Curriculum: Concepts, Nature, and Purposes

The concept of curriculum is dynamic as the changes that

occur in the society.

Narrow sense- listing of subjects to be taught in school.

Broader sense- refers to the total learning experiences of

an individual not only in schools but in society as well.

Traditional point of view of curriculum

. Early years of 20th century- curriculum is that it is a

body of subject matter prepared by the teachers for the

students to learn.

. Robert M. Hutchins- curriculum as “permanent studies”,

where the rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic, and

mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic

education should emphasize the 3 R’s.

. Arthur Beston- He believes that the mission of the school

should be intellectual training; hence curriculum should

focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of

grammar, literature, and writing.

. Joseph Schwab- Discipline is the sole source of

curriculum.

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. Phenix- curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge

which comes from various disciplines.

Thus, curriculum can be viewed as a field of study.

It is made up of its foundation (philosophical, historical,

psychological, and social foundations))

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

Recommended Curriculum – Most School Curricula are

Recommended Curriculum. These may came from national

agencies (DepEd – Department of Education, CHED – Commission

of Higher Education, DOST – Department os Science and

Technology) or professional Organization (PAFTE -

Philippine Association for Teachers Education, BIOTA -

Biology Teachers Association)

Written Curriculum - Includes documents, course of study or

syllabi which are handed down to schools, district,

division, departments or colleges for implementation. These

are pilot – tested or tried out in sample schools. Like

the BEC and the K-12 Curriculum which is pilot-tested in

UMAK – University of Makati before being implemented to

schools nationwide. ( ) Another example is the Lesson Plan

of each classroom teachers.

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Taught Curriculum – Composed of different planned activities

which were put into action in the classroom. These varied

activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the

objectives or purposes of the written curriculum and it

varies according to learning styles of the student or

teaching styles of the teachers.

Supported Curriculum – It includes material resources which

should support or help in the implementation of the

written curriculum. Such as textbooks, computer, audio-

visual materials, laboratory equipments, playground and

other school facilities. It should enable learners to

achieve real lifelong learning.

Assessed Curriculum – refers to the tested or evaluated

curriculum. Evaluations are done to determine the extent

of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing after

or during a teaching episodes. Assessment tools like

Pencil-Paper Test, Authentic Instrument like Portfolio

are being utilized.

Learned Curriculum – Are curriculums that focus on the

learning outcomes achieved by the students. This indicated

by result of test and changes in behavior which can be

Cognitive, Affective or Psychomotor.

Hidden Curriculum – These are unintended curriculum which

may not deliberately planned but may modify behavior of

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influence learning outcomes. These are created by accidents

and may come up from peer-influence, school environment,

physical condition, teacher- learner interaction, mood of

the teacher and many factors.

Major Foundations of Curriculum

Debates continue on what curriculum is and its basic

foundations. The commonly accepted foundations include

philosophical, historical, psychological and social. Let us

examine briefly how each knowledge area provides the

foundation to curriculum.

Philosophy – the study of general and fundamental problems.

Connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values,

reasons and language. The most basic beliefs, concepts, and

attitude of an individual.

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum

makers with framework for planning, implementing and

evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps answering what

schools are for, what subjects are important, how students

should learn and what materials and methods should be used. 4

The philosophy of a curriculum planner, implementor or

evaluator reflects on their life experiences, common

beliefs, social and economic background and education.

4 Major Educational Philosophy

1.Perennialism- For perennialists, the aim of education is

to educate the rational person and to cultivate the

intellect. Teachers help students think with reason. Its

focus in the curriculum are classical subjects, literary

analysis and curriculum is constant.

2. Essentialism- For essentialists, the aim of education is

to promote the intellectual growth of the individual and

educate a competent person. The teacher is the sole

authority in their subject area or field of specialization.

Its focus in the curriculum are the essential skills of the

3R’s (reading, ‘riting, ‘rithmetic) and essential subjects

of English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language.

3. Progressivism- For progressivists, the aim of education

is to promote democratic and social living. They believe

that education should focus on the whole child rather than

the content or the teacher. Its focus in the curriculum are

subjects that are interdisciplinary, integrative and

interactive. Curriculum is focused on students’ interest,

human problems and affairs.

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4. Reconstructionism- For reconstructionists, the aim of

education is to improve and reconstruct society education

for change. They focus on a curriculum that highlights

social reform. Its focus in the curriculum is the present

and future trends and issues of national and international

interests.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and

learning process. It unifies elements of the learning

process and some of the questions which can be

addressed by psychological foundation of education

LEARNING PROCESS:

1. Perception

2. Cognition

3. Behavior

4. Emotion

5. Personality

6. Interpersonal relation

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Focusing Questions

1. In what ways do psychological foundations enable

curriculum workers (teachers, supervisors, and

curriculum developers) to perform their educational

responsibilities?

2. How would you compare the three major theoretical

schools of learning?

3. How has the view of multiple intelligences influenced

the field of curriculum? How might this concept of

intelligence influence the field in the future?

4. How does constructivism incorporate the most recent

views of learning?

5. How should the concept of learning styles influence the

thinking of those responsible for curriculum

development and delivery?

6. How should an educator use the information about

various types of thinking?

7. How would you define humanistic learning in schools?

8. In what ways can addressing emotional intelligence be

justified in the curriculum?

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of mental functions

and behavior including:

perception, cognition, behavior, emotion, personality, and

interpersonal relationships.7

The major theories of learning have been classified into

three groups:

1. Behaviorist theories:

•Focuses on stimulus response and reinforcers;

•Studies conditioning, modifying, or shaping

behavior through reinforcement and rewards

2. Cognitive theories:

•Focuses information processing in relation to the

total environment

•Studies developmental stages, understanding,

multiple forms of intelligence, problem solving,

critical thinking, and creativity.

3. Phenomenological and Humanistic theories:

•Focuses on the whole child, their social,

psychological, and cognitive development.

•Studies focus on human needs, attitudes, feelings

and self-awareness.

Do the major theories agree?

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Psychology theories provide insight into understanding the

teaching and learning process:

• What is learning?

• Why do learners respond as they do to teachers

efforts?

• What impact does the school and culture have on

students learning?

Psychology theories provide principles and direction for

curriculum developer:

• How should curriculum be organized to enhance

learning?

• What is the optimal level of student participation

in learning the curriculums various contents?

1. BEHAVIORIST PSYCHOLOGY

Edward Thorndike

Father of modern educational psychology & founder of

behavioral psychology

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• Started his research with animals using stimulus-

response (classic conditioning) and developed the

idea of Connectionism.

• 1928-Thordike conducted his first major study with

adults.

Connectionism

• Defined learning as a connection or association of

an increasing number of habits. (More complicated

associations means higher levels of

understanding.)

• Three Laws of Learning

Three Laws of Learning

1. Law of Readiness

• Often misinterpreted as educational readiness

• Deals with attitudes and focus. “Why should I do

this?”

• If nervous system is ready, conduction is

satisfying and lack of conduction is annoying.

2. Law of Exercise

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• Strength of connections is proportional to

frequency, duration, and intensity of its

occurrence.

• Justifies drill, repetition and review.

• Seen today in behavior modification and basic

skill instruction.

3. Law of Effect

• Responses that cause satisfaction strengthen

connections and discomfort weakens connections.

• Justifies use of rewards and punishments,

especially Skinner’s operant model.

Thorndike’s Influence

• Thorndike and other followers believed that rote

memorization does not necessarily strengthen

connections.

• There has to be some sort of meaning associated

with it in order to be transferred to other

situations.

• Thorndike broke the traditional thinking about

hierarchy of subject matter.

• One subject was no more important to meaningful

learning than another. 11

• Until then, math and science were seen as more

important to teaching structure.

Ralph Tyler And Hilda Taba

- curricularists

Ralph Tyler considered four considerations in curriculum

development:

1. purposes of the school

2. educational experiences related to the purposes

3. organization of the experiences

4. evaluation of the experiences

Hilda Taba believed that teachers who teach or implement the

curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy

was commonly called the "grassroots approach" where teachers

could have a major input. She presented seven major steps:

1. diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the

larger society

2. formulation of learning objectives

3. selection of learning content

4. organization of learning content

5. selection of learning experiences

6. organization of learning activities12

7. determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing

it.

Ivan Pavlov

• Pavlov was the first to demonstrate Classical

Conditioning.

• He is best known for his experiment with

salivating dogs.

• Classical Conditioning

• Eliciting an unconditioned response by using

previously neutral stimuli.

• Unconditioned stimuli create reflexes that

are not “learned,” but are instinctual.

• Neutral and unconditioned stimuli are

introduced at the same time. Unconditioned

stimuli are gradually removed, and the

neutral stimuli elicit the same reflex

. Pavlov’s Dogs

• Pavlov’s experiment with salivating dogs best

demonstrated the principle of Classical Conditioning.

• Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of a bell.

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• Dogs naturally salivated with food. (Unconditioned

response)

• A bell (neutral stimuli) was rung every time the

dogs were fed over a period of time creating the

association/connection of the bell with food.

• After time, the dogs salivated at the sound of the

bell alone.

• Pavlov’s Dogs Game

James Watson

• Watson took Pavlov’s findings to another level.

• Emphasized that learning was observable or measurable,

not cognitive.

• Believed the key to learning was in conditioning a

child from an early age based on Pavlov’s methods.

• Nurture vs. Nature

• Watson’s theories strengthened the argument for

the influence of experiences as opposed to

genetics.

B. F. Skinner

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• B.F. Skinner was one of the most influential

American psychologists.

• He began his research with rats at Harvard and

pigeons during WWII.

• His work led to the development of the Theory of

Operant Conditioning.

• The idea that behavior is determined or

influenced by its consequence.

• Respondent vs. Operant behavior

• Respondent behavior is the elicited response

tied to a definite stimulus.

• Operant behavior is the emitted response

seemingly unrelated to any specific stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

• Types of reinforcers (stimuli)

• Primary – stimuli fulfilling basic human drives

such as food and water.

• Secondary – personally important, such as approval

of friends or teachers, winning money, awards, or

recognition.

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• Secondary reinforcers can become primary. Due to

the wide range of secondary reinforcers, Skinner

referred to them as generalized.

• Operant behavior will “extinguish” without

reinforcement.

• Positive reinforcer – presenting a reinforcing

stimulus.

• Negative reinforcement – removing/withdrawing a

stimulus or reinforcer but it is not punishment.

• Punishment – presenting harmful stimuli (rejected

by Skinner because he felt it interfered with

learning)

• “Reinforcers always strengthen behavior.”

“Punishment is used to suppress behavior.”

(B.F. Skinner, “A Brief Survey of

Operant Behavior” www.bfskinner.org)

Operant Conditioning

• Desired operant behaviors must be reinforced in a

timely manner. Delay of reinforcement hinders

performance.

• By selecting which behavior to reinforce, we can direct

the learning process in the classroom.

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• Learners can acquire new operants.

• As behavior is shaped, new and more complex

concepts can be introduced and desired behavior

again reinforced.

Albert Bandura

• Bandura contributed to the understanding of

learning through observation and modeling.

• He showed that aggressive behavior can be

learned from watching adults fighting,

violent cartoons or even violent video games.

Passive behavior can also be learned from

watching adults with subdued

• Repeated demonstration and modeling is used

by coaches in various sports, military

endeavors, and is also used in the classroom

setting to model and practice desired

behaviors.

Robert Gagné

• Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning notes the transition

from behaviorism to cognitive psychology.

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• The Hierarchy of Learning is an arrangement of 8

behaviors ranging from simple to complex.

• The first 5 behaviors are Behaviorist, the

next 2 are both behaviorist and cognitive and

the last (highest form) is cognitive.

• The hierarchy suggests a “bottom-up” approach

to learning where general principles/concepts

must be learned before advanced learning can

take place.

• He also describes 5 observable and measurable

learning outcomes

Robert Gagné (Cont.)

• Five Learning Outcomes (observable and measurable)

1. Intellectual Skills

• “knowing how” to organize and use verbal and

mathematical symbols, concepts and rules to

solve a problem.

2. Information

• “knowing what” – knowledge and facts

3. Cognitive Strategies

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• “learning strategies” needed to process

information

4. Motor skills

• Ability to coordinate movements

5. Attitudes.

• Feelings and emotions developed from positive

and negative experiences.

• Mental operations needed for each outcome differ.

• Gagné’s Instructional Events lead into cognitive

psychology.

“ Education depend heavily upon psychology because the king

and amount of education that learner aquires conditioned by

his psychology traits suh as ability.”

2. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Background

Replaced behaviorism as dominant philosophy in 1960’s

1. Criticisms of Behaviorism:

Did not explain:

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• language learning

• why people respond differently to the same

stimulus

• reinforcement can reduce motivation

*Have you observed this effect?

2. Popularity of newly discovered theories of Piaget and

Vygotsky in the 50’s and 60’s

Working Mental Model

Bandura- bridge/transition

learning

Basic Characteristics

• Focus on how individuals process information

• Emphasis on memory (storage, retrieval, types)

Chunking can aide working memory, which is

limited

Successful learners transfer information to

long term memory - “infinite” in capacity

is social by observation, modeling, imitation

Behaviorism vs. Cognitive

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Maria Montessori

(1870 - 1952)

Rationale for including her:

• Authors do not place her with progressive child-

centered approaches-lack of “free play” vs. freedom

within structure

• Opposed behaviorist focus on only “doing” but focused

also on looking and listening

• Focus on how sensory stimulation from the environment

shapes thinking

Montessori’s Legacy

What she did:

• Psychiatric Clinic at the University of Rome- taught

“difficult” children to read at a normal level

• 1906 asked to start a progressive school for slum

children of Italy- Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House)

Jean Piaget

1896 - 1980

• Swiss psychologist (Pestalozzi)

• America noticed in the 50’s and 60’s

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• Text reminds us that his theories are not fact, and

should be taken as “suggestive”

• Influenced: Tyler, Taba, Bruner, Kohlburg

Piaget

• Like Gagne , stages described as hierarchal

• Learning involves:

• assimilation (filing info

in an existing schema)

• accommodation (changing

schemata to fit new info)

Schema theory explains:

• importance of accessing prior knowledge

• why cognitive dissonance strategies work

Lev Vygotsky

(1896-1934)

• Russian psychologist

• The West published in 1962

• theory of sociocultural development

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• Culture requires skilled tool use (language, art,

counting systems)

• The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): distance

between a student’s performance with help and

performance independently.

• learning occurred in this zone

*Q-Is the idea of scaffolding one of building on existing knowledge or

providing assistance in the ZPD?

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Constructivism

• Some include this as a separate theory, other include

it inside of cognitive theories

What is learning?

• Individual must construct own knowledge- make meaning

• Learner must reshape words- mimicking is not enough.

• Learners must make knowledge personally relevant

Constructivism

• How does learning take place?

• New information is linked to prior knowledge, so mental

representations are subjective for each learner

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• Learning is optimal when there is awareness of the

process- metacognition

“A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that

instructors should never tell students anything directly

but, instead, should always allow them to construct

knowledge for themselves. This is actually confusing a

theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing.

Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is constructed

from the learner’s previous knowledge, regardless of how one

is taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active

attempts to construct new knowledge.”

3. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

Concerned with how learners can develop their human

potential.

Abraham Maslow’s theory of human needs of self-

actualizing person .

Carl Rogers’ non-directive lives, also fall under

humanistic psychology.

Social Foundation of education

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Schools exist within the social context. Societal

culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula. The

way school buildings are structured, the way classrooms and

students are organized reflect the cultural views and values

of society. In considering the social foundations of

curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of

the many institutions that educate society. The home, the

family, community likewise educate the people in the

society. But schools are formal institutions that address

more complex and interrelated societies and the world.

Society as ever dynamic is a source of very fast

changes which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to.

Thus schools are made to help to understand this changes.

Schools are conservative institutes that lag behind when

they are supposed to be agents of change, Thus, in order for

schools to be relevant, school curricula should address

diversity, explosion of knowledge, school reforms and

education for all.

The relationship of curriculum and society is

mutual and encompassing. The curricula should reflect and

preserve the culture of society and its aspirations at the

same time society should always imbibe the changes brought

about by the formal institutions called schools.

THREE MAJOR TYPES OF CURRICULUM25

EXPERIENCE/LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM

The Learner Centered Curriculum (An Overview)

The experienced curriculum refers to how the child

responds to, engages with, or learns from events, people,

materials, and social or emotional environment of the

classroom. The concept of experienced curriculum is not

synonymous with either child-centered curriculum.

Consideration of the experienced curriculum as a measure for

the student requires that the holistic, experienced meaning

that classroom participation has for the children is

determined and ten evaluated against te significance of that

experience in terms of its educational value. The

experienced curriculum may be influenced by, but is not

necessarily aligned with, the planned or intended curriculum

as designed the teacher or imposed by other external forces.

It differs from other levels of curriculum because it

focuses on the student’s actual learning and is not assessed

by an objective or standardized test score.

The Philosophy underlying this curriculum design is

that the child is the center of the educational process and

the curriculum should be built upon his interests,

abilities, purposes, and needs. This type of curriculum

emerged from the extensive research carried on in the earl

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twentieth century by John Dewey and his followers. A new

respect for the child, a new freedom of action, was

incorporated into curriculum building in the child-centered

school. Common characteristics of programs founded on the

new philosophy were the “activity program”, the “unit of

work”, and the recognition of the need for using and

exploring many media recognition of the need for using and

exploring many media for self-discovery and self direction.

This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level,

however more concern has been placed on the secondary and

even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the

subject or content has become the focus and in the college

level, the discipline in the center, both levels still

recognize the importance of the learner in the curriculum.

Creating Learner – Centered Middle School Classrooms

Learner- centered teaching strategies are those that

focus instruction on the needs, preferences, and interests

of the learner. Teachers act as a facilitators of the

learning process, providing direction and feedback rather

than just instruction. Learning activities emphasize

cognitive processes that prompt learners to construct new

meanings from the information they acquire. Students are

given multiple opportunities to discover knowledge and

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practice skills in an environment designed to appeal to

them.

Creating a Learner-Centered Classroom

To create a classroom that is learner-centered,

teachers must incorporate lessons that are age-appropriate

and relevant to student needs and interests. Connecting

experiences to learning is a critical step in creating an

engaging educational experience. Students become skilled at

thinking purposefully as they are provided with connections

to real-world experiences. Learner-centered activities often

include student-world experiences. Learner-centered

activities often include student-produced products that

demonstrate the results of their learning.

Learner-centered teaching is an approach to teaching

that is increasingly being encouraged in higher education.

Learner-centered teachers do not employ a single teaching

method. This approach emphasizes a variety of different

types of methods that shifts the role of the instructors

from givers of information to facilitating student learning.

Traditionally instructors focused on what they did, and not

on what the students are learning. This emphasis on what

instructors do often leads to students who are passive

learners and who did not take responsibility for their own28

learning. Educators call this traditional method,

“instructor-centered teaching.” In contrast, “learner-

centered teaching” occurs when instructors focus on student

learning. Interactive presentation introducing learner-

centered teaching.

Learner-centered/ learning-centered teaching or

student-centered learning. Educators commonly use three

phrases with this approach. Learner- centered teaching

places the emphasis on the person who is doing the learning

(Weimer, 2002). Learning-centered teaching focuses on the

process of learning. Both phrases appeal to faculty because

these phrases identify their critical role of teaching in

the learning process. The phrase student centered learning

is also used, but some instructors do not like it because it

appears to have a consumer focus, seems to encourage

students to be more empowered, and appears to take the

teacher out of the critical role.

Benefits of Learner-Centered Strategies is that Students:

Become actively engaged in the learning process.

Take responsibility for their own understanding.

Learn how to learn.

Develop a desire for life-long learning.

Retain knowledge and understanding.

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Gain social skills by working with others.

Examples of Learner-Centered Instructional Strategies

Teachers can encourage students to become purposeful,

life-long learners using a variety of instructional

strategies.

1. Problem-Based Learning

Students are challenge to learn by working

cooperatively to find solutions to real-life problems.

Curiosity and interest in the process occurs naturally as

students work in teams to solve authentic dilemmas or real-

problem situations.

In this form of learning, students will develop their

way of thinking and they will learn how to manage a

difficult situation with confidence and proper decision-

making that they can use in real life.

2. Inquiry/Discovery Methods

Asking puzzling questions or critical questions sparks

students’ mental stimulation and they will think critically.

Once a situation has been presented, students gather

information by formulating their own questions. Then they

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will research answers in cooperative groups, pairs, or

individually.

Inquiry/Discovery Method is a Learner-Centered Strategy

because it involves exactly the learners or the students.

They are the one who work to find a possible answer to the

questions with the guide of the teacher or the facilitator.

In this form of learning, students’ ability to think

critically will enhance and their curiosity will result a

crucial role in learning which is knowledge.

A less complicated form of inquiry involves a

questioning format whereby students ask the teacher

questions they have formulated and make educated guesses.

Similar to the popular children’s game, “20 Question,” the

teacher may say: “I’m thinking about a form of government.”

The students may then ask yes or no questions to discover

the correct response.

3. Inductive Method

Like inquiry strategies, inductive models of teaching

begin with a question or series of unknown facts or concepts

and move toward known information. Learners search for

answers to these “unknowns” in an active fashion. Instead of

lecturing, teachers take on the role of facilitator or coach

when using inductive methods.

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4. Role-Play Method

Role Play situations require students to step out of

the confines of traditional roles and take on the

characteristics of someone else. Role-play encourages

creativity and high levels of thought on the part of the

student. This strategy is most successful when students are

given time to research the character they must portray.

The benefits are that students become active

participants in the lesson and are able to experience what

it must have felt like to be in that position first hand.

Therefore, students develop empathy and a deeper

understanding. Also, students are more likely to remember

something they've personally experienced than something they

simply heard or read. Teachers benefit because students are

learning more and becoming more engaged in the lesson. Role

play requires careful preparation to ensure a structure

emphasizing healthy sexuality through practicing basic

learning’s, such as abstinence negotiation. Participation in

course role plays has led to higher satisfaction of

usefulness and greater teaching improvement.

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The disadvantage is that it takes willing participation

and effort on the students' parts. Also, it is more time

consuming and may take more planning.

5. Simulation

Similar to role-play, simulations involve approximating

real-life scenarios in the classroom. Students are involved

in the reproduction of possible situations. Simulations

often include scripted representations that enable learners

to closely experience world events.

6. Cooperative Learning

Working together in pairs or small groups to

collaborate on a specific task, benefits students socially

as well as cognitively. Learners depend on each other to

reach their goals and practice social interaction skill.

Activities such as K-W-L charts; Think Pair Share partners;

and the formation of “expert groups” of students, created to

teach fragments of materials to other students, are examples

of learners working together toward a common goal.

Student-Produced Responses

The creation of products that reflect the knowledge and

information constructed by the students is one of the focal33

point or main goal of the learner-centered instruction.

Students are encouraged to show the outcome of their

insights by generating an original product.

Ideas for Products:

Political cartoon Report/Written summary

Song lyrics Free-form map

Outline Flowchart

Visual graphics Analogy

Drawing Comic Strip

Diagram Venn diagram

Interview Painting

Play script Mural

Newspaper article Lesson plan

Advertisement Multimedia presentation

Spreadsheet Digital video

Historical documents Itinerary

Letter to the editor Travel guide

Journal entry Tapestry

Comparison chart Game

Bulletin board Illustrated timeline

Quilt Menu/Recipe

Performance Weather forecast

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Crossword puzzle Obituary

Assessing Student Products

Rubrics or other established guides to assessments are

helpful tools for teachers and students alike. Assessment

guides help the teachers take the guesswork out of grading

and let the students know what is expected.

Rubrics are important as teacher assessment and

instructional tools, they are also important to students. It

is shared with students before product development begins,

thus removing guesswork from student’s minds. Through

clearly defined components, students determine the

requirements of a specific assignment grade. Through well-

designed rubrics, students are equipped and enable to set

and to meet academic goals

SOCIETY/ CULTURE-BASED CURRICULUM

What is Culture-Based Education?

The assessment tool we developed for measuring levels

of academic performance are called Curriculum Based Measures

(CBMs) and are used for measuring basic skills in reading,

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writing and mathematics. At some point we hope to develop a

set of CBMs that measure oral competence—Indigenous language

expectations for high school students for which CBMs have

not yet been developed and tested. We currently have a set

of measurements in the language of instruction for reading

and have developed a test set in mathematics and writing in

Hawaiian, Navajo, Yupik and English (the latter for a

specific CBE program that teaches in the English language

with the Indigenous language currently taught through a

class setting rather than through an immersion or bilingual

context.

We also developed a set of CBE rubrics used to measure

the level of a CBE program as defined by the rubrics. The

CBMs are in the language of the school (with a set in Diné,

Hawaiian, Yupik, Ojibwe and English) and meet national

standards for validity and reliability. The CBE rubrics we

have developed have five sets of rubrics, each with levels

of CBE called indicators which are a general definition of

CBE rubric levels and a set of exemplars for each indicator.

These rubrics include:

1. Culturally-Based Indigenous Language Use

2. Culturally-Based Pedagogy

3. Culturally-Based Curriculum

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4. Culturally-Based Patterns of Participation in

Leadership and Decision-Making

5. Culturally-Based Methods of Assessing Student

Performance.

Teachers and Students Working Together.

Joint productive activity.

Development of Language and Literacy across the

Curriculum.

Development of the languages of instruction and the

content areas is the meta-goal of all instruction...

What is Curriculum?

A Curriculum guides us in deciding:

What to teach

The sequence of our lessons

The timing of our lessons

The activities we will use

The materials (people, resources needed)

What is Place and Culture-Based Curriculum?

Definition 1

A place-based educational approach grounds curriculum

and lessons in students’ experiences in local events and

places, and acknowledges that learning happens not only in

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formal educational setting but also outside of school in

families and communities. This reinforces connections to

one’s home, family, community and world. Included

components can be the cultural, historical, social,

religious and/or economic relevance of specifics locations

or areas.

What is Place and Culture-Based Curriculum Continued?

Definition 2

Several distinctive characteristics can be used to

describe to this developing field of practice:

(a) It emerges from the particular attributes of place,

(b) It is inherently multidisciplinary,

(c) It is inherently experiential,

(d) It is reflective of an educational philosophy that is

broader than “learning to earn”, and

(e) It connects place with self and community.

Culture and Place-Based Goal:

Foster community connections to traditional life ways

Objectives (outcome hopes):

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Introduce basketry to children and adults to foster

respect for traditional life ways and to carry them into

the present and future.

Children and adults will be given the opportunity of

gathering, processing, and weaving with traditional

materials.

What is a Thematic Unit?

According to www.funderstanding.com - “Thematic

instruction is the organization of a curriculum around

macro “themes”. Thematic instruction integrates basic

disciplines like reading, math, and science with the

exploration of a broad subject, such as communities, rain

forests, river basins, the use of energy, and so on.

Thematic Unit Continued

5 Reasons to Use Thematic Units

1. Demonstrates the interdisciplinary nature of learning

2. Increases student interest in learning

3. Expands your assessment strategies

4. Utilizes collaborative and cooperative learning

5. Focuses the learner on the mastery of objectives

Honoring Our Heritage

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Connecting Lessons to Students’ Lives

Contextualize teaching and curriculum in students’

existing experiences in home, community, and school.

Engaging Students with Challenging Lessons.

Maintain challenging standards for student performance;

design activities to advance understanding to more

complex levels. Emphasizing Dialogue over Lectures.

Instruct through teacher-student dialogue, especially

academic, goal-directed, small-group conversations

(known as instructional conversations), rather than

lecture. Learning Through Observation.

Providing demonstration or models of requested

performance.Encouraging Student Decision Making

Involving students in the choice or design of

instructional activities.

The five different levels for assessing implementation of

these seven principles from low to high are: 1) Not

observed, 2) Emerging, 3) Developing, 4) Enacting, and 5)

Integrating.

In an effort to identify a tool for assessing individual

student wellbeing we develop a set of rubrics for

measuring an individual student’s level of understanding

and application of his or her Native “Roots.” This will

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take additional work but it is based on my own

experiences, a field examination conducted among the

Navajo by Florian Johnson, the Culture-Based Rubrics

presented earlier, and work done in Hawaii on Hawaiian

wellbeing.

The Indigenous Cultural (Socio-Psych) Wellbeing Continuum

Rubrics have five levels of measurement and include:

1. Strong, positive indigenous identity and active

involvement in cultural community;

2. Active and practical traditional spirituality.

3. Understands and demonstrates responsibility to family,

community, and broader society.

4. Shows continuing development of cognitive and

intellectual skills.

5. Knows, understands, respects, and applies kinesthetic

activity for physical development.

Society Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Project based Learning

Is a dynamic approach to teaching in which student

explore in real world, problems and challenging with this

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type of active and engaged learning? Students are inspired

to obtained deeper knowledge of the subject

2. Integrated Studies

Obtain curriculum from two or more discipline’s,

allowing students to see how ideas are connected. Teaching

in such a contextual manner promotes collaboration, critical

thinking and knowledge retention.

Learning

In the society centered curriculum you will not find an

elementary class working on a science lesson in the

classroom from the textbook. Instead in society centered

curriculum, you will find the elementary class outdoor,

working in wildlife and trying ecologically clean.

Environment

In society centered curriculum teacher is interest in

creating a classroom environment of democracy.

Assessment

In society centered curriculum teacher are not written

assessment, instead through real world outcomes and basic

skills and ability with interest.

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DESIGNS AND PATTERNS OF THE THREE MAJOR CURRICULUM

SUBJECT-CENTERED CURRICULUM

Subject-Centered Curriculum

Subject-centered curriculum remains the most common type of

curriculum organization in most states and in most local

school districts today. In subject-centered curricula, the

subject matter itself serves as the organizing structure for

what is studied and how it is studied. In its purest form,

the curriculum for each subject-area is designed by subject-

matter experts and is intended to be studied using subject-

specific methods and tools of inquiry. Emphasis is on

developing an understanding of the major facts, concepts,

contexts, and processes.

THE SUBJECT CENTERED CURRICULUM

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Identificationof

AccompanyingIntellectualDiscipline

Subject to be taught(Contents)

Topic AreasWithin theSubject

To be covered

Definition ofImportant

Generalizationand

Understandingsto teach

Determination ofObjectives

Advantages:

It gives power to the learners: they are identified as

the experts in knowing what they need to know

The constructivist element of these approaches honors

the social and cultural context of the learner.

It creates a direct link between in-class work and

learners’ need for literacy outside the classroom.

DISADVANTAGES:

It often relies on the teacher’s ability to create or

select materials appropriate to learners’ expressed

needs.

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Deciding uponLearningExperienceRelated to

Mastering theContent

Organizing theExperiences

Evaluating theExtent

Of Master of What was taught.

Teachers may also find it difficult to strike an

acceptable balance among the competing needs and

interests of students.

“Subject-Centered Design Model”

SSC focuses on the content of the curriculum. It corresponds

mostly o the content of the textbook, written for the

specific subject. In this instance, school divide the school

hours to the different subject such as reading, grammar,

literature, mathematics, science, history and geography. In

our country, the examples of this curriculum design are the

Basic Education Curriculum (BEC), Secondary Education

Development Program (SEDP), and the tertiary level is the

College Algebra.

Most of the schools using this kind of structure aim for the

excellence in the subject matter content. The curricularists

who were firm believers of this design are Henry Morrison

and William Harris. They believe that the excellence in the

subject matter is very important in measuring the IQ

(Intelligent Quotient) of the students.

Examples of subject-center curriculum:

a. Subject Design

Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most

familiar design for teachers, parents, and other laymen.

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This design according to the advocates has an advantage to

use because it is easy to deliver. Complementary books are

written and support instructional materials are commercially

available.

The teachers are familiar with the format because they were

already educated using the design. In our country’s

educational system, the number of the subject in elementary

is fewer than he secondary level. In college, the number of

subject is differs according to the degree program being

pursued.

However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes,

learning is so compartmentalized. It stresses so much the

content that it forgets about student’s natural tendencies,

interest and experiences. The tendency of the teacher is to

pour in so much content to the learner so that the students

become simply to empty vessel that receive the information

or content.

b. “Discipline Design”

This design focus on academic discipline. Discipline is a

knowledge or concentration in one academic field of study or

profession. For example, student in history should learn the

subject matter like historians and vice versa the teacher

should teach how the students in the discipline will learn

the particular knowledge in that field.

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The discipline design model is often use in college, not in

elementary or secondary. So from the subject-centered

curriculum, this curriculum makes higher to disciplines

which student in college level are ready and matured enough

to move towards in their career path. Discipline becomes the

degree program like psychology, history, ethics, philosophy,

etc. This design helps to master a content area.

c. “Correlation Design”

This kind of design is under Subject-Centered Model (SSM),

this design is come from a core. Teacher explained the two

separate subjects that are related to each other. But the

two subjects maintain their identity. Example for this is

science, becomes the core of mathematics is related because

there are numbers, and use scientific method. Teachers

should come together and plan their lesson cooperatively.

d. “Broad Field Design”

Broad field design is a variation of the SSD. This design

was made to prevent the compartmentalization of subject and

integrate the contents that are related to each other.

Examples of this design are social studies in which the

subjects such as geography, economics, political science,

anthropology, sociology and history are fused in this

subject and the language arts will include grammar,

literature, linguistics, spelling and composition.

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EXPERIENCE/LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM

Experience is the Best Teacher. Experiences are merely

one of the agents in students learning development. In

connection, according to John Dewey, “Students are learned

by doing” in this point of view we can conclude that the

curriculum must sustain, support and give much more emphasis

on the learner’s needs, interests and abilities for them to

attain the total development in pace of global

competitiveness. This development occurs through using the

EXPERIENCE/LEARNER–CENTERED CURRICULUM.

Experience/ Learner-Centered Curriculum have different

designs and patterns including: Activity-Based, Learner-

centered, social process and life function and core

curriculum. This following approach builds students

development in terms of cognitive, affective and psychomotor

skills.

1. ACTIVITY-BASED

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Activity-Based is an approach that focuses on

eliminating the subject matter as learning instead gives

much more emphasis on the learning activities and school

work that supports the learner’s needs, interests, abilities

and social life functions.

In different activities the learners must learned to

integrate their aspects of behavior: intellectual,

emotional, physical and social for them to have an effective

learning resulting on self consciousness and awareness in

the environment leading into building-up a harmonious and

mutual relationship into unity.

Furthermore, these approach merely important in

students learning integration as well as mutualism in the

environment. From this, the learning in activities of the

students occurs on applying their knowledge into a

meaningful understanding in real life situation.

2. CHILD-CENTERED

The Child Centered approach allows the child to make

choices and connections among ideas promoting communication.

It allows freedom to think, experience, explore, question,

and search for answers. It allows for creativity without the

restrictions that things like instruction guides or

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worksheets offer. It celebrates child created works of art

and structure.

This approach allows teachers to observe how play develops

as opposed to directing play, ultimately encouraging

children to become more creative and enhancing communicaion

skills with one another.

3. EXPERIENCE-CENTERED

The contemporary school must be a vibrant, living extension

of its community. Evidence-Based Design of Elementary and Secondary

Schools instructs design professionals on how to successfully

achieve this goal. With assistance from research-intensive

principles grounded in theories, concepts, and research

methodologies—and with roots in the behavioral sciences—this

book examines and provides strategies for pooling streams of

information to establish a holistic design approach that is

responsive to the changing needs of educators and their

students. This book:

Delivers an overview of the current research and

learning theories in education, and how they apply to

contemporary school design

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Explores the history of school design in the United

States

Examines the role of information technology in

education

Includes case studies of more than twenty exemplary

school designs, based on research of the best physical

environments for learning and education

Considers what learning environments may be in the near

future

4. CORE CURRICULUM

The Core Curriculum is also called the Social Functions

or Areas – of – Living Curriculum. It is a pattern in which

learning experiences are organized on the basis of major

functions of social life or aspects of living .

The Core Curriculum is intended to enable the learner to

study problems that demand personal and social action in the

contemporary world. The Curriculum is centered upon life

today. The central idea is to see that the learner is

afforded guided experience appropriate to his maturity in

all the significant aspects of living. Required of all

students in the school, the core curriculum is intended to

serve the general education needs of the learner in a manner

not possible through the traditional subject curriculum. In

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other words, the intent is to integrate various subjects

into a coherent framework of learning’s that could and

should be shared by all, but no special emphasis is to be

given to personal and social problems over other kinds of

common learning. However, core curricula later emerged that

had a central focus on contemporary social problems, the

rationale for them being the core should be that part of

education which all citizens of an interdependent culture

must share . An excellent example of the application of this

concept in the Philippine public schools is the community

school. The major areas of community living vary from school

system to school system. They are usually decided upon by a

group of school officials, curriculum specialists, and

teachers. The areas of living suggest to the teachers the

scope of the curriculum.

SOCIETY/CULTURE- BASED CURRICULUM

Society Centered Curriculum

What is the Society-Centered Curriculum?

The Society-Centered Curriculum (SCC) is meant to reach

out beyond the classroom and into the community where the

world can be changed by students and teachers. The

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curriculum is based on societal issues, and the goal of the

curriculum is to explore and solve those issues. This is

very much an activist model, where students are encouraged

to be leading activists in their community where life

problems, community affairs, and real-world problems exist.

The foundation of the SCC is built on real-world problems,

and the content is various social issues. In the SCC,

students are agents of change seeking to make a difference

in their community.

What is the emphasis of the Society-Centered

Curriculum?

The main focus of the SCC is the group and group

action. The SCC curriculum is a problem-solving curriculum,

and these problems are to be solved through the

participation and efforts of the whole group. Students work

to find the social relevance of their efforts and how they

can improve their citizenship by the projects they take on.

The experiences that the students participate in in the real

world are alive, organic, real, and life changing. Students

are consistently working to make the world a better place.

“Young people are at a formative, idealistic stage of their

life, and they need to learn that they can and should make a

difference in the world” (Ellis, 74).

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What is the teacher’s role in the Society-Centered

Curriculum?

In the SCC teachers have a very important role. They

serve as facilitator: organizing group efforts, showing

students that they are in this together, that they need each

other, and that they have to have a group to do this. Some

often question why this role is so important. We need to

realize that children are not born with all the necessary

social skills to work together as a group. Therefore, the

teacher helps children develop their social skills and

create a climate for collaboration and team building. These

skills and this environment are essential for success within

the SCC. The teacher is responsible for turning their class

into a problem-solving unit. They help their unit solve

their community based problems by planning and coordinating

trips into the community. They are also responsible for

making connections with community members who will further

help the students with their projects. Since teamwork is

such a large part of this curriculum, teachers often work

with teachers throughout the school in order to help

students achieve their goals.

What is the student’s role in the Society-Centered

Curriculum?

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The students’ role in the SCC is perhaps the most

important. They do not sit at their desk with textbooks

doing never ending class work. Students are responsible for

being aware of the world around them and the issues that

impact their life. It is from these life issues and problems

that the SCC is developed. Students’ goal is to leave the

world a better place than they found it through group

efforts. The esprit de corps (the common spirit) is a focal

point of the curriculum and developed as the students work

together in group projects. Students are to engage in the

culture and become involved in the community that lies

beyond their school and to make a difference in that

community. Participation if the true key of the SCC, and

students must work together if they wish to succeed.

Students start their learning process with a driving

question. They then take this question and explore it

through inquiry using applied knowledge. Students then

engage with their peers, teachers, and community members in

collaborative activities. The students’ project learning can

be scaffolded by various supports including technology.

Finally, students create tangible projects that will address

their driving question.

What is the learning environment like in the Society-

Centered Curriculum?

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The SCC requires a classroom like any other school.

Students come together to discuss community issues and

decide where their course of study should go. Therefore, the

classrooms and schools that participate in the SCC are like

a democracy. Students make many of the key decisions.

While there are the traditional grade levels based mostly on

age, cross-grade level activities are very common place.

Students must work together to solve particular issues, and

sometimes that requires other grade levels.

Since the SCC focuses on the real world, the real world is

the SCC’s learning laboratory. Students spend much of their

time outside of the classroom and school, and in the

community investigating. The SCC has integrated studies

where students and teachers work backwards from the problem,

trying to find out how they can be of help.

What are the assessments in the Society-Centered

Curriculum?

Assessments in the SCC usually focus around the

students’ efforts and outcomes. In the SCC students are

working to solve problems within their community, and part

of their assessment focuses on the outcomes of their efforts

to solve the problem. Therefore, students are also assessed

on their ability to apply their knowledge and skills when

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trying to solve the particular problem at hand. The SCC also

allows for students to develop their citizenship and

leadership abilities, as well as fostering their social

growth. A group reflection takes place after a project has

been completed where students can get together and share any

and all thoughts about the project and what the next steps

should be.

Types of SCC assessment include: written work,

observations, presentations, informal discussions and

questions, project designs, and final products. Teachers are

not the only ones involved in the assessment process,

students and peers are also actively involved. Students are

given the chance to create their own rubric which the

teacher can use to assess their learning.

What are the benefits of a Society-Centered Curriculum?

1. Increases students awareness of social issues and

current events

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One of the benefits of the Society-Centered Curriculum (SCC)

is that social issues are the foundation of the curriculum.

Instead of spending their day at a desk reading textbooks

and doing seatwork, students are called to participate in

real world activities. The focus of the curriculum is on

real life problems that are occurring in the classroom, the

local community and around the world.

2. Fosters positive social interactions

In the SCC, students are constantly interacting with one

another, and team building, collaborative effort, and

cooperative learning are all a large part of the school

experience. Group projects dominate the curriculum, which

requires frequent collaboration and fosters the social

skills that are necessary for participation in a group. The

principles of democracy, participation and citizenship are

stressed.

3. Engages students in hands on learning experiences

In the SCC, students acquire knowledge through hands on

experiences versus through books and seat work. Instead,

academic subject matter is introduced to students as a means

to help them solve real life problems. When used in this

way, knowledge is used when needed, instead of memorized out

of context. Students gain the ability to determine which

academic skills are needed to solve the problem at hand. As

a result, student learning experiences are more meaningful,

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and they are likely to remember what they learn in school

and apply what they have learned to other situations

throughout their lives.

4. Emphasis on leaving the world a better place through

group problem solving

In the SCC, there is a strong emphasis on introducing

students to the idea of leaving the world a better place

than they found it through collaborating with others in real

life situations. Because of this, students are encouraged to

explore their communities and determine what issues are of

importance, and then to work with their classmates and other

community members towards finding a solution. Through this

process, students learn the necessary steps of solving a

problem, starting with identifying the problem, devising a

plan to solve the problem, putting the plan into action, and

then evaluating whether or not their effort was successful

in alleviating the problem. Students build many skills

through this process that will be of value to them

throughout their lives, such as decision-making, leadership

and teamwork.

The Society Centered Curriculum/ Democratic Empowerment

Approach

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Assessment

The final effect of the activity is the assessment. The

group should self-evaluate to determine if itaddressed the

problem it set out to change or correct.

Strengths

1. Gives experience to students in using knowledge as a

tool.

2. Focuses on multiple intelligences to keep all students

involved.

3. Develops the ideas of citizenship, activism and

collaboration for students.

4. Strengthens the idea of community in the classroom, but

also outside of the classroom.

Weaknesses

1. Grading the project can prove difficult and runs the

risk of unfair evaluation by peers and teacher.

2. Units prove to be very time consuming for teachers and

require a lot of effort to keep class on track. Only

one or two Society Centered units are suggested per

year.

3. Specialized content coverage is lost.

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Why Choose a Society-Centered Curriculum?

1. Real World Experiences!

2. Active Social Learning!

3. Democracy!

4. Problem Solving!

5. Social Skills!

6. Teamwork and Collaboration!

7. Citizenship!

8. Making a Difference in the World!

The best way for our children to learn and grow to be

active members of their community is to become an activist

early on and apply their education into the real world

outside of the walls of the school.

Unlike the learner-centered curriculum, a society-

centered approach encourages students to work together to

solve real world problems through active learning in group

projects and hands-on activities out in the community. There

is enough competition in the world and our future would be

brighter with less emphasis on the individual learner rising

to the top of his/her class, and more on solving the issues

all around us with the help of one’s peers to do so! The

teacher’s role in the society-centered curriculum is that of

facilitator of groups to come to, “the realization of

private dreams versus making a difference in the world”

(77). The old saying of ‘two heads being better than one’61

has a lot of significance in this model of learning as

students learn that teamwork and collaboration really do pay

off!

Unlike the knowledge-centered curriculum, a society-

centered approach breaks away from traditional academic

subject matter to a more integrated use of knowledge.

“...the point is that they are trying to solve a set of

problems in a meaningful context, so academic knowledge and

skills are not ends in themselves, but useful tools for

problem solving” (74). Teachers of society-centered learning

help students make connections to real world issues in the

community and the environment to give meaning to an

otherwise boring set of facts and skills without a place for

application. Just moving from one desk to the next and

opening one textbook after another just to pass a test has

less and less of our children motivated to learn. Not to

mention the regression of skills that occurs when students

are not required to generalize those skills out into useful

application. What better way to assure and assess

comprehension, transfer, and retention of skills than to get

kids out into the world to put what they learn into practice

as they are learning it!

We want to raise a future of democratic, fair, and

learned citizens that are able to function in society

together in an effort to make our world a better place to

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live. What benefit is there to being valedictorian of one’s

class or getting an ‘A’ on a science vocabulary test if the

community water is polluted, the poverty level is rising,

the animals are going extinct, and our children are not

taught to care or take action to make a difference?

The Society Centered Curriculum/ Democratic Empowerment

Approach

What is the Perspective or Approach?

Society Centered Perspective

1. Focuses on bettering society and teaches students

through experiential group work how to do this.

2. The main idea of this curriculum is to model

citizenship and civic action with students.

Key Beliefs

1. Content is still useful, but instead of teaching a

subject for knowledge it should be applied by students

to help solve a real world issue.

2. “Knowledge functions as tools in a tool chest, used

when needed” (Ellis, 76).

3. Students work in large groups to design a solution to a

problem in their community.

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4. Projects require information from all the subject areas

to help effectively solve the problem.

5. This integration of subjects helps students see how all

the knowledge ties together naturally.

6. Student involvement and engagement are key and this

must be achieved through a real world activity that the

students are interested in.

7. This builds collaboration and real world social skills.

8. The teacher is the facilitator of this activity, but

needs to make sure the kids see themselves as a

9. group and that they are working together.

Culture-Centered Education/Curriculum

Our culture-centered approach defines who we are as a

community of learners, and emphasizes the value we place on

both human difference and commonality. Throughout every

aspect of the Pacific Oaks experience, students are

encouraged to recognize and nurture the uniqueness and

inherent potential that each brings to the table, and to use

the diversity of experience, heredity, abilities, and

perspective to create a community of mutual understanding

and respect.

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Our definition of culture is not limited to a single

descriptive factor, but instead encompasses the full breadth

of what makes each of us who we are: race, gender, language,

religious beliefs, social status, sexual orientation, value

systems, family patterns, education, and expectations for

behavior and interacting. It is the process of helping each

student maintains a sense of belonging within his or her

inherent culture while benefiting from an increasingly

multicultural environment that is fundamental to the

learning approach that Pacific Oaks offers.

Immersion in our culture-centered learning model not only

provides students with a strong sense of individual and

societal identity, but prepares them to incorporate

multicultural skills and sensitivities into their

professional lives.

Culture-Centered Curriculum

-Planning Cultural Curriculum

What is Culture?

Culture is the basic foundation of our life. It

reflects the way we live, the things we use and what we

believe and practice as tradition. In planning the

curriculum, it may be helpful to consider the values and

beliefs that are taught through the cultural experience.

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1. legends and creation stories (spiritual values,

history)

2. songs and dances (language, play, rites of passage)

3. arts and crafts (tools, games, hunting skills,

clothing)

4. attitudes toward Elders, children, people with special

needs, pregnancy, time, and wealth (respect,

acceptance, good health)

5. relationships (marriage, communication)

6. laws and rules (behavior expectations)

7. roles of children and family members (caring for each

other)

8. connection to nature (identity, responsibility,

medicines)

9. blessings and prayers (rituals, mealtimes,

celebrations)

10. connection to the ancestors and spirit world

(death customs, reverence for all of creation)

Universally, Aboriginal cultures share many similar

values, chiefly a connection to nature – the earth, the

animals and birds, the rivers, lakes and oceans. Balance and

harmony with the natural world and the spirit world is an

essential component of cultural curriculum.

To ensure a connection to the land, it is important

that the AHS program is based on a culturally appropriate

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calendar for the local territory. Once a cultural calendar

is established, it will provide a landscape for the 6

components to be incorporated. Using these, the preschool

curriculum can be planned around themes that fit the

calendar events.

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