriend(himselfanexcellentteacher)toldmethatAndywasthebestteacherhe’deverseen.Students,thefriendsaid,actuallypostphotographsofthewhiteboardinAndy’sclassroomontheirFacebookprofiles.That’showmuchtheyadmirehim.Ourmutualfriendwasright.Andy,whoteacheshighschoolsocialstudiesin

theNewYorkCitypublicschools,isanextremelyskilledteacher.Sittinginhisclassroom,IoftenfeltthesamebuzzingsensationthatIgotwatchingoldtapesofMagdaleneLampertandDeborahBall,sittingintheclassroomsofMarielElgueroandShannonGrande,orobservinglessonsinTokyo.Thematerialwasforstudentshalfmyage,butIcouldstillfeelmyselflearning.TheargumentbetweenmeandAndywentlikethis:HethoughtthatIwould

beafraudtowriteabookonteachingwithouteverdoingitmyself.DidIreallywanttojointheranksofthosewhopontificateaboutteachingbuthaveneverattempteditthemselves?Irespondedthatiftheonlywarrantforwritingaboutsomethingwasdoingit,thenwhynotalsosuggestthatpoliticaljournalistsstopcoveringgovernmentuntiltheythemselvesholdoffice?Teachingshouldn’tbeexemptedfromoutsiderinquiryjustbecausesomanypeopleunderestimateitaspersonal,naturalwork.Ilostthedebate.Atleast,IlosttheargumentaboutwhetherornotIshouldtry

toteach.Andso,onagraymorninginMarchof2013,Iwokeupexceedinglyearly,and,withmyheartpounding,rodethesubwayfrommyapartmentinBrooklyntoaManhattanhighschoolcalledtheSchooloftheFuture,whereIwastoteachAndy’sclass.Twodaysearlier,planningthelesson,I’dfeltanetherealmania.Thethrilland

pleasureofputtingtogetheraplanhadtakenmebysurprise.Iwashavingfun.ButmyexuberancewasshatteredwhenIsatdownwithAndytomakefinalpreparations.Afellowteacherhappenedtowalkintotheroomwhereweweremeeting,andheandAndyeachtalkedaboutthefirstclasstheyhadtaught.Andyaskedtheotherteacherwhetherhe’dcried,explainingthatAndyhad,hisfirsttime—morethanonce.Thenhelookedatme.“Youmightcry,”hesaid.“Ijustwanttowarnyou.”Thefollowingevening,thenightbeforeclass,Ihadanightmare.Thedetails

evaporatedassoonasIwokeup,butthegistwasclear:utter,spectacularfailure.ThestudentsalreadykneweverythingIwantedtoteachthem.Presentedwithmylesson,theyhandedmebackindifference.Wakingupthatnightinanexam-levelpanic,Itossedandturnedandneverfellbacktosleep.

Thelessonwentbyfast.Ihadjustrememberedtolookattheclocktoseehowmuchtimewehadleft—andlikethat,itwasdone.AndyandIhadoneperiodtodebrief,andthenitwasontothenextbatchofstudents.Althoughhehadseveralmoreclassesthatday,Itaughtonlytwo.InonewayAndymisjudgedme.Ididnotcry,thoughIcameclose,feeling,in

theperiodbetweenlessons,anexhausted,washed-outemptinessafterallthewildexcitementrecededandmysleeplosssetin.ButAndywasrightinanother,moreimportantway.TryingtoteachshowedmethingsIcouldneverhaveknownfromwatchingandinterviewingteachers.Doingitmyself,IrelearnedeverythingthatDeborahBall,MagdaleneLampert,PamGrossman,andDougLemovhadtaughtme,butinmoreprofound,permanentways.Ihadunderstoodthatteachingwasdifficultintellectualworkfromthefirst

timeDeborahBallgavemeaMathematicalKnowledgeforTeachingtest.ButIhadn’tunderstoodhowdifficultuntilIworkedwithAndy.Toplanthelesson,thefirstinaunithewasbuildingonbiographicalwriting,Ispenthoursthinkingaboutwhatitmeanttodobiography,whatmadeithard,andwhereastudentofthecraftneededtostart.Iwonderedifitwasmoreimportanttofocusontheclaimsbiographersmakeaboutpeople,howtheycometomakethem—or,alternatively,whethertheclaimsarefair.Wasitevenpossibletoseparatethoseproblemsandworkononlyoneatatime?PagingthroughbooksandjournalisticprofilesforpassagesthatraisedtheissuesIthoughtweshouldfocuson,IthoughtaboutwhatquestionsandtextsIcouldusetogetstudentsthinkingabouttheseissues.ThenIspenthoursselectingexcerptswecouldreadanddiscussina

sixty-minutelesson—shortenoughtobeunderstandable,yetcomplexenoughtoaddresskeytopicsIwantedthestudentstoconsider.Yetevenafterallthat,onthedayoftheclassAndyandIstillstruggledto

articulatethe“goalfortoday,”whichhealwayswroteoutonthesamespotonhisclasswhiteboard.Tryingtodistillthepurposeofthelessonintoasinglesentence,Iwroteandrewrote.Bythetimethelessonstarted,crumblesofdry-erasemarkeralreadycoveredmypalm.Ilearned(again)whatLeeShulmansaidaboutpedagogicalcontent

knowledge:knowingthecontentwassimplynotenough.Ialsoneededtoknowthestudents.Sittingdowntoplanearlierintheweek,IhadproudlyshownAndythestackofbooksI’dselected,withbookmarksflaggingthepagescontainingpassagesIthoughtwecoulduse.Heleafedthroughthemquicklyand,onebyone,pronouncedthemnotgoodenough.One,abrilliantsectionofTaylorBranch’sbookPartingtheWatersthatintroducedthecivilrightsactivistBayardRustin,wastoo“boring”toholdeleventh-andtwelfth-graders’interest.SowasanotherBranchpassageI’dchosen,introducingRoyWilkins.Anotherpassage,byMichaelLewis,whichItookfromhisbookTheBigShort,mightbeokay—thecharacterbeingdescribed,thehedgefundmanagerVincentDaniel,grewupnearbyinQueens,andthereweresomesaucydetails,likethefactthathisfatherwasmurdered,“thoughnooneevertalkedaboutthat.”ButIneededtomaketheselectionmuchshorter.Anditwasstillprettyboring,accordingtoAndy.Hegavemeastackofbiographiesthestudentswerecurrentlyreading—apossibilityIhadnotanticipated.Trythese,hesuggested.Theassessmentstunnedme.I’dspenthoursselectingthesetexts,andI

thoughttheBayardRustinonewasparticularlygood.ButthoughI’dconsideredwaysthatIcouldusethepassageswiththestudents—questionsIcouldaskandproblemswecouldthinkabouttogether—“boring”wasneverafactorthatoccurredtome.I’dspenthoursinterviewingPamGrossmanaboutEnglishteachingandtheimportanceofpickingnotonlycanonicaltexts,butonesthatstudentswouldactuallyfindinteresting.ButsomehowitwasonlywhenAndydescribedhowstudentswouldreacttoeventhemostbrilliantbiographythatIreallyunderstood.Whatyouassignedthemmeantnothingiftheydidn’treadit.Whenthelessonbegan,IlearnedthatmodelingisjustaspowerfulasPam

Grossmansays.AndyandIhadplannedforthisparttohappenrightbeforethewhole-groupdiscussion—fiveminuteswhenwewouldsitinthemiddleofthestudents’circle,readingoneofthepassagestogetherandposingthequestionswewantedthestudentstolearntoask.“Whatistheauthorclaimingabouthis

subject?”“Imaginethemomentwhentheauthorfirstdecidedtowriteaboutthesubject.Whatactionsdoyouthinkhetooktolearnabouthim?Whatthinkingdidhedo?Whatchoicesdidhemake?”WeusedoneofthepassagesAndyhadthrustatmethedaybefore,fromMitchAlbom’sbookTuesdayswithMorrie.Later,afterthefirstlesson,whenAndygatheredafewstudentstogivemefeedback,theypinpointedthismomentasoneofthemosthelpful.Onestudent,Marcus,toldmehe’dneverthoughtaboutthefactthatauthorshadtolearnabouttheirsubjectsbeforewritingaboutthemuntilwebrokedownhowAlbommighthavelearnedaboutMorrie.Asajournalist,thechallengeofovercomingthatunknowingwaspartofmydailylife.Buthowwerehighschoolstudentssupposedtoknowthat?Ofcoursetheydidn’tknow.Theyhadtolearn.Andso,ofcourse,theyhadtobetaught.Ilearned,again,thatwhatHeatherKirkpatrickhadtoldmeabout“academic

discourse”wasbrutallyaccurate.Discussionsarewonderfulintheoryandeyeball-yankinglydifficulttofacilitateinaliveclassroom.Ihadtriedtoarrangethelessoninthreeparts:modeling,tostart;thenindividualpracticeworkingthroughthequestionswithadifferenttext(intheend,ItookariskandusedtheMichaelLewispassage;nobodyfellasleep),andfinallyagroupdiscussionofwhatthestudentshadlearnedthatwould,Ihoped,makethespecificideasbecomemoreabstract,takingthemfromwhatoneauthordidtowhattheymightdo,iftheyweretowriteabiographyoftheirown.ButwhenIbeganthediscussion,inthefirstperiod,IrealizedquicklythatI

wasinwayovermyhead.Tryingtokeeptrackofthestudents’ideasinmynotebookastheycame,Iwrotegibberishinstead.Andthenote-takingdisruptedmyworkingmemory.Someonesaidsomething,andIwassodistractedbyeverythingIhadtodo—keepeveryonefocused,watchtheclock,thinkaboutwhereIwantedthemtogonext,remembertheirnames,callonthisandthatstudentwho’dwrittendownaninterestingideawhilenotignoringthestudentswhoseideasweremoreconventional—thatIforgottolisten.Ijustnoddedblankly,andcalledonsomeoneelse.Inthesecondperiod,AndyandIdecidedtogiveupthediscussionentirely.It

wassimplybetternottotry.Notsurprisingly,theclasswentmuchmoresmoothly,andIspentmuchlesstimefreakingout.Maybethelessonsimplydidn’tcallfordiscussion.Ormaybe,likesomanyteachers,Itookthepaththatfeltbest:easier,butnotnecessarilybetter.Ilearned,again,whattheearlystudieshadfoundwhilesearchingforthe

optimalteacherpersonality.Charactertraitsandteachingskillarenotthesame

thing.Theyinteract,butpersonalitydoesnotleadtoskill,orviceversa.Insomeways,Iwasanatural.Duringourdebriefing,AndypointedoutthatwhenIwalkedintotheroom,thestudentsimmediatelytreatedmeastheteacher—noquestionsasked.Withoutearningit,Ihadtheirfullattention,ifnotyettheirrespect.Manyteachersaren’tthatlucky,Andysaid.Somethingintheirgaitortheirposturejustmakesitharderforthemtoholdthespotlight.ButwhileIhadsome“it”inme—“StrongVoice,”inLemovtaxonomy

parlance—inotherwaysmypersonalitybetrayedme.Myfriendsandcolleaguesknowmyhabitofblurtingcommentsthatcomeoutrudeor,asmyfriendsneverceasedtellingmeinhighschool,“awkward.”Asanadult,I’veworkedtotemperthisfilterlesspartofmyself,atleastwithpeopleI’vejustmet.Butinthecrucibleoftheclassroom,Ireverted.Whenagirlwithherhairinaskull-tightponytailsaidsomethingIdidn’tunderstand,insteadofaskingherpolitelyforclarification,Isaidsomethinglike,“Howcouldyouthinkthat?”asifshemustbeanidiottohavesuchastrangeidea.Mywordsslaughteredher.AssoonasIsaidthem,thespellI’dmanagedtocastwasbroken.Suddenly,alltwenty-somestudentswerelookingatmeandlaughing,andnotinagoodway.ThemostawfulpartwasthatIcouldn’thavepickedaworsestudenttooffend.Thegirlintheponytailwasthemostdefiantstudentintheclass,theonemostdeterminednottobuyin.Ioffendedherjustbyexisting,andnowshewaslost.Ilearned,again,whatI’dlearnedreadingMagdaleneLampert’sbookabouta

yearinherclassroom.Asinglelessonisnottheimportantunitinteaching.Myinitialmetricofsuccesswas,“Didtheylearnanything?”Butastheweekswentby,andIstayedintouchwithAndyashecontinued,dayafterday,withtheunitI’dlaunched,Irealizedhowsillythatwas.Learninginschoolhappensoverweeksandmonths,notperiodsofsixtyminutes.BythetimeAndyandthestudentsfinishedthebiographyunit,they’dmadeprogress,thenhitadeadend,restarted,andrecoveredtheveryterritoryAndyandIthoughtweweresowingthedayofmylesson.Bythetimehefinallygotthemtoproducebiographicalessaysthattheycouldallgetexcitedabout,noassessmentonEarthcoulddiscerntheeffectivenessofmysinglelesson.ThefirstandlastthingIrelearned—theonethatstuckwithmethemost—had

todowiththatfour-letterword,love.Manytimes,DougLemovhadearnestlyexplainedtometheimportanceofloveinteaching.Gooddiscipline,hetoldme,requiredthatteachersworkwiththestudents“fromlove.”WhenDougsaidthis,Ialwaysnodded.Butitwasn’tuntilItaughtAndy’sclassthatIunderstoodwhathemeant.

Justbeforethelessonstarted,AndyandIstoodintheXeroxroomintheschool’sbasement,franticallymakingcopiesofthepassagesI’dbroughtandthegraphicalorganizersI’dmade.Ihadamillionquestions,andAndyansweredthempatiently,onebyone.Hegavehisownadvicetoo,butIcan’trememberwhathesaid.SomethingabouthowtoworktheXeroxmachine,maybe,orexactlywhattimeclassbeganandendedandwhattosaywhenIwalkedintotheroom.Thenheturnedaround,hisshirtdisheveledfromnearoversleepandhiseyesred.“Here’sanotherthing,”hesaid,“andthismightbethemostimportantpoint.

Youhavetolookatthemwithloveinyourheart.Oncetheyknowthatyoucareaboutthem,thentheycanrelaxalot.”ItwastheonlythingImanagedtorememberwhenImadethatcommenttothegirlintheponytailandnearlyturnedtheentireclassagainstme.StaringatthegirlI’doffended,theonewho’dunwittinglycausedmetocedemycommand—theonlythingIhad,really—IforcedmyselftofollowAndy’sinstruction.Thegirllookedlikeshewantedtothrowmeoutthewindow.Staringbackather,Ithoughtabouthowshewasahuman,apersonIcaredabout.IdecidedthatIlovedher.Imanagedtokeepgoing.Andlater,whenIgrabbedherasshewalkedoutthe

doorattheendofclasstotellher,privately,howsorryIwasforputtingheronthespotlikethat,shegavemethemostpreciousgift.Sheturnedupherlipsinthetiniestapproximationofasmile,finallylookedmeintheeye,andshrugged.Whatever,herfacesaid.Butitwasthefirstthingshe’dcommunicatedtomeallperiodsinceourincident.Icouldhavehuggedher.

Teachingthatlesson,Irelearnedonemorething:apersonabsolutelycanlearntoteach.WorkingwithAndy,Ididn’tdoagreatjob;Ididokay.ButIknowwithmortalcertaintythatifIhadtriedthesamethingbeforeIbeganthereportingforthisbook,Iwouldhavedonedramaticallyworse.IcouldtellhowfarI’dcomewhenItalkedtofriendswhoaren’tteachers

aboutwhatIwasdoing.“Whatwillyouteach?”theyaskedme,aquestionthatrepeatedlytookmeaback.“Whatwillyouteachthemtodo?”thequestionsuggested.Intheirquestions,Iheardmyownvoice,circa2009,imaginingclassroomworkasapresentationofexpertise.Possibleanswerstotheirquestionpassedthroughmymind:Iwillteachthemtomakeasandwich,towriteaheadline,todance,toblog,tojuggle—todoanythingtheyhadneverencountered.“Whatisthethemeofthespeech?”anotherfriendasked,conflating

alessonwithalecture(aformofteaching,certainly,butjustonepartofit).MyownquestionwasnotsomuchwhatwouldIteach,buthowwouldI

managetodoit?Ithoughtnotjustabouttopics,butalsoaboutactivitiesandideas.WhatcouldIhelpthestudentslearn,andhowcouldIhelpthemlearnit?IshuddertoimaginehowIwouldhavepreparedforthelessonifithad

happenedthreeyearsearlier—hadI,likesomanynewteachers,goneintotheclassroomwithoutunderstandinghowteachingreallyworks.ProbablyIwouldhavebeenlikethefilmmakerwhohadcometoteachAndy’sclasstheweekbeforeme.Obsessingovermylesson—itsgoals,content,andsequence—IhadforcedAndytoexchangemultiplee-mailswithmeandthensitdownformorethantwohours,goingoverwhatI’ddo,stepbystep.Thefilmmaker,Andysaid,hadresistedplanningaltogether,andthencameinandbombed,failingtokeepthestudentsengaged,muchlessworkingwiththemonanythinginteresting.Istillneededatonofhelp,andnoamountofreadingandwatchingand

interviewingcouldsubstituteforrealpracticeworkingwithstudents.ButatleastIhadanunderstandingofwhatmadeteachingwork—andthatcarriedmefartherthaneitherAndyorIcouldhaveimagined.

Acknowledgments

“TheteachingIwriteaboutinthisbookisnotminealone,”MagdaleneLampertdeclaresintheopeningofherbook,TeachingProblemsandtheProblemsofTeaching.Tocribheronelasttime,thisbookisnotminealone.Thankyoutothosewhoopenedyourhearts,minds,andclassroomsand

becamemyteachersaswellasmysources.ThelistisledbybutinnowaylimitedtoDeborahLoewenbergBall,DavidCohen,PamGrossman,MagdaleneLampert,DougLemov,DrewMartin,RousseauMieze,andAkihikoTakahashi.Yougavemethemostincrediblegift,andIhavetriedmybesttogiveitbacktoeveryonewhoreadsthisbook.ThankyoutoAaronPallasforintroducingmetoDeborahBall,andto

NormanAtkinsandDavidLevinforintroducingmetoDougLemov.Thankyoutothemanypeoplewhoprovidedthetime,space,andresources

thatthisprojectrequired.PaulToughgavemethemagazineassignmentthatbecamethebookandthencommittedhistrademarkgrittoseeingmethroughtotheverybitterend,despitemanymomentswhengivingupwouldhavebeensubstantiallyeasier.PaulalsointroducedmetoVeraTitunik,anotherterrificeditorwhosemarklastshere.Mysuperstaragent,AliaHannaHabib,alongwithDavidMcCormick,helpedmeseethatwhatbeganasamagazinestorycouldbecomeabookandthenshepherdedmeintojusttherighthands.ThosebelongedtoTomMayer,whoseexpertknowledgeandskill—pouredintoinnumerableeditingsessions—willbeexaminedinournextcollaboration,BuildingaBetterEditor.ThankyoualsotoLouiseBrockett,ErinLovett,RyanHarrington,StephanieHiebert,andtherestoftheincredibleteamatW.W.Norton.ThankyoutoLynNellHancock,NicholasLemann,andtheotherbrilliant

mindsbehindtheColumbiaGraduateSchoolofJournalism’sSpencerFellowshipineducationjournalism.ThankyoutoMikeMcPhersonandtheSpencerFoundationforsupportingthisprojectnotoncebuttwice,nottomentionforsupportingahealthyportionoftheactualresearcharticlesthatmake

thisbookpossible.SupportfromtheAbeFellowshipforJournalistsattheSocialScienceResourceCouncilwasinvaluableinsendingmetoJapanandmakingsureIthrivedonceIgotthere;IamespeciallygratefultoNicoleRestrick,FernandoRojas,andTakuyaToda-Ozaki.AkihikoTakahashiandToshiakiraFujiigenerouslyfacilitatedmanylife-changingclassroomvisitsinTokyo.AlsoinTokyo,YvonneChangofferedtranslation,interpretation,directions,andgoodcompany.ThankyoutoteamChalkbeat,especiallyPhilissaCramer,AlanGottlieb,Sue

Lehmann,andGideonStein,forensuringthatIdidn’thavetogiveuponedreamforanother.IamalsoindebtedtoJillBarkin,DaarelBurnetteII,GeoffDecker,ScottElliott,ToddEngdahl,AnnaPhillips,MauraWalz,andtheever-growingranksofourfellownuancecrusaders,allofwhomalsohelpedpickupslackwhenIwasaway.Youhavealltaughtmesomuch,andyouinspiremeeverysingleday.Thankyoutothegenerousfriendsandcolleagueswhoreadthisbookinearly

andlast-minutestagesandmadeitsomuchbetterwithyourcomments—namely,DrewBailey,JessicaCampbell,DavidCohen,PhilissaCramer,RachelDry,NickEhrmann,AliaHannaHabib,RyanHill,TimothyPittman,AndySnyder,EmmaSokoloff-Rubin,IraStoll,PaulTough,andMauraWalz.IamalsoindebttoElanaEisen-Markowitz,NitzanPelman,andDaleRussakoffforconversationsthatleftabigimpression.ThankyoutoJessicaCampbell.Yourresearchassistanceandfact-checking

improvedthisbookfromstarttofinish.Thankyoutomyteachers,especially(inorderofappearance)LesleyWagner,

RalphBunday,NanetteDyas,JohnMathwin,andDarraMulderry,whoaddedimmeasurablevalue.Thankyoutomyfriends,whokeptmegroundedandunderstoodeverytimeI

couldnotleavemyapartment.ThankyoutotheEpsteinfamilyforunwaveringsupportandmanyquiet

writingrooms.Thankyoutomygrandparents—including,amongthem,threefirst-generation

collegegraduates,anormalschoolalum,anonprofitmediaentrepreneur,andaformermathteacher.ThankyoutoAndreaWeiss,JohnGreen,DanielGreen,andBenjaminGreen,

myfirstandbestteachers,readers,fact-checkersandfriends.Finally,thankyoutoDavidEpstein,whoteachesbyexampleandlooksatme

withloveinhisheart.

Notes

Thereportingforthisbookincludedmanydozensofinterviewswithteachers,administrators,policyanalysts,andresearchersoverthecourseofmorethanfiveyears.Inadditiontointerviews,Ireliedonalargenumberofresearcharticles,books,andrecordsofteaching,includingclassroomsthatIobserveddirectlyandothersmadeaccessibletomeafterthefactthroughvideotapes,transcripts,lessonplanbooks,andotherrecords.Forspaceconsiderations,Ihavenotincludedacomprehensivelist

ofalltheseinterviews,texts,andclassrooms.Thesenoteslistsourcesthatdirectlyinformedthewordsonthepagebutarenototherwiseobviousfromthetext.Exceptwherenotedotherwise,pseudonymstoreplacechildren’s

nameswereprovidedbytheauthor.

Prologue

whosenamesareprintedontheattendanceledger:ThestudentnamesinthisclassroomscenearepseudonymsinventedbyMagdaleneLampert.

“Doesanyoneagreewiththisanswer?”:TheclassroomscenesinthischapterweredescribedinMagdaleneLampert,TeachingProblemsandtheProblemsofTeaching(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2001);inmanyinterviewsbytheauthorwithLampertbetween2010and2013;andinvideotapesobtainedfromLampert.

torevealthe“senseofhumor”that“hehadalwayshad”:JamesHilton,GoodbyeMr.Chips,ProjectGutenbergAustralia,http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500111h.html,accessedSeptember2013.

thousandsofstudiesconductedoverdozensofyears:Thousandsisnotanexaggeration.Evenin1929,theresearcherSenecaRosenbergreports,scholarsofteachingdescribed“anunwieldymassofinformation...toolargeforassimilationinalifetime”;andby1974,anotherpairofresearchersestimatedthatmorethan10,000teacher-effectivenessstudieshadbeenpublished.Rosenberg,“OrganizingforQualityinEducation:IndividualisticandSystemicApproachestoTeacherQuality”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofMichigan,2012).

extrovertsorintroverts,humorousorserious,flexibleorrigid:See,forinstance,A.S.Barretal.,“WisconsinStudiesoftheMeasurementandPredictionofTeacherEffectiveness:ASummaryofInvestigations,”JournalofExperimentalEducation30,no.1(September1961);andJonahE.Rockoffetal.,CanYouRecognizeanEffectiveTeacherWhenYouRecruitOne?NBERWorkingPaper,no.14485(Cambridge,MA:NationalBureauof

EconomicResearch,2008),http://www.nber.org/papers/w14485.describedtomeas“voodoo”:JaneHannaway,interviewbytheauthor,January13,2010.

“Hewhocan,does.Hewhocannot,teaches.”:GeorgeBernardShaw,MaximsforRevolutionists,ProjectGutenberg,Kindleedition,http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26107,accessedOctober2013.

“It’swhotheirteacheris”:BarackObama,“OurKids,OurFuture”(speech,Manchester,NH,November20,2007),AmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=77022.

therebyimprovingtheoverallqualityoftheteachingforce:BarackObama,“RemarksbythePresidentonEducation”(speech,USDepartmentofEducation,Washington,DC,July24,2009),WhiteHouse,http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-at-the-Department-of-Education.

teachers“arenotrated;theyaretrusted”:ChicagoTeachersUnion,TheSchoolsChicago’sStudentsDeserve:Researched-BasedProposalstoStrengthenElementaryandSecondaryEducationintheChicagoPublicSchools(Chicago:CTU,2012),http://www.ctunet.com/blog/text/SCSD_Report-02-16-2012-1.pdf.

roughlythesamesizeasApple’sglobalemployeebase:“U.S.JobsSupportedbyApple,”Apple.com,http://www.apple.com/about/job-creation,accessedJuly27,2013.

and,finally,teachers(3.7million):DeborahLoewenbergBall,“TheWorkofTeachingandtheChallengeforTeacherEducation”(lecture,VanderbiltUniversity,September11,2008).DataarebasedonananalysisbyFrancescaForzanioftheHouseholdDataAnnualAveragesfromtheBureauofLaborStatistics.

[numberofAmericansindifferentprofessions]:Thispresentation

wasmadein2008.ThelatestCensusBureaudatacontinuetoestablishteachersasthelargestoccupationalgroupintheUnitedStates.SeeRichardIngersollandLisaMerrill,SevenTrends:TheTransformationoftheTeachingForce,CPREWorkingPaper,no.#WP-01(Philadelphia:ConsortiumforPolicyResearchinEducation,2012).

morethanthreemillionnewteachersbetween2014and2020:WilliamJ.HusserandTabithaM.Bailey,ProjectionsofEducationStatisticsto2020,39thed.(Washington,DC:NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2011),http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011026.pdf.SeeTable16,p.53.

Butthedistrictstillneededsixhundrednewteachers:NancySlavin(thendirectorofrecruitment,ChicagoPublicSchools),interviewsbytheauthor,December4and18,2009.

startworkatpublicandprivateschoolseveryyear:HusserandBailey,Projections,Table16,p.53.

She’drathernotbecaughtwatchingsomeoneelsedoit:StevenFarr,interviewbytheauthor,January18,2010.

betterworkingconditionsandmoreflexibility:SusannaLoeb,LindaDarling-Hammond,andJohnLuczak,“HowTeachingConditionsPredictTeacherTurnoverinCaliforniaSchools,”PeabodyJournalofEducation80,no.3(2005):47.

anaveragehouseholdincomeinthecountry’stopten:“2011AmericanCommunitySurvey,”USCensusBureau,http://www.census.gov/acs,accessedNovember2011.

“thegreatestartinalltheworld”:FrancisW.Parker,NotesofTalksonTeaching,reportedbyLeliaE.Patridge(NewYork:E.L.Kellogg,1891),21,http://books.google.com/books?id=9aLsAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0%2522%20%255Cl#v=onepage&q&f=false,accessedDecember29,2013.

andhedidnotintendtogivethemup:Ibid.,xii.Evenanotherteachercalledhimafool:WilliamMilfordGiffin,

SchoolDaysintheFifties:ATrueStorywithSomeUntrue

NamesofPersonsandPlaces(Chicago:A.Flanagan,1906),125,http://books.google.com/books?id=P449AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA63&dq=school+days+in+the+fifties+francis+parker&hl=en&sa=X&ei=z-HAUvikIdWvsQTK6ICYDg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false,accessedDecember29,2013.

“Thegeneralpublicwasagainstit”:OrvilleT.Bright,HomerBevans,andJohnLancasterSpalding,“AddressesDeliveredattheMemorialExercisesGivenbythePublicSchoolTeachersofChicagoandCookCounty,Auditorium,April19,1902,”ElementarySchoolTeacherandCourseofStudy2,no.10(June1902):728.

destinedtobeholdhispromisedlandonlyfromafar:WilliamR.Harperetal.,“InMemoriam.ColonelFrancisWaylandParker,LateDirectoroftheSchoolofEducation,UniversityofChicago,”ElementarySchoolTeacherandCourseofStudy2,no.10(June1902):715.

lettinggreatteachers’secretsliveanddiewiththem:JohnDewey,TheSourcesofaScienceofEducation(NewYork:HoraceLiveright,1929),Kindleedition,http://www.archive.org/stream/sourcesofascienc009452mbp#page/n13/mode/2up,p.10.

“canbecommunicatedtoothers”:Ibid.,11.bothdiedbeforeseeing“educationalPalestine”:Harperetal.,“In

Memoriam,”715.

ChapterOne

hejoinedtheprestigiousnewBureauofEducationalResearch:DavidBerliner,“ToilinginPasteur’sQuadrant:TheContributionsofN.L.GagetoEducationalPsychology,”TeachingandTeacherEducation20,no.4(May2004):329–40.

withbarroomstorytellinglateintothenight:ThefollowingportraitofNateGageasateacherandscholarisbasedonDavidBerliner,“ToilinginPasteur’sQuadrant,”andoninterviewsbytheauthorwithDavidBerliner(February7,2012),BarakRosenshine(February19,2012),FrankSobol(February27,2012),LovelyBillups(February4,2012),andGarryMcDaniels(February17,2012).

tofallasleepinthemiddleofhislectures:Berliner,interview.eyecolor,clothingstyle,andstrengthofgrip:Thestudiesreferenced

inthisparagrapharesummarizedinThomasL.Good,BruceJ.Biddle,andJereE.Brophy,TeachersMakeaDifference(NewYork:Holt,Rinehart,andWinston,1975),14;andinA.S.Barretal.,“WisconsinStudiesoftheMeasurementandPredictionofTeacherEffectiveness:ASummaryofInvestigations,”JournalofExperimentalEducation30,no.1(September1961),103.

“cruel,depressed,unsympathetic,andmorallydepraved”:QuotedinEgonG.Guba,“ReviewofHandbookofResearchonTeaching,byN.L.Gage,”TheoryintoPractice2,no.2(April1963):114.

called,unhelpfully,“teachingskill”:DonaldM.Medley,“EarlyHistoryofResearchonTeacherBehavior,”InternationalReviewofEducation18,no.4(1972):431.

orimprovingteacher-educationprograms:QuotedinGood,Biddle,andBrophy,TeachersMakeaDifference,13.

“Ithinkthereareaboutsixweeksofit”:GeraldineJoncich,TheSanePositivist:ABiographyofEdwardL.Thorndike

(Middletown,CT:WesleyanUniversityPress,1968),156.EdwardThorndike,anotherfoundationalfigure:DavidBerliner,

“The100-YearJourneyofEducationalPsychology,”inExploringAppliedPsychology:OriginsandCriticalAnalyses,eds.ThomasK.FaganandGaryR.VandenBos.(Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,1993),193.

callingthetripsa“bore”:Joncich,SanePositivist,163,230.“Do?Why,I’dresign!”:Ibid.,217.“Neverwillyougetabetterpsychologicalsubjectthanahungry

cat”:EdwardLeeThorndike,AnimalIntelligence(NewYork:Macmillan,1911),54.

Buthedidnotstudyteachers:EllenCondliffeLagemann,AnElusiveScience:TheTroublingHistoryofEducationResearch(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2000),56–66.

Deweysethisworkineducationaside:Ibid.,55–56.anduniversitiesdidnothireJews:TheportraitofNateGageinthis

paragraphdrawsonaninterviewbytheauthorwithDavidBerlineronFebruary7,2012;aswellasonDavidC.Berliner,“ToilinginPasteur’sQuadrant:TheContributionsofN.L.GagetoEducationalPsychology,”TeachingandTeacherEducation20(2004):329–40.

byscouringpsychdepartments’rejectlists:BarakRosenshine,interviewbytheauthor,February19,2012.

“anduncommoncommonsense”:QuotedinArthurG.Powell,TheUncertainProfession:HarvardandtheSearchforEducationalAuthority(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1980),48.

“thelorddeliverustherefrom”:QuotedinWillisRudy,“JosiahRoyceandtheArtofTeaching,”EducationalTheory2,no.3(July1952):158–69.

thenumberofteachersalonewasnearingonemillion:TheenrollmentandstaffingfiguresinthisparagrapharetakenfromThomasD.Snyder,ed.,120YearsofAmericanEducation:AStatisticalPortrait(Washington,DC:NationalCenterfor

EducationStatistics,1993),34.“orMendelinraisinghispeas”:A.S.Barretal.,“Reportofthe

CommitteeontheCriteriaofTeacherEffectiveness,”ReviewofEducationalResearch22,no.3(June1952):261.

inthemessycauldronofarealschool:See,forexample,JohnDewey,TheSourcesofaScienceofEducation(NewYork:HoraceLiveright,1929),Kindleedition;andLagemann,ElusiveScience,48–51.

tofindoutwhichteachershadexplaineditbest:ThisparagraphdrawsonN.L.Gageetal.,ExplorationsoftheTeacher’sEffectivenessinExplaining,TechnicalReport,no.4(Stanford,CA:StanfordCenterforResearchandDevelopmentinTeaching,1968).

“Idonotknowifyouhaveeverheardofthebook...”:ThedescriptionofBarakRosenshine’sresearchdrawsonGageetal.,“Explorations,”48.

sodidahighlevelofright-to-leftmovement:Gageetal.,“Explorations,”39–40.

theonlytwogivingpapersonthetopic:Berliner,“ToilinginPasteur’sQuadrant,”339.

thevolumesold30,000copies:Ibid.,334.thepamphlethadsold130,000copies:NancyJ.Hultquist,“ABrief

HistoryofAERA’sPublishing,”EducationalResearcher5,no.11(December1976):12.

toconverthisfindingsintousablelessonsforteachers:LovelyBillups,interviewbytheauthor,February4,2012.

butwithtransformingit:RichardNixon,“SpecialMessagetotheCongressonEducationReform”(speech,Washington,DC,March3,1970),AmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2895#ixzz1njSzPyoX.

“wastochangethefield”:GarryMcDaniels,interviewbytheauthor,February17,2012.

ayoungprofessorvisitingfromMichiganStatenamedLeeShulman:

TheaccountoftheNIE’ssupportforteachingresearchdrawsonGarryMcDaniels,interviewbytheauthor,February17,2012.

“Doesn’tNaterealizethatbehaviorismisonlifesupport?”:LeeShulman,interviewbytheauthor,November2010.

psychologyhadtoreckonwithcognition:Formorebackgroundontheoriginsofcognitivescience,seeHowardGardner,TheMind’sNewScience:AHistoryoftheCognitiveRevolution(NewYork:BasicBooks,1985).

whatLeehadalwaysfoundfascinatingwasthinking:Thischapter’sportraitofLeeShulmanisdrawnfrominterviewsbytheauthorinNovember2010,January2011,andFebruary2012,aswellasrecordscapturedbytheInsidetheAcademyprojectatArizonaStateUniversity.Seehttp://insidetheacademy.asu.edu/photo-gallery-lee-shulmanandhttp://insidetheacademy.asu.edu/lee-shulman.

“hethinksofcloudsandacomingshower”:JohnDewey,HowWeThink(Boston:Heath,1910),Kindleedition.

“thereisblindgropinginthedark”:JohnDewey,Logic:TheTheoryofInquiry(HenryHolt,1938),Kindleedition.

farmorecomplexthanthetextbooksportrayed:ThedescriptionofLeeShulman’sresearchonmedicalproblemsolvingisdrawnfromArthurS.Elstein,LeeS.Shulman,andSarahA.Sprafka,MedicalProblemSolving:AnAnalysisofClinicalReasoning(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1978);LeeS.ShulmanandArthurS.Elstein,“StudiesofProblemSolving,Judgment,andDecisionMaking,”ReviewofResearchinEducation3(1975):3–42;andinterviewsbytheauthorwithShulman(November2010,January2011,andFebruary2012)andElstein(February6,2012).

quitewhatformthetransformationwouldtake:InadditiontotheworkonteacherthinkingthatLeeShulman’sworkonmedicalproblem-solvingeventuallyinspired(describedlaterinthischapter),Shulmanalsocoauthored,withArthurElstein,anarticle

morestraightforwardlyexaminingtheearlywork’simplicationsforeducationresearchduringthatyearatStanford:LeeS.ShulmanandArthurS.Elstein,“StudiesofProblemSolving,Judgment,andDecisionMaking:ImplicationsforEducationalResearch,”ReviewofResearchinEducation3(1975):3–42.

andcalledthem“informationprocessors”:LeeS.Shulmanetal.,“TeachingasClinicalInformationProcessing,”ed.N.L.Gage,Panel6Report(Washington,DC:NationalConferenceonStudiesinTeaching,1975).

“Andfromthere,allwascommentaryandinterpretation”:GarySykes,interviewbytheauthor,February20,2012.

especiallyMaryBuddRowe’sstudyof“waittime”:See,forexample,MaryBuddRowe,“WaitTime:SlowingDownMayBeaWayofSpeedingUp!”JournalofTeacherEducation37,no.1(1986):43–50,http://jte.sagepub.com/content/37/1/43.abstract.

“blessingsdippedinacid”:LeeS.Shulman,TheWisdomofPractice:EssaysonTeaching,Learning,andLearningtoTeach,ed.SuzanneM.Wilson(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2004),263.

“itisfarmoregermane”:Ibid.,258.andhedecidestodoanotherthinginstead:JeromeBruner,Actual

Minds,PossibleWords(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1986),17.

theymean“teacher”:Shulman,WisdomofPractice,197.“muchlessgeneratingorpredicting”:Shulmanetal.,“Teachingas

Clinical,”19.“said[ConnecticutcongressmanAbraham]Ribicoff”:UnitedPress

International(UPI),“WasSchoolRacialReportBuried?”August18,1966.Versionsofthereportraninmanypapers,includingtheBostonGlobe.

overcomethechallengesoftheirenvironments:JamesS.Colemanetal.,EqualityofEducationalOpportunity(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare,1966).

“andmoremoneyintoschoolstotryandimprovethem?”:Eric

Hanushek,interviewbytheauthor,March31,2009.acrossninety-threedifferentvariables:RichardJohnMurnane,“The

ImpactofSchoolResourcesontheLearningofInner-CityChildren”(PhDdissertation,YaleUniversity,1974),22–23.

adatasetfromaschooldistrictinCalifornia:EricA.Hanushek,EducationandRace(Lexington,MA:Heath,1972),36.

whetherindividualteachershadaneffectaswell:RichardJohnMurnane,“ImpactofSchoolResources,”26,explainsthelimitationsoftheColemanReportdata.

asmeasuredbytestscores:AclearsummaryofthefindingsisinEricA.Hanushek,“ThrowingMoneyatSchools,”JournalofPolicyAnalysisandManagement1,no.1(1981):29.

“conceptuallytheproblemappearssoluble”:Thedescriptionof“TeacherAccountability”isinHanushek,EducationandRace,115.

Hanushekgavehismethodaname:“value-added”:Tomyknowledge,thefirstappearanceofthetermvalue-addedcameinafootnoteinEricA.Hanushek,“EducationPolicyResearch—AnIndustryPerspective,”EconomicsofEducationReview1,no.2(1981):8.

Thatis,classroomteachingandlearning:Hanushek,EducationandRace,15.

ChapterTwo

“andIknewIwashome,”shesays:ThefollowingaccountdrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithMindyEmersononMarch30,2012,andJuly17,2012.

“FROMTHEDESKOFJESSIEJ.FRY”:TheportraitofDeborahLoewenbergBall’steachingcareerinthischapterdrawsonmanyinterviewsbytheauthorwithBallfromApril2009toNovember2013,aswellasonrecordsoftheperiodobtainedfromBallandfromJessieFry(nowknownasJessieStorey-Fry),includingphotographs,curriculummaterials,andlessonplanbooks.

togrowcotyledonsandbrineshrimp?:DeborahworkedwithanexperimentalsciencecurriculumdevelopedthroughtheScienceCurriculumImprovementStudy,whichwassupportedbyagrantfromtheNationalScienceFoundationbeginninginthe1960s.

reflectingontheexperienceinanessay:MagdaleneLampertandDeborahLoewenbergBall,Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics:InvestigationsofRealPractice(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,1998),14.

whensheassumedtheywerelearning?:Ibid.anewexperimentalcurriculumforelementaryschoolmath:The

MichiganStateprofessorwhomBallconsultedwasPerryLanier.ThecurriculumheintroducedhertowascalledtheComprehensiveSchoolMathematicsProgram,orCSMP.CSMP’screationwasheavilyinfluencedbytwoBelgianmatheducators,GeorgesPapyandFrédériquePapy-Lenger.

asawaytobeginalessononnegativenumbers:CSMPMathematicsfortheFirstGrade:Teacher’sGuide(Aurora,CO:McRELInstitute,1992),http://ceure.buffalostate.edu/~csmp/CSMPProgram/Primary%20Disk/FGRADE/TOTAL.PDF,p.4-473.

Whatabouttosubtract(forexample,3minus−5)?:BallrecountsherteachingofnegativenumbersthroughanelevatorprobleminDeborahLoewenbergBall,“WithanEyeontheMathematicalHorizon:DilemmasofTeachingElementarySchoolMathematics,”ElementarySchoolJournal93,no.4(1993),378–81.

“mentallyandemotionallycrushingatworst”:DeborahLoewenbergBall,“KnowledgeandReasoninginMathematicalPedagogy:ExaminingWhatProspectiveTeachersBringtoTeacherEducation”(PhDdissertation,MichiganStateUniversity,1988),1,http://www-personal.umich.edu/~dball/books/DBall_dissertation.pdf.

andsuddenlyitwouldmakesense:ThedescriptionofBall’sexperienceinJosephAdney’sclassdrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithBallinSeptember2010,aswellasonBall’sdescriptioninLampertandBall,Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics,16.

WhatshouldDeborahdotomorrow?:ThedescriptionofBall’ssummerschoolsectiondrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithBall(September2010andMay26,2012),aswellasonLampertandBall,Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics,16–18.

didn’tbecomecasualtiesoftheexperiment:LampertandBall,Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics,17.

askedaclassofrisingsixth-graderstoconsiderarectangle:ThedescriptionofadayattheElementaryMathLabthatfollowsdrawsontheauthor’spersonalobservationsonJuly23,2012.

agirlnamedAnya:ThepseudonymsinthisscenewereprovidedbytheElementaryMathLab.

Deborahaddedtheproblemtothewarm-up:Theauthor’sobservationsattheElementaryMathLabweresupportedbymanyparticipants.ThisdescriptiondrawsespeciallyontheinsightsofHymanBass,CatherineDitto,andBrianCohen.

“Howcanwehavethis?”BetsyaskedJeannie:Thepseudonymsin

thisscenewereprovidedbyDeborahBall.“Twoths.Imeanhalves.”:DeborahLoewenbergBall,“Halves,

Pieces,andTwoths:ConstructingandUsingRepresentationalContextsinTeachingFractions,”inRationalNumbers:AnIntegrationofResearch,eds.T.P.Carpenteretal.(Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum,1993),192.

andgaveittoeducationmajorsabouttograduate:ThefollowingdescriptiondrawsonBall,“KnowledgeandReasoning.”

explainedateachernamedRachel:Ball,“KnowledgeandReasoning,”52.

buttheperfectmixofthetwo:LeeS.Shulman,TheWisdomofPractice:EssaysonTeaching,Learning,andLearningtoTeach,ed.SuzanneM.Wilson(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2004),203.

Theremainingeightcameupwithnothing:Ball,“KnowledgeandReasoning,”65.

“ThisKindofTeaching”woulddofine:Ifirstheardtheterm“ThisKindofTeaching”anditsabbreviation,TKOT,fromSharonFeiman-Nemser,nowtheMandelProfessorofJewishEducationatBrandeisUniversity.AccordingtoFeiman-Nemser,thetermwasdevelopedbyherandherthencolleaguesatMichiganState’sNationalCenterforResearchonTeacherEducationaspartoftheuniversity’sTeacherEducationandLearningtoTeachproject.“ThisKindofTeaching”alsoappearsinLampertandBall,Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics,31–35.AlthoughneitherMagdaleneLampertnorDeborahBallusesthetermTKOTtoday,Iuseitthroughoutthisbookforthesakeofclarity.ForadescriptionofMichiganStateeducators’thinkingatthetimeabout“teachingforunderstanding,”seeDavidK.Cohen,MilbreyW.McLaughlin,andJoanE.Talbert,eds.,TeachingforUnderstanding:ChallengesforPolicyandPractice(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1992).

herteachingwasakindof“existenceproof”:MagdaleneLampert,“WhentheProblemIsNottheQuestionandtheSolutionIsNot

theAnswer:MathematicalKnowingandTeaching,”AmericanEducationalResearchJournal27,no.1(Spring1990),36.

andwritingabouthisteaching,allatonce:ThecolleagueonwhoseuniquemixofpursuitsMagdaleneLampertmodeledherowncareerisMarvinHoffman,alongtimeteacher,teachereducator,andcurrentlytheassociatedirectoroftheUniversityofChicagoUrbanTeacherEducationProgramandfoundingdirectoroftheUChicagoCharterSchoolNorthKenwood/OaklandCharterCampus.

allanobserverwouldhavetodowasclickabutton:MagdaleneLampert,TeachingProblemsandtheProblemsofTeaching(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2001),39.

whichdaystheywouldtakenotes:Adescriptionoftheproject’smethodologyisinLampertandBall,Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics,38–60.

“Itwasjustaverycompellingstory”:KaraSuzuka,interviewbytheauthor,July2012.

“todevelopingdirectperformanceincentives”:EricHanushek,“ThrowingMoneyatSchools,”JournalofPolicyAnalysisandManagement1,no.1(1981):19.

thatlooked,atfirstglance,ordinary:ThefollowingaccountofasceneinDeborahBall’sclassroomandHymanBass’sexperiencewatchingitisbasedoninterviewsbytheauthorwithBass(July2012)andBall(alsoJuly2012),andonvideotapeandtranscriptsobtainedfromtheUniversityofMichigan’sMathematicsTeachingandLearningtoTeachProject.

hijackedbyatallboynamedSean:ThepseudonymsinthisscenewereinventedbyDeborahBall.

“thatareentailedbytheactualworkofteaching”:HymanBass,“Mathematics,Mathematicians,andMathematicsEducation,”BulletinoftheAmericanMathematicalSociety42,no.4(2005):429.

neither(tothesubjects’horror)didothermathematicians:Deborah

LoewenbergBall,HeatherC.Hill,andHymanBass,“KnowingMathematicsforTeaching,”AmericanEducator,Fall2005,14.

byinterviewingwitnessesabouttheircharacteristics:AnarchiveofmaterialsdocumentingSquareOneTVisavailableathttp://www.squareonetv.org,accessedOctober27,2013.

ChapterThree

acollegealternativethatthrivedintheearlytwentiethcentury:AnexcellenthistoryofnormalschoolsisavailableinFrancescaM.Forzani,“TheWorkofReforminTeacherEducation”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofMichigan,2011),16–71.

a“sideshowtotheperformanceinthecenterring”:JudithTaackLanieretal.,Tomorrow’sSchoolsofEducation:AReportoftheHolmesGroup(EastLansing,MI:HolmesGroup,1995),17.

“anythingbutschoolsofpedagogy”:HarryJudge,AmericanGraduateSchoolsofEducation:AViewfromAbroad:AReporttotheFordFoundation(NewYork:FordFoundation,1982),42.

“withatleastacourtesyappointmentinanotherdepartmentaswell”:Ibid.,10.

nottohavetoworkwith“dumb-assedteachers”:Ibid.,31.Theeddepartmentbecame“ourdumpingground”:Ibid.,21.theyrarelystrolledinbefore10:00a.m.:Forzani,“WorkofReform,”

191.muchlesstodiscernwhatmadethemsucceed:Ibid.,179.“aprolongedfitofabsentmindedness”:Judge,AmericanGraduate

Schools,21.“howtohelpchildrendressforrecess”:Forzani,“WorkofReform,”

198.a25percentincreaseforfutureinitiativesfocusedonhermission:

ThepercentagesarebasedonaninterviewbytheauthorwithLeeShulmaninNovember2010.Inaseparateinterview(September2013),JudyLanier—nowJudithGallagher—couldnotconfirmwhethertheseprecisenumberswerecorrect,butshedidconfirmthegeneralstrategyofcuttingmoreintheshortterminordertowinalargerbudgettailoredtohervisioninthefuture.

workingatbothOxfordandMSU:DavidCarrolletal.,eds.,

TransformingTeacherEducation:ReflectionsfromtheField(Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2007),12.

“ratherthanbytheinductionsofreason”:QuotedinSuzanneM.Wilson,CaliforniaDreaming:ReformingMathematicsEducation(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2003),9.

“’Tishere,’tisthere,’tisgone’”:AlfredNorthWhitehead,AnIntroductiontoMathematics(NewYork:Holt,1911),7–8.

“someofthebeautyandpowerofmathematics”:Wilson,CaliforniaDreaming,13.

“thestatementsoftheassignedtext”:LarryCuban,HowTeachersTaught:ConstancyandChangeinAmericanClassrooms,1880–1990,2nded.(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,1993),28–29.

diagnosing“mindlessness”acrosstheboard:CharlesSilberman,CrisisintheClassroom:TheRemakingofAmericanEducation(NewYork:RandomHouse,1970),10–11.

withoutwonderingaboutthedifferencefromhisfirstcalculation:TerezinhaNunesCarraher,DavidWilliamCarraher,andAnaluciaDiasSchliemann,“MathematicsintheStreetsandintheSchools,”BritishJournalofDevelopmentalPsychology3(1985):6.

(software,videogames,cellphonecalls):LindaDarling-Hammond,TheFlatWorldandEducation:HowAmerica’sCommitmenttoEquityWillDetermineOurFuture(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2010),4.

waslessthanafourth,havingtodowith4:A.AlfredTaubman,ThresholdResistance:TheExtraordinaryCareerofaLuxuryRetailingPioneer(NewYork:HarperBusiness,2007).

theypaidagainfortheirown:Ibid.“itwasnoexaggerationtospeakofa‘movement’forschool

reform”:DavidK.CohenandHeatherC.Hill,LearningPolicy:WhenStateEducationReformWorks(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2001),14.

andhowweretheygoingtolearnit?:ParaphraseofMagdalene

writingaboutRuthHeatoninRuthM.HeatonandMagdaleneLampert,“LearningtoHearVoices:InventingaNewPedagogyofTeacherEducation,”inTeachingforUnderstanding:ChallengesforPolicyandPractice,eds.DavidK.Cohen,MilbreyW.McLaughlin,andJoanE.Talbert(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1992),53.

thesoundofnoonethinking:RuthMaryHeaton,“CreatingandStudyingaPracticeofTeachingElementaryMathematicsforUnderstanding”(PhDdissertation,MichiganStateUniversity,1994),130.SeealsoRuthM.Heaton,TeachingMathematicstotheNewStandards:RelearningtheDance(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2000).

thestudent,aboynamedRichard:PseudonymsforallofRuthHeaton’sstudentswereinventedbyRuthandpublishedinherdissertation(“CreatingandStudyingaPracticeofTeachingElementaryMathematicsforUnderstanding”).

andhesaiditagain:“000,111,000”:Heaton,“CreatingandStudying,”131–34.

“IfeltlikeIwasflounderingtoday”:Ibid.,136.(amorefertilewayofrespondingtostudents’ideas):Heatonand

Lampert,“LearningtoHearVoices,”55–58.andconstructaresponsetopullthemthere:Thedescriptionofthis

teachingepisodedrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithRuthHeatoninAugust2012,andonHeatonandLampert,“LearningtoHearVoices,”62–70.

countingoutthecalculationwithcheckers:Ruthusedacountingtoolcalledaminicomputertohelpstudentslearnmentalcomputationskills.Asetofmulticoloredcardboardsheetsonwhichchildrenlaidcheckers,theminicomputerallowedstudentstouseasmallnumberofcheckerstoconveylargenumbers.Placingthecheckersonsquaresofdifferentcolorsconveyeddifferentvalues.Forexample,ononesheet,acheckeronapurplesquarerepresented4,whileacheckeronaredsquarerepresented2—a

totalof6.Onasecondsheet,eachsquarerepresented10timesthevalue,soonecheckeronapurplesquarebecame40,andonecheckeronaredsquarebecame20—atotalof60.Remarkably,workingwithaskilledteacher,youngchildrenquicklybecomefluentinusingtheminicomputertoadd,subtract,andmultiply.TheminicomputerwascreatedbytheBelgianmathematicianandmatheducatorGeorgesPapy,who,withhiswifeFrédériquePapy-Lenger,wasamajorinfluenceontheexperimentalcurriculumthatRuth,Deborah,andMagdaleneallusedattheSpartanVillageschool.

“HowdoIkeepitup?”:ThedescriptionofthisteachingepisodedrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithRuthHeatoninAugust2012,andonHeaton,“CreatingandStudying,”173–224.

“Facilitating,”shecalledit:TheprecedingdescriptionofSylviaRundquist’steachingdrawsonDeborahL.BallandSylviaS.Rundquist,“CollaborationasaContextforJoiningTeacherLearningwithLearningaboutTeaching,”inCohenetal.,TeachingforUnderstanding,13–37.

“Thiscoursehasenlightenedmetoawholeworld”:MagdaleneLampertandDeborahLoewenbergBall,Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics:InvestigationsofRealPractice(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,1998),35–155.

or“surrendertheirfranchise”:JudithLanier,Tomorrow’sTeachers:AReportoftheHolmesGroup(EastLansing,MI:HolmesGroup,1986).

fromcollegesanduniversitiesallacrossthecountry:FrankMurray,interviewbytheauthor,February18,2010.

“couldthinkandreasoninsuchadvancedways”:DavidK.CohenandDeborahLoewenbergBall,“RelationsbetweenPolicyandPractice:ACommentary,”EducationalEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis12,no.3(Autumn1990):333.

evensomethatwereobviouslyfaroff:ThedescriptionofMrs.Oublier’steachingdrawsfromDavidK.Cohen,“ARevolutionin

OneClassroom:TheCaseofMrs.Oublier,”EducationalEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis12,no.3(Autumn1990):311–29.

“Toaone,weneversawradicalchange”:Wilson,CaliforniaDreaming,207.

shemovedon:DeborahLoewenbergBall,“ReflectionsandDeflectionsofPolicy:TheCaseofCarolTurner,”EducationalEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis12,no.3(Autumn1990):250–51.

hadadoptedforoldworksheets:Wilson,CaliforniaDreaming,207.“teachingformisunderstanding?”:CohenandBall,“Relations

betweenPolicyandPractice,”331.“hadremainedessentiallythesame”:Wilson,CaliforniaDreaming,

55.tomakesurethestudents’answersarecorrect:Ibid.,85–93.here’stheframework;goodluck:Cohen,“RevolutioninOne

Classroom.”“intermsoftheproductivityexpectedfortenure”:QuotedinForzani,

“WorkofReform,”246.“That’sjustnotenoughpeopletomakeitwork”:Ibid.,253.attheinsistenceofthesamecolleagueswholaterquestionedit:Judith

Gallagher,interviewbyJessicaCampbell(factcheckerfortheauthor),November2013.

“andotherinstrumentsovertheheadsofhercolleagues”:Ibid.,257.todealwithbothschoolbusinessandteachingpractices:The

followingaccountoftheSpartanVillageschool’sstruggleinsustainingitsreformsisbasedonmultipleinterviewsbytheauthorwithJessieStorey-FrybetweenAprilandAugust2012,areviewofrecordsfromthetimeprovidedbyStorey-Fry,andinterviewsbytheauthorwithseveralformerSpartanVillageteachers.

Othersjokedaboutbeing“bugged”:AphotographprovidedbyJessieStorey-Fryrecordsanarchnotefromherstaff.“We’resoglad

you’llbeleadingusthroughthehardtimesahead.We’rehappywecancontinuetoworkinabug-freeenvironment,”theteacherswrotetoher.

ChapterFour

She’dopenedherremarkswithawarning:ForthischaptertheauthorreliedontwotripstoTokyo,Japan,inNovember–December2011andApril2012,whereinterviewsandobservationsweretranslatedbythereporterYvonneChang.

betterthanthosewiththehighestscoresinMinneapolis:ReportedinRichardLynn,“MathematicsTeachinginJapan,”inNewDirectionsinMathematicsEducation,ed.BrianGreerandGerryMulhern(London:Routledge,1989).

especiallyinmattersofscienceandmath:Forbackgroundonstudiesofinternationalmathachievement,seeInaV.S.MullisandMichaelO.Martin,“TIMSSinPerspective:LessonsLearnedfromIEA’sFourDecadesofInternationalMathematicsAssessments,”inLessonsLearned:WhatInternationalAssessmentsTellUsaboutMathAchievement,ed.TomLoveless(Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2007).

thetop1percentofstudentsaroundtheworld:T.Husen,InternationalStudyofAchievementinMathematics:AComparisonofTwelveCountries(NewYork:Wiley,1967).

betterthanroughly98percentofAmericans:TheIllinois-JapanStudyofMathematics,reportedinRichardLynn,“MathematicsTeachinginJapan,”inNewDirectionsinMathematicsEducation,ed.BrianGreerandGerryMulhern(London:Routledge,1989).

whiletheUnitedStatesrankednumbereight:AssociatedPress,“TestResults‘Embarrass’U.S.,”December12,1983.

“inamannercomparabletotheheralded‘economicmiracle’”:EdwardB.Fiske,“Japan’sSchools:IntentabouttheBasics,”NewYorkTimes,July10,1983.

whentheygavechildrenatestofcognitiveability:HaroldW.

Stevenson,Shin-yingLee,andJamesW.Stigler,“MathematicsAchievementofChinese,Japanese,andAmericanChildren,”Science231,no.4739(February14,1986):695,696.

“andyourteachersareteachingyouthesethings”:JamesStigler,interviewbytheauthor,August30,2012.

includingavariabletoaccountforclassroomteaching:JamesW.StiglerandJamesHiebert,TheTeachingGap:BestIdeasfromtheWorld’sTeachersforImprovingEducationintheClassroom(NewYork:FreePress,1999),Kindleedition.

“wasmoresignificantthanwehadthought”:Ibid.,Kindlelocations720–30.

ZerooftheJapaneselessonsdid:Ibid.,Kindlelocations814–17.orwhatnewquestionsdoyouhave,ifany?(We):Thedescriptionofa

lessonisdrawnfromafourth-gradeclassobservedatKoganeiElementarySchoolonApril17,2012.

andneitheroftheAmericansaskeda“checkstatus”question:TheministudyoffourlessonsisreportedinJamesW.Stigler,CleaFernandez,andMakotoYoshida,“TraditionsofSchoolMathematicsinJapaneseandAmericanElementaryClassrooms,”inTheoriesofMathematicalLearning,ed.LeslieP.SteffeandPearlaNesher(Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum,1996),149–75.

inJapaneselessonsthatnumberwas40percent:StiglerandHiebert,TeachingGap,Kindlelocations901–3.

whyconvertingtolikedenominatorsmakesmoresense:Ibid.,Kindlelocation1183.

forty-fiveminutes’worthofinsightsservedteachersbetter:Ibid.,Kindlelocations957–73.

“Nowpushtheequalssign.Whatdoyouget?”:Ibid.,Kindlelocations1377–1379.

adviceabouthowtocompetewiththeirAsiancounterparts:JohnHolusha,“W.EdwardsDeming,ExpertonBusinessManagement,Diesat93,”NewYorkTimes,December21,1993.

“Icametothewrongclass”:ThequotesbyAkihikoTakahashiinthissectioncomefromaninterviewbytheauthoronDecember21,2011.

mathisindeedthesameallaroundtheworld:ToshiyaChichibu,interviewbytheauthor,November27,2011.

“andIcannotgobackanymore”:AkihikoTakahashi,interviewbytheauthor,November29,2011.

asweakteachersarecalledinJapan:HaroldStevensonetal.,TheEducationalSysteminJapan:CaseStudyFindings(Washington,DC:NationalInstituteonStudentAchievement,Curriculum,andAssessment,1998),201.Aprincipalinterviewedinthereportalsocitedthetermnimotsu,meaning“baggage.”

orbreakingupthenumbersmentally:ThedescriptionofatypicalpostlessondiscussionincludesexcerptsreportedinCleaFernandezandMakotoYoshida,LessonStudy:AJapaneseApproachtoImprovingMathematicsTeachingandLearning(Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum,2004),110–112.

withouthavingtobetold:Thedescriptionofapostlessondiscussionisbasedontheauthor’spersonalobservationofaresearchlessonatTokyo’sWakabayashiElementarySchoolonDecember7,2011.

thanmakingthesamementalstepforarea:Thepostlessondiscussionaboutthelessononangles,whichtheauthorobserved,occurredatTokyo’sHashidoElementarySchoolonApril25,2012.

hadn’tgottentodigintomuchmath:Theresearchlessononangles,whichtheauthorobserved,occurredatTokyo’sHashidoElementarySchoolonApril25,2012.

“Potatoes!”:TheauthorobservedMr.Hirayama’slessononApril18,2012,atTakehayaElementarySchool,oneoffourfuzokuschoolsaffiliatedwithTokyoGakugeiUniversity.

themostproductivepathtounderstanding:ToshiakiraFujii,interviewbytheauthor,April25,2012.

justlikeintheUnitedStates:HeidiKnipprath,“WhatPISATellsUs

abouttheQualityandInequalityofJapaneseEducationinMathematicsandScience,”InternationalJournalofScienceandMathematics8,no.3(June2010):389–408.

(“fieldschools,”labschoolsarecalledinFinland):EvidenceofSingapore’sconsciouseffortstolearnfromJapaneselessonstudyisdrawnfrominterviewswithofficialsattheSingaporeMinistryofEducation,April2012,andfromlecturesattheWorldAssociationofLessonStudyconference,2011.China’sversionoflessonstudyisdescribedinLipingMa,“ProfoundUnderstandingofFundamentalMathematics:WhenAndHowIsItAttained,”chap.6inKnowingandTeachingElementaryMathematics:Teachers’UnderstandingofFundamentalMathematicsinChinaandtheUnitedStates(Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum,1999).Finland’s“fieldschools”andtheirroleinthecountry’srecenteducationreformsaredescribedinPasiSahlberg,FinnishLessons:WhatCantheWorldLearnfromEducationalChangeinFinland?(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2011),17.

tomakeaperfectricepillow:SeeJiroDreamsofSushi,directedbyDavidGelb(2012).

wherestudentsspentdecadesmasteringthespecialposes:TokunagaKyoko,“TheKabukiActorTrainingCenter,”Nipponiano.22(September15,2002),http://web-japan.org/nipponia/nipponia22/en/feature/feature02.html.

“asareasonwhytheywoulddothisstudy”:JamesStigler,interviewbytheauthor,August30,2012.

“withunlikedenominators,”insixth-grademath:TheexamplesofstandardsarefromNewYorkState’sEnglishLanguageArtsandMathematicsstandards,publishedinMayandMarch2005,respectively.Seehttp://www.p12.nysed.gov/ciai/mst/math/standards.

wouldgrowtoforty-eight:MargaretA.JorgensenandJennyHoffmann,HistoryoftheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001,

PearsonEducation,August2003(revision1,December2003),http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/tmrs_rg/HistoryofNCLB.pdf?WT.mc_id=TMRS_History_of_the_No_Child_Left_Behind,p.5.

“topushusalongthepathtosuccess”:StiglerandHiebert,TeachingGap,Kindlelocations130–37.

“toachieveourgoalsforstudents”:JamesStigler,interviewbytheauthor,September29,2011.

teachershadinventednewwordstodescribethem:ThevocabularyheredrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithteachersinTokyo,andonFernandezandYoshida,LessonStudy.

“andthensuddenly,you’reinthisgoodrestaurant”:DeborahBall,interviewbytheauthor,May16,2012.

ChapterFive

“Hewritesonthefourth-gradelevel”:ThequotesbyDougLemovthroughoutthispassagearefromaninterviewbytheauthoronNovember10,2009.

“andmeanstherevolutionhasbegun”:JaneO.Reilly,“TheHousewife’sMomentofTruth,”NewYorkMagazine,December20,1971.

struggletokeepupwithherpeers:WendyKopp,OneDay,AllChildren...:TheUnlikelyTriumphofTeachForAmericaandWhatILearnedalongtheWay(NewYork:PublicAffairs,2003),Kindleedition,locations114–15.

“wastheproblemtheywerecreating”:IrvingKristol,“TheBestofIntentions,theWorstofResults,”AtlanticMonthly,August1971.

vowedto“endwelfareasweknowit”:JasonDeParle,“PresidentWouldNotLimitWelfarePlan’sPublicJobs,”NewYorkTimes,June13,1994.

“butthetaprootisignorance”:QuotedinDavidK.CohenandSusanL.Moffitt,TheOrdealofEquality:DidFederalRegulationFixtheSchools?(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2009),45.

risingfrom$2,835to$7,933inconstantdollars:NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,DigestofEducationStatistics,Table191(“TotalandCurrentExpendituresperPupilinPublicElementaryandSecondarySchools:SelectedYears,1919–20through2008–09”),http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d11/tables/dt11_191.asp.

essentiallyamoney-backguarantee:CharlesA.Radin,“CharterSchoolOffersaGuarantee:IfStudentFails,ParentsGetTuitionFree,”BostonGlobe,April7,1998.

wereheldstandingup:ThisaccountoftheAcademyofthePacific

Rimdrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithhalfadozenstafffromthetime,aswellasoninterviewswithformerstudents.

“(Ithasalwaysbeenfun)”:GeorgeL.KellingandJamesQWilson,“BrokenWindows:ThePoliceandNeighborhoodSafety,”AtlanticMonthly,March1,1982.

the“singlecellofinstruction”model:DanC.Lortie,Schoolteacher:ASociologicalStudy(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1975),15.

“Standstill.They’llrespond.”:DougLemov,TeachlikeaChampion:49TechniquesThatPutStudentsonthePathtoCollege(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2010),3.

“likelanguageclass”:JayAltman,interviewbytheauthor,October1,2011.

“theMassachusettscharterschoolsthathadopened”:LindaBrown,interviewbytheauthor,September13,2012.

onlytwenty-twoschoolshadopenedsofar:TheMassachusettsCharterSchoolInitiative(Malden,MA:MassachusettsDepartmentofEducation,2001),http://web.archive.org/web/20061019161538/http://www.doe.mass.edu/charter/reports/2001/01init_rpt.pdf,p.62.

An“educational‘start-up,’”Bronsoncalledit:PoBronson,WhatShouldIDowithMyLife?:TheTrueStoryofPeopleWhoAnsweredtheUltimateQuestion(NewYork:RandomHouse,2002),338–39.

andallwentontofour-yearcolleges:KatherineBoo,“TheFactory,”NewYorker,October18,2004.

inmathandscienceproficiency:SamAllis,“ClosingtheGap,”BostonGlobe,June27,2004.

“they’dstillbeincommitteehearings”:MariaNewman,“NewarkSchoolShowsOffEducationalApproach,”NewYorkTimes,March30,2000.

WhydoesKaylaunderstand:Thestudents’namesinthisdescriptionarepseudonymsthatcomefromapresentationthatDougLemov

gaveabouthowtomakediagnostictestingdatausefulusingtheexampleofaninventedclassofsecond-gradegirls.

ataneducationsummitin2006:Theslidesfromthepresentationareavailableathttp://www2.ed.gov/admins/tchrqual/learn/nclbsummit/lemov/edlite-slide002.html.

ChapterSix

DrivinghomefromSyracuse:ThischapterisbasedonextensiveinterviewsbytheauthorwithDougLemovandhiscurrentandformerstudentsandcolleaguesbetween2009and2013.

challengingthemtotaketheproblemastepfurther:TheaccountofthecarridefromSyracusetoAlbanydrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithDougLemov(December16,2009)andKarenCichon(January27,2010),aswellasnotesprovidedbyKarenCichon.

towritedownherthoughtsonpaper:DougLemov,TeachlikeaChampion:49TechniquesThatPutStudentsonthePathtoCollege(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2010),140.

inordertochideanotheronherfailure:Ibid.,213.brutallyspecificaboutexactlywhattheywanted:Ibid.,177.waslessdismalandtookuplesstime:Ibid.,194.fromaboutfifteentomorethanahundred:LindaBrown,interviewby

theauthor,September13,2012.

ChapterSeven

hewasatruebeliever:ThefollowingpassageisbasedonextensiveinterviewsbytheauthorwithRousseauMiezebetweenAugustandDecember2013.

themostacademicallystimulatingplacehe’deverbeen:Thischapterdrawsondozensofinterviewsbytheauthorwithno-excusescharterschoolteachersandleaders,aswellasonmanyschoolvisitsandpersonalobservations.

becauseitservesyourstudents:DougLemov,TeachlikeaChampion:49TechniquesThatPutStudentsonthePathtoCollege(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2010),175–76.

theoverallpicturewasshocking:FresnoUnifiedSchoolDistrict,CharteringAuthority,“NoticetoCureandCorrect,”senttoNolanHighbaugh,GeneralCounsel,KIPPCalifornia,December11,2008.

“likeawhippingandballandchain”:ThesecommentswerepublishedinaprivateresearchreportpreparedfortheAcademyofthePacificRiminthe2002–03schoolyearandobtainedbytheauthor.

theiraffectionwasalwaysbracketed:“love-hate”:MillisentFuryHopkins,interviewbytheauthor,September2013.

downfrom58percenttheyearbefore:AcademyofthePacificRimCharterSchool,“AnnualReport2002–03,”2.

and8percentforblackstudents:RebeccaGordon,LiberoDellaPiana,andTerryKeleher,FacingtheConsequences:AnExaminationofRacialDiscriminationinU.S.PublicSchools(Oakland,CA:AppliedResearchCenter,2000),http://www.arhsparentcenter.org/files/Racial-Discrimination-in-US-PublicSchools.pdf,p.29.

“AndmyteacherjustassumedIdidthatonpurpose”:Chimel

Idiokitas,interviewbytheauthor,September20,2013.butKevin’swereking’sblue:KevinThai,interviewbytheauthor,

September2013.“justfollowandfollowandfollow”:Thesecommentswerepublished

inaprivateresearchreportpreparedfortheAcademyofthePacificRiminthe2002–03schoolyearandobtainedbytheauthor.

“justalotofpointlessrules”:Ibid.“grudgingcompliance”:JereBrophyandMaryMcCaslin,“Teachers’

ReportsofHowTheyPerceiveandCopewithProblemStudents,”ElementarySchoolJournal93,no.1(September1992):14.

tomodelhisowndevotiontohisstudentsonMr.Phillips’sexample:KevinThai,interviewbytheauthor,September2013.

“emotionsthatarecounterproductivetolearning”:GeorgeG.Bear,“SchoolDisciplineintheUnitedStates:Prevention,Correction,andLong-TermSocialDevelopment,”SchoolPsychologyReview27,no.1(1998):14–33.

hadonlyjoinedlateron,inninthgrade:ThestatisticsarebasedontherecollectionsoftwomembersofAPR’sfirstgraduatingclass:MillisentFuryHopkinsandKevinThai.

tothirty-fourinninth:RousseauMieze,interviewbytheauthor,September23,2012.

didn’tmakeittograduationwas21.6:“BostonPublicSchools2007–2008:StudentDropout,”OfficeofResearch,Assessment,andEvaluation,February2009,http://www.bostonpublicschools.org/files/Dropout%20Rate%202007-08.pdf.

“theyhadtostaybecauseitwouldpayoff”:ChimelIdiokitas,interviewbytheauthor,September2013.

Sotheyleft:Theempiricalresearchoncharterschoolattritionismixed.Onestudy,ofstudentsinTexas,foundthatstudentsacrossallracialandincomegroupsleavecharterschoolsat

significantlyhigherratesthantheyleavenoncharterschools,althoughthestudydidnotinvestigatethereasonsforthedepartures.EricHanusheketal.,“CharterSchoolQualityandParentalDecisionMakingwithSchoolChoice,”JournalofPublicEconomics91(2007):823–48.However,otherstudieshavefoundnosignificantdifferenceincharterandnoncharterschoolattritionrates.See,forexample,ScottA.Imberman,“AchievementandBehaviorinCharterSchools:DrawingaMoreCompletePicture,”ReviewofEconomicsandStatistics93,no.2(May2011):416–35;andIraNichols-Barreretal.,StudentSelection,Attrition,andReplacementinKIPPMiddleSchools,MathematicaPolicyResearchWorkingPaper,September2012.

reportsofbadbehaviorontheNoLimitsbus:ThefollowingdescriptionofRiseAcademyisbasedonmultiplevisitstotheschoolbytheauthorandonauthorinterviewswithDrewMartin,ShannonGrande,RanjanaReddy,andmorethanadozenotherteachersandstudentsatRiseAcademybetweenDecember2010andFebruary2013.

“mayendinatrap”:RonaldWright,AShortHistoryofProgress(NewYork:Carroll&Graff,2004),5.

“andbreakingofhealthyadultbonds”:AmericanPsychologicalAssociationZeroToleranceTaskForce,“AreZeroTolerancePoliciesEffectiveinSchools?AnEvidentiaryReviewandRecommendations,”AmericanPsychologist63,no.9(December2008):852–62.

“timeandopportunitytogetagoodeducation”:JayMathews,WorkHard.BeNice.:HowTwoInspiredTeachersCreatedtheMostPromisingSchoolsinAmerica(ChapelHill,NC:Algonquin,2009),Kindleedition,location2745.

totheSeptember11tragedy:Interviewbytheauthorwiththeeducator.

“nopracticeinteractingwithotherkidssocially”:RanjanaReddy,interviewbytheauthor,November10,2012.

“hegetsitout,andhemoveson”:ThedescriptionsofShannonGrande’steachingaredrawnfromvisitstoherclassroominJune2011,September2012,andFebruary2013,andfromaninterviewwithShannonbytheauthor,October2011.

morechallengesthantheirmoreaffluentpeersface:PaulTough,HowChildrenSucceed:Grit,Curiosity,andtheHiddenPowerofCharacter(Boston:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2012).

“wegavethemtools,andtheyfigureditout”:MarielElguero,interviewbytheauthor,February2013.

“justthrow[me]intoaboxandsaygohome”:KevinThai,interviewbytheauthor,September2013.

tofleshouttheircultureconversations:TheKIPPcharactercurriculumanditsbasisinresearcharedescribedinPaulTough’sbook,HowChildrenSucceed.

Chichanged—andsodidhiscolleagues:ChiTschang,interviewbytheauthor,September28.2012.

Anditwasmuchharder:DavidLevin,interviewbytheauthor,December18,2013.

“Expectingwhatyoudidn’tthinkwaspossible”:MarielElguero,interviewbytheauthor,April2012.

approachestodealingwithinterpersonalchallenges:Bear,“SchoolDiscipline.”

“andofnavigatingobstacles”:CarolD.Lee,Culture,Literacy,andLearning:TakingBloomintheMidstoftheWhirlwind(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2007),28.

agirlnamedTaquisha:“Taquisha”isapseudonymcreatedbyCarolLee.

thatmorning’scopyoftheChicagoSun-Times:ThefollowingaccountdrawsonLee,Culture,Literacy,andLearning,132–41.

andhowthethreecanandcannotintersect:Ibid.,118–23.“theethicalandmoral”partofteaching:Ibid.,128.“maladaptivecopingstrategies”:MargaretBealeSpenceretal.,

“VulnerabilitytoViolence:AContextually-Sensitive,

DevelopmentPerspectiveonAfricanAmericanAdolescents,”JournalofSocialIssues59,no.1(2003):33–49.

“apersonwhocouldhaveideas”:MagdaleneLampert,TeachingProblemsandtheProblemsofTeaching(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2001),265–72.

withoutaskingMagdalenewhattodo:Ibid.,278.“butnotinawaythatwouldbeembarrassing”:Ibid.,279.gettingstudentstodo“productive,positivework”:Lemov,Teachlike

aChampion,144–49.

ChapterEight

“Igotanewclassoffourth-graders,”shesays:ThedescriptionofSenecaRosenberg’steachingandresearchcareerdrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorinJanuary,February,andMarchof2013,andone-mailexchangeswiththeauthoronJuly1,2013.

lookedfordifferentstrengthsinteachers:BrianA.JacobandLarsLefgren,WhatDoParentsValueinEducation:AnEmpiricalInvestigationofParents’RevealedPreferencesforTeachers,NBERWorkingPaper,no.11494(Cambridge,MA:NationalBureauofEconomicResearch,2005),http://www.nber.org/papers/w11494.pdf?new_window=1.

sothattheywouldn’tleaveinthefirstplace:JasonA.GrissomandMichelleReininger,“WhoComesBack?ALongitudinalAnalysisoftheReentryBehaviorofExitingTeachers,”EducationFinancePolicy7,no.4(Fall2012):446.

the“inconsistency”of“instructionalguidance”:D.K.CohenandJ.Spillane,“PolicyandPractice:TheRelationsbetweenGovernanceandInstruction,”ReviewofResearchinEducation18,no.1(January1992):17.

“variability”or,moreplainly,“incoherence”:DavidK.Cohen,“Standards-BasedSchoolReform:Policy,Practice,andPerformance,”inHoldingSchoolsAccountable:Performance-BasedReforminEducation,ed.HelenF.Ladd(WashingtonDC:BrookingsInstitution,1996),108–9.

“You’realsoabsolutelyright!”:LeeS.Shulman,TheWisdomofPractice:EssaysonTeaching,Learning,andLearningtoTeach,ed.SuzanneM.Wilson(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2004),102.

morethanfourteenthousandschooldistricts:“SchoolDistricts,”U.S.CensusBureau,http://www.census.gov/did/www/schooldistricts,accessedNovember2013.

andnearlyahundredthousandschools:“EducationalInstitutions,”NationalCenterforEducationStatisticsFastFacts,http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=84,accessedNovember2013.

“andgobacktowhatyoubelievein”:LovelyBillups,interviewbytheauthor,February4,2012.

likeroads,bridges,andpowerlines:TheAmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,5thed.(Boston:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2011–13).

exactlywhatstudentsweresupposedtolearn:DavidK.CohenandSusanL.Moffitt,TheOrdealofEquality:DidFederalRegulationFixtheSchools?(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2009),3–4.

“concerningteaching,learningandacademiccontent”:Ibid.,4.“standardoperatingprocedures”outliningbestpractices:DavidK.

Cohen,TeachingandItsPredicaments(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011),56–57.

“year-to-yearroadmapforreachingthosegoals”:PeterMeyer,“TheCommonCoreConflationSyndrome:Standards&Curriculum,”CUNYInstituteforEducationPolicyatRooseveltHouse,June12,2013,http://roosevelthouse.hunter.cuny.edu/ciep/the-conflation-continues-or-bring-on-the-comfederal-stational-curstandalums.

“bestunderstoodasasortofexoskeleton”:CohenandMoffitt,OrdealofEquality,10.

morethantenthousandcorpsmembers:GregToppo,“TeachForAmericaTurns15,”USAToday,October6,2005.

aboutamonthofextrainstruction,byoneestimate:PaulT.Decker,DanielP.Mayer,andStevenGlazerman,“TheEffectsofTeachForAmericaonStudents:FindingsfromaNationalEvaluation,”MathematicaPolicyResearch,June9,2004,31.

morethantwoandahalf,byanother:MelissaA.Clarketal.,TheEffectivenessofSecondaryMathTeachersfromTeachFor

AmericaandtheTeachingFellowsPrograms(Washington,DC:InstituteforEducationalStudies,NationalCenterforEducationEvaluationandRegionalAssistance,2013).

thecorpsmembersdidnoharm:StevenGlazerman,DanielMayer,andPaulDecker,“AlternativeRoutestoTeaching:TheImpactsofTeachForAmericaonStudentAchievementandOtherOutcomes,”JournalofPolicyAnalysisandManagement25,no.1(Winter2006):75–96.

“ifitweresettledeasilyorsoon”:CohenandSpillane,“PolicyandPractice,”24.

whichsnarledtheirefforts:CohenandMoffitt,OrdealofEquality,172.

totaledonlyaboutseventhousand:Toppo,“TeachForAmericaTurns15.”

lessthan1percentofthe3.6millionteachers:NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,DigestofEducationStatistics,Table69(“PublicandPrivateElementaryandSecondaryTeachers,Enrollment,andPupil/TeacherRatios:SelectedYears,Fall1955throughFall2020”),http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d11/tables/dt11_069.asp.

almostforty-eightmillionintraditionalpublicschools:Ibid.,Table108.

formalinterviewswithforty-oneofthem:SenecaRosenberg,“OrganizingforQualityinEducation:IndividualisticandSystemicApproachestoTeacherQuality”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofMichigan,2012),viii.

thathadarisensohaphazardlyforSeneca:StevenFarr,TeachingasLeadership:TheHighlyEffectiveTeacher’sGuidetoClosingtheAchievementGap(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2010).

jugyokenkyu-stylesessionsforteachers:Ibid.,136–41.toaformalcoachingsystem:Ibid.,148.“Look,thisishowyou’resupposedtodoit”:Ibid.,246–47.“whatAmericahasnever—orhardlyever—had”:DavidCohen,

interviewbytheauthor,February26,2013.“mightlooklikeintheUScontext”:Rosenberg,“Organizingfor

QualityinEducation,”183.togetthemtoreallyunderstand:Ibid.,170.“you’renotsurehowyourkidsaregoingtodo”:Ibid.“Theycameupwithanotherplanthatdidwork”:Thedescribed

exchangeisbasedonrecollectionssharedwiththeauthorbyMagdaleneLampertinApril2012,July2012,February2013,April2013,andAugust2013;andonvideofootagefrom“StandardsforNationalTestingandExams,”C-SPANVideoLibrary,July19,1991,http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Exams.

“theworkofteachingwhilestudentsworkindependently”:MagdaleneLampert,TeachingProblemsandtheProblemsofTeaching(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2001),121.

Outof$248million:NewSchoolsVentureFund,“2012AnnualReport,”http://issuu.com/nsvf/docs/2012annualreport?e=7139272/2303874,accessedFebruary2013.

AchievementFirstreceivedover$6million:“VentureSnapshot:AchievementFirst,”NewSchoolsVentureFund,http://www.newschools.org/venture/af,accessedFebruary2013.

UncommonSchools,morethan$7million:“VentureSnapshot:UncommonSchools”NewSchoolsVentureFund,http://www.newschools.org/venture/uncommon-schools;“VentureSnapshot:RoxburyPreparatoryCharterSchool”NewSchoolsVentureFund,http://www.newschools.org/venture/north-star;and“VentureSnapshot:NorthStarAcademyCharterSchoolofNewark,”NewSchoolsVentureFund,http://www.newschools.org/venture/roxbury-preparatory-charter-school,bothaccessedFebruary2013.

andKIPP,morethan$6million:“VentureSnapshot:KIPPFoundation,”NewSchoolsVentureFund,

http://www.newschools.org/venture/kipp-foundation;“VentureSnapshot:KIPPD.C.,”NewSchoolsVentureFund,http://www.newschools.org/venture/kipp-dc;“VentureSnapshot:KIPPMA,”NewSchoolsVentureFund,http://www.newschools.org/venture/kipp-ma;and“VentureSnapshot:TEAMCharterSchools,”NewSchoolsVentureFund,http://www.newschools.org/venture/team-charter-schools,allaccessedFebruary2013.

“Itwasawesome”:MagdaleneLampert,e-mailmessagetotheauthor,February14,2013.

Andinmath,theywereworse:JesseSolomonlettertofriendsofBostonTeacherResidency,December14,2011.ThestudywasconductedbyHarvardUniversity’sCenterforEducationPolicyResearchattherequestoftheBostonTeacherResidency.

ChapterNine

ifshestillwasn’tsurewhattodrink?:MagdaleneLampertandFilippoGraziani,“InstructionalActivitiesasaToolforTeachers’andTeacherEducators’Learning,”ElementarySchoolJournal109,no.5(2009):497.

andgotthemtostartover:Ibid.,499–500.remindersandsuggestionsabouthowtoproceed:Ibid.,499–500.adiscussionleadingtothekeymathematicalidea:Magdalene

Lampertetal.,“UsingDesignedInstructionalActivitiestoEnableNovicestoManageAmbitiousMathematicsTeaching,”inInstructionalExplanationsintheDisciplines,eds.M.K.SteinandL.Kucan(NewYork:Springer,2010),136.

fivethousandworst-performingmiddleandhighschools:MicheleMcNeil,“TightLeashLikelyonTurnaroundAid,”EducationWeek,September2,2009.

afifteen-yearveteranteacher:IleneCarver,interviewbytheauthor,April23,2013.

Thelessonbegan:ThedescriptionofthislessonisbasedonavideoprovidedbyMagdaleneLampertandoninterviewsbytheauthorwithMagdaleneLampert(April2013),IleneCarver(April23,2013),andSabineFerdinand(April23,2013).

“we’renotwherewewanttobe”:ThequotesfromHeatherKirkpatrickinthissectioncomefromaninterviewbytheauthoronJanuary23,2013.

“that’swhythisevidenceissoimportant!”:Thedescriptionofmodelingisdrawnfromtheauthor’sobservationofaPLATOworkshopforteachersledbyPamGrossman,MichaelMetz,andothercolleaguesinSanFranciscoonMarch14,2013.

betweentheneighborhoodsofWattsandCompton:YvonneDivansHutchinson,“AboutMySchoolandMyClassroom,”Inside

Teaching,aprojectoftheCentertoSupportExcellenceinTeachingatStanford,http://insideteaching.org/quest/collections/sites/divans-hutchinson_yvonne/teachingcontext.html,accessedNovember2013.

“Iwanttoaddtowhat(person’sname)said”:YvonneDivansHutchinson,“PromotingLiterateDiscourseintheClassroom,”InsideTeaching,http://insideteaching.org/quest/collections/sites/divans-hutchinson_yvonne/promlitdis.html,accessedNovember2013.

“they’remuchmoreapttobeengaged”:YvonneDivansHutchinson,videotapedinterview,http://insideteaching.org/quest/collections/sites/divans-hutchinson_yvonne/cleanwlfc.mov,accessedNovember2013.

andsolicitedcommentsonit:LisaMarieBarker,“UnderDiscussion:ImprovisationalTheatreasaToolforImprovingClassroomDiscourse”(PhDdissertation,StanfordUniversity,2012),16.

notifyingastudentswiftlyofhermistake:DougLemov,TeachlikeaChampion:49TechniquesThatPutStudentsonthePathtoCollege(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2010),267.

couldn’tbemappedbacktoamemorablerace:K.AndersEricsson,WilliamG.Chase,andSteveFaloon,“AcquisitionofaMemorySkill,”Science208,no.4448(June1980):1181–82.

whattheyknewabouthownumbersworked:ThomasP.Carpenteretal.,Children’sMathematics:CognitivelyGuidedInstruction(Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann,1999).

theabstractmentalmodelthatmadesense:ReneeBaillargeon,“PhysicalReasoninginInfancy,”inTheCognitiveNeurosciences,ed.M.S.Gazzaniga(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1995),190.

“anormalandhealthypartofthelearningprocess”:Lemov,TeachlikeaChampion,222.

only4percentofAmericanpublicschoolstudents:NationalCenter

forEducationStatistics,DigestofEducationStatistics,Table108(“NumberandEnrollmentofPublicElementaryandSecondarySchools,bySchoolLevel,Type,andCharterandMagnetStatus:SelectedYears,1990–91through2010–11”),http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d12/tables/dt12_108.asp.

ChapterTen

“butwhatdoyouactuallywanttodo?”:DeborahBall,interviewbytheauthor,June2013.

exactlywhatstudentsaresupposedtolearn:DavidK.CohenandSusanL.Moffitt,TheOrdealofEquality:DidFederalRegulationFixtheSchools?(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2009),3–4.

upfromsixty-fivethousandjusttwentyyearsearlier:RichardIngersollandLisaMerrill,SevenTrends:TheTransformationoftheTeachingForce,CPREReport,no.RR-79(Philadelphia:ConsortiumforPolicyResearchinEducation,UniversityofPennsylvania,2012),http://www.cpre.org/sites/default/files/workingpapers/1506_seventrendsupdatedoctober2013.pdf,9.

wasnowjustone:ThomasG.CarrollandElizabethFoster,WhoWillTeach?ExperienceMatters(Washington,DC:NationalCommissiononTeachingandAmerica’sFuture,2010),http://nctaf.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/NCTAF-Who-Will-Teach-Experience-Matters-2010-Report.pdf,p.10.

andtoofewofRobertE.Lee:LynneCheney,“TheEndofHistory,”WallStreetJournal,October20,1994.

areadinggoalmatchedtothirdgradeinsteadoffirst:PhyllisSchlafly,“School-to-WorkandGoals2000,”PhyllisSchlaflyReport30,no.9(April1997),http://www.eagleforum.org/psr/1997/apr97/psrapr97.html.

wereimportantforteachingchildrentoread:NationalReadingPanel,TeachingChildrentoRead:AnEvidence-BasedAssessmentoftheScientificResearchLiteratureonReadingandItsImplicationsforReadingInstruction(Washington,DC:NationalReadingPanel,2000),

https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf.Inevitabledisagreementsremained:Foralookatearlypush-backto

theCommonCorestandards,seeStephanieBanchero,“School-StandardsPushback,”WallStreetJournal,May8,2012.

twenty-sevenstateshadvowedtoadoptthestandards:TamarLewin,“ManyStatesAdoptNationalStandardsforTheirSchools,”NewYorkTimes,July21,2010.

“academicpreparationofteachersmoreintellectuallysound”:FrancescaForzani,“TheWorkofReforminTeacherEducation”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofMichigan,2011),206–22.

“Andthankyouforalwaysthinkingofus.Iloveyou”:CharlesSposato,voicemailrecordedin2007byVeneciaMumfordandplayedfortheauthorduringaninterview,June2008.

thekookbecametheestablishment:EricHanushek,interviewbytheauthor,October25,2012.

or,ataschoolwiththirtyteachers,byfiringtwo:EricA.Hanushek,“TeacherDeselection,”inCreatingaNewTeachingProfession,eds.DanGoldhaberandJaneHannaway(Washington,DC:UrbanInstitutePress,2009).

“it’shardtoimagineiteverbeingausefulthing”:ThecompletediscussantpaperisThomasJ.Kane,“ImprovingEducationalQuality:HowBesttoEvaluateOurSchools?”inEducationinthe21stCentury:MeetingtheChallengesofaChangingWorld:ConferenceProceedings,ConferenceSeries(FederalReserveBankofBoston),no.47(Boston:FederalReserveBankofBoston,2002).Seealsohttp://www.bostonfed.org/economic/conf/conf47/conf47p.pdf,accessedNovember2013.

thelaw“islikelytoendasafiasco”:ThomasJ.KaneandDouglasO.Staiger,“RigidRulesWillDamageSchools,”NewYorkTimes,August13,2001.

“enoughtoclosetheblack-whitetestscoregap”:RobertGordon,ThomasJ.Kane,andDouglasO.Staiger,“IdentifyingEffective

TeachersUsingPerformanceontheJob,”HamiltonProjectDiscussionPaper2006-01(Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitution,2006),http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/200604hamilton_1.pdf,p.8.

“becausetheycouldsaveourlives”:TomKane,interviewbytheauthor,April17,2013.

“It’swhotheirteacheris”:BarackObama,“OurKids,OurFuture”(speech,Manchester,NH,November20,2007),AmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=77022.

“or,”headded,“withteachers”:NicholasD.Kristof,“OurGreatestNationalShame,”NewYorkTimes,February14,2009.

performedwellonachievementtests:RobertGordon,ThomasJ.Kane,andDouglasO.Staiger,“IdentifyingEffectiveTeachersUsingPerformanceontheJob,”HamiltonProjectDiscussionPaper2006-01(Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitution,2006),http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/200604hamilton_1.pdf,p.7.

Nomeaningfulexceptionsemerged:JonahE.Rockoffetal.,CanYouRecognizeanEffectiveTeacherWhenYouRecruitOne?,NBERWorkingPaper,no.14485(Cambridge,MA:NationalBureauofEconomicResearch,2008),http://www.nber.org/papers/w14485.

hadeverbeendeemedunsatisfactory:DanielWeisbergetal.,TheWidgetEffect:OurNationalFailuretoAcknowledgeandActonDifferencesinTeacherEffectiveness,2nded.(Brooklyn,NY:TheNewTeacherProject,2009),http://widgeteffect.org/downloads/TheWidgetEffect.pdf.

$169,000extraineachstudent’scareerearnings:Gordon,Kane,andStaiger,“IdentifyingEffectiveTeachers,”14–15.

byroughly$250,000perclassroom:RajChetty,JohnN.Friedman,andJonahE.Rockoff,“MeasuringtheImpactsofTeachersII:TeacherValue-AddedandStudentOutcomesinAdulthood,”

NBERWorkingPaper,no.19424(Cambridge,MA:NationalBureauofEconomicResearch,2013),http://www.nber.org/papers/w19424.

“aftertheyhavestartedtheirjobs,notbefore”:MalcolmGladwell,“MostLikelytoSucceed,”NewYorker,December15,2008.

adropof5percentilepointsinacademicperformancerank:Gordon,Kane,andStaiger,“IdentifyingEffectiveTeachers,”8.

anewteachercouldlearntohelpherstudents:DonaldJ.Boydetal.,“TeacherPreparationandStudentAchievement,”EducationalEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis31,no.4(December2009):416–40.

fortheteachercertificationexamas92percent:JohnHildebrand,“NewSchoolsChiefCallsforTougherTeacherStandards,”Newsday,July27,2009.

forthecosmetologycertificationexamwas59percent:InterviewbytheauthorwithanemployeeoftheNewYorkDepartmentofState,DivisionofLicensingServices,2009.

nearly10percentontimeforteacherstolearn:ANewVisionforTeacherProfessionalGrowth&Support:SixStepstoaMorePowerfulSchoolSystemStrategy(Watertown,MA:EducationResourceStrategies,2013),http://www.erstrategies.org/cms/files/1800-gates-pgs-white-paper.pdf,p.33.

“notsomeone,agroupofreallythoughtfulpeople,didthis”:JoeNegron,interviewbytheauthorandEmmaSokoloff-Rubin,April2013.

called“FractionsandWeKnowThem”:ArenditionofthesongisavailableinFractionsandWeKnowThem,YouTube,http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUygYN6tgyI,accessedOctober2013.

“havinggreatteacherswastheverykeything”:BillGates,“Mosquitos,MalariaandEducation”(TEDTalk),TED2009,February2009,

http://www.ted.com/talks/bill_gates_unplugged.html.“Allyouneedarethosetopquartileteachers”:Ibid.“developmentandevaluationsystems”:VickiPhillips,interviewby

theauthor,October14,2013.“whoaren’tuptothejob”:BarackObama,“Remarksbythe

PresidentonEducation”(speech,USDepartmentofEducation,Washington,DC,July24,2009),WhiteHouse,http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-at-the-Department-of-Education.

“basedonperformance,”meaningevaluation:Seeforexample,NewYorkState’sRacetotheTop,PanelReviewbyApplicantforNewYork,Phase1,http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/phase1-applications/score-sheets/new-york.pdf,accessedSeptember2013.

bannedassessingteachersbystudents’testscores:USDepartmentofEducation,“FinalPriorities,Requirements,Definitions,andSelectionCriteria,”FederalRegister74,no.221(November2009):59692.

thatledseveralstatestorevisetheirlaws:AssociatedPress,“StatesChangeLawsinHopesofRacetoTopEdge,”January20,2010.

couldbedeniedtenureorfired:CorinneHerlihyetal.,“StateandLocalEffortstoInvestigatetheValidityandReliabilityofScoresfromTeacherEvaluationSystems,”TeachersCollegeRecord(forthcoming).

“therightpeoplestandinginfrontoftheclassroom”:Gordon,Kane,andStaiger,“IdentifyingEffectiveTeachers,”5.

“ateachershallnotbereemployed”:Herlihyetal.,“StateandLocalEfforts,”17.

“veryspecificandactionablefeedbacktoteachers”:Ibid.aftertheirteachersreceivedfocusedevaluations:EricS.Taylorand

JohnH.Tyler,“CanTeacherEvaluationImproveTeaching?”EducationNext,Fall2012.

theskillsstudentsneededforEnglishclass:ThedescriptionofthePLATOgroup’sresearchfindingsdrawsonPamGrossmanetal.,“FromMeasurementtoImprovement:LeveraginganObservationProtocolforInstructionalImprovement”(paperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,April20,2013).

couldmakewordssing:TheprecedingsequencedrawsoninterviewsbytheauthorwithLorraineMcCleodinMarch2013,andonobservationsinherclassroom.

theaveragePLATOscorehadsignificantlyimproved:Grossmanetal.,“FromMeasurementtoImprovement,”12–17.

frommathtoEnglishtohistorytoscience:HeatherC.HillandPamGrossman,“LearningfromTeacherObservations:ChallengesandOpportunitiesPosedbyNewTeacherEvaluationSystems,”HarvardEducationalReview83,no.2(Summer2013):379.

thestrategiesthatstudentsneededtomaster:ElizabethGreen,“GatesFoundationStudyPaintsBleakPictureofTeachingQuality,”GothamSchools,January6,2012,http://gothamschools.org/2012/01/06/gates-foundation-study-paints-bleak-picture-of-teaching-quality.

abetterrepresentationofdividingfractions:BarbaraScottNelson,VirginiaC.Stimpson,andWillJ.Jordan,“LeadershipContentKnowledgeforMathematicsofStaffEngagedinKeySchoolLeadershipFunctions”(paperpresentedattheUniversityCouncilofEducationAdministrationannualmeeting,November2007).

25percentmadeonlycursoryreferences:LynnT.GoldsmithandKristenE.Reed,“FinalReport:ThinkingaboutMathematicsInstruction,”NSFgrantEHR0335384(inpreparation),citedinHillandGrossman,“LearningfromTeacherObservations.”

impressivelypredictiveofateacher’sperformance:JonahRockoffetal.,“InformationandEmployeeEvaluation:EvidencefromaRandomizedInterventioninPublicSchools,”American

EconomicReview(forthcoming).whoweredestinedforeffectiveness:Theprecedingcalculationsdraw

fromSeanP.Corcoran,CanTeachersBeEvaluatedbyTheirStudents’TestScores?ShouldTheyBe?TheUseofValue-AddedMeasuresofTeacherEffectivenessinPolicyandPractice,EducationPolicyActionSeries(Providence,RI:AnnenbergInstituteforSchoolReformatBrownUniversity,2010).

“high-supportpoliciesthat...helpteacherslearn”:HillandGrossman,“LearningfromTeacherObservations,”382.

Theyhadtoprobe:DeborahLoewenbergBallandFrancescaForzani,“TheWorkofTeachingandtheChallengeforTeacherEducation,”JournalofTeacherEducation60:497–511.

“it’sindividual,workonit,figureitout”:RemarksbyDeborahLoewenbergBallatthelaunchoftheSposatoGraduateSchoolofEducation,Boston,MA,September21,2012.

“feedback”andcoachinginadditiontoevaluation:BillGates,“TeachersNeedRealFeedback”(speech,TEDTalksEducation,May2013),TED,http://www.ted.com/talks/bill_gates_teachers_need_real_feedback.html;ColleenWalsh,“ChangingHowTeachersImprove:EmphasisonBetteringPerformanceRatherThanSimplyRatingSuccess,”HarvardGazette,February3,2011,http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/02/changing-how-teachers-improve.

“letthembethemselves”:PhilipK.Howard,“FreetheTeachers,”NewYorkDailyNews,November28,2010.

supportedimplementationofthenewstandards:BrianSmith,“CommonCoreStandardsFundingOfficiallyBlockedinNewMichiganBudgetafterSenateVote,”MLive.com,June4,2013.

“Idon’tknowwhatis”:SherZieve,“CommonCoreForcingMarxism/NazismonAmerica’sChildren,”CanadaFreePress,May9,2013.

Index

Pagenumberslistedcorrespondtotheprinteditionofthisbook.Youcanuseyourdevice’ssearchfunctiontolocateparticulartermsinthetext.

“academiccharactereducation,”226,227academicdiscourse,264–67,268,271–72,304,305,318seealsoclassdiscussions

academicresearch,20–21,26,30–31,88–89,135,147,272,276,278,279,284,291,293,294,332nofBall,61–65,78–79,102,148,221,222,225,255,274,276,280,282,284–85

entrepreneursseekingperspectivesfromleadersin,252,253,255–72

HamiltonProjectreportin,290,291–93,294,296,297,298,299–300

ofHanushek,41–44,150,290,292,328ninconclusivefindingsin,24–25,27,36–37,84

lackofcommunicationbetweenteachersandleadersof,125–27ofLampert,20–21,65,67–69,92,102,221,222,225,247–48,249–50,251,253,272,274,276,284,320

ofLanier,83–84,91,101,107METprojectin,298,301,303,304,305natural-born-teacherfallacyin,6–7,24,44,294onpedagogicalcontentknowledge,61–63,78–79,221,222,225,247–48,255,272,280,284–85,306

“process-product”experimentsin,28–30,31,32,36–37

teacherdecision-makingstudiesin,35–36,37,38,39TIMSSstudyin,116–23,144,145–46,147,164,194,226seealsoeducationalpsychologyacademic“rigor,”229,244–46,250,252,264,273,274–77

AcademyofthePacificRim(APR),156,157–61,163–67,168,169,170,199–202,204n,216–17,218

disciplineandorderenforcedat,158–61,168,199–202,203–4,216–17

highattritionrateat,203–4accountabilitymovement,12,13,15,17–18,43–44,70,146–47,237–

38,286–305,310–12entrepreneurialeducationmovementinfluencedby,154–55,156,169–71,181,279,290,295

limitstoapproachof,170–71,181performanceincentivesin,70,169,181,287,291,293,295,296,297,298,299

“value-added”calculationand,43–44,287–94,296,297seealsoevaluations,teacher;standardsmovementAchievementFirstcharternetwork,167,180,239,242–46,250–52,295

Adney,Joseph,52–54Albom,Mitch,318Alphonso(collegestudent,pseudonym),151–52,153,154,155,156Altman,Jay,153,162,167–68,169AlumRockUnionElementarySchoolDistrict,231AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,30AmericanFederationofTeachers,30AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA),207,208America’sChoice,241AmistadAcademy,167,169anonymousindividualcorrection,185–86apologies,public,210–11,216AspirePublicSchools,239,264,267,272“AssumetheBest”technique,188,190

Atkins,Norman,180attritionrates,203–4,216,345nautonomythesis,12–13,15,17–18,311

Ball,DeborahLoewenberg,45–67,68,70–71,78–79,80,87,93,98–101,102,104,107,109,113,122,137,147,150,157n–58n,162n,163,172,194,195,206,211,213,246,264,274,276,277,279,280–82,293,294,310–11,316,333n–34n,335n,338nacademicbackgroundof,45–46,48,52,60–61,84,308

bakingusedasteachingtoolby,47–48inJapan,148–49pedagogical-content-knowledgeresearchof,61–63,78–79,221,222,225,255,280,284–85

restructuringofteachereducationby,281–82,284–86,291,296–97,307–10,311–13

summerteachinglabsof,54–60TKOTmethodof,seeTKOTapproachvideotapedlessonsof,68,69,71–78,79,92,100–101,280,314,336nBall,Richard,47,48

bansho(“boardwriting”),122,136–38,141,148Barker,Lisa,270–71,272basalreaders,100Bass,Hyman,69,70–71,73–74,75–76,77,78,79,87,147–48,255,

280,336nbehaviorism,31–32,36,37,38,88,273–75,276Bell,Joseph,34Bell,Terrel,90,91Bench,The(disciplinarytool),209–10,215,217Berliner,David,23Billups,Lovely,30,235Blanchard,Jim,91Blasdale,Spencer,160,161,163,166Boston,Mass.,154,156,167,169,196,203,229,251,255–56,285BostonCollegiate,180BostonLatinAcademy,203

BostonPrep,166BostonPublicSchools,200BostonTeacherResidency(BTR),252,255–64Boyd,Stacey,153–54,156,157,158,159–61,163–64,166,168,200,

203Brazil,88–89,274Briggs,LeBaronRussell,26–27BrighterChoicescharterschool,191Brillante,Jaimie,186–87broken-windowstheory,159–60,200,207Bronson,Po,168BrookingsInstitution,290Brophy,Jere,201Brown,Linda,159,160,168Bruner,Jerome,38–39Bryk,Anthony,250,251,252BuckinghamBrowne&Nicholsprivateschool,67,68,86BuildingExcellentSchoolsfellowship,168Burns,Marilyn,296Bush,GeorgeW.,169,288

California,12,13,41,42,153,218,231,235,238,264,276,287,296EducationDepartmentof,102,105–6TKOTmodelattemptedin,102–7,122,123,147,150,195,234

CaliforniaDreaming(Wilson),106Carter,SamuelCasey,162nCarver,Ilene,256CassellElementarySchool,230Chalkbeat,314“challenges,”inclassdiscussions,271charterschools,155–73,180,196–99,200,204–7,229,239,252,

290,294–95,311academicperformanceandstudentsuccessat,156n,168–69,252

academicrigorissueat,244–46,250,252,264,274,277accountabilityandstandardsat,156,169–71,181,242,279,290,295

attritionratesat,203–4,216,345ncultureofcollaborativelearningin,164–68,172,180,243disciplineandorderstressedat,seediscipline,atcharterschoolseducationalinfrastructurebuiltby,241,242–46,250,295,310,312

fundingof,250–51growthandexpansionof,180–81,197,251,279,312jugyokenkyutechniqueadoptedby,164–65,193,195Lemov’staxonomytechniquesdeployedat,189–92,193,197,273–74

metricsanalyzedby,156–57,169–70,181,343nprincipaltrainingprogramsof,168

recruitingofteachersfor,180–81,240,251,293,295teachereducationandtrainingat,229,242,243,245–46,278,285–86,312

testscoresemphasizedin,155,156,169,242,244,245,246seealsoentrepreneurialeducationmovement;specificcharterschoolsChetty,Raj,293,294

Chicago,Ill.,20,123,124,131,138CulturalCenterin,14–15

Chicago,Universityof,20,81,113,124,225,335nChicagoStateUniversity,CollegeofEducationat,7

ChicagoTeachersUnion,13China,114,201,341nzuanyanjiaocaitraditionin,144

Choices(disciplinaryaction),210–11,216“ChoralCounting”(IA),255Cichon,Karen,174,175,176–79,181,190CityonaHillcharterschool,252classdiscussions,36,51,92,100–101,171,248,286,306

“anticipationguides”in,270balancinggenderparticipationin,16onbehavior,211–12incharterschools,168,171conjecturesin,53,58,60,61,65,69,72,74diagnosingstudentmistakesandthoughtprocessesin,4–5,9–11,57,58,59,72–74,76,94–95,96–97,101,104,105,119,254,284

difficultiesandobstaclesinfacilitatingof,93–95,97,104–5,132–33,137,171,269,318

inEnglishlessons,264–67,268–72,302,305,318–19Grossman’staxonomyofEnglishteachingand,267–68,271–72guidingclasstocorrectanswerin,11,16–17,57,58,77,95,96–97,116,119,192,254

IAconceptsand,254–61inJapaneselessons,119–21,128,129–30,132–35,138–41,278inmathlessons,3–6,9–11,16–17,51–54,57,58–59,60,65,71–78,79,92–97,104,105,119–21,129–35,168,255,256–61,262

“modeling”in,267–68,270,271,284,318pre-lessonteacherprepworkfor,99–100,131,267,269,316–18,322

“stockresponses”forteachersin,269student“turns”in,16,37,58trainingteachersinfacilitatingof,100,128,132–34,254,255,260–61,269–72,284,304,305,310

“waittime”paradoxin,37waronshynessin,137,269,270seealsoacademicdiscourse;TKOTapproachCoburn,Warren,87

cognitivepsychology,32–40,88–89,332nCohen,David,86,92,101,102,103–4,105,106,112,122,233–34,235–41,243–44,246,250,280–82,291,311,313

coherenceproblem,233,234–38,239,240,242,250,281,291,297,310

“ColdCall”technique,192Coleman,James,41,43,44ColumbiaUniversity,69,78TeachersCollegeat,25

CommonCorestandards,283,291,295–97,311ComprehensiveSchoolMathematicsProgram(CSMP),334n

Congress,U.S.,288,289conjectures,53,58,60,61,65,69,72,74,276“consequence,”aslevelofbehavioralintervention,187–88,191“ConversationRebuilding”(IA),254cooperativelearninggroups,103,104Corcoran,Sean,307“corepractices,”forteachingEnglishclasses,267–68,271–72,284Correia,Jonathan,203Courant,Paul,280Culture,Literacy,andLearning(Lee),222–23cultureconversations,211–16,218,227curricula,13,235,236,237,239,241,245,281,282–83,291,310Ballindraftingof,284–86,309–10,311–13experimental,50–51,52,60,92,334n,338ninJapan,144inteacher-trainingprograms,26,84–85,285,309–10,311–13

Dash,Julie,223–24Davis,George,187Deming,WilliamEdwards,123,144–45Democrats,154,237,287Dewey,John,20,26,28,29–30,33,39,81,122,124,127,129,135,

250DialoguesinMathematicsEducation(DIME),125Dilit,253–54,255,278discipline,158–60,181,197–99,203,207,215,219–29“brokenwindows”theoryof,159–60,200,207operantconditioningin,221–22

pedagogicalcontentknowledgeinteachingof,221–28“socialproblemsolving”and,214,222“zero-tolerance”approachto,172,207–8seealsomisbehavior,student

discipline,atcharterschools,158–62,168,172,181,197,198,199–205,206–7,208–20,226,228–29,273

APRand,158–61,168,199–202,203–4,216–17TheBenchastoolof,209–10,215,217onbusroutes,204–6,209Choicesasformof,210–11,216cultureconversationsinfacilitatingof,211–16,218,227evolutionof,209–16,217–19,220,227–28,312failureof,219–20,298“inappropriate”andextremeexamplesof,198–99,208–9Lemov’staxonomyand,219–20,221,228asprogresstrap,206–7,209publicapologiesand,210–11,216RiseAcademyand,204–6,209–16,217SLANTpositionand,183,185,187unintendednegativeconsequencesof,197,202–4,206–7,209,210

“DoItAgain”technique,191,273donyu(“lessonopener”),148dresscodes,159,161,168,172Driggs,Colleen,182–84,185,193,197Dye,Thom,65–66

Easley,JackandElizabeth,125EastLansing,Mich.,45,46,61,234seealsoSpartanVillageschooleducation:inJapan,seeJapaneseeducationmedical,34scienceof,seescienceofteachingofteachers,seeteachereducationandtrainingseealsospecificschoolsubjectseducation,American,116,124–27,146,149,194,226,239,269,

287,311architectureofclassroomsin,121–22,157charterschoolsin,seecharterschoolscoherenceproblemin,233,234–38,239,240,242,250,281,291,297,310

fightoverfederalvs.statecontrolof,234–35,237,240,283,311frequentlessoninterruptionsin,117–18,126,194“gifted”programsin,18–19,156inequityin,17–18,40–41,42,43,144,151–52,153–55,158,240infrastructureaslackingin,236,238,239,240,281,311Japanesevs.,118–21,193,194lackofcommunicationbetweeneducatorsin,125–27,163lessonstructurein,118–19,120–21,194poorinternationaltestscoresand,70,89–90,114–15,144,287reformmovementsin,seeeducationreformsizeofteacherworkforcein,12,14,27,328nteacherlessonmistakesin,124,171

seealsoteachers,teaching;specificschoolsubjectseducationalinfrastructure,236,237,238,239–46,280,281–84,291,297

academicrigorissueand,244–46,250,252,264Americanschoolsystemaslackingin,236,238,239,240,281,311Ball’seffortsincreatingof,281–82,284–86,291,296–97,307–10,311–13

ofcharternetwork,241,242–46,250,295,310,312CommonCorestandardsand,283,291,295–97,311definitionof,236difficultiesincreatinghigh-levelteachingatscalein,181,244,246–48,249–50,281,310,312

flawsinAF’smodelof,244–46,250inforeigncountries,240Rosenberg’sresearchon,241–46,250,295TFAincreationof,238–40,242threekeyelementsof,281–84

educationalpsychology,23,25–33,150,272–76

behavioralperspectivein,28–30,31–32,36–37,38,88,273–75,276

character-traithypothesisin,24,26,27,319cognitiveperspectivein,32–33,35–36,37–40,88–89disregardandabandonmentofteachingin,25–27Gage’sdraftconferenceagendaon,30–31inconclusiveresearchfindingsin,24–25,27,84natural-bornfallacyashindrancetofieldof,24,26seealsopedagogicalcontentknowledge;scienceofteachingEducationandRace(Hanushek),43,44

EducationDepartment,U.S.,170educationreform,80,83,89–91,196–97,246–48,284accountabilitymovementin,12,13,15,17–18,70,146–47,154–55,169–71,181,237–38,279,286–95,310–12

autonomythesisin,12–13,15,17–18businessandpoliticalelites’perspectiveon,89–90,146inCalifornia,102–7,122,123,147,150,195,234,235“cooperativelearninggroups”in,103,104educationalinequityissueand,17–18,40–41,43,144,151–52,153–55,156,158,240

entrepreneurialeducationmovementin,seecharterschools;entrepreneurialeducationmovementfailedexperimentsin,87,102–12,122,147,150,169,195,234,246,284,339ninfrastructureand,seeeducationalinfrastructureJohnsonadministrationapproachto,40–41,154–55

inmathlessonsandteaching,70–71,87,90–91,102–107,122,123,136,146,195,240,243,246,283,296;seealsoTKOTapproachnatural-bornteacherfallacyasimpedimentin,13,19

NoChildLeftBehindand,91,146,237–38,287,288,289,290NTCMstandardsin,122,123,124,127,136,147,195quantitativemetricsin,155,169–70,181,194,343nresistancetochangein,105,108–10,111–12,234

standardsmovementin,70,71,91,146–47,155,170,237–38,242,

246,283,291,295–97,311,342n“teacherquality”issuein,see“teacherquality”issueinteacher-trainingprograms,seeteachingreformtestingemphasizedin,13,146,155,156,169,237–38,242,244–45,246,288,311

TKOTapproachin,seeTKOTapproachU.S.’sdecliningacademicperformanceand,70,89–91

EducationResourceStrategies,295educationschools,7,20,61,67,68,78,80–88,107,109,150,160,

232,235,240,246,264–65,267,268–69,280,281entrepreneurialmovement’srejectionof,194–95,228facultyrecruitmentat,25,82,85,101,107inJapan,127–30,131,132–35,142labschools,80–81,85,101,124,125,127–30,131,132–35,144,147,193;seealsoprofessionaldevelopmentsessions/schools“progressivepedagogy”approachtaughtat,157–58,159

“scienceofpedagogy”initiallyignoredin,25–27,61,86studentteachingprogramsin,85,86,108,128,129–30,132seealsoteachereducationandtraining;specificschoolsanduniversitiesElementaryMathLab,55–60,335n

elementaryschools,27,61,107,124,143,178,288inJapan,115–16,125,127,130,131,135,136,137,341nseealsocharterschools;specificelementaryschoolsElguero,Mariel,215–16,220,314

Elliott,Richard,26Elstein,Arthur,34,35,332nEmerson,Mindy,45,46,48,163engagement,student,138–41,228England,114Englisheducationandlessons,100,146,166,194,218,222–27,228,

244,252,254,264–72,276,277,283,301,302,305,307classdiscussionsin,264–67,268–72,302,305,318–19“corepractices”forteachingof,267–68,271–72,284lessonplanningfor,224,315,316–18

pedagogicalcontentknowledgeinteachingof,221,225–27,306,317

PLATOapproachin,302–3,305entrepreneurialeducationmovement,21,150–51,154–73,193,197,

239–40,264,278,279,293academicperspectivessoughtin,251,252,253,255–72accountabilityandstandardstheoriesasinfluenceon,154–55,156,169–71,181,242,279,290,295

educationschoolsrejectedby,194–95,228linearmodeloflearningadoptedin,272–74,275–76,295“noexcuses”approachin,159–162,162n–163n,169,172,175,181,183,194,195,197,199,202–204,206–207,208,217,219,239;seealsodiscipline,atcharterschools“progressivepedagogy”approachrejectedin,157–58,159

progresstrapsin,206–7,209quantitativemetricsusedin,155,156–57,169–70,181,194,343nquickandfirmcorrectionofstudentmistakesin,273–74,278

teaching-reformeffortsin,157–158,161,162–168,169–72,175,194–195,238–239,241–246,250–252,253,255–264,272,273–274,278–279,281,285,291,293,295,312;seealso“TaxonomyofEffectiveTeachingPractices”

seealsocharterschoolsepistemology,33,39,150,276seealsocognitivepsychology

Esquith,Rafe,218evaluations,teacher,12,13,47,282,283,292,293,295,297–308,

310–11,320backlashto,310–11asdiagnosticanddevelopmenttools,300–301,303–5,307,310METprojectforredesigningof,298,301,303,304,305PLATOrubricappropriatedforusein,300–301,303–5“RacetotheTop”emphasison,298–99assortingtools,12,293,297,299–300,308

“value-added”scoresashinderingeffectivenessof,306–7“EverybodyWrites”technique,188expulsionrates,200,207

Farr,Steven,15FederalReserveBankofBoston,287,288Feiman-Nemser,Sharon,335nFeinberg,Mike,167,172,208Ferdinand,Sabine,256–64Finland,13,144FordFoundation,82,85Forzani,Francesca,84–85,107,108,112,285,297,308,309–10,311,

328nFriedman,John,293,294Fry,Jessie,46–47,48,109,110–12,169,333n–34n,339nFujii,

Toshiakira,142,145,193FutabakaiSchool(Chicago),123,124fuzokuschools,127–30,131,132–35,193,341nGage,Nathaniel,21,

23–25,27–31,32–33,36–39,44,83,84,88,272Gallagher,Judith,seeLanier,JudithGates,Bill,297–98,300,304,

310GatesFoundation,297,298,300–301,304,310Germany,70,117,120“gifted”programs,18–19Gist,Sylvia,7Gladwell,Malcolm,292,293Glendenning,Kate,166Goldstein,Mike,166Gordon,Robert,290,292,293,294,298,299grammar,87,254,271Grande,Shannon,211,212–14,218,295,314Grossman,Pam,264–65,267,270,272,274,276,277,279,300–305,

307,311,312,316,317taxonomyofEnglishteachingdevelopedby,267–68,271–72,284

HamiltonProject,290,291–93,294,296,297,298,299–300,308HandbookofResearchonTeaching,The(“TheGageHandbook”),30Hannaway,Jane,7Hanushek,Eric,40–44,70,146,147,154,155,286–87,291,310teacher-effectivenessstudiesof,41–44,150,290,292“value-added”calculationsof,43–44,150,287–94,297,333nHarvardBusinessSchool,161,164,169

HarvardUniversity,41,91,101,153,160,252,310GraduateSchoolofEducationat,67,86

Heaton,Ruth,91–98,100,102,105,106,109,215,338nHiebert,James,146–47

“high-leveragepractices,”284–86,309–10highschools,143,265,297,314,315Hill,Heather,307,311Hill,Ryan,295Hirayama,Mr.,138–41,142,341nHirsch,EmilG.,20historylessons,87–88,128,194,220,221,264,305,306Hoffman,Marvin,335nHolmesGroup,101Hopkins,MillisentFury,199HowChildrenSucceed(Tough),215HowtoSolveIt(Polya),135–36Hutchinson,YvonneDivans,269–71,305

Idiokitas,Chimel,200–201,203,204Illinois,Universityof,23,27,125incoherence,lawof,seecoherenceproblemIndianaUniversity,151–

52,161InstituteforResearchonTeaching(IRT),67,80,85,91,284instructionalactivities(IAs),253–55,256–61,267,284,310interimassessments,242,243internationaltests,70,89–90,114–15,116–17,144,145,287

Italiaidea,248–55,278

Jackson,Julie,167–68James,William,25,27,81Japan,2,70,113–14,117,118,123,125,126,129,138,150,195DeborahLoewenbergBallin,148–49educationschoolsandteachertrainingin,127–130,131,132–135,193;seealsojugyokenkyu(“lessonstudy”)elementaryschoolsin,115–16,125,127,130,131,135,136,137,341nkaizen(“continuousimprovement”)conceptin,144–45,164–65

mathachievementscoresin,114–15,144MinistryofEducationin,123,124,143

Japaneseeducation,113,115–16,122–23,125,129–46,147–49,164,193,194,226,240,243,250,311,314

architectureofclassroomsin,121–22bansho(“boardwriting”)in,122,136–38,141,148charterschoolsasadoptinglessonstudytechniquesof,164–65“checkstatus”questionin,120classdiscussionsin,119–21,128,129–30,132–35,138–41,278lessonstructurein,116,118,119,133,134,140–41,148,194,276–78;seealsojugyokenkyulower-incomevs.affluentstudentsin,144

NCTMstandardsasinfluentialin,123,136similarapproachtoTKOTmodelin,113,116,119–21,122–23,129–30,131,132–35,136,137,138–42

textbooksin,142–43,144U.S.vs.,118–21,193

Johnson,Lyndon,40,41,154–55Judge,Harry,82,84,85,107jugyokenkyu(“lessonstudy”),126–27,132–33,134–37,138,140,

142,143,144–46,147,148,192,193,195,242,341ncharterschoolsasadoptingsimilartechniqueto,164–65,193,195

publiclessonsand,127–30,131,132,135,136,137,138,140–42

kaizen(“continuousimprovement”),144–45,164–65Kane,Tom,287–94,300,310ascriticalof“value-added”calculation,287–89,306,308HamiltonProjectreportof,290,291–93,294,297,299,308METprojectand,298,301

Kelling,GeorgeL.,159kikanjunshi,148,277–78kikan-shido,277,278King,John,153,161–62,166,167,180KIPPcharterschools,167,169,180,198,208,209,217,237,251,

273,290,295KIPPAcademy,172KIPPFresno,218KIPPInfinity(Harlem),295,296RiseAcademy,204–6,209–16,217,218,220,295,312

Kirkpatrick,Heather,264,267,272KnowledgeIsPowerProgram,seeKIPPcharterschoolsKoganei

ElementarySchool,340nKohlberg,Lawrence,208Kopp,Wendy,153,230Kristof,Nicholas,291Kristol,Irving,154

labschools,80–81,85,101,124,125,144,147,193inJapan,127–30,131,132–35seealsoprofessionaldevelopmentsessions/schoolsLampert,Magdalene,6,7–11,16–17,20–21,65–69,79,80,85–86,91–96,97,98,101,102,107,109,112,113,122,123,147,157n–58n,162n,172,194,195,211,213,233,246–52,274,275,276,277,279,280,284,311,316,320,335n,338nBTRprogramand,255–56,258,260,261,262,263–64

classroommanagementchallengesashandledby,226,227,228diagnosingsourceofstudentmistakesby,8–11,65

IAsconceptand,253,255,256,260–61,267,284atItaliaidea,248–50,251,252,253atNewSchoolsVentureFundconference,250–51,252pedagogical-content-knowledgeresearchof,68,221,222,225,247–48,272

SummerLearningInstituteand,251,255–56“teacherquality”issueand,246–48,249–51,252,253TKOTapproachof,seeTKOTapproachvideotapedlessonsof,68–69,92,100–101,113,116,314

languagelessons,128,248–50,251Lanier,Judith,80–87,88,91,101–2,107–9,112,150,284,337n

Lanier,Perry,334nLeadershipPrepschool,187learning:generallawsof,26,172linearmodelof,272–74,275–76,295seealsoeducationalpsychologyLearningtoTeachsummit,264

Lee,Carol,222–27,228Lemov,Doug,150–52,155,156,157,158,159,161,163–67,169–73,

174–76,180–81,182–85,197–98,199,201,203,217,218,219,228,230,239,241,272,280,293,295,316,320,343n“buildit/buyit”problemof,181,251,252

“click”momentof,153–54onimportanceof“love”inteaching,220,320,321SchoolPerformancecompanyof,169–70,172,174taxonomyprojectof,see“TaxonomyofEffectiveTeachingPractices”

“Taxonomy2.0”of,278–79,312LesleyCollege,67lessonlaboratories,54–60,67–68,100,335nlessonplans,46,112,

131,132,136,171,224,228,242,243,296,315,316–18,322lessonstructure,116,118–21,133,134,141,248,249,276,318,322inJapan,116,118,119,133,134,141,148,194,276,278

single-problemformatin,93,100–101,119,120,131,136,138,142–43

Levin,David,167,172,217,219Lewis,Michael,155,317,318Life,79lightning-quickpubliccorrection,187linearmodeloflearning,272–74,295Lortie,Dan,15–16,163LosAngelesUnifiedSchoolDistrict,269,289

madogiwa(“windowgazers”),131Martin,Drew,198–99,204–7,209,216,217,218,219,295Matchcharterschools,166,229MatchTeacherResidency,229,285–86matheducationandlessons,1–6,8–11,49–67,69–79,87,88–90,91–

101,102,113,124,125,126,128,147–48,158,167–69,199,221,226,227,228,248,252,253,261–64,274,280,305

Ball’ssummerteachinglabson,54–60bargraphsin,138–41classdiscussionsin,3–6,9–11,51–54,57,58–59,60,65,71–78,79,92–97,104,105,119–21,129–35,168,255,256–61,262

conjecturesin,53,58,60,61,65,69,72,74,276diagnosingsourceofstudentmistakesin,4–5,8–11,56–57,58,59,61–63,72–74,76,79,94–95,96–97,101,104,105,119

experimentalcurriculumin,50–51,52,60,92,334n,338nfindingvisualrepresentativesforteachingof,63–65,79,134–35,138–40,296

guidingclasstocorrectanswersin,11,16–17,57,58,77,95,96–97,119

IAconceptsfor,255,256–61internationalachievementracein,70,89–90,114–15,144inJapan,seeJapaneseeducationNCTMstandardsin,122,123,124,127,136,147,195

pedagogicalcontentknowledgeinteachingof,61–63,78–79,221,247,255,272,280,284–85,306

Polya’sproblem-solvingmanualand,135–36proofsin,10,16,53,61,73,74,76,77,121reformeffortsin,70–71,87,90–91,102–7,122,123,136,146,195,240,243,246,283,296

regroupinglessons,103,104,132,142,276textbooksin,142–43,144,245TKOTapproachforteachingof,seeTKOTapproachU.S.studentsasfallingbehindin,70,89–91,114–15

U.S.vs.Japaneselessonstructuresin,118–21MathematicalKnowledgeforTeaching(MKT),78–79,255,280,285,

306,316Mathews,Jay,208Matsuyama,Takeshi,127,128–29,130,131–32,138,193McCaslin,Mary,201McCue,Scott,158,161,162McDaniels,Garry,30,31,38McIntosh,Amy,14McLeod,Lorraine,301–3,304MeasuresofEffectiveTeaching(MET)project,298,301,303,304,

305medicaldecision-making,34–35,36,37,38,39,83,332n

memorization,273,274,275–76,295Michigan,Universityof,78,112,114,233,251,280,284,309,336n

SchoolofEducationat,7,78,282,309SummerLearningInstituteat,251,255–56TeacherEducationInitiative,282–83,284–86,309

MichiganStateUniversity(MSU),31,33–34,38,46,52–54,63,65,66,68,70,80,82,86,99n,100,105,106,111,112,147,150,157n,233,246,264,280,281,335nCollegeofEducationat,50,61,65,82,83–86

ElementaryInternProgramof,45–46,47,48,49,84

InstituteforResearchonTeaching(IRT)at,67,80,85,91,284Lanier’sfailedreformeffortsat,85–87,88,91,101–2,107–9,284

Mieze,Rousseau,196–97,198,199–204,216–21,228–29,244,285minicomputers,338nmisbehavior,student,175–76,182–88,192,208,209,215,228,229,

273onbusroutes,204–6cultureconversationsforhandlingof,211–16,218,227Lampert’sapproachinhandlingof,226,227,228Lemov’ssixlevelsofinterventionfor,185–88,191,192as“maladaptivecopingstrategy,”225nonverbalinterventionfor,183–84,185,192seealsodiscipline

mistakes,student,50,77diagnosingsourcesof,4–5,8–11,56–57,58,59,61–63,65,72–74,76,79,94–95,96–97,101,104,105,119,225

andguidingclasstocorrectanswer,11,16–17,57,58,77,96–97,277

Lemov’s“PunchtheError”responseto,273–74,278asopportunitiesforlearning,11,57,76,77,277–78,279quickandfirmcorrectionof,273–74

mitori(“observingstudents”),148“modeling,”267–68,270,271,284,286,302,306,310,318Moffitt,Susan,236MostPreciousBloodparochialschool,157Mumford,Venecia,286

Naganoschool,136,137NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress,155NationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics(NCTM),122,123,

124,127,136,147,195NationalGovernorsAssociation,283NationalInstituteofEducation(NIE),30–31,35,38,39,67

NationatRisk,A(study),90,91,115natural-born-teacherfallacy,6–7,9,11,13,18,19–20,24,26,44,46,

294,308,319Negron,Joe,295–97neriage,148“NewMath”program,87NewOrleansCharterMiddleSchool,162,167,169NewSchoolsVentureFundconference,250–51,252NewTeacherProject,The,292NewYork(state),294,307NewYork,N.Y.,14,153,292,314charterschoolsin,167,168,170,172,197,295,296EducationDepartmentof,14

Nixon,Richard,30,39NoChildLeftBehind(NCLB),91,146,237–38,287,288,289,290NoExcuses(Carter),162n“no-excuses”movement,see

entrepreneurialeducationmovementNoLimitsbus,204–6nonverbalintervention,183–84,185,192“NormalizingtheError”technique,278NorthStarAcademy,167,169,180

Obama,Barack,11–12,13,17,290,298“100Percent”technique,177,181–82,184,192operantconditioning,221–22Opportunitybus,204,205O’Reilly,Jane,152,153O’Toole,StacyBirdsell,228–29,244,285Oublier,Mrs.(pseudonym),102–4,105,106–7,122,235

Papy,Georges,334n,338nPapy-Lenger,Frédérique,334n,338nParker,Francis,19–20,21,39,81,82

Pastore,Patrick,184,185,197pedagogicalcontentknowledge,49,61–63,68,78,247,255,272,280

principalsaslackingin,306inteachingdiscipline,221–28inteachingEnglishclasses,221,225–27,306,317inteachingmath,61–63,78–79,221,247,255,280,284–85,306

pedagogy,25,27,49,55,66,100,116“progressive,”157–58,159seealsoeducationalpsychology;scienceofteachingPeiser,Brett,166,167,180

performanceincentives,70,169,181,287,291,293,295,296,297,298,299

Phillips,Alexander,202Phillips,Josh,174–75Phillips,Vicki,298Piaget,Jean,259placevaluelessons,103,104,263PLATO(ProtocolforLanguageTeachingObservations),300–305,

350nPolya,George,122,124,127,129problem-solvingmanualof,135–36

“PositiveFraming”technique,188,190“post,”inclassdiscussions,271poverty,17,40,41,43,154–55,156,158,215,231,291PracticalIntroductiontoEvaluationandMeasurement,A(Gageand

Remmers),23“practice-basedteachereducation”movement,312praise,givingof,188“press,”inclassdiscussions,271,304PrincetonUniversity,153,161,192principals,46–47,124,143,166,168,170–71,175,176,202,228,

234,244,285–86,306“inappropriate”disciplineemployedby,198–99,204seealsoFry,Jessie

privateindividualcorrection,186–87privateschools,15,67,163

“process-product”paradigm,28–30,31contradictoryresearchfindingsin,36–37

professionaldevelopmentsessions/schools,11–12,54,99,101,106,107–9,110,143,167–68,243,272,281,310

seealsolabschools“progressivepedagogy”movement,66,157–58,159progresstraps,206,209psychology,26,31,32,84,150,272publicapologies,210–11,216publiclessons,54–60,127–30,131,132,135,137,138,140–42seealsolabschools

publicschools,11,15,70,82,112,222,256,279,314attritionratesof,203chaoticatmosphereof,158,159federalfundingof,41,154–55,156low-incomevs.affluent,17–18,19,40,144studentenrollmentnumbersin,27,241suspensionandexpulsionratesin,200,207“zero-tolerance”approachin,207–8seealsoeducation,American;charterschools;specificschools“PunchtheError”technique,177,178,181

quantitativemetrics,155,156–57,169–70,181,194,343n“QuickImages”(IA),256–61

“RacetotheTop”grantprogram,298–99readingeducationandlessons,18,48–49,51,100,114,158,172,228,

268,276,283,305nationalachievementlevelsin,155,240

Reddy,Ranjana,204,207,208,210,211“restatement,”inclassdiscussions,271“revoicing,”inclassdiscussions,271,304Ribicoff,Abraham,40

“RightIsRight”technique,177,178,181RiseAcademy,204–6,220,295evolutionofdisciplineat,209–16,217,218,312

RochesterPrep,180,182,184,186,188,197Rockoff,Jonah,293,294Romer,Roy,247Rosenberg,Seneca,230–32,233,235–37,238–40,241–46,250,251,

294–95,328nRosenshine,Barak,28–29Rowe,MaryBudd,37RoxburyPrep,161–62,166,167,168–69,174–75,180Royce,Josiah,27Rudall,Evan,161–62,166,167,180Rundquist,Sylvia,98–100,105,106,215

Sanders,William,44nSax,Cantor,Riff(film),223–24ScholasticAptitudeTest,23,292,300SchooloftheFuture,315SchoolPerformance,169–70,172,174Schoolteacher(Lortie),15–16“school-to-prisonpipeline,”208ScienceCurriculumImprovementStudy,334nscienceeducationand

lessons,49,51,100,114,125,128,194,221,228,264,305,306,334nscienceofteaching,20,26–27,31–32,39,87,188,272

initialdisregardof,25–27,81–85,86“process-product”paradigminconstructingof,28–30,31,32,36–37

seealsoeducationalpsychology;teachereducationandtrainingSetagayaElementarySchool,127–30,131,132,147–48

SetagayaWard,Tokyo,127,132ShortHistoryofProgress,A(Wright),206Shulman,Lee,31,32–40,44,67,70,80,84,85,101,234,264–65,

272,281,284,286,337nmedicaldecision-makingstudiesof,

33–35,36,38,39,83,332n“pedagogicalcontentknowledge”conceptof,63,78,221,317

Silberman,Charles,88Singapore,144,240,341nsingle-problemformat,2,3,53–54,59,79,93,100–101,116,119,

120,131,136,138,142,253,277Skinner,B.F.,26,31SLANTposition,183,185,187Snow,Richard,31,32Snyder,Andy,314–15,316–18,320–21,322Solomon,Jesse,251–52,253,255,256,264SpartanVillageschool,45,46–48,49,53,55,60,61,65,66,84,96,

98,107,113,163,215,246–47,251,280,281,286,313,338nteachinglabsprojectat,67–68,100,101,109,110,172

TKOTreformsasunsustainablein,109–12,169,234,339nSpencer,MargaretBeale,225

Spillane,Jim,240Sposato,Charles,285–86staffmeetingsforteachers,109–10,111,157Staiger,Douglas,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,299standardizedtests,43–44SAT,23,292,300

standardsmovement,70,71,91,146–47,155,237–38,242,311,342nCommonCorestandardsin,283,291,295–97,311

entrepreneurialeducationmovementinfluencedby,156,170,290performanceevaluationsin,seeevaluations,teachertestingemphasizedin,13,146,155,156,169,237,242,244–45,288,311

seealsoaccountabilitymovementStanfordUniversity,30,31,32,35,36,38,80,122,264–65,332nSTARposition,183

STEMfields,70Stevenson,Harold,114,115,164Stigler,James,113–14,115–16,122,123,145,146–47,155,164

TIMSSstudyledby,117–18,119–21,122,144,145–46,147,164,194,226

Storey-Fry,Jessie,seeFry,Jessie“StretchIt”technique,177,178–79studentteaching,85,86,108,128,129–30,132,265studygroups,135–36SuccessforAll,241SummerLearningInstitute,251,255–56suspensions,200,205,207,217Suzuka,Kara,69Sykes,Gary,36Syracuse,N.Y.,170,172,175,177,181

Takahashi,Akihiko,123–32,135–38,142,145,193,195Taubman,Alfred,90,91,108,112“TaxonomyofEffectiveTeachingPractices,”150,174,175,176–79,

180,181–82,184–95,197–98,219,230,239,242,273,280,319approachtostudentmistakesin,273–74,278–79formanagingclassroomcultureandbehavior,219–20,221,228astoolinteacher-trainingreform,181–82,190–91,192,193,272,273–74,278–79

videoanalysisusedincreationof,179–80,181,182,184,187,189–91,192

“Taxonomy2.0,”278–79,312teachereducationandtraining,7,20,25,27,43,60–61,67,70,80,

84,91–92,105,229,231,236,251,252,256,268–69,280,281–82,285–86,291

incharternetworks,229,242,243,245–46,278,285–86,312infacilitatingclassdiscussions,100,128,132–34,254,255,260–61,269–72,284,304,305,310

inconsistenciesofinstructionalguidancein,230–32,233,235,238atItaliaidea,250,251,253–54,255,278inJapan,127–130,131,132–135,136–137,193;seealsojugyokenkyulearningTKOTapproachin,93–95,98–99,100–

101,107marginalizationof,25–27,81–85,86mentorsin,15,129,131–32,142,232,242,243MSU’sElementaryInternProgramfor,45–46,48,49pedagogicalcontentknowledgeasimportantin,61–63,68,78–79,221,225,226,227–28,247,255,272,284–85,306

professionaldevelopmentsessions/schoolsin,54,99,101,106,107–9,110,111–12,243,272,281,310

publiclessonsandteachinglabsin,54–60,67–68,80,81,100,101,127–30,131,132–35,137,138,140–42,144,147,193,335nreformeffortsin,seeteachingreformseealsoeducationschools

“teacherquality”issue,11–14,15,17–18,19,40,147,181,249–52,281–82,283–86,290,294–95,297–313

accountabilityargumentin,12,13,15,17–18,43–44,70,181,287–305,310–12

Ball’seffortsincreatinginfrastructureand,281–82,284–86,291,296–97,307–10,311–13

complexityof,246–48,253anddifficultiesincreatinghigh-levelteachingatscale,181,244,246–48,249–50,281,310,312

Gatesand,297–98,300,304,310HamiltonProjectand,290,291–93,294,296,297,298,299–300,308

Hanushek’steacher-effectivenessstudiesand,41–44,150,290,292inlow-incomevs.affluentschools,17–18performanceevaluationsinaddressingof,292,293,295,297–308,310–11

training-reformeffortsand,seeteachingreform“value-added”calculationand,43–44,283–94,296,297,306–7,308

teachers,teaching:buildingstrongrelationshipsbetweenstudentsand,220–21,286certification-exampassratesfor,294decision-makingstudieson,35–36,37,38,39

diagnosingsourceofstudentmistakesin,4–5,8–11,56–57,58,59,61–63,65,79,94–95,96–97,101,104,105,119,225

essayspublishedby,143evaluationsof,seeevaluations,teacherimportanceof“love”in,220,320,321

lackofcommunicationbetween,125–27,163leadingclassdiscussionsin,seeclassdiscussionsLemov’staxonomyprojecton,see“TaxonomyofEffectiveTeachingPractices”

“modeling”in,267–68,270,271,284,286,302,306,310,318mythofnatural-born,6–7,9,11,18,19–20,24,44,294,308,319parentalpreferencesin,232,233parentcommunicationandrelationshipswith,131,160,166,232,285–86

pre-lessonprepworkof,99–100,131,220–21,267,269,315,316–18,322

asprivate“ordeal,”15–16,163,243“quality”reformdebatein,see“teacherquality”issuerecruitingof,14–15,25,180–81,240,242,293,295

reformeffortsin,seeteachingreformsalariesof,43scienceof,seescienceofteachingsizeofworkforcein,12,14,27,282,328nsoftbigotryshowcasedby,177

studentmisbehaviorand,seemisbehavior,studentasstudiedcraft,9,19–21,81,321

tenureof,83,91,107,171,293,299TKOTapproachin,seeTKOTapproachturnoverin,232–33“value-added”calculationformeasuringof,43–44,150,287–94,296,297,306–7,308,333nvolunteerstudygroupsof,135–36

seealsoeducation,American;specificschoolsubjectsandteachersteacher’sguides,51,92,95,106

TeachersInstitute,252TeachforAmerica(TFA),15,167,172,182,206,230–32,236,281,

285

educationalinfrastructurecreatedin,238–40,241,242recruitingofteachersby,240,242TeachingasLeadershipframeworkof,242

Teaching,Multimedia,andMathematics(LampertandBall),335nTeachingandLearninginJapan(RohlenandLeTendre),164

TeachingGap,The(StiglerandHiebert),146–47teachingreform,83,85,86,87–89,101–2,106,107,123,147,150,

181,237–38,241,250,251,252,278,279,280,281–313AchievementFirsteffortsin,242–44,245–46Ball’seffortsincreatinginfrastructurefor,281–82,284–86,291,296–97,307–10,311–13

CommonCorestandardsin,283,291,295–97,311inentrepreneurialmovement,157–158,161,162–168,169–72,175,194–195,238–239,241–246,250–252,253,255–264,272,273–274,278–279,281,285,291,293,295,312

facilitatingacademicdiscourseand,264–67,269–72,304,305,310as“fuzzymath,”122,283Grossman’s“corepractices”forEnglishteachingand,267–68,271–72,284

“high-leveragepractices”in,284–86,309–10IAsconceptin,253–55,256–61,267,284,310Lampert’scomplicatedproposalfor,246–48Lanier’sill-fatedambitionsin,85–87,88,91,101–2,107–9,284Lemov’staxonomyastoolin,181–82,190–91,192,193,272,273–74,278–79

parentalrelationshipbuildingin,285–86PLATOtrainingsessionsin,300–305,350nresistancetochangein,105,108–10,111–12

TKOTapproachin,seeTKOTapproachseealsoeducationreform;“teacherquality”issueTeachingwithProblemsandtheProblemsofTeaching(Lampert),247–48

TeachingWorks,309–12TeachlikeaChampion(Lemov),228,278

tenure,83,91,107,171,293,299tests,testing,43–44,146,155,158,236,237,240,241,242,281,

291–92,299academicrigorproblemand,244–45charterstudents’performanceson,168–69,252emphasison,inreformmovements,13,146,155,156,169,237–38,242,244–45,246,288,311

internationalscoresin,70,89–90,114–15,116–17,144,145,287NCLBlaw’sroleincreationofnew,237–38scoringgapbetweenblackandwhitestudentsin,289

textbooks,100,105–6,131,142,144,235,240,245,268,295inJapaneseeducation,142–43,144medical,34,35

Thai,Kevin,200,202,204,217ThirdInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy(TIMSS),116–23,

144,145–46,147,164,194,226“ThisKindofTeaching”(TKOT),seeTKOTapproachThorndike,

Edward,25–26,27,31,81–82,273TitleI,154–55TKOTapproach,68,93–97,100–107,147,157n–58n,162n,211,

213,216,250,281,312academicrigorachievedin,276–77conjecturesas“fenceposts”in,58,66,72,137diagnosingstudentmistakesandthoughtprocessesin,4–5,8–11,56–57,58,59,61–63,65,72–74,76,79,94–95,96–97,101,104,105,119,225,284,285

engagingstudentsin,138–41failedattemptsinimplementingof,102–12,122,147,150,169,195,234,246,339nandGrossman’s“corepractices”forEnglishteaching,267–68,271–72

guidingclasstocorrectanswerin,11,16–17,57,58,77,95,96–97,116,119,254

IAsin,253–55,256–61,267,284,310

importanceoflisteningin,94–95,97,277,319Japaneseteachingtechniquesassimilarto,113,116,119–21,122–23,129–30,131,132–35,136,137,138–42

methodsforfacilitatingdiscussionin,133–35,269–72mistakesasopportunitiesforlearningin,11,57,76,77,277single-problemapproachin,2,3,59,79,93,100–101,116,119,120,131,136,138,142,253,277

teacherpreparationrequiredin,99–100,131,267trainingteachersinuseof,93–97,98–99,100–101,107useofterm,66–67,335nvideotapedlessonson,68–69,71–78,79,92,100–101,113,116,314,336nvisualrepresentationsusedin,63–65,79,134–35,138–40,296

seealsoclassdiscussionsTokyo,125,127,148,195,314,341nTokyoGakugeiUniversity,127,

135,142,341nToll,Dacia,167Tough,Paul,215Toyota,165Tschang,Chi,168,198–99,202,204,218,219tsumazuki,148TuesdayswithMorrie(Albom),318“turnaround”schools,256

UChicagoCharterSchool,335nUncommonSchoolscharternetwork,180–81,239,250,295unions,teacher,30,110,290,293“uptake,”inclassdiscussions,271–72,304,305

“vaguenessdictionary,”29“value-added”calculations,43–44,150,287–94,296,297,306–8,

333nWakabayashiElementarySchool,341nwaronpoverty,154–55,291

welfareprograms,154,155

Whitehead,AlfredNorth,87Williams,Darryl,191,193WilliamsCollege,153,196,202Williamson,Peter,267,271Wilson,JamesQ.,159Wilson,Suzanne,87,106Wood,Molly,166wordproblems,50WorkHard.BeNice(Mathews),208WorldAssociationofLessonStudyconference(2011),341nWright,

Ronald,206writinglessons,18,158,231,268,276,277,302,316

“zero-tolerance”approach,207–8Zimmerli,Bob,188–91,193,197

Author’sNote

Allchildren’snamesinthisbookhavebeenchangedtoprotecttheiridentities.ExceptwhereindicatedotherwiseintheNotessection,Iprovidedthesepseudonyms.

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