Constructed wetlands for the Mediterranean countries: hybrid systems for water reuse and sustainable sanitation

Desalination 215 (2007) 44–55

A special issue devoted to and inspired by WaT3R, MEDA WATER International Conference on Sustainable WaterManagement, Rational Water Use, Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Marrakech, Morocco, 8–10 June 2006.

0011-9164/06/$– See front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.desal.0000.00.000

Constructed wetlands for the Mediterranean countries: hybrid systems for water reuse and sustainable sanitation

Fabio Masia*, Nicola Martinuzzib aAmbiente e Lavoro Toscana ONLUS, via Pier Capponi 9, Florence 50132, Italy

Tel. +39-055-47 0729; Fax +39-055-47 5593; email: [email protected] Srl, via Lorenzo il Magnifico 70, Florence 50129, Italy

Received 25 August 2006; revised accepted 18 November 2006

Abstract

One of the main problems in adopting extensive treatment for wastewater purification in hot climate countries,when also the effluent reuse is aimed, is the high evapotranspiration rate. This factor can play a key role inreducing the water output, a desirable effect in some cases but completely adverse when water reuse is a primaryresource for the area. Constructed wetlands have an higher evapotranspiration rate in comparison with ponds orlagoons but they also have the shortest hydraulic retention time (HRT) amongst the whole group of extensivetreatment techniques. The water loss can also be minimised using a particular design and configuration of theconstructed wetland system. The most powerful combinations seems to be the coupling of horizontal and verticalsubmerged flow beds, called hybrid systems, which performances are analysed in the present paper. In terms ofoverall performances the following mean removal rates were obtained: COD 94%, BOD5 95%, total suspendedsolids 84%, NH4

+ 86%, total nitrogen 60%, total phosphorus 94%.

Keywords: Constructed wetlands; Hybrid systems; Reed beds; Pathogens removal; Wastewater reuse

1. Introduction

Constructed wetlands (CWs) can be subdividedinto two main categories: surface-flow or sub-surface-flow design. In surface-flow wetlands(FWS) the wastewater flows through a shallowbasin planted with emergent and submergedmacrophytes. These kinds of system are mainly

exploited for tertiary treatment or polishing stageand also in several cases of diffuse pollution. Insubsurface flow or “Reed-bed” treatment systems(RBTS), the wetland is filled with gravel or sandor similar substrates, and the plants, most com-monly reeds (Phragmites australis or communis),grow rooted in the filling medium. The directionof the water flow provides the names of the twomost diffused designs for RBTSs, the horizontalflow (HF) and vertical flow (VF) systems. *Corresponding author.

F. Masi, N. Martinuzzi / Desalination 215 (2007) 44–55 45

Just to talk about the Mediterranean basin, verysuccessful experiences with CWs have beenreported for France [1–4], Spain [5], Portugal [6],Morocco [7], Italy [8–12], Egypt [13,14], Israel[15], Slovenia [16,17], Croatia [18], Greece [19],Turkey [20]. The main applications throughoutthe Mediterranean countries are 1. Point-source pollution (a) Municipal and domestic wastewater treat-

ment, both as secondary and tertiary stage;only in France a particular configuration ofVF beds has shown optimal performancesin raw wastewater treatment (without anyprimary sedimentation stage).

(b) Black water treatment; mainly the HF andVF Reed beds have been used, due to theirgood capacity in treating high organic contentwastewater; due to the high inlet ammoniaconcentration, VF beds seem to be a necessarystage for this kind of wastewater treatmentwhen nitrification is needed.

(c) Grey water treatment; HF or VF systems havedemonstrated their expected good perfor-mances for this “easy” wastewater; they are inmost cases joined with a light pre-treatment,like a degreaser or a septic tank.

(d) Rain water disinfection and filtration; allCWs typologies have been used for thispurpose.

(e) Landfill leachate treatment; for this “difficult”wastewater HF and/or VF beds are obtainingsatisfactory results; they need a strong pre-treatment, like an oxidation pond (equalisationand oxidation are needed).

(f ) Sludge dewatering; it’s a particular kind ofmodified VF beds, a promising solution forthe sludge management (both primary or sec-ondary sludge).

2. Diffuse pollution (g) Agricultural and Urban run-off; CWs systems,

mainly FWS kind, can act efficiently also innutrients removal, like fertilizers solvedby the run-off, and also in buffering and

partially treating the combined sewer over-flows (CSOs).

(h) Highway run-off; HF systems, and also FWS,are showing interesting removal rates forpersistent organics, like polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) and for some heavymetals.

This paper presents a comparison of the designand the performances of an hybrid systemslocated in a medium scale tourist facility in Italy,which configuration could be adapted also inhot climate countries, such as Mediterranean, inparticular, the north-African treatment facilitieswith a land usage of about 2.4 m2/p.e. This opti-mised design is able to reach a high disinfectionlevel (up to 99.99% removal for the pathogens),together with a satisfactory removal of the organiccontent and suspended solids and a good nitrifi-cation that provides a useful nitrate concentrationin the outlet for reuse in irrigation, at least in thecountries which are adopting the World HealthOrganisation guidelines for wastewater reuse.In the Italian regulation the nitrate limit for reuseis not specified but there is a limit for the totalnitrogen up to 35 mg/L in a not “nitrate-sensitive”area. These limits are anyway referred to yearlyaverage values and the obtained value in thiscase study was approximately 15 mg/L in thefinal effluent, safely under the threshold value forthe specific case.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Description of the CW system

The monitored reed bed is composed by a firststage of HF and a second stage of VF (Fig. 1)located in Florence, Italy. This facility treats themixed wastewater (grey + black) produced by aResort Hotel (140 p.e.).

In Table 1 the main characteristics of the reedbed system are reported, including the measuredhydraulic loading rate (HLR) and organic loading

46 F. Masi, N. Martinuzzi / Desalination 215 (2007) 44–55

rate (OLR) during the monitoring period. Animportant characteristic of this treatment plant isthe tourist fluctuation, which involves a highvariability of the daily flow and, consequently,of the loading rate.

A pump station is located after the Imhofftank to regulate the loading inside the HF bed by

a floating valve and so proportionally to the rawwastewater production.

The effluent from the HF bed is divided bya partition well into two independent siphonswhich feed the VF filter in an alternate way. Thewaterproofing of the bed has been done by anHDPE geo-membrane.

Table 1Main features of the hotel wastewater treatment facility

Parameter Unit Value

Load p.e. 140 Inflow m3/d 17–33 Surface area HF m2 160 Surface area VF m2 180 HF depth m 0.7 HF gravel size mm 5–10 VF filling media (sand + gravel) Depth of layers: cm

Grain size ∅: mm Top 10 cm, ∅ 6–12 mmMiddle 60 cm, sand ∅ 0/4 mmBottom 20 cm, ∅ 30–40 mm

VF depth m 0.9 HRT — HF (theoretical) d 3 HLR m3/m2/d HF: mean 0.17, min 0.11, max 0.23

VF: mean 0.15, min 0.10, max 0.21OLR g COD/m2/d HF: mean 23.5, min 6.8, max 38.1

VF: mean 2.0, min 0.9, max 5.7 Primary treatment Imhoff — total volume 70 m3 Operating since January 2003

In

Primary treatment Horizontal flow

Phragmites

Water control device

Syphon

Vertical flow

Phragmites

Water control

device

Out

Inlet well

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the hybrid constructed wetland at the hotel.


2.2. Sampling and analyses

As regards the wastewater chemical analyses,grab samples were collected in glass bottlespreviously washed with hot chromic mixtureand repeatedly rinsed with ultra pure water.Collection of samples for sanitary indicators wascarried out in glass bottles previously sterilisedby autoclave treatment.

The sampling took place monthly from May2003 to September 2004 (17 samples), at the inletof the HF (after the Imhoff tank) and at the outletof both the HF and VF stages. Inlet grab sampleswere collected 3 days before the outlet ones,according to the estimated hydraulic retentiontime (HRT) of the HF bed. Sampling campaignswere carried out when it did not rain within 3 daysbefore the collection of the inlet and the samplingof the outlet samples, so as to avoid dilutioneffects and HRT shortening, even if the rainwateris managed by a separated sewage system.

All the analyses were carried out by theRegional Environmental Protection Agencyof Tuscany (ARPAT) according to standardmethods [21].

3. Results and discussion

3.1. General performances

Considering the general performances of thewhole treatment system, looking at the inlet andthe VF bed outlet, it can be noticed that the outletconcentrations have always satisfied the nationallimits for discharging in superficial water forfacilities less than 2000 p.e. and mostly satisfiedthe limits for reuse (see Table 2 for the Italiandischarge and reuse limits — D.Lgs. 152/2006).The limit values related to settlements above2000 p.e., where a limit does not exist for the lesspopulation (below the 2000 p.e.), are surely tobe considered as a satisfactory treatment goal. InTable 2 the obtained results are compared withboth the limits.

The mean overall removal rates performedby the RBTS during the monitored period have

been respectively as 84% for TSS, 94% for CODand BOD5, 86% for NH4

+, 60% for total nitrogen,94% for total phosphorus.

In Fig. 2 the detailed results obtained for theorganic content are reported; it can be noticedthat the main part of COD removal takes place inthe 1st stage, reducing this way the risk of cloggingin the 2nd stage VF bed. This low organic mattercontent, together with the high removal of solids(TSS), shown in Fig. 3, permits a quite high HLRin the VF bed, at least 3–4 times higher than theusual values applied when a VF bed is adoptedas unique stage.

The roles assigned to the 2nd stage are thisway only the nitrification and a strong refiningof the disinfection, as it will be discussed in thenext paragraph. About the nitrification (Fig. 4),in this case most of inlet nitrogen enters the 1ststage in its organic forms (as mean values 1.44 kgN/d vs. 0.02 kg NH4

+-N/d and 0.05 kg NO3−-N/d),

and during the passage throughout the HF bedthe ammonification happens effectively (meanlyfrom 0.02 to 0.48 kg NH4

+-N/d); the freshly formedammonia is then almost completely oxidised bythe VF bed (from 0.48 to 0.07 kg NH4

+-N/d). The system discharges thus quite high amount

of nitrates (0.2–1.6 kg NO3−-N/d), that could be

reduced introducing a recirculation to the primarytreatment and the consequent good action of theanoxic HF bed; in this particular case nitratesare not a concern, as first reason because thereare not fixed limits for this parameter in thisscenery and secondarily because a big part ofthe effluent is reused for gardening.

3.2. Disinfection performances

The average removals of the four analysedhygienic indicators (total coliforms; faecal coli-forms; faecal streptococci; E. coli) were in therange 99.93–99.99%, showing a very high effi-ciency of the hybrid system in removing thepathogens (Figs. 5–8). During the passage throughthe HF Reed bed the bacteria were reduced


Tab

le 2

Infl

uent

/eff

luen

t con

cent

rati

ons

of th

e co

mbi

ned

hori

zont

al +

ver

tica

l-fl

ow R

BT

S (

repr

esen

ting

mea

n of

17

mea

sure

s)

Par

amet

ers

Uni

tsR

egul

atio

n li

mit

s In

flue

nt R

BT

S

Eff

luen

t RB

TS

Dis

char

ge in

fres

h w

ater

Reu

se

Mea

nR

ange

n M

ean

Ran

ge

n

Tem

pera

ture

°C

–

– 10

.2–2

7.2

17–

8.5–

28.4

17

pH

– 5.

5–9.

5 6–

9.5

– 7.

1–7.

817

–

6.9–

7.4

17

Tot

al

susp

ende

dso

lids

mg/

L

≤80

10

26

11–4

7 17

4

2–14

17

Ele

ctri

cal

cond

ucti

vity

µS/c

m–

3000

11

15

706–

1427

17

10

15

653–

1534

17

Alk

alin

ity

mm

ol/L

– –

7.0

4.0–

10.0

17

6.2

4.4–

8.1

17

CO

D

mg

O2/

L

≤160

10

0 11

5 14

–218

17

7

5–14

17

B

OD

5 m

g O

2/L

≤40

20

41

9–82

17

2

1–6

17

TK

N

mg/

L

– 15

(to

tal

nitr

ogen

)53

.0

17.0

–86.

017

21

.00

7.0–

47.0

17

NH

4-N

m

g/L

–(

≤15)

2

15.0

0.

1–62

.0

17

2.2

0.03

–9.5

17

N

O3-

N

mg/

L

–(≤2

0)

– 2.

00

0.20

–14.

0017

15

.1

0.3–

43.5

17

N

O2-

N

mg/

L

≤0.6

–

– –

– 0.

09

0.01

0–0.

310

17

Pto

t m

g/L

≤1

0 2

5.1

0.6–

8.9

17

0.3

0.02

–0.6

17

F

aeca

l co

lifo

rms

cfu/

100

mL

– –

4.2E

+ 0

6 4.

1E +

04

to–3

.0E

+ 0

717

1.

3E +

03

1.0E

+ 0

0–1.

9E +

04

17

E. c

oli

cfu/

100

mL

≤5

000

50 (

80th

pe

rcen

tile

)20

0 (m

ax)

3.4E

+ 0

64.

0E +

04

to

–3.0

E +

07

17

1.8E

+ 0

2 1.

0E +

00–

1.0E

+ 0

317

Tot

al

coli

form

s cf

u/10

0 m

L

– –

8.0E

+ 0

6 7.

7E +

04

to

–3.0

E +

07

17

3.8E

+ 0

33.

0E +

01–

2.9E

+ 0

417


2.9–3.2 log units, whereas the reduction in thesecond stage VF bed was 0.7–1.2 log units.

Observing the figures, the following consid-erations can be highlighted: – the reed population establishment inside HF

and VF beds during July–August 2003 seemsto have increased the pathogens removal incomparison to the first operating months;since October 2003 the removal rates increased,despite the different loading rates and thestrong temperature changes during the seasons(water temp. range: 7–25°C); that could be

due to the root zone development that producesa high level of local variations in the dissolvedoxygen level throughout the bed, which isone of the main disinfection mechanismsinside a CW.

– the treated wastewater fulfilled the Italianregulation limits for reuse as regard the patho-gens indicator E. coli (80 percentile equal to50 cfu/100 mL and maximum admitted valueequal to 200 cfu/100 mL; these limits arereferred with a special note only to naturaltreatment systems).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

05/0

3

06/0

3

07/0

3

08/0

3

09/0

3

10/0

3

11/0

3

12/0

3

01/0

4

02/0

4

03/0

4

04/0

4

05/0

4

06/0

4

07/0

4

08/0

4

09/0

4

mg

/L

InletOutlet HFOutlet VF

Fig. 3. TSS concentrations in the inlet, HF (1st stage) outlet and VF (2nd stage) outlet.

0

50

100

150

200

250

05/0

3

06/0

3

07/0

3

08/0

3

09/0

3

10/0

3

11/0

3

12/0

3

01/0

4

02/0

4

03/0

4

04/0

4

05/0

4

06/0

4

07/0

4

08/0

4

09/0

4

mg

O2/

L


Fig. 2. COD concentrations in the inlet, HF (1st stage) outlet and VF (2nd stage) outlet.


3.3. Comparison with the Mediterranean experiences

As reported in the cited literature, there areseveral full scale and pilot plants currently run-ning in the Mediterranean countries. The differenttreatment schemes by CWs are nowadays goingto be well known in terms of the different perfor-mances that can be obtained in the specificmeteo-climatic conditions in the countries likeFrance, Spain, Italy, Greece. The few experiences

available in the scientific literature for the othercountries are anyway actually promising becausethe tendency, going north to south, seems to bethe reduction of the needed area for obtaining thesame removal, at least for certain parameters.The main general conclusion produced by thestudy of the literature related to the Mediterraneanarea is that CWs are surely an efficient waste-water treatment method in this climate and theirapplication for any kind of water pollution

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

05/0

3

06/0

3

07/0

3

08/0

3

09/0

3

10/0

3

11/0

3

12/0

3

01/0

4

02/0

4

03/0

4

04/0

4

05/0

4

06/0

4

07/0

4

08/0

4

09/0

4

mg

/L


Fig. 4. NH4+ concentrations in the inlet, HF (1st stage) outlet and VF (2nd stage) outlet.

0.1

1.1

2.1

3.1

4.1

5.1

6.1

7.1

8.1

May

-03

Jun-

03

Jul-0

3

Aug

-03

Sep

-03

Oct

-03

Nov

-03

Dec

-03

Jan-

04

Feb

-04

Mar

-04

Lo

g(c

fu /1

00 m

L)


Fig. 5. Changes in total coliforms density (cfu/100 mL) through the CW system.


problem has to be strictly linked to the treatmentscheme choice and the sizing process. Theoperating experiences generally show a high rateof efficiency in the removal of organic content(BOD5, COD), Nitrogen (Ntot, NH4

+, NO3−), sus-

pended solids (TSS) and pathogens (EC, FC, TC),both in secondary and tertiary treatment plants(Table 3).

Designs are often adapted to take into accountof different site characteristics, treatment goalsand secondary benefits such as the reuse of the

treated wastewater or the provision of wildlifehabitat. Surface-flow wetlands are increasinglybeing favoured as tertiary treatment, because oftheir cheaper investment costs and their higherwildlife habitat values. Subsurface-flow wetlands,however, tend to be more widely applied, dueto their effectiveness at filtering out solids andremoving BOD per unit land area. In general,the Mediterranean CWs systems seem to obtainbetter results, probably due to the more constantand warmer climatic conditions, in comparison

0.1

1.1

2.1

3.1

4.1

5.1

6.1

7.1

8.1

May

-03

Jun-

03

Jul-0

3

Aug

-03

Sep

-03

Oct

-03

Nov

-03

Dec

-03

Jan-

04

Feb

-04

Mar

-04

Lo

g(c

fu /1

00 m

L)


Fig. 6. Changes in faecal coliforms density (cfu/100 mL) through the CW system.

0.1

1.1

2.1

3.1

4.1

5.1

6.1

7.1

May

-03

Jun-

03

Jul-0

3

Aug

-03

Sep

-03

Oct

-03

Nov

-03

Dec

-03

Jan-

04

Feb

-04

Mar

-04

Lo

g(c

fu /1

00 m

L)


Fig. 7. Changes in faecal streptococci density (cfu/100 mL) through the CW system.


to most of the other European experiences. Asfirst example of this assumption the CW Haran-Al-Awamied, located in Syria, can be cited. Thissystem, running for a 7000 p.e. community, iscomposed of parallel HF Reed beds, with a surfacearea equal to 0.43 m2/p.e. and an HRT of lessthan one day. The average organic matter removalobtained in this system is 84–85% both forBOD5 and COD [22]. Another example is repre-sented by the HF CW pilot system installed inMarrakech with a mean HRT of 4 h and meanHLR of 60 lt/m2.d which provided 62% of COD

and 97% of helminth eggs removal. These datashow that even with a very reduced retentiontime, comparing with the northern Europeanexperiences, still high performances can beobtained. The high performances reached in thiswork [7] by the floating macrophytes systemsare advising their usage in such climatic condi-tions (Fig. 9), even though the biomass man-agement can represent a negative aspect forensuring a continued good performance of thetreatment with a very low cost in maintenance.In Fig. 10 the mean removal percentages of solids,

0.1

1.1

2.1

3.1

4.1

5.1

6.1

7.1

8.1

05/0

3

06/0

3

07/0

3

08/0

3

09/0

3

10/0

3

11/0

3

12/0

3

01/0

4

02/0

4

03/0

4

04/0

4

05/0

4

06/0

4

07/0

4

08/0

4

09/0

4

Lo

g(c

fu /1

00 m

L)


Fig. 8. Changes in E. coli density (cfu/100 mL) through the CW system.

Table 3General performances of constructed wetlands (CW) systems in the Mediterranean countries (range of removalpercentages %)

HF: horizontal subsurface flow systems; VF: vertical subsurface flow systems; FWS: free water systems; HS: hybrid systems; VF raw ww: VF treating raw wastewater (without primary treatment — French design).

Type of CW Organic content Nitrogen Ammonia Total solids Pathogens

HF 73–99 23–67 18–76 59–96 94–99.999 VF 52–95 – 78–99 48–98 96–99.9 FWS 11–63 21–76 15–82 36–67 90–99.999 HS 86–99 43–89 85–96 72–84 98–99.9995VF raw ww 82–99.7 66–98 85 95–99.8 –


organic content, nutrients, surfactants and patho-gens, contained in municipal or domestic waste-water, obtained over some years of monitoringfor four HF Reed beds located in Central Italyare shown [8].

The two experiences in warmer climate coun-tries (Morocco and Syria) highlight an increaseof more than 10% in the mean efficiency yields incomparison to the Italian systems, which seemthemselves a bit more efficient in comparison

to the northern countries [23–25], at least forthe parameters showing a dependence betweenremoval percentage and water temperature.

The presented hybrid system HF + VF offersthe advantage of obtaining performances alwaysat the highest level for CW technology with alow need of superficial area. The particularcombination is designed for minimising all theoperational problems, like occlusion or cloggingphenomena.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

TSS COD TKN NH4 TP PO4

% r

emo

val

Eichornia

Lemna

Phragmites

Fig. 9. Performances in percentage removals between three parallel lines in Morocco [7].

Moscheta Gorgona Pentolina Spannocchia

SFS-h systems

–150

–100

–50

0

50

100

TS

S

CO

D

NH

4

NO

3

PO

4

MB

AS

TC

FC FS

Esc

h.co

li

% r

emo

val

Fig. 10. Performances in percentage removals for four HF Reed beds located in Central Italy [8].


4. Conclusions

The hybrid constructed wetland (horizontalsubsurface flow + vertical subsurface flow) system,realised for the treatment of wastewater producedby a medium-size hotel, was found proper forthe removal of pathogens and all the monitoredchemical parameters in this study.

The use of septic tanks and secondary treat-ment subsurface CWs for small populations havebeen used increasingly in the Mediterraneancountries. The use of hybrid systems incorporatingboth surface and subsurface-flow sections is nowbecoming more common, as well as the powerfulcombination of VF and HSSF.

The outlet of the hybrid system used herestarted complaining with the national limits forthe reuse after about 6 months from the start-upand it’s currently maintaining these performances.Assuming that Constructed Wetland systemshave proven to be a reliable treatment, especiallyadvised for small medium size settlements and forthe decentralised sanitation approach, this hybridconfiguration permits a considerable reductionof the total surface needed for the treatment and,consequently, a reduction of the water losses byevapotranspiration. The monitored hybrid systemhas shown only in the hottest summer water lossesfor about the 30–35% of the total inlet. This con-figuration should be deeply tested in hotterclimates, like the North African countries, in orderto assess the effective water balances in suchmeteo-climatic conditions.

The treatment plant observed in this studyhas an official permission for discharge in fresh-water, as well there’s a discharge pipe. Becausethe hotel owners wished to optimise their waterconsumption, they monitored the effluent for acouple of years in order to ask the authorities forthe reuse permission for gardening, and recentlythey have obtained it; one suggestion we gavethem was anyway to set a small UV lamp justafter the pump in the reuse tank to ensure E. coliparameter in the effluent.

Acknowledgments

This study was partially funded by the Euro-pean Commission under the MEDA programme,project “Zer0-M” no. ME8/AIDCO/2001/0515/59768. The authors are responsible for the contentof this paper that does not represent the opinionof the Community.

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Documents

Constructed wetlands for the Mediterranean countries: hybrid systems for water reuse and sustainable sanitation