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TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No UNITS/ Topics in discussion Pages
01 Understanding Educational
Technology: Concept of educational
technology; forms and types of
educational technology; Nature and
assumptions; Factors influencing the
application of educational technology.
1 to 26
02 Psychological bases of modern
technologies:
Reference to Ausubel, Skinner and
Bruner; Instructional design-cybernetic
psychology and system analysis;
Bloom‘s (revised) taxonomy of
objectives
27 to 52
03 Communication and Interaction:
Theories of communication; Types of
communication; Communication in
class room; Barriers of communication;
Print and non-print media- various
types; Educational technology as a tool
for social change- applications with
computers
53 to 79
04 Models of teaching and teaching
learning aids:
Concept, meaning and characteristics of
models of teaching; models of teaching
strategies; Assumptions and
80 to 135
2
fundamental elements of teaching
models; Teaching aids-types- Edgar
Dale‘s ‗ Cone of experience‘ and
components.
05 Innovations in educational
technology:
Multimedia in education; Computer
assisted Instruction(CAI);
Teleconferencing; satellite
communication; Internet; Programmed
Instruction; Benefits of educational
technology in teaching and learning
136 to 166
3
UNIT I
The Concept of Educational Technology
Meaning of Technology
The word „Technology‟ is derived from the two Greek words namely
Technic and Logia. “Technic‟ -means “art or skill.”. ‟Logia‟- means
“Science or Study‟. So simplest meaning of “Technology‟ is “Science of
study of an art or skill.”
Definitions of Technology
―Technology is Knowledge organized for Production‖. - Sachs.I
―Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to a practical
purpose‖. - Page.T
―Technology is the set of instruments and skills which are used to satisfy the
needs of the community‖. - Hierra.A.
Meaning of Education
The word „Education‟ is derived from the Latin word “Educatum‟, which
means “To bring out‟. In the sense, the meaning of Education is to bring out
the better qualities of the individual.
According to Ross, the word ―Education‟ is derived from the Latin word
“Educare‟ which means “to bring up‟ or “to raise‟. It means that
education is that process which brings up or rears the individual in the right
way.
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Meaning of Educational Technology
There are three views regarding the meaning of educational technology.
Educational Technology 1 (ET 1)
The first view which may call Educational Technology 1 (ET 1) refers to
the application of physical sciences and engineering technology to provide
mechanical instruments or “hardware” which can be used for instructional
purposes. This is the view of James O. Finn and others (1960).
E.g. Tape-recorders (including language laboratory), television, teaching
machines and computer- based teaching.
Educational Technology 2 (ET 2)
The second view which we may call Educational Technology 2 (ET 2)
refers to the application of scientific principles or „software approach‟ to
instruction. This is the view of Skinner, Gagne and others.
Educational Technology 3 (ET 3)
The third and the modern view of Educational Technology 3 (ET 3) as
described by Davis and Hartley (1972), incorporates both ET 1 and ET 2
through the application of a „system approach‟ to education and training.
Definitions of Educational technology
―Educational technology may be defined as the application of the laws as
well as recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of
education‖.
- S.S. Kulkarni
―Educational technology is the application of scientific process to man‘s
learning conditions‖.
- Robert A. Cox
5
―Educational technology is an application of scientific knowledge about
learning to practical learning situation.‖
- J. Bloomer
―Educational Technology is the systematic application of scientific
knowledge about teaching-learning and conditions of learning to improve the
efficiency of teaching and training.‖
―Educational technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and
methods by which educational goals could be realized.‖
Characteristics of Educational Technology
1. ET has contributed in developing various methods e.g. Microteaching
method, Interaction analysis, Audio Visual Aids and Programmed learning
method.
2. In the field of ET, Psychology, Science and technology, system, art, AV
aids and machines are used.
3. It is based on the application of the scientific knowledge.
4. It is helpful in making the teaching process objective, easy, clear,
interesting and scientific.
5. It is a continuous dynamic technology.
6. It is an important medium of communication.
7. A desired change is possible in the behavior of teachers and students.
6
Revolution and Development of Educational Technology
Erich Ashley (1967) has identified four revolutions in education. They are,
First Revolution: Revolution of shifting the task of educating the young
ones from parents to teacher and from home to schools.
Second Revolution: Revolution of adoption of the written word as a tool of
education.
Third Revolution: Revolution as a result of invention of printing and
availability of books and other teaching-learning material.
Fourth Revolution: Revolution on account of development in electronic,
chiefly involving radio, television, cassette recorder and computer, and
development of systems concept.
7
Origin of Educational Technology
Sidney Pressey of a University in Ohio, America, who used a teaching
machine in the field of teaching in 1926.
1930-40 Lumsdain and Glaser- Mechanized education (Models of teaching).
1950- B.F Skinner‟s Programmed Learning.
1950- Bryn more in England the term „Educational Technology‟.
B.S Bloom (1956) was introduced the taxonomy of educational objectives.
In 1960 Flanders introduced the concept of interaction analysis model of
teaching.
Micro-teaching technique first adopted at Stanford University in USA
(1961) by W.Allen et.al.
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) was first introduced by Keller in
1965.
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) was developed by O.K Moore in
1966.
TECHNOLOGY OF EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY IN
EDUCATION
Introduction
The term technology in education is a service concept like technology in the
service of agriculture of farmers or science in the service of mankind. It
refers to the use of equipment and machines for educational purposes. It
involves the use of a wide range of audio- visual equipments, hardware and
sophisticated electronic devices like films, projectors, radio, television, tape
recorder, teaching machines and computers etc.
8
Educational technology as explained earlier is a wider term than technology
in education. It includes hardware approach, software approach and systems
approach.
Educational Technology is broadly classified into the following two
heads:
1. Technology of Education.
2. Technology in Education.
1. Technology of Education
It is inherent in education itself. It refers to the application of behavioural
sciences like psychology of educational theories and practical teaching –
learning problems, instruction and motivation etc. It is concerned with the
study of educational problems and the techniques to be used in solving the
teaching-learning problems so that best results should be achieved. Broadly
speaking, technologies of planning, financing and administration are also
covered under the concept of technology of education. Techniques of
curriculum planning, transacting and evaluating also come under technology
of education. In technology of education, we use derived from psychology of
learning.
In general, following techniques are included in technology of education:
1. Analysis of instructional problems.
2. Selection of instruments for evaluation
3. Selection of strategies to obtain desired result from the teaching-
learning process.
4. Teacher behaviour.
5. Programmed learning.
6. System analysis.
9
2. Technology in Education
Broadly speaking, technology in education implies the use of implements,
tools and machines in education in the same manner as we use these for the
development of agriculture and gardening and industry and in fact our
everyday life to reap the fruit of scientific and technological developments.
Under technology in education we include electronic media projector, film,
radio, T.V, teaching machine, computer and internet etc.
Technology in education refers to the application of engineering principles
and technology in the process of education. Basically it is called hardware
technology.
Silverman (1968) called this type of educational technology as ―Relative
Technology‟ and technology of education as ―Constructive Educational
Technology‟
Differences between Technology of Education and Technology in
Education
10
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Use of ET is needed in the process of education because of following
reasons.
1. Population Explosion
Populations of Asian countries are increasing at a very fast speed and
we cannot educate all these people just by using teachers in the class.
Modern media of communication like TV, Internet and CDs etc. can
impart education to millions of people together in one setting.
2. Fast Generation of New knowledge
New knowledge is expanding at a very fast speed.
It is almost doubling in just 3 years.
A teacher is not supposed to impart this huge amount of knowledge
by tutorial or classroom teaching.
ET can perform this function very easily.
3. Development of new strategies
It is the ET that has helped to develops new strategies in the field of
education like,
Microteaching (inculcation of teaching skills among teachers),
Programmed instruction (Preparation of instructional materials in
written or CAI forms for individualized learning).
Instructional analysis (analysis of teaching materials into convenient
parts to be presented to students one by one) and use of hardware
technology in education etc.
11
4. Controlled Atmosphere
Education cannot be treated as plaything by some teachers after the
introduction of ET.
It has made the whole process of teaching objective, clear, scientific
and interesting.
The teacher controls the classroom environment in his own favour
but his performance is evaluated simultaneously by applying tests.
5. Importance of Teacher’s role
It emphasizes theories and principles of teaching more than those of
learning.
Thus, it has removed many of the defects of ET and has raised the
significance and relevance of a teacher in the class.
6. Mass extension of Model teaching
The facilities of radio television and interest are now available of a
large scale.
By demonstrating the effective teaching of renowned teachers on
these media we can benefit millions of students together.
Even the less effective and less skilled teachers can take the benefit
of these demonstrations & improve their teaching.
7. Advantages to private students
Many universities have given permission to students for private
examinations, even in higher education.
These students do not attend classes
12
In order to maintain standard of education in higher education, the
use of ET becomes a necessity.
8. Beneficial for teacher training colleges
Even teacher training colleges cannot produce good teachers without
the use of ET.
It is because; this branch of education puts emphasis on the
modification of teacher‟s behaviour.
(E.g.) we can develop teaching skills in student with the help of micro-
teaching techniques.
9. Improvement of school Administration
ET helps us to analyze the problems of school administration
scientifically leading to improvement in the system.
This is done by applying various combinations of inputs or adopting
the procedure followed by the other school systems.
10. Preservation of knowledge
By using hardware technology, we can preserve knowledge in audio
and video cassettes, CDs and floppy disks (Pen drive)
11. Development of teaching models
When a definite combination of inputs and strategies gives good
result repeatedly in a number of class room situations.
It can be translated into teaching models to be used universally.
It can be also leads to the development of teaching theories.
12. Creation of Interesting learning situations
ET can transform the teaching-learning process from burden to enjoy
which, psychologically very sound for students.
13
(e.g.) use of material aids in teaching increases the interest of
students.
UTILITY / USE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHERS
1. It has provided scientific and systematic approach to teachers to conduct
action research in the classroom situations to overcome the classroom
problems related to classroom environment, content, curriculum etc.
2. It helps the teacher to modernize and mechanize the teaching-learning
process. It also helps the learners to study at their own speed/rate with the
help of programmed instruction on video or computers.
3. ET supplements the teacher, with AV-aids to make the teaching-learning
process more effective.
4. It helps in teacher‘s professional growth.
5. Add to their teaching competence, modify their teaching behaviour and
style, inculcate a scientific outlook, approach & attitude and help them
transfer these to their learners.
6. ET supplements teacher in their instructional programmes through the
structured lessons for remedial, enrichment or drill purposes.
7. The learners get the training of self instruction and teachers are relieved of
the burden of routine repetition for exercise and revision purposes.
FORMS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
The various forms of ET are as follows,
I. Teaching Technology
II. Instructional Technology
III. Behaviour Technology
14
I. TEACHING TECHNOLOGY
1. Introduction
2. Content of Teaching Technology
3. Assumptions of Teaching Technology
4. Characteristics of Teaching Technology
Introduction:
Teaching technology is based on philosophical, sociological and scientific
knowledge of education. Its structure is a combination of three components,
content, communication and feedback. Teaching can be organized at three
levels- memory, understanding and reflective level. As a system it consists of
the inputs, process and outputs with a focus on teachers.
Teaching is the social and professional activity. Teaching is purposeful
activity. The ultimate goal of teaching is to bring all round development of a
child. Teaching is an art as well as science because teaching can be studied
objectively and scientifically.
The Chief exponents of Teaching Technology: I.K. Davies, N.L. Gagne,
Herbert, Hunt, Burner and Robert Glaser.
Teaching is such a classroom activity which is completed by the interaction
between teachers and students.
This activity leads to complete development of students.
Today teaching is considered ―Student-Centered‟ and not ―Teacher-
Centered‟.
In other words, instead of teaching by the teacher, the learning by the student
is emphasized.
15
Content of Teaching Technology
I.K. Davies and Robert Glaser (1962) have developed the content of
teaching technology and classified into 4 elements.
a. Planning of Teaching
b. Organization of teaching
c. Leading of teaching
d. Controlling of teaching
a. Planning of Teaching
A teacher makes proper plan to what he is to teach in the class. In planning
he does three things/activities:
i. Task analysis (Teacher analyses the content and arranges such sub
contents into systematic manner).
ii. Identification of Objectives (i.e. what changes he has to bring in
the behaviour of his students).
iii. Writing learning Objectives (they can be evaluated at the end of
the task).
b. Organization of Teaching
This is the second stage of teaching.
This stage is particularly related to the presentation of the subject-matter.
In organizing, a teacher does the following things,
i. He selects suitable teaching strategies and techniques.
ii. He selects or prepares suitable material aids for making the
presentation of the subject –matter effective.
16
iii. He matches the strategies and material aids with the nature of the
sub content to give such an experience to his students which is
conducive to the realization of teaching objectives.
c. Leading of teaching
This stage is related to communication strategies and reinforcement devices.
The techniques of motivation are employed for leading the behaviours of the
students.
The knowledge regarding reports between teacher and students is considered
under this step.
d. Controlling of Teaching
The last step concerns with evaluation of teaching.
The main focus of this step is to assess the learning objectives in terms of
student‘s performance.
The learner‘s performance provides the basis for the feedback to teacher and
learners.
3. Assumptions of Teaching Technology
The content of teaching technology is based on the following assumptions.
a. Teaching is a scientific process and it has two major components:
Content and Communication
b. A close relationship may be established between teaching and
learning.
c. Teaching skills can be developed with the help of feedback
devices.
d. Teaching and learning are mutually inter-related (i.e.) they are
affected with each other. In otherwise means that better teaching
17
leads to better learning and better learning environment leads to
better teaching.
e. Modification and improvement can be made in teaching activities
according to the situations (i.e.) there is no general formula
applicable to all circumstances.
f. Appropriate conditions can be created by teaching for effective
learning.
4. Characteristics of Teaching Technology
The following are the main features of Teaching Technology.
a. All the 3 domains of objectives: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor can be achieved by this technology.
b. It can make the teaching more effective.
c. Teaching technology is based on philosophical, sociological and
scientific knowledge of education.
d. Teaching can be organized at 3 levels namely: memory,
understanding and reflective level of teaching.
e. As a system it consists of the inputs, process and outputs with the
focus on teachers.
f. The teaching-learning process can be made effective with the help
of teaching technology.
18
II. INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
1. Introduction
The instruction has an important role in human learning. The systematic
actions which induce learning is known as instruction Or Instruction means
communication of information by means other than a teacher. For example
various types of audio-visual aids can guide the students. The
Correspondence Course and Open University students accomplish the task
of instructions through press and television.
Instructional technology is a subset of educational technology based on the
concept that instruction is a subset of education. Instructional technology is
a complex integrated processing involving people, procedures, ideas,
devices and organization for analyzing problems and devising,
implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, in
situations in which learning is purposive and controlled.
The following components are involved in the instructional technology:
1) Message 2) People 3) Materials 4) Devices and techniques 5)
Settings
Actually instructional technology is based upon Hardware approach.
The instruction stands for development knowledge of and beliefs.
Instructional technology means a network of techniques or devices employed
to accomplish a set of learning objectives.
It is based on psychological and scientific principles to instruction.
The origin of IT is from psychological laboratory experiments.
The most important example of IT is ―Programmed Instruction‟.
The Chief exponents of IT: B.F Skinner, Bruner, Glaser, Gilbert and Mager.
19
2. Content of Instructional Technology
The instructional technology involves the strategies and tactics which can be
used outside and inside the class room teaching.
Teaching is an instruction but the instruction is not the teaching.
The instructional technology consists of the following content:
a. Meaning of I.T
b. Definition of Programmed instruction and its Origin
c. Structure of Linear programming and its Principles
d. Structure of Branching programming and its Principles.
e. Development of Programmed instruction material i. Planning, ii.
Writing frames, iii.Evaluation.
f. Learner Controlled instruction and CAI.
3. Assumptions of Instructional Technology
The instructional technology involves the following assumptions:
A pupil can learn according to his needs and capacities. (It means that
an instruction cannot benefit the entire student equally, howsoever it
is good).
A pupil can learn even in the absence of the teacher.
Reinforcement can be provided continuously by the use of
instruction.
The subject matter can be divided into its various elements and each
element can be taught / presented independently through this
technology.
20
Students can be given feed back by instructional activities also, (i.e.)
effective communication can provide feedback to learners.
4. Characteristics of Instructional Technology
The following are the main features of instructional technology
Objectives of Cognitive domain can be achieved by the use of this
technology.
Right responses of students can be reinforced regularly which will
lead to further right responses to occur.
By the use of this technology, students can learn according to their
need and speed (rate).
It provides the deep insight into the content structure and sequence of
its elements.
The instructional theory may be developed by using this technology
in learning process.
It helps in development of ―Learner-Centered‟ education.
III. BEHAVIOURAL TECHNOLOGY
Introduction: Psychology is the science of behavior; behavioral
technology is an application of scientific knowledge or modifying
teachers‘ behavior. It emphasizes the psychomotor domain skins.
Classroom behavior of teachers is studied and suggestions for desirable
changes are made. The body of knowledge of behavioral technology is
useful in training and shaping behavior of student teachers in teacher
education programs. Teaching act can be evaluated objectively and
systematically. It aims at producing effective teachers by modifying
their behavior.
21
This technology is closely related to psychology.
Psychology is the Science of behavior and learning is the
modification of behavior through activities and experiences.
It is an application of scientific knowledge or modifying teacher‘s
behavior.
It is also called as ―Training Technology‟
The chief exponents of B.T: Flanders, B.F. Skinner, Anderson, and
Amidon.
2. Content of Behavioral Technology
A teacher learns the following subject-matter (topics) under this technology:
a. Meaning & definition of teacher behavior.
b. Methods of observing teacher‘s behavior and its rating (speed).
c. The interpretation and evaluation of teacher behavior.
d. Assumptions & theory of teacher behavior.
e. Models of classroom interaction.
f. Various techniques of developing teacher behavior such as:
i. Micro teaching
ii. Team teaching
iii. Interaction analysis techniques
iv. Programmed instruction
3. Assumptions of Behavioral Technology
This technology is based on the following assumptions:
22
The behavior of the teacher is social as well as psychological. It
means that psychological and social conditions directly affect
teachers‟ behavior.
Teachers‟ behavior can be observable and measurable.
Teachers‘ behavior is relative. It means that some teachers are good
and some are not good.
Teachers‘ behavior can be modified by training and by using
reinforcement devices.
4. Characteristics of Behavioral Technology
The following are the main features of Behavioral Technology:
It has the focus to achieve the psychomotor objectives.
The specific teaching skills can be developed in teacher with the help
of this technology.
The basic foundation is psychology.
It is based upon software approach.
Reinforcement and feedback are emphasized.
It aims at producing effective teachers by modifying the behaviour.
It is more useful for teacher training institutions.
23
Types of Communication in Educational Technology:
Intrapersonal communication (person speaking to himself).
Interpersonal communication (one-to-one talking).
Group communication (large group of people).
Mass communication; this communication is a process of
creating shared meaning between mass media and their
audiences.
24
Objectives of Educational Technology
1. Transmitting information.
2. Serving as role models.
3. Assisting the practice of specific skills.
4. Contributing to the provision of feedback.
Scope of Educational Technology
1. Curriculum development
2. Developing teaching-learning materials
3. Developing human resources
4. Developing tactics and strategies
5. Developing multi-sensory aids
6. Feedback mechanism
7. Developing instruction methods
8. Developing interaction methods
9. Develops learning environment
10. Develops information resources
11. Reduce the burden of teachers
12. Spelling out the ET goals and objectives.
Educational technology as a system approach in the field of Education
This type of educational technology is to management and systems
engineering and more specifically computer science. Education is considered
to be a system. A system is characterized by four parameters; input, output,
process and environment. Systems approach is a systematic way of
designing, implementation and evaluation of a process in terms of its desired
objectives.
Education as a system approach can be represented as below:
25
Education as a system
This type of educational technology takes the system of education as a whole
and views it in the context of specified objectives and functioning of its
inter-related parts under the existing environment constraints.
STUDENT-CENTERED LEARNING
Student-centred learning is focused on each student's interests,
abilities, and learning styles, placing the teacher as a facilitator of learning.
This classroom teaching method acknowledges student voice as central to the
learning experience for every learner, and differs from many other learning
methodologies. In a student-centred classroom, students choose what they
will learn, how they will learn, and how they will assess their own learning.
Student-centred learning requires students to be active, responsible
participants in their own learning.
Student-centred learning allows students to actively participate in
discovery learning processes from an autonomous viewpoint. Students spend
the entire class time constructing a new understanding of the material being
learned in a proactive way. A variety of hands-on activities are administered
in order to promote successful learning.
Administration,
Teachers,
students,
teaching-
learning
materials
Formal/informal
agencies of education
Attainment of
educational
objectives
26
The following provides a few examples of why student-centred learning
should be integrated into the curriculum:
Strengthens student motivation
Promotes peer communication
Reduces disruptive behaviour
Builds student-teacher relationships
Promotes discovery/active learning
Responsibility for one‘s own learning
Assessment of student – centered learning
One of the most critical differences between student-centred learning
and teacher-centred learning is in assessment. In student-centred learning,
students participate in the evaluation of their learning. This means that
students are involved in deciding how to demonstrate their learning.
Developing assessment that supports learning and motivation is essential to
the success of student-centred approaches. One of the main reasons teacher‘s
resist student-centred learning is the view of assessment as problematic in
practice. Since teacher-assigned grades are so tightly woven into the fabric of
schools, expected by students, parents and administrators alike, allowing
students to participate in assessment is somewhat contentious.
Application of Educational Technology to Higher - Education
The student-centred learning environment has been shown to be effective in
higher education.
A certain university sought to promote student-centred learning across the
entire university by employing the following methods:
27
Analysis of good practice by award-winning teachers, in all faculties, to
show that, they made use of active forms of student learning.
Subsequent use the analysis to promote wider use of good practice.
A compulsory teacher training course for new junior teachers, which
encouraged student-centred learning.
Projects funded through teaching development grants, of which 16 were
concerned with the introduction of active learning experiences.
A programme-level quality enhancement initiative which utilised a
student survey to identify strengths and potential areas for improvement.
Development of a model of a broadly based teaching and learning
environment influencing the development of generic capabilities, to
provide evidence of the need for an interactive learning environment.
The introduction of programme reviews as a quality assurance measure
(Kember, 2009).
CHILD CENTERED TEACHING ACTIVATES
Materials prepared for child centered activates as the sentence states
these are materials that prepared in order to involve the child in teaching
learning process.
Child centered activity or learning is the focus given to the child or student in
learning putting the childs interest first.
Important of child centered activities
1. The child centered activities promotes communication
2. Reduce the disruptive behavior
3. Strengthens students motivation
28
4. Builds students teacher relationship
Science centered
Science help children to understand what around them or the environment,
teaching science encourage the children to ask question? Some materials
used to help the child to learn are:
1. Vernier calipers
2. Thermometer
3. A growing plant
Mathematic centered
Independent learning activities and games encourage children to use
instructional materials for learning mathematics. Some of the following
materials can help in teaching mathematics,
1. Counting frames
2. Clock
3. Scales
4. Tape
Art centered
Art materials easy to reach for children to encourage them become involved
in art project (visual awareness), the following materials used,
1. Paint and brushes
2. Variety of paper
29
Block centered
It is best known that children, mature the basic skills and creative outlet. The
following materials used block centered,
1. Wooden blocks
2. Small toys
3. Community help - policeman and fireman
Reading centered
Reading is a fundamental skill in learning which includes other skills like
listening, speaking and writing. The following materials make the reading
centere a motivation place.
1. Children magazines
2. Tape player
3. Variety of books
Learning centered
Language art carries the some importance for the skills of listening. The
following materials used for language learning centered,
1. Alphabet letters
2. Word cards
3. Puzzles
4. Catalogs and magazines for picture
30
Music centered
Music is a universal language understood means of communication and
sharing information. The following materials used music centered
1. Keyboard
2. Music books
3. Tape and CD player
4. Earphones
Dramatic play
Drama is children identify themselves with models, roles and unique
situations in their environment. Young children develop positive comfortable
feeling about themselves. The following materials used dramatic centered,
1. Doctors kit
2. Play phones
Outdoor centered
The oudoor offers unlimited possibilities for teaching and learning, Outdoor
activities include running, clumping and jumping. The following are some of
the equipments used for outdoor activities.
1. Toys
2. Balls
3. Jump ropes
31
Social studies centered
Children can be able to discover and learn about culture of the world, the
following materials needed are as followed,
1. Maps
2. Historical art facts
Low cost materials
These are materials are available locally. It is very cheap.
1. They are cheap enough
2. It is more fun
3. It is the solution to the lack of materials
4. Easy way to learn the subject
5. Teachers can create the tasks with the group of people
6. Students and teachers can create the new innovative teaching
materials
7. It can develop the creativity and critical thinking
Effectiveness of educational technology to the modern world:
Educational technology is seen both as a means as well as service to effect
and facilitate better and more productive learning systems. It may be defined
as a separate field in the theory of education dealing with the development
and application of the use of educational resources. Educational Technology
should not be confused with teaching or instruction or education or learning
or engineering but it should be taken as a sum total of all such aspects which
32
go a long way in shaping the personality of the learner in a meaningful
context.
It is neither technology in education nor technology of education but both
which pervades the whole teaching-learning process to make it meaningful
for the teacher who teaches and the learner who learns and modifies his
behavior for his own betterment and the betterment of mankind.
Technology education has not only become a network of gathering and
sharing ideas, but also a platform for students and teachers to research,
collaborate, and differentiate. A source of technology that has resources
readily available for content subject classes and STEM - (STEM is a
curriculum based on the idea of educating students in four specific
disciplines — science, technology, engineering and mathematics — in an
interdisciplinary and applied approach) class is a valuable resource in today‘s
technology literate world. Collaborating and communicating with peers is a
meaningful and purposeful way to share ideas with one another.
In the classroom, differentiating instruction is one of the main struggles for
an educator. Technology integration offers educators ways to pace student
lessons based on the student‘s level and multiple intelligences. SMART class
is an advanced technology implementation for schools, which provides tools
and other contents for the students‘ learning using latest media presentations.
These classrooms are also called digital or new media classrooms, have
transformed an ordinary classroom into a digital learning environment. The
fact is that SMART class is so engaging and enlightening for students.
Effective technology integration must have at the interdisciplinary level in a
way that deepens and enhances student‘s learning process. The benefits of
implementing technology integration into the classroom are active
33
engagement taking place, collaboration among peers, and connections to the
real-world. Technology education makes teaching and learning more
meaningful and enjoyable.
34
UNIT II
PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF MODERN TECHNOLOGIES
Educational Technology is increasingly developed. The 21st century is
featured with media technology. Educational Technology is playing a critical
role in all fields of education. The development of computing and network
technology, media technology, and particularly digitization, has been
impacting our daily life all the time. As an electronic platform of distance
education, ―Blackboard‖ was developed in 1997, and has been widely
utilized in web instruction and administration in elementary and middle/high
schools, as well as in the colleges and universities.
Educational technology is a multidisciplinary activity that is currently
enjoying a period of growth. The world is caught in a communications
revolution, the effects of which will go beyond those of the industrial
revolution of two centuries ago. Then the great advance was the invention of
machines to multiply the potency of men's muscles. Now the great new
advance is the invention of machines to multiply the potency of men's minds.
As the steam engine was to the first revolution, so the computer is to the
second. Our personal, professional, social, and cultural lives have been
affected and transformed by the computer networking revolution; email,
cellphones, text messaging, tweeting, participating in social networks,
blogging, and accessing powerful search engines using computers and/or
mobile devices are common aspects of everyday life. Moreover, as aspiring
or current members of the education profession (teachers, instructors,
professors, trainers), the world in which we work and teach has been
particularly impacted by networking technologies.
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The 21stcentury is referred to as the Knowledge Age, a time in which
knowledge has key social and economic value. And today‘s youth are
described as the Net generation, raised in the culture of the Internet and
viewing the Web as integral to socializing and work. In such a technology-
driven world, it is critical and timely to study the intersection of learning
theory and technology. Opportunities for educators to reflect on the
implications of how we might shape and apply new communication
technologies within our practice have been limited. The field is characterized
by training teachers in the use of specific online tools, but a theory-informed
approach to transforming our educational practice remains elusive.
Here, in this chapter, we shall consider the psychological bases of modern
technologies in reference to the theories of Ausubel, Skinner and Bruner.
This chapter shall have references to Instructional design with cybernetic
psychology and system analysis. Towards the end of the chapter, there would
be the reference on Benjamin Bloom‘s taxonomy of objectives with
constructivism that flow into the development of educational technology.
Ausubel's Learning Theory:
David Paul Ausubel was an American psychologist whose most significant
contribution to the fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and
science education. Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles,
and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Similarly, he believed in
the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to rote memorization. The most
important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already
knows. This led Ausubel to develop an interesting theory of meaningful
learning and advance organizers. Learning Theory Ausubel's believes that
learning of new knowledge relies on what is already known. That is,
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construction of knowledge begins with our observation and recognition of
events and objects through concepts we already have.
We learn by constructing a network of concepts and adding to them. Ausubel
also stresses the importance of reception rather than discovery learning, and
meaningful rather than rote learning. He declares that his theory applies only
to reception learning in school settings. He didn‘t say, however, that
discovery learning doesn‘t work; but rather that it was not efficient. In other
words, Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas
are achieved through deductive reasoning Ausubel was influenced by the
teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget‘s ideas of conceptual schemes,
Ausubel related this to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge.
Meaningful learning Ausebel‘s theory also focuses on meaningful learning.
According to his theory, to learn meaningfully, individuals must relate new
knowledge to relevant concepts they already know. New knowledge must
interact with the learner‘s knowledge structure. Meaningful learning can be
contrasted with rote learning. He believed in the idea of meaningful learning
as opposed to rote memorization. The latter can also incorporate new
information into the pre-existing knowledge structure but without
interaction. Rote memory is used to recall sequences of objects, such as
phone numbers. However, it is of no use to the learner in understanding the
relationships between the objects. Because meaningful learning involves
recognition of the links between concepts, it has the privilege of being
transferred to long-term memory. The most crucial element in meaningful
learning is how the new information is integrated into the old knowledge
structure. Accordingly, Ausubel believes that knowledge is hierarchically
organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be
related (attached, anchored) to what is already known
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Ausubel‘s theory primarily explains cognitive learning – with the central
idea being that learning occurs through the assimilation of new concepts into
existing concept frameworks held by the learner. Further, Ausubel defines
effective learning as a process in which learners comprehend the structure of
knowledge and consciously make new structures fit with the existing
organization of concepts in the brain. He refers to this process where new
ideas or concepts are linked with previously acquired knowledge as
meaningful learning
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Meaningful and Rote learning according to Ausubel:
According to Ausubel, "the most important single factor influencing learning
is what the learner already knows". Relationships between concepts are
formed when two concepts overlap on some level. As learning progresses,
this network of concepts and relationships becomes increasingly complex.
Ausubel compares meaningful learning to rote learning, which refers to
when a student simply memorizes information without relating that
information to previously learned knowledge. As a result, new information is
easily forgotten and not readily applied to problem-solving situations
because it was not connected with concepts already learned.
However, meaningful learning requires more effort, as the learner must
choose to relate new information to relevant knowledge that already exists in
the learner‘s cognitive structure. This requires more effort initially, however
after knowledge frameworks are developed, definitions and the meanings for
concepts become easier to acquire. Further, concepts learned meaningfully
are retained much longer, sometimes for a lifetime.
Rote learning, common in many schools and universities today, is shown to
be of little use for achieving the goals of individuals and society in a time
when creative production of new knowledge is in heightened
demand. Knowledge creation is viewed as a special form of meaningful
learning.
Three basic requirements for meaningful learning include: a learner‘s
relevant prior knowledge, meaningful material (often selected by the teacher)
and learner choice (to use meaningful learning instead of rote learning). An
important advantage of meaningful learning is that it can be applied in a
wide variety of new problems or contexts. This power of transferability is
necessary for creative thinking
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Teachers can encourage creative thinking by using tools such as concept
maps. Concept maps are based primarily on the learning theories of cognitive
psychologists, specifically Ausubel's Assimilation theory. A concept map
helps represent ideas in a way that models an individual's cognitive structure.
Goals in the Use of Concept Maps
One of the primary goals in the use of concept maps is to promote
meaningful learning. In order for this to occur the following points need to
be considered:
The learner must have relevant background knowledge.
Material to be learned must be conceptually clear and presented with
language and examples that will relate to the learner‘s prior knowledge.
The learner must make the choice to learn meaningfully. Students must
be motivated to incorporate new meanings into their prior knowledge,
rather than just memorizing concept definitions. The creation of concept
maps supports the incorporation of new meanings into prior knowledge.
Characteristics of Concept Maps
Concepts are typically enclosed in circles or boxes, and relationships
between concepts are represented by connecting lines that link them
together. Words on the linking line explain the relationship between the
concepts.
Concepts are represented in a hierarchical fashion with the most general
concepts at the top of the map and the more specific concepts arranged
below.
The inclusion of cross links makes explicit relationships between
concepts in different domains within the concept map. Cross-links show
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how a concept in one domain of knowledge shown on the map is related
to a concept in another domain shown on the map.
Inclusion of specific examples of events or objects can help to clarify the
meaning of a given concept. Typically these are not included in ovals or
boxes because they are specific events or objects and do not represent
actual concepts.
Learners, as they struggle to create good concept maps, are engaged in a
creative process that can be challenging to many, especially to learners who
have spent much of their life learning by rote. Rote learning adds very little
to our knowledge structures, and therefore is not conducive to creative
thinking or advanced problem solving. Consequently, concept mapping is an
excellent tool to promote of creative thinking and identification of new
problem-solving methods. Another very powerful use of Concept Maps is as
an evaluation tool
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e-Maps:
Computer-generated e-maps function as a graphical interface for
representing, organizing, and navigating web-based course content and files.
E-maps visually represent complex information in an easily understandable
format that displays the overall structure of subject content.
An e-map affords the possibility to organize and sequence content on one
web page by placing the main topic in an image-centered diagram, with
interrelated main and subtopic connections surrounding it in a radial format.
As such, e-mapping offers a powerful e-learning and organizational
technique that visually displays main topics, subtopics, concepts, images and
the relationships between them. An e-map makes information more
meaningful than if it were just memorized because, like concept maps, it
places the concepts in the context of existing knowledge.
Further, an e-map is an effective e-learning tool for organizing and
navigating web-based content and files. The structure of an e-map is
consistent with the radial nature of the brain's functioning, and the colors,
graphics, and nonlinear branches used stimulate the entire brain, resulting in
more engaged and meaningful learning. Further, using the e-map technique
gives teachers the opportunity to express ideas and to illustrate
interrelationships between concepts and content in a visual and nonlinear
way.
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e-Map on solar system-computer generated:
Ausubel Learning Model: Ausubel believed that learning proceeds in a top-
down or deductive manner. Ausubel's theory consists of of three phases.
The main elements of Ausubel teaching method are shown below in the
table:
Ausubel‘s Model of Meaningful Learning
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Skinner’s learning theory:
Skinner had developed what he called a theory of ―radical behavioralism,‖
that all human activity can be seen as a behavior and that all behaviors can
be modified through reinforcement techniques.
B. F. Skinner is also often credited as the inventor of the teaching machine.
Behaviorism as an educational learning theory led to the development of
several aspects of instruction and learning production, some of which we still
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use in classrooms today, including direct instruction, lecture, behavioral
objective as classroom management, behavioral reward system, positive
reinforcement, and individualized instruction, among other notions.
A great example of Behaviorism in a purer sense in Educational Technology
is the creation of educational websites . These instructional websites hosts
videos that explain a variety of educational topics and are immediately
followed by a short quiz, after which, based on the outcome, students can
assess their own understanding of the video and content material. The results
are shown immediately upon completion and provide succinct explanations
to help students better understand. Students will be willing to put forth more
effort after reinforcement of higher scores (and thus, positive results). The
key is the instantaneous responses and grades, which can be a source of
praise or criticism, both of which are strong factors in student performance.
Skinner influenced education as well as psychology in both his ideology and
literature. In Skinner‘s view, education has two major purposes: (1) to teach
repertoires of both verbal and nonverbal behavior; and (2) to encourage
students to display an interest in instruction. He endeavored to bring
students‘ behavior under the control of the environment by reinforcing it
only when particular stimuli were present. Because he believed that human
behavior could be affected by small consequences, something as simple as
―the opportunity to move forward after completing one stage of an activity‖
could prove reinforcing. Skinner favored active learning in the sense that
students were not merely passive recipients of information doled out by
teachers.
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He was convinced that a student had to take action; ―to acquire behavior, the
student must engage in behavior‖. Moreover, Skinner was quoted as saying
"Teachers must learn how to teach ... they need only to be taught more
effective ways of teaching." Skinner asserted that positive reinforcement is
more effective at changing and establishing behavior than punishment.
Skinner’s reading machine:
In The Technology of Teaching, Skinner has a chapter on why teachers fail:
Essentially he says that teachers have not been given an in-depth
understanding of teaching and learning. Without knowing the science
underpinning teaching, teachers fall back on procedures that work poorly or
not at all, such as:
using aversive techniques (which produce escape and avoidance and
undesirable emotional effects);
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relying on telling and explaining ("Unfortunately, a student does not
learn simply when he is shown or told.");
failing to adapt learning tasks to the student's current level;
failing to provide positive reinforcement frequently enough.
Skinner suggests that any age-appropriate skill can be taught. The steps are
Clearly specify the action or performance the student is to learn to do.
1. Break down the task into small achievable steps, going from simple
to complex.
2. Let the student perform each step, reinforcing correct actions.
3. Adjust so that the student is always successful until finally the goal is
reached.
4. Transfer to intermittent reinforcement to maintain the student's
performance.
Skinner's views on education are extensively presented in his book The
Technology of Teaching
Bruner’s theory of learning and development:
Jerome Bruner (1986) developed a theory of cognitive development in
which he maintained that thinking and reasoning are integrated into a single
process. He stated that a child passes through several stages of development
which he termed the inactive, iconic and symbolic modes. The inactive mode
is seen in infants when they reach and grasp objects. In the iconic mode, the
child will give meaning to previous experiences as he thinks about these
experiences. The child then proceeds to the symbolic mode, which is
regarded as the highest form of thinking wherein the child can attach names
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to objects or items in his surroundings because of his increased language
ability. Bruner‘s theory advocates learning through discovery and active
learning where the problem-solving skills of learners are encouraged.
He regards human beings as primarily information processors, learners,
thinkers, creators and storytellers. Like Piaget and Vygotsky, Bruner regards
social and cultural factors as important in cognitive development. These
aspects are relevant in the teaching of reading comprehension. Reading
comprehension is the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing
meaning. This implies that the purpose of reading is to read the text with
understanding. The implications of this theory for teaching reading
comprehension is that new concepts should be presented repeatedly, initially
at a simple level and overtime at an increasingly difficult level, a concept
Bruner referred to as the ―spiral ordering of content‖. By applying this
theory, the teacher is able to deal with important reading comprehension
issues. A supportive environment will encourage learners to share
information with their peers and to develop their problem-solving skills.
Making use of problem-solving activities would also be a way of utilizing
Bruner‘s theory when teaching reading comprehension.
The Spiral Curriculum:
Jerome Bruner was one of the most important psychologists of the 20th
century, though it is in the field of education that his influence has been most
keenly felt. Two of his books, The Process of Education and Towards a
Theory of Instruction, have come to be recognized as landmark works and
reveal Bruner‘s particular view of the educational theory known as
constructivism. The Spiral Curriculum designed in the 1960s, Jerome Bruner
put forward a theory of cognitive growth which looked to the influence of
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environmental and experiential factors in a child‘s education, and which
suggested that each child‘s intellectual ability develops in stages through
changes in how the mind is used. Bruner‘s position was that young children
need to learn the underlying principals of different concepts – the structure of
ideas – rather than to simply memorize their related facts and data. He
championed learning through inquiry, and believed that the teaching and
learning of any subject at an early age should have as its goal the child‘s
intuitive grasping of its basic ideas.
As children grow then, Bruner believed, curriculum should revisit earlier
learned ideas, expanding upon them until a child reaches a more complete
understanding of individual ideas and how they relate to one another. Bruner
referred to this as the ―spiral curriculum‖, wherein ideas are presented in
repeated learning opportunities over time, and are organized from the simple
to the complex, from the general to the specific, and are examined in relation
to one another. Engaging information in a spiral fashion, Bruner wrote, helps
children to organize knowledge into a structure that makes it both
increasingly accessible and usable in areas beyond the immediate learning
situation.
Process and Structure:
In The Process of Education, Bruner wrote of children as being active
problem solvers, ready to explore complex subjects and ideas. In addressing
the role of education within this view of young learners, Bruner identified
four themes to be considered:
• The role of structure in learning and teaching: Bruner proposed
introducing knowledge areas in a way which helps young children see the
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basic organizing principles within complex concepts, and to realize the more
general nature of a concept before learning its particular information. ―The
teaching and learning of structure, rather than the simple mastery of facts and
techniques, is at the center of the problem of transfer (of knowledge). If
earlier learning is to render later learning easier, it must do so by providing a
general picture in terms of which the relations between things encountered
earlier and later are made as clear as possible.‖
• Readiness for learning: Bruner believed that the teaching of important
areas of knowledge is often postponed because they are thought to be too
difficult for young children. Certainly teachers should watch for children‘s
readiness to interact with different ideas. But it is also true, Bruner wrote,
that ―…any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest
form to any child at any stage of Teaching and learning at an early age
should have as its goal the child‘s intuitive grasping of a subject‘s basic
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ideas. Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest
form to any child at any stage of development. This thought is at the
foundation of the ―spiral curriculum‖. Teachers need not just wait for each
child‘s readiness to encounter a new idea, Bruner wrote, but can also foster,
or scaffold, that readiness by ―deepening the child‘s powers where you find
him here and now.‖
• Intuitive thinking: Bruner believed that children can and should be
encouraged to think intuitively and not just analytically. In helping children
to understand underlying principles in conceptual thought, he wrote, they
begin to deal with problems on an intuitive level, looking not simply for the
analytically ―correct‖ answer but rather at broadly applied conceptual
connections which help them learn to be problem solvers. ―It seems likely
that effective intuitive thinking is fostered by the development of self-
confidence and courage in the student… Such thinking, therefore, requires a
willingness to make honest mistakes in the effort to solve problems.‖ Too
often, Bruner wrote, our educational system rewards answers that are simply
right without giving recognition or support to the creative process of thinking
intuitively about a problem. Teaching and learning, need to make room for
both.
Motives for Learning Interest in a subject: Bruner believed, is the ideal
motivation for learning. External motivations, such as grades or other
rewards, carry within them the seeds of loss through the inability to meet an
applied standard of success. Instead, Bruner wrote, it is the task of teachers
and learning environments to provide materials and activities that pique
children‘s interest, motivating them from within to pursue opportunities
which will, inevitably, further their own growth. ―Motives for learning must
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be kept from going passive… they must be based as much as possible upon
the arousal of interest in what there is to be learned.‖
The Spiral Curriculum in Relation to Constructivism: The theory of
constructivism views the act of knowledge acquisition as a self-constructive
process of cognitive organization on the part of the child. The Swiss
developmental psychologist Jean Piaget viewed learning as an ongoing
process of self-regulated behaviors which balance the acts of assimilation
and accommodation. Assimilation, Piaget asserted, is the child‘s active
organization of experience, through which ideas and experiences that match
the child‘s current understandings are incorporated into an existing cognitive
structure. Accommodation, on the other hand, is a reflective behavior
through which learners change their cognitive structures in the face of
experiences which do not mesh with their existing understandings.
This process is commonly referred to as cognitive construction. Russian
educator Lev Vygotsky, on the other hand, examined the interaction between
the individual and others in a learning environment. The focus of Vygotsky‘s
work was the effect of social interaction, language and culture on learning,
which he viewed as a process referred to now as social construction. Like
Piaget, Vygotsky believed that learning was an act of self-construction, but
he differentiated between two types of conceptual knowledge, referring to
them as ―spontaneous‖ and ―scientific‖ concepts. Vygotsky defined
spontaneous concepts as those which come from within children themselves
as they reflect on everyday experience. He defined scientific concepts, on the
other hand, as those which originate in classroom interactions between
children and their peers and with adults, and which help bring the child
toward formal abstractions and logically defined thinking. Vygotsky
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believed that the skills a child can learn with adult guidance, and peer
interaction, exceeds what the child can obtain alone.
As an educator, Vygotsky‘s concern was with the learning that expands
children‘s understanding beyond individually held ―spontaneous‖ concepts
toward an understanding of culturally shared ―scientific‖ concepts. Like
Piaget, Jerome Bruner believed that children construct knowledge internally
by engaging in discovery learning, selecting and transforming information,
constructing hypotheses and making decisions. And, like Piaget, Bruner also
believed that learners rely on an internal cognitive structure to bring meaning
and organization to learning experiences. Yet, like Vygotsky, Bruner also
saw a direct role for interaction between a learning child and others in the
learning environment, and saw the role of the teacher as that of translating
information into a format appropriate to each child‘s current state of
understanding.
Summative facts on Bruner’s theory that had an impact on
psychological bases for educational technology:
Teaching and learning at an early age should have as its goal the
child‘s intuitive grasping of a subject‘s basic ideas.
Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest
form to any child at any stage of development.
The cognitive theory of constructivism views the act of knowledge
acquisition as a self-constructive process of cognitive organization on
the part of the child
Bruner saw the role of the teacher as that of translating information
into a format
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Instructional design: Cybernetic psychology and system analogues:
This approach of instructional designs was evolved in Second World
War. The term Cybernetic denotes discipline associated with
‗communication and control‘. It suggests concern with component
elements of a system which may function together to produce the most
effective integrated system.
MEANING OF CYBERNETICS
The term Cybernetic has been coined from the Greek word ‗Kubernetes‘
meaning steer man. The function of steer man is to steer the ship or boat in a
right way in a right direction. This means that the person should have proper
control over the steering function. In the similar way, the teacher is the
steersman of the teaching-learning process. He has to take along with him
the pupils for reaching a set goal by steering out a learning path. For this
purpose, the instructional system he chooses must be appropriately
controlled. While working with system, if he gets feedback that the system is
working properly in terms of output, it will be steered with no change. But if
he gets communication that there is something wrong with the system, he
will try to set it right. For this purpose, he may have to bring changes in his
own method of teaching, the size of quality of the content or learning
experiences, interaction with his students, etc. and again the system is put to
work after being corrected.
DEFINITION
Norbert Weiner defined cybernetics as ―a flexible, self –adapting mechanism
which is capable of storing information and changing its responses according
to the changing environment in which it is placed.‖
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CYBERNETIC THEORY
Cybernetic theory views an individual as a feedback system which generates
its activities in order to detect and control specific stimulus characteristics of
the environment. It analyses intrinsic mechanism by which control is
established and sensory feedback mechanism maintained. The focus of the
whole theory is the dynamic feedback and self regulation. All systems
include at least three basic elements; input, process and output
1. The input unit; It provides some process by which material or
information‘s entered the system
2. The process unit; It acts on the material of information to modify it in
any way.
3. The output unit; It consists of some technique for discharging the
results of process from the system. The output is called feedback.
THE SYSTEM CAN BE OF TWO TYPES
1. OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
The open loop system is not a self corrective automatic system because it is
not able to communicate and provide feedback about its working.
Input Process Output
2. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
The Cybernetic system stands for the closed loop system, in which, the
output from a system can be effectively returned as input for controlling the
future output. It is referred as feedback. This type of effective and dynamic
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feedback is available only in the closed loop system and it is the central
nerve of the Cybernetics approach.
Input Feedback
Process output
USE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNS
The Cybernetic theory and mechanism can be properly applied to the process
of instruction for making it a self regulatory, self corrective and auto
instructional system. Let us see how it can happen.
Ordinarily, the teaching or instruction as a system may be supposed to have
three major elements-input, process and output
The input elements of the instructional system here will consist of the
learning experiences (in the shape of set curriculum, syllabus, etc.) to be
given to the students, their needs and entry behavior , the objectives of
teaching, the teacher, the instructional methods, the material and material
resources, and the teaching learning environment.
· In process part, the actual instructional work will be carried out by
involving and making use of the input material – human and physical.
· The output part of the teaching or instructional system will bring the
outcomes of the instructional process in the form of the students‘ responses,
their gain in knowledge acquisition of skills, change in attitude and interest,
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etc. It will throw light on the effectiveness of the system for the realization of
the set instructional objectives.
APPLICATION OF CYBERNETICS TO EDUCATION
1. It enables the teacher to understand some of the fundamental
mechanisms which control learning.
2. The principles of cybernetics are applied for classroom instruction for
group as well as individual learning
3. It provides the basis for self education. The feedback control is used to
develop programmed instructional material.
4. Cybernetic principles are used for developing remedial instruction or
individualized instructional material
5. Teacher education program can be improved by employing innovative
practices like micro-teaching, stimulated social skill teaching and interaction
analysis which are based on the theory of feedback.
ADVANTAGES
The following are the major implications of Cybernetic in education;
1. It is applied in group as well as individual classroom instruction
2. It enables the teacher to understand some of the fundamental
mechanism that control learning.
3. It provides the basis for self education. The feedback control is used to
develop programmed instructional material.
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4. Its principles are used in developing remedial instruction or
individualized instructional material.
5. Teacher-education program can be improved by employing the
mechanism of feedback devices for the modification of teacher behavior
6. The innovative practices in education program such as micro teaching,
stimulated social skill teaching and interactional analysis are based on the
theory of feedback
7. The input, process and output units of teaching enable the teacher to
understand and analyze teaching in more scientific manner
8. Teaching activities can be made highly structured and well organized
in view of learning objectives.
The teacher has to consider all the factors which generate appropriate
teaching situation. Thus, Cybernetic concept is most useful for developing
design of training programs for complex behavior.
BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES:
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy: A former student of Bloom‘s, Lorin
Anderson, worked with cognitive psychologists, curriculum and assessment
specialists, and educational researchers to update Bloom‘s taxonomy of the
cognitive domain.
The old and new versions of the taxonomy are shown below:
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The new terms are defined as:
• Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge
from longterm memory.
• Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic
messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing,
inferring, comparing, and explaining.
• Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or
implementing.
• Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the
parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through
differentiating, organizing, and attributing.
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• Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through
checking and critiquing.
• Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional
whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through
generating, planning, or producing.
Bloom’s domains
Three domains:
Cognitive (about knowing)
Affective (about attitudes, feelings)
Psychomotor (about doing)
Formulated by Bloom and coworkers. Cognitive and affective domains were
completed and published in the 1950s.
Psychomotor was never published, although others have tried. It is arguably
a bit out of date (from the mid ‘50s and at present being re-examined), but
helpful.
Cognitive domain A hierarchy of six levels (the hierarchy is what is most
under question at present):
Knowledge: the recall of specific items
Comprehension: can recall, but can do a little more (e.g. paraphrase,
define, discuss to some extent)
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Application: all of the above, but can take information of an abstract
nature and use it in concrete situations
Analysis: can break down a communication into its constituent parts,
revealing the relationships among them
Synthesis: can pull together many disorganized elements or parts so
as to form a whole
Evaluation: makes judgments about the value of materials or methods
Verbs to help in writing objectives in the cognitive domain:
Affective domain: A hierarchy of five levels (the hierarchy is what is most
under question at present):
Receiving: is willing to notice a particular phenomenon
Responding: makes response, at first with compliance, later
willingly and with satisfaction
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Valuing: accepts worth of a thing
Organization: organizes values; determines interrelationships;
adapts behaviour to value system
Characterization: generalizes certain values into controlling
tendencies; emphasis on internal consistency; later integrates these
into a total philosophy of life or world view.
Some verbs to help in writing objectives in the affective domain:
Psychomotor domain:
The psychomotor domain concerns things students might physically do.
The levels of this domain are categorised as:
Reflex: objectives not usually written at this ‗low‘ level
Fundamental movements: applicable mostly to young children
(crawl, run, jump, reach, change direction)
Perceptual abilities: catch, write, balance, distinguish, manipulate
Physical abilities: stop, increase, move quickly, change, react
Skilled movements: play, hit, swim, dive, use
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Non-discursive communication: express, create, mime, design,
interpret.
Constructivism and educational technology:
The theory of constructivism in learning is to believe that knowledge is not
provided from teacher to student where it remains unaltered, but that learning
is an active process of recreating and developing knowledge, and that
through constructivism, emphasis is placed on the role of learning activities.
One strand of constructivism can be traced to John Dewey who emphasized
the place of experience in education. Another from the work of Piaget, who
demonstrated empirically that children‘s minds were not empty, but actively
processed the material with which they were presented, and claimed that
through the process of accommodation and assimilation, people will
construct new knowledge from their experiences
Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific
study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own
understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and
reflecting on those experiences.
Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners
are actively involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction
rather than passively receiving information. Learners are the makers of
meaning and knowledge. Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and
creates motivated and independent learners.
A constructivist teacher and classroom differ from a traditional classroom in
a number of ways: the learners are interactive and student-centered; and the
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teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to
be responsible and autonomous.
What is Constructivism?
Constructivism is a view of learning based on the belief that knowledge isn't
a thing that can be simply given by the teacher at the front of the room to
students in their desks. Rather, knowledge is constructed by learners through
an active, mental process of development; learners are the builders and
creators of meaning and knowledge. Constructivism draws on the
developmental work of Piaget (1977) and Kelly (1991).
Piaget (1977) asserts that learning occurs by an active construction of
meaning, rather than by passive recipient. He explains that when we, as
learners, encounter an experience or a situation that conflicts with our current
way of thinking, a state of disequilibrium or imbalance is created. We must
then alter our thinking to restore equilibrium or balance. To do this, we make
sense of the new information by associating it with what we already know,
that is, by attempting to assimilate it into our existing knowledge. When we
are unable to do this, we accommodate the new information to our old way
of thinking by restructuring our present knowledge to a higher level of
thinking.
Similar to this is Kelly's theory of personal constructs (Kelly, 1991). Kelly
proposes that we look at the world through mental constructs or patterns
which we create. We develop ways of construing or understanding the world
based on our experiences. When we encounter a new experience, we attempt
to fit these patterns over the new experience. For example, we know from
experience that when we see a red traffic light, we are supposed to stop. The
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point is that we create our own ways of seeing the world in which we live;
the world does not create them for us.
Constructivist beliefs have recently been applied to teaching and learning in
the classroom.
Why Is Constructivism Important?
Educational curricula and teaching methods are changing. One component of
the current redevelopment of all subject area curricula is the change in focus
of instruction from the transmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum.
In a traditional curriculum, a teacher transmits information to students who
passively listen and acquire facts. In a transactional curriculum, students are
actively involved in their learning to reach new understandings.
Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and
motivated learners. Constructivist educators tell us that learning in all subject
areas involves inventing and constructing new ideas. They suggest that
constructivist theory be incorporated into the curriculum, and advocate that
teachers create environments in which children can construct their own
understandings.
The Constructivist Classroom
A constructivist teacher and a constructivist classroom exhibit a number of
discernable qualities markedly different from a traditional or direct
instruction classroom. A constructivist teacher is able to flexibly and
creatively incorporate ongoing experiences in the classroom into the
negotiation and construction of lessons with small groups and individuals.
The environment is democratic, the activities are interactive and student
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centered, and the students are empowered by a teacher who operates as a
facilitator/consultant.
Constructivist classrooms are structured so that learners are immersed in
experiences within which they may engage in meaning-making inquiry,
action, imagination, invention, interaction, hypothesizing and personal
reflection. Teachers need to recognize how people use their own experiences,
prior knowledge and perceptions, as well as their physical and interpersonal
environments to construct knowledge and meaning. The goal is to produce a
democratic classroom environment that provides meaningful learning
experiences for autonomous learners.
This perspective of learning presents an alternative view of what is regarded
as knowledge, suggesting that there may be many ways of interpreting or
understanding the world. No longer is the teacher is seen as an expert, who
knows the answers to the questions she or he has constructed, while the
students are asked to identify their teacher's constructions rather than to
construct their own meanings.
In a constructivist classroom, students are encouraged to use prior
experiences to help them form and reform interpretations. A reader response
approach allows students to explore variant interpretations as opposed to the
teacher's own interpretation being only one possible interpretation in the
classroom in the traditional pattern of teaching.
A constructivist classroom is, in fact, highly organized. i) Students are given
a lot of choices within the classroom, but those choices may be contained
within parameters. ii) Students are able to negotiate themes, but must abide
by the range of literature that their curriculum prescribes. iii) Students may
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design their own assignments, but the assignments must accommodate
curriculum variables.
UNIT III
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COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION
Communication is paramount in education. Whether it is teacher to student,
student to student, teacher to teacher, teacher to parent, teacher to admin or
admin to parent, or vice versa, communication is needed to make sure our
students are successful.
Communication is something that doesn't always happen. Sometimes is a
lack of time, a lack of resources, a lack of knowing how to get the point
across or a language barrier.
Technology can help improve communication in education:
Email - connect with staff, teachers, students and parents through
email.
Websites - post relevant information and resources on district, school,
and classroom
Google Classroom, SMART etc - use these systems to share
assignments and announcements with students and parents.
Phone blasts - there are a lot of automated systems that will robo-call
phone numbers with information.
Social Media - use social media at all levels to connect and
communicate with teachers, parents, students and the community.
Translation tools - Google Translate and other translation tools can
help in communication
Variety of media - technology allows you to provide communications
in a variety of formats - written, images, audio, and even video to
help everyone access and understand the communications.
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Reaching students who are absent - online resources, video recordings of
classes, video conferencing, and more can make home or hospital bound
students part of the class and keep them engaged. In addition, these resources
can help connect parents and schools.
Technology can also help educator‘s research topics, find resources, and
connect with other educators to learn and share from each other.
The application of theories, principles and models of communication in
education and training
Communication is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and a
means that individuals or organizations share the meaning and understanding
with one another.
Analyse theories, principles and models of communication:
Two schools of thoughts are recognized in the study of communication and
these include:
The Semiotics School:
The basis for semiotics was laid by Morris-1946, for languages or symbols
theory. This school deals with communication as a mixture of sign, symbol
and message, which the sender wishes to carry and wants a particular
reaction from the recipient of the messages-the sign itself. The semiotics
school's focus is categorized into three areas of general study: syntactic
(study of relationship between symbols), semantics (study of symbol to
referent relationship) and pragmatics (study of relationship of people with
symbol).
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The Process School: This school perceives communication as a process, a
simple messages transmission and meanings which the sender intends to
carry not minding the reaction of the. Instances include art works, culture
and music since messages are not formed with any reason, but as an
expression of the sender's thoughts. The recipient can translate the message
the way he wants. The process school of thought is also called Linear
School.
Communication Theories:
Some studies are based on the influence of communication and media on the
human society. One of the earliest studies in this group is:
Hypodermic/Bullet Theory: which relies on the powerful principle of
media and its consumers are passive. Furthermore, it states that messages
passing through media are like magic bullets which strikes the audience as
quickly as possible but also impacts them to carry the required action as
quickly as possible.
Two Step Flow of Information Theory:
Paul Lazaefled Elihu Katz, Berelson and Hazelduadet were at the forefront
of this theory which states that mass media did not exert the types of impact
on the audience as was generally believed. The audience came to an
agreement not directly under the impact of mass media but more by means of
association amongst themselves. This was the finding of an investigation
carried out in the 1940's during America's presidential elections.
Models of Communication:
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Aristotle's Model: This model was developed some 2000 years ago.
Aristotle (the Greek philosopher) includes in this model the five necessary
factors of communication: Speaker, Speech/message, Audience, Effect and
Occasion. Aristotle suggests that the speaker should construct a speech for
separate audiences on separate instance for separate purpose. This model is
applied in public speaking.
Lasswell's Model (1948): states that for mass communication process to be
understood, each of the phases has to be understood. This model elaborates
on the effect instead of the message itself. Effect implies observable change
in the receiver. It also proposes that any change in the elements will change
the effect.
Shannon and Weaver's Model (1949): also termed the engineering model
of communication is an exemplary of the process school of thought. It is also
known as the mathematical theory of communication as it gave a technique
to the problem of how to convey maximum information in a given channel. It
proposed the noise concept. As engineers during World War II, Shannon and
Weaver's main challenge was in finding out the most efficient human
communication means.
Newcomb's Model- 1953: This is the premier of the models to propose the
function of communication in a society. The main function in accordance
with Newcomb is to sustain equilibrium in a society.
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For example:
Tutors come up with a new policy of increasing the school timing from 5
hours to 7 hours.
A - Teachers B - Learners X - Policy or issue
If both learners and tutors are okay with this policy then the communication
maintains its equilibrium status between them. Else the communication flow
between "A" and "B" becomes trouble in the social system. If "A" or "B" is
not willing to accept the policy then it will directly impact the social system
and can't maintain the equilibrium status. So Tutors "A" can convince
learners "B" as much as possible. Else they have to make some amendments
in the Policy "X" and convince them towards the policy.
Charles E. Osgood's Model- 1954: In this case, communication is a
dynamic process where a healthy interactive association exists between the
source and the receiver.
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Wilbur Schramm's Model: Schramm continued from a simple human
communication model to a more complex model that justified the total
experiences of two people trying to engage in communication and then to a
model that considered human communication with interaction between two
people.
In his second model, Schramm suggests the idea that only what is shared in
the aspects of experience of both source and destination is actually
communicated, because only that size of the signal is common to both of
them.
The third model views communication as an interactive process where both
the receiver and the sender act as encoder, interpreter, transmitter and
receiver of signals.
It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature.
Ways in which theories, principles and models of communication can be
applied to teaching, learning an assessment
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Different people respond to different forms of communication, when we
teach we give consideration to the varying types of learners, Visual, Aural,
Readers, Kinaesthetic (VARK), we try to design our lessons to include all of
the styles. Learners learn in different ways depending on the results produced
by a sensory input. Making reference to a condition known as synaesthesia,
in which one sensory input produces unexpected results for instance, a
synaesthete may see the colour red when they see the number 2 and blue if
they see number 3, in some cases sound caused a visual effect for the
synaesthete. This may explain why one person responds better when
information is given in a verbal format, another responds better if it is visual
and so on.
The connections between these different sensory areas of the brain mean that
we all have our own unique way of perceiving what is being taught or
communicated. This allows for empathy with learners of different styles and
this is a good reason to consider how to communicate to learners with
different learning styles.
"Communication is the art of successfully sharing meaningful information
with people by means of an interchange of experience. The important word
is 'successfully', which implied that a desired behavior change results when
the receiver takes the message". According to an analyst Walklin, it is not
enough to communicate the instructions, it is also important to deliver praise
or constructive criticism in order to encourage and guide the learner into new
discovery, if you ask the learner to complete a task a feeling of
accomplishment will encourage behavior conducive to further learning. This
is essential to me when teaching as my own learners can often be hostile to
the learning process, feeling it has been imposed upon them. It is also
important to listen to the students, if you set tasks that are above the student's
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current abilities then you are likely to create a communication barrier
whereby the student will close in on themselves not wishing to admit they
cannot continue and the learning process will stop.
Achieving two way communications with our learners is not straightforward.
Barriers can often present themselves. It is crucial that a tutor can identify
barriers and help learners overcome them. Petty, a educationist, proposes that
unsuitable level of work, jargon, vocabulary, environmental factors, fear of
failure and inapproachable tutor can be barriers to learners learning
experience.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION:
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Types and Levels of Communication
We communicate with one another on many different levels.
Because we do not have direct access to the thoughts and feelings of other
people, we must rely on communication to convey message to one another.
There is more to communication tha simply using language to speak to one
another. Communication exists on a number of levels and in a variety of
forms. The flowchart above gives an easy understanding to the different
types of communication which we commonly use in our everyday work
systems.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the use of symbols in the form of spoken
words to transmit messages. Verbal communication is complicated by the
fact that language is arbitrary, meaning that words change over time;
ambiguous, meaning that many words lack clear-cut meanings; and abstract,
meaning that words are not the phenomena to which they refer. Thus,
miscommunication occurs when the meaning we attach to a word changes
with time, when a word lacks a clear-cut, precise meaning or when words are
used that are too general. For example, the word "love" is a very imprecise
term; one person's definition of love may differ substantially from another
person's.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication refers to the use of symbols other than words to
transmit messages. It includes gestures, body language, how we utter words,
aspects of our environment that influence meaning and objects such as
jewelry, furniture and clothing that send people messages about ourselves.
Research suggests that nonverbal communication constitutes anywhere
between 65 and 93 percent of all human communication. Just like words,
nonverbal symbols are ambiguous. What is a polite gesture to one person
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may be considered rude by another person. Certain forms of nonverbal
communication may also have different meanings in different cultures. For
example, direct eye contact is appropriate in U.S. society but considered
disrespectful in many Asian countries
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is also known as self-talk or thinking, and
refers to the ways we communicate with ourselves. We use intrapersonal
communication to plan our lives, rehearse scenarios before we act them out,
and tell ourselves what to do or not do. The way we communicate with
ourselves greatly affects our self-esteem. A person who tells himself, "I'm so
stupid" when he fails an exam will likely have poorer self-esteem than
someone who thinks, "I did really well on the previous four exams. I must
have just been having an off day, and I'll do better next time."
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is the communication we have with other
people. This type of communication varies from highly impersonal to
extremely personal. The degree to which we communicate, or fail to
communicate, with others influences how our relationships with them
develop, continue or come to an end.
Public Communication
Public communication refers to public speeches that we deliver in front of
audiences. Public communication serves three main purposes: to entertain, to
persuade and/or to inform. It is different from other forms of interaction in
that it requires greater levels of planning and preparation on the part of the
speaker and involves less direct interaction. Audience members still interact
with the speaker via mostly nonverbal symbols, but there is a lesser degree of
give and take than there is in one-on-one conversations.
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Mass Communication
Mass communication refers to any type of media that is used to communicate
with mass audiences. Examples of mass media include books, television,
radios, films, computer technologies, magazines and newspapers. Although
mass communication does include certain computer technologies, it does not
include technologies like email that are used to communicate one-on-one
with someone. Mass communication is responsible for giving us views of
events, issues and people from cultures that differ from ours. It enables us to
learn what is going on in distant places in the world and lets us learn the
viewpoints of people and cultures with which we do not have direct contact.
Effective Communication: How and when it happens
Effective communication occurs when a desired effect is the result of
intentional or unintentional information sharing, which is interpreted
between multiple entities and acted on in a desired way. This effect also
ensures the message is not distorted during the communication process.
Effective communication should generate the desired effect and maintain the
effect, with the potential to increase the effect of the message. Therefore,
effective communication serves the purpose for which it was planned or
designed. Possible purposes might be to elicit change, generate action, create
understanding, inform or communicate a certain idea or point of view. When
the desired effect is not achieved, factors such as barriers to communication
are explored, with the intention being to discover how the communication
has been ineffective.
Objectives of communication: The objectives of communication are to
transmit the right information at the right time to the right person, to get
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message accepted, understood and acted upon. Communication has a social
aspect in helping the growth social system, by keeping people together as
well-knit group with understanding and cooperation.
Objectives of communication are as follows:
i) Education – to inform
ii) Propagation – to persuade
iii) Entertaining – to give delight/joy
Types of Communication:
On the basis of the nature of the communication, the communication can be
divided into various given types:
According to the exchange of ideas, the communication of two types is
possible:
Two types of communication ways are available to the teacher. They are
one-way communication and another is two-way communication
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1. One-way communication:.
One way communication travels simply downward from superior to
subordinates. One-way implies only transmission part of the communication.
It does not recognize the message from the receiver‘s point of view. In this
type of communication, the sender can communicate his ideas to the
receiver, but reverse is not possible. The feedback is not possible in this type
of communication. For example, during the learning with a Television or
Radio program, the learner can only listen to the teacher‘s views. He cannot
put any comment to this program at the same time.
2. Two-way communication: Two-way communication implies a two-way
traffic. The meaning of teaching is not only to give instructions to the
students. Effective teaching is not only to give instructions to the students.
Effective teaching calls for both transmission and reception. It is not
sufficient just to give orders or direct students to do and not to reason why,
but to follow and to so it. Two-way communication permits students to speak
or express openly and freely. Since feedback is possible in two-way
communication and so the teacher can identify and remove the problems of
the learners. The classroom communication should be based on the two-way
communication.
Barriers to effective human communication
Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message and
intention of the message being conveyed which may result in failure of the
communication process or an effect that is undesirable. These include
filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions, language,
silence, communication apprehension, gender differences and political
correctness
This also includes a lack of expressing "knowledge-appropriate"
communication, which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex
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legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or environment
that is not understood by the recipient.
Physical barriers
Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. An example
of this is the natural barrier which exists if staff are located in different
buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment,
particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may
also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which frequently
causes communication difficulties for an organization. Whilst distractions
like background noise, poor lighting or an environment which is too hot or
cold can all affect people's morale and concentration, which in turn interfere
with effective communication.
System design
System design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place
in an organization. Examples might include an organizational structure
which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know who to
communicate with. Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate
information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in
roles and responsibilities which can lead to staff being uncertain about what
is expected of them.
Attitudinal barriers
Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems with staff in an
organization. These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as
poor management, lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts
which can result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal
attitudes of individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or
dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them
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to carry out particular tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched
attitudes and ideas.
Ambiguity of words/phrases
Words sounding the same but having different meaning can convey a
different meaning altogether. Hence the communicator must ensure that the
receiver receives the same meaning. It is better if such words are avoided by
using alternatives whenever possible.
Individual linguistic ability
The use of jargon, difficult or inappropriate words in communication can
prevent the recipients from understanding the message. Poorly explained or
misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. However, research in
communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to research
when persuasion fails.
Physiological barriers
These may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused—for
example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.
Presentation of information
Presentation of information is important to aid understanding. Simply put,
the communicator must consider the audience before making the
presentation itself and in cases where it is not possible the presenter can at
least try to simplify his/her vocabulary so that the majority can understand.
Nonhuman communication
Every information exchange between living organisms — i.e. transmission
of signals that involve a living sender and receiver can be considered a form
of communication; and even primitive creatures such as corals are competent
to communicate. Nonhuman communication also includes cell signaling,
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cellular communication, and chemical transmissions between primitive
organisms like bacteria and within the plant and fungal kingdoms.
Animal communication
The broad field of animal communication encompasses most of the issues
in ethology. Animal communication can be defined as any behavior of one
animal that affects the current or future behavior of another animal. The
study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics (distinguishable
from anthrop-semiotics, the study of human communication) has played an
important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study
of animal cognition. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding
of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the
21st century so far, a great share of prior understanding related to diverse
fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture
and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood,
has been revolutionized.
Patterns of communication in relevance to technological study:
A thought kept in the brain is of no use unless and until it is shared with
other individuals and rest of the world. The idea, no matter however brilliant
it is, must come out for its successful implementation for it to benefit one
and all. It is the prime responsibility of the individual to share his thoughts
and ideas with others.
How is it possible? How can one share his ideas and thoughts?
The communication system enables the successful transmission of idea or
any other important information among individuals. The person from whom
the thought originates carefully encodes his ideas into a sensible content
which is now ready to be shared with everyone. He is commonly referred to
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as the sender and the other party who receives the information from him is
called the receiver or the recipient. The free flow of information between the
sender and the receiver takes place because of the communication system.
The flow of information can be between two individuals. The information
can flow from the individual to a machine, from the machine to the
individual and even between two machines. Machines coupled together
through networks also provide signals for the individuals to respond, thus a
type of communication system. In the above cases all the machines must
work on similar lines and patterns, must be technically compatible and has to
provide the same information, so that the individuals can decode the
information well.
The various types of communication systems for the smooth flow of
information between two parties.
Optical Communication System
The word ―Optical‖ stands for light. As the name itself suggests, optical
communication system depends on light as the medium for communication.
In an optical communication system the transmitter converts the information
into an optical signal (signal in the form of light) and finally the signal then
reaches the recipient. The recipient then decodes the signal and responds
accordingly. In optical communication system, light helps in the
transmission of information. The safe landing of helicopters
and airplanes work on the above principle. The pilots receive light signals
from the base and decide their next movements. On the roads, red light
communicates the individual to immediately stop while the individual moves
on seeing the green light.
In this mode of communication light travels through the optical fibre.
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Radio Communication System
In the radio communication system the information flows with the help of a
radio. Radio communication system works with the aid of a transmitter and a
receiver both equipped with an antenna.
The transmitter with the help of an antenna produces signals which are
carried through radio carrier wave. The receiver also with the help of an
antenna receives the signal. Some information is unwanted and must be
discarded and hence the electronic filters help in the separation of radio
signals from other unwanted signals which are further amplified to an
optimum level Finally the signals are decoded in an information which can
be easily understood by the individuals for them to respond accordingly.
Duplex communications system
In Duplex communications system two equipments can communicate with
each other in both the directions simultaneously and hence the name Duplex.
When you interact with your friend over the telephone, both of you can listen
to each other at the same time. The sender sends the signals to the receiver
who receives it then and there and also give his valuable feedback to the
speaker for him to respond. Hence the communication actually takes place
between the speaker and the receiver simultaneously.
In the Duplex communication system, two devices can communicate with
each other at the same time.
A type of communication system involves the sender and the receiver where
the sender is in charge of sending signals and the recipients only listen to it
and respond accordingly. Such communication is also called Simplex
communication system.
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Half Duplex Communication System
In half Duplex communication system, both the two parties can‘t
communicate simultaneously. The sender has to stop sending the signals to
the recipient and then only the recipient can respond.
A walkie talkie works on the half duplex communication system. The
military personnel while interacting has to say ―Over‖ for the other person to
respond. He needs to speak the security code correctly for the other person to
speak. The other party will never communicate unless and until the code is
correct and complete.
Tactical Communication System
Another mode of communication is the tactical mode of communication. In
this mode of communication, communication varies according to the changes
in the environmental conditions and other situations.
To maintain a friendly atmosphere in the classroom: Good
communication in the classroom makes effective learning
Communication-friendly classrooms:
Have a comfortable space in your classroom or around school for
quiet times to talk
Label areas of your classroom or whole school with photographs,
pictures or symbols; develop interactive displays to support
communication
Build in an opportunity for pupils to have structured conversations
with you or other adults.
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Introduce activities where pupils have structured opportunities to talk
with their peers
Make a poster using visual support for classroom routines
Try out different room layouts for group work and discussions
Model and teach students how to use their language for thinking and
learning
Print and Non-print Media in communication:
Educational media and technology can be defined as all means of
communication like prints, graphics, animations, audios and audiovisuals.
Educational multimedia technology incorporates all the qualities of prints,
graphics, animations, audio and audiovisuals and technology is defined as
any object or process of human origin that can be utilised to convey media
and multimedia. In this sense, technology includes phenomena as diverse as
books, films, television, and the internet. In education, media are the symbol
systems that teachers and learners utilize in representing knowledge and
technologies are the tools that allow them to share their knowledge
representations with others
What is Educational Media?
Educational media refers to channels of communication that carry messages
with an instructional purpose. They are usually utilised for the sole purpose
of learning and teaching.
Classification of Educational Media
There are different ways to classify media. Print media, non-print media, and
electronic media.
(1)Print media: They include: books, journals, magazines, newspapers,
workbooks, and textbooks
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(2)Non-print media: They include: projected and non-projected media.
(3)Electronic media: They include audio media, visual media and audio-
visual, projected media and non-projected media
(i)Projected media: They require light source for projection, for example,
film projector slides, and so on.
(ii)Non-projected media: They do not require light source. They include
3dimensional objects, 2dimensional objects, prints, charts, models and so on.
(4)Audio media, Visual media & Audio-visual
Audio media: This form of media carry sounds alone, for example audio
tapes, record player,
(i)Visual media: These are the ones that can be seen. For example,
television, computer, white board
(ii)Audio-Visual: This term refers to those instructional materials which
provide learners with audio and visual experiences by appearing to the
hearing and seeing senses at the same time, for example television, video
tapes, and closed circuit television (CCTV).
(5)Hardware and Software
(i)Hardware: This is the classification of machines or equipment utilised in
the instructional process. It is upon these gadgets that the software is
transmitted, for example television set, tape recorder and so on.
(ii)Software: this classification consists of all materials used with the
machine. They are the real carrier of knowledge or information. They
include, films, tapes transparencies
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PRINT MEDIA:
Print media includes those media of communication which are controlled by
space rather than time. It can be read at any available time and can be kept
for record. Following are the major print media of mass communication.
a) Books
b) Newspapers
c) Magazines
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Books :
In the past books was not a mass medium but privilege of the elite class.
There were two reasons for that. Firstly, books were not printed but
transcribed by hand. Secondly, the low literacy level in the masses limited
books exclusively to a small fraction of the society. It was the nineteenth
century which saw book as a mass medium.
In the contemporary world, book is one of the most effective mass media. It
is the best source of education. However, it should not be talent merely as an
educational tool., It is the best and cheapest means of storing and
transmitting to others the records, knowledge, literature speculations and
entertainment characteristics of the human society. It represents the
conscience of time and people gone by, and it speaks to each reader
individually. Computer can also be used for storage and retrieval of
information. However it has yet to go a long way to replace book for storing
and retrieval purposes.
Books provide permanent record. Some books printed several years ago are
still in existence. Books, from their beginning, have demonstrated their
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capacity to bind traditional societies together and to give rise to new and
sometimes revolutionary thought patterns.
Kinds of Books
Books are categorized as:
1. Trade Books
2. Paper-back books
3. Text books
4. Professional Books
Newspaper
Newspaper is one of the most important and effective print media of mass
communication. It was first published in Germany and later spread its roots
to the rest of the world. Its valuable services to the community like
information, education, entertainment, persuasion, cultural transmission,
record facility etc., have made it an inevitable medium for the contemporary
world.
Functions of a Newspaper
i. Information and Interpretation:
A Newspaper provides information to people about various events, issues
and occurrences the world-wide. It also interprets and explains matters which
will be otherwise difficult to understand for readers.
ii. Opinion Building :
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Besides reflection of public opinion a newspaper helps its readers to build
opinion about various national and international issues, events and policies
through its editorials and opinion columns.
iii. Education :
A Newspaper is a great public educator. It discusses every topic ranging
from news to literature; supplies the readers up-to- date information about
science about science and technology and also promotes civilization in the
society.
iv. Entertainment:
A Newspaper also entertains its readers through special
Features, stories of human interest and cartoons etc.
v. Advertising :
It serves as an agent between seller and buyer. It increases sale of various
goods and services through its advertisements. Besides the above mentioned
functions, a newspaper also provides a forum to the minorities, serves as a
watchdog of the government, and is used as a source for record and
background information etc.
Magazine
Magazine is another important print medium of mass communication. It is
the predecessor of the daily newspaper.
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A magazine is published periodically in a bound format, has a double paper
cover and usually better quality paper is used. Magazines can be classified in
terms of the regular intervals of their publication and appeal- wise. The first
category includes Weekly, fortnightly, Monthly, Bimonthly, Quarterly,
Annually and Biennially etc., while the latter category include Mass
Magazines, class magazines and specialized magazines etc.
Functions of a magazine
With a slight difference a magazine performs almost the same functions as a
newspaper does:-
i. Information :
Unlike newspapers a magazine does not provide hard news. However, it
satiates its readers thirst for information with in-depth coverage of various
stories. These may be about politics, crime, personalities or fashion etc.
ii. Entertainment :
Magazine is a comparatively more entertaining print media. Besides other
uses it gratifies readers urge for entertainment. It contains features, comics,
sports, showbiz, current affairs etc., for its readers.
Some magazine'(mass magazines) have general appeal for readers white
others have specialized readers. However, both types are entertaining for
their readers.
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iii. Comment :
Like newspapers magazines also have specific editorial policy. They
comment on various issues and policies in the light of their own respective
editorial policies which on the one hand, guide public opinion and on the
other express their own policy.
iv. Advertising :
A magazine provides the means for establishing a credible roster of potential
customers for certain kinds of products.
Newsletter
News letters can be an effective low cost way to reach readers. A newsletter
provides information in the briefest form. Its readers are selective.
Commercial concerns usually use news letters to reach their clients or
potential clients in an effective way.
Pamphlets and Leaflets:
Both pamphlet and a leaflet are effective to convey a message to the target
audience. However, these usually have localized influence. They are
informative and persuasive rather than entertaining.
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Latest advancements: Differences between print media and electronic
media:
Non-Print media:
Non print materials are rapidly becoming important information and learning
resource materials for the health science library. Because of their long
experience in organizing and utilizing informational materials, libraries
represent highly appropriate repositories and sites for utilization of these new
materials. Non print materials differ from printed materials in several ways
and this way account for the resistance of some librarians to dealing with
them. One of the most important differences is that a machine must serve as
mediator between the information and the user of non print materials. Also,
the great variety of formats and machines can confuse the novice. The
librarian must learn to deal with these differences in a creative way through a
process of co operation and collaboration with media and educational
technology specialists
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Without communication an individual could never become a human being.
Without mass communication an individual could never become part of
modern society. As children grow up they come into contact with other
social groups. The child of today comes into contact with groups other than
those in school. Besides the mass media, provides model of behavior and no
arms of living. Then there are the effects of new media upon the old and vice
versa.
IMPORTANCE OF MASS MEDIA
1. Mass media provide information to the mass within a less time.
2. It takes a wide coverage of information regarding anything that is
happening in any comer of the world.
3. It brings the entire world to the individual or the
classroom.
4. These media easily reach groups, allow repeated use , give more
reality, influence attitudes, show cause and effect relationships and
ultimately motivated the audience.
5. It sends information to remote places and helps in distant learning.
6. It helps in modification of attitudes, inculcation of desirable values an
acquaintance with cultural heritage.
7. Mass media are useful for reinforcing group dynamics and interpersonal
communication.
8. Mass media acts as an agency of social change.
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9. Mass media as means of communication make ideas clear to children and
helps them to acquire correct knowledge. They help in simplifying and in
giving vividness to explanation.
Radio in Education
Radio is a scientific device that functions as an effective auditory instrument
for communication. It also plays an important role in education. It is not only
informs, but also inspires human being for learning more and more. It is not
only includes values and virtues, but also creates attitudes, interests and
appreciation of human life. It can cover a very wide area at the same time.
The educational functions of radio are:-
1.Quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education.
Radio has immense values, particularly in a developing country like India
where constraints of finance, efficient teachers, suitable equipment and
appliances adversely affect educational planning and administration.
Radio is to play a significant part in expansion as well as qualitative
improvement of education. There are some inaccessible areas in our country
where expansion of education has faced difficulties. To a large numbers of
socially disadvantaged children education is neither meaningful nor
interesting.
Radio had been used in education for a period of more than 80 years. It
has in that time been used in many various ways. It uses comprise school
broadcasting, informal general education, social action programming and
adult basic education and literacy. Radio schools are used to connect children
in secluded forms leads in the out back together with a teacher sited many
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hundred miles away. Distance teaching universities frequently employ radio
for its advertising and enrolment value, as well as for teaching radio have
been used lengthily as an educational medium in developing countries.
Studies of children‘s radio programs, particularly educational programs
offers an area of research that brings new perspectives to social, cultural and
political history.
Television in Education
Television has come to be seen as a great educational resource for the home.
It hasn‘t been as widely embraced in the classroom. No matter how well-
designed and pedagogically sound the programs may be, showing TV in the
classroom seems inappropriate-as if the teacher were unprepared for class, or
didn‘t know how else to engage students. When teacher use TV in thoughtful
ways, they can create a learning environment that dramatically supports
learning, especially for kids who struggle with basic content and skills.
Through TV kids increase positive social behaviors, increase general
academic and intellectual skills, strengthen reading skills, improve math and
problem-solving skills and increase their knowledge of social studies
content. Television can play a positive role in child development and public
television in particular represents an effective and relatively inexpensive
means by which to deliver high quality educational content.
Films in Education
Films help in education in a tremendous way. Children who struggle with
difficulties and disabilities with any kind of academic curriculum can relate
to film. Film is universal language. Film is a leveler- children can relate to it
no matter what their family background or confidence to use film effectively
in lessons so training and supports are important. Film can be a gateway to
exploring complex ideas and open children‘s eye to other ways of looking at
the world.
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Many educational films shown in schools are part of long series for example;
films demonstrating scientific principles and experiments tend to be episodic,
with each episode devoted to a specific experiment or principle. Many early
psychological studies of learning from film and particularly TV found this
medium to be inferior to text. Studies revealed that memory retention was
weaker for film watching than those who read text. This has changed with
the advent of online video which can be paused and rewound easily. More
recent studies now see no difference in memory retention between the two
media, video and text. Cognitive overload may occur because the viewer has
to process audio and visuals at the same design of the film can elevate this.
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AS A TOOL FOR SOCIAL
CHANGE: REACH, MOBILITY AND ACCESSIBILITY:
Use of computers as a tool of social change:
Computers are a brilliant aid in teaching: Online education has
revolutionized the education industry. Computer technology has made the
dream of distance learning, a reality. Education is no longer limited to
classrooms. It has reached far and wide, thanks to computers. Physically
distant locations have come closer due to internet accessibility. So, even if
students and teachers are not in the same premises, they can very well
communicate with one another.
There are many online educational courses, whereby students are not
required to attend classes or be physically present for lectures. They can
learn from the comfort of their homes and adjust timings as per their
convenience.
Computers have given impetus to distance education: Computers
facilitate effective presentation of information. Presentation software like
PowerPoint and animation software like Flash among others can be of great
help to teachers while delivering lectures. Computers facilitate audio-visual
representation of information, thus making the process of learning interactive
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and interesting. Computer-aided teaching adds a fun element to education.
Teachers hardly use chalk and board today. They bring presentations on a
flash drive, plug it in to a computer in the classroom, and the teaching
begins. There's color, there's sound, there's movement - the same old
information comes forth in a different way and learning becomes fun. The
otherwise not-so-interesting lessons become interesting due to audiovisual
effects. Due to the visual aid, difficult subjects can be explained in better
ways. Things become easier to follow, thanks to the use of computers in
education.
Computer software helps better presentation of information:
Internet can play an important role in education. As it is an enormous
information base, it can be harnessed for retrieval of information on a variety
of subjects. The Internet can be used to refer to information on different
subjects. Both teachers and students benefit from the internet. Teachers can
refer to it for additional information and references on the topics to be taught.
Students can refer to web sources for additional information on subjects of
their interest. The
Internet helps teachers set test papers, frame questions for home assignments
and decide project topics. And not just academics, teachers can use web
sources for ideas on sports competitions, extracurricular activities, picnics,
parties and more.
Computers enable access to the Internet which has information on
literally everything: Computers enable storage of data in the electronic
format, thereby saving paper. Memory capacities of computer storage
devices are in gigabytes. This enables them to store huge chunks of data.
Moreover, these devices are compact. They occupy very less space, yet store
large amounts of data. Both teachers and students benefit from the use of
computer technology.
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Presentations, notes and test papers can be stored and transferred easily over
computer storage devices. Similarly, students can submit homework and
assignments as soft copies. The process becomes paperless, thus saving
paper. Plus, the electronic format makes data storage more durable.
Electronically erasable memory devices can be used repeatedly. They offer
robust storage of data and reliable data retrieval.
Computer hard drives and storage devices are an excellent way to store
data: This was about the role of computers in education. But we know, it's
not just the education sector which computers have impacted. They are of
great use in every field. Today, a life without computers is unimaginable.
This underlines the importance of computer education. Knowledge of
computers can propel one's career in the right direction. Computers are a part
of almost every industry today. They are no longer limited any specific field.
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UNIT IV
MODELS OF TEACHING AND TEACHING LEARNING
AIDS
The term model is used to mean a teaching episode done by an experienced
teacher in which a highly focused teaching behavior is demonstrated, in it an
individual demonstrating particular patterns which the trainee learns through
imitation. It is a way to talk and think about instruction in which certain facts
may be organized, classified and interpreted.
Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil describe a Model of Teaching as a plan or
pattern that can be used to shape curricula, to design instructional materials
and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings.
Thus teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the
process and producing particular environmental situations which cause the
student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behavior.
.According to educational experts, ―A model of teaching is a set of inter-
related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to
realize specific goal. It helps in designing instructional activities and
environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization of the
stipulated objectives.‖
Models of Teaching are designed for specific purposes-the teaching of
information concepts, ways of thinking, the study of social values and so on-
by asking students to engage in particular cognitive and social tasks. Some
models centre on delivery by the instructor while others develop as the
learners respond to tasks and the student is regarded as a partner in the
educational enterprise.
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These are based on the following specifications:
a-Specification of Environment- It specifies in definite terms the
environmental conditions under which a student‘s response should be
observed.
b- Specification of operation- It specifies the mechanism that provides for
the reaction of students and interaction with the environment.
c- Specification of criterion of Performance-It specify the criterion of
Performance which is accepted by the students The behavioural outcome
which the learner would demonstrate after completing specific instructional
sequences are delineated in the teaching models
d- Specification of learning outcome- It specifies what the student will
perform after completing an instructional sequence.
Effects of teaching by modeling
Models of Teaching are really models of learning. As we helps students
acquire information ideas skills, values, ways of thinking, and means of
expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn . ln fact the
most important long term outcome of instruction may be the students
‗increased capabilities to learn more easily and effectively in the future ,both
because of the knowledge and skills they have acquired and because they
have mastered learning processes.
According to Joyce and Weil, Each model results in two types of effects
Instructional and Nurturant.
A- Instructional effects are the direct effects of the model which result from
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the content and skills on which the activities are based.
B- Nurturant effects are those which are implicit in the learning environment.
They are the indirect effects of the model.
Bandura and Walters have formulated three kind of effect in teaching by
modelling:
1- Modelling effect- The learner acquires new kind of response pattern.
2- -Inhibitory and disinhibitory effect- The learner increases or decreases
the frequent, latency or intensity or previously required responses.
3- Eliciting effect- The learner receives from a model merely a cue for
realizing a response.
Modeling effect can be seen when a teacher demonstrates to a student how to
hold a pencil or write capital A and thus shows a new behavior. Through
modeling the teacher lets the student know that it is not permissible of
obscene nature in art book. The eliciting effect takes place when through
modeling; a teacher tries to teach students to get up when he enters the room.
Thus it provides a cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited. Gagne
feels that learning through imitation seems to be more appropriate for tasks
which are a little cognitive in nature.
Utility of Teaching Models in Teaching
Teaching models are useful in developing social efficiency, personal
abilities, cognitive abilities and behavioral aspects of the students. It
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helps in selecting and stimulating situations which causes the
desirable changes in students
Teaching models help to establish teaching and learning relationship
empirically. It helps in making the teaching more effective.
Teaching models helps in providing a theoretical rationale to the
teaching, which will provide changes and rectifications in teaching.
Teaching models stimulates the development of new educational
innovations in teaching strategies and tactics, which may replace the
existing ones in schools of today.
Teaching models assist makers of materials to create more interesting
and effective instructional materials and learning sources.
Teaching models assist teachers to develop their capacities to create
conductive environment for teaching, as its nature is practical.
Teaching models help curriculum planners to plan learning activities
and content material which provide a variety of educational
experiences to learners.
Teaching model evaluates the behavior of the students. For this
important task, it presents such a criterion with the help of which the
changes in the students‘ behaviors can be easily evaluated.
Characteristics of a Teaching model
1- Encourage Art of Teaching- Teaching is considered as an art..
Teaching models encourages this art by providing learning environment.
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2- Development of Inherent Abilities -Teaching models bring about the
qualitative development of personality as it helps in developing human
abilities. It also increases the teacher‘s social competency.
3- Based on Individual Differences- Teaching model uses the student‘s
interest, as it is constructed on the basis of individual differences.
4- Influenced by Philosophy- Every teaching model is influenced by the
philosophy of education. Hence, teachers formulate different models of
teaching under the influence of the philosophy they believe.
5- Answers Fundamental Questions- In every teaching model answers to
all the fundamental questions pertaining to the behaviour of students and
teachers are included.
6- Providing Appropriate Experiences- Teaching models provides
proper experiences to both teacher and student. Selecting the content and
presenting it for learning before the students is the main essentiality of
teaching. This difficulty is solved when a teacher presents appropriate
experience before the students.
7- Maxims of Teaching- The basis of teaching model is the maxims of
teaching. They are the foundation of each teaching model.
8- Practice and Concentration- The development of a teaching model is
based on regular and continuous practice and concentration. The proper
development of a teaching model is only possible when the assumptions are
made clear by related thinking.
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Fundamental Elements of a Teaching Model:
Normally majority of teaching models are based on the following six
elements:
Focus
Focus is the central aspects of a teaching model. Objectives of teaching and
aspects of environment generally constitute the focus of the model. Every
teaching model is based on one or the other objective as its focal point. Any
teaching model is developed by keeping this focal point in mind. Every
teaching model differs from another in terms of its objectives. It is the
nucleus of a teaching model. Every model is developed by keeping in view
its focal point or objective. Every model has various phases some particular
types of competencies are developed by it.
Syntax
Syntax of the model describes the model in action. Syntax includes the
sequences of steps involved in the organization of the complete programmed
of teaching. It is the systematic sequence of the activities in the model. Each
model has a distinct flow of phases. It means the detailed description of the
model in action. In it, the teaching activities and interactions between a pupil
and the teacher are determined .The syntax of any teaching model means
those points which produce activities focused on educational objectives at
various phases. Under syntax, the teaching tactics, teaching activities and
interaction between a student and the teacher are determined in such a
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pattern of sequence that the teaching objectives are achieved conveniently by
providing desirable environmental situations.
Principles of Reaction
Principles of Reaction tell the teacher how to regard the learner and to
respond to what the learner does. This element is concerned with the way a
teacher should regard and aspects respond to the activities of the students.
These responses should be appropriate and selective. They provide the
teacher with rules of thumb by which to select model, appropriate responses
to what the student does. This element is concerned with the teacher‘s
reaction to the students‘ responses.
The Social System
This element is concerned with the activities of pupil and the teacher and
their mutual relationships. Every teaching model has separate objectives
and will have therefore separate social systems. It is related with
the interactive roles and relationship between the teacher and the student, and
the kinds of norms that are observed and student behavior which is rewarded.
The Social System describes the role of and relationships between the
teacher and the pupils. In some models the teacher has a dominant role to
play. In some the activity is centred on the pupils, and in some other models
the activity is equally distributed. This element is based on the assumption
that every class is a miniature society. In it also discussed the selection of
motivating strategies and tectics for the students. Naturally social system
occupies a central position in making the teaching impressive and successful
in relation to the previously selected objectives. .
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Support system
Support System describes the supporting conditions required to implement
the model. ‗Support‘ refers to additional requirements beyond the usual
human skills, capacities and technical facilities. The support system relates to
the additional requirements other than the usual human skills or capacities of
the teacher and the facilities usually available in the ordinary classroom.
Teacher requirements refer to special skills, special knowledge of the teacher
and special audio-visual material like films, elf-instructional material, visit to
special place etc. This includes books, films, laboratory kits, reference
materials etc. It means the additional requirements beyond the usual human
skill, capacities and technical facilities. In it, the evaluation is done by oral or
written examination, whether the teaching objectives have been achieved or
not. On the basis of this success or failure, clear idea is achieved regarding
the effectiveness of strategies, tactics and techniques used during teaching.
Application
It is an important element of a teaching model. It means the utility or usage
of the learnt material in other situations. Several types of teaching modes are
available. Each model attempts to desirable the feasibility of its use in
varying contexts related with goal achievements in terms of cognitive, and
affective behaviour modification.
Types of Teaching Models:
Every teaching model has its specific objective. In order to achieve the
objective of a teaching model, the teacher has to choose right type of model
for achieving the particular objective. The teaching models have been
classified into three main types:
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1. Philosophical teaching models: Israel Saffer had mentioned such types of
models. These include
A- The Insight model (Plato).-The insight model discard the assumption
that the meaning of of a teaching model is merely deliver the knowledge or
ideas through teaching to the mental domain of the students. According to
this model the knowledge can not be provided merely through the expression
of sence organs, but the knowlnd principles of language are most
important.edge of the content is also a necessity. The knowledge can not be
provided merely by speaking the words or listening them. Mental processes
and language both work together.
B- The Impression model of teaching (John Locke).-It is based on a
general assumption the the child‘s brain is like a clean slate at the time of
birth. Whatever experiences are provided through teaching, creates
impression on child‘s brain. These impressions are termed as learning. In the
learning process the sense organs .
C- The Rule model ( Kant)-In this model much importance is given to the
logic. Kant gives importance to logic, because in it following certain rules is
essential. The objective of rule model is to devlop the logical reasoning
capacities of the student. Some particular rules are followed. Planning,
organisation and interaction of teaching is performed under specific rules.
2- Psychological model of teaching: John P. Dececco had mentioned such
types of models. It includes
A- Basic Teaching model (Robert Glaser)- Robert Glaser (1962) has
developed a stripped-down teaching model which, with modifications, is the
basic teaching model. The basic teaching model divides the teaching process
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into four components or parts. It will be useful in several ways.. The four
parts of the model represents the basic divisions:
Instructional objectives, Entering behavior, instructional procedure, and
finally performance assessment
B- An Interaction model of teaching (N.A. Flander).- Flander considered
teaching process as an interaction process. He divided class-room behaviour
in ten categories known as Flander‘s ten category system. In this model the
behaviour of student and teacher is analysed. An interaction between a
teacher and the student is more emphasised in this model.
C-Computer based teaching model ( Daniel Davis )-It is the most
complicated model having , entering behaviour, determination of objectives
and teaching aspect as fundamental elements. In this element computer
teaching plan is selected according to the entering behaviour and
instructional objectives. The performances of the student are evaluated.
Accordingly alternative teaching plan is presented. In this model, the
diagnosis and teaching go side by side. Remedial teaching is provided on the
basis of diagnosis .Individual differences are also given importance.
3- Modern teaching models (Joyce and Weil)
Eggen, Kauchar and Harder (1979) have discussed six Information
Processing Models –
1. General Inductive Model,
2. Concept Attainment Model,
3. Taba Model,
4. General Deductive Model,
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5. Ausubel‘s Model and
6. Such man‘s Inquiry Model.
Modern teaching models
The most comprehensive review of teaching models is that of Joyce and
Weil (1980). Bruce R.Joyce has divided all the teaching models under the
title ―Modern teaching models‖. They identified 23 models which are
classified into four basic families based on the nature, distinctive
characteristics and effects of the models. These four families are :
1. information Processing Models
2. Personal Models
3. Social Interaction Models and
4. Behaviour Modification Models.
Within the families, there are specific models which are designed to serve
particular purposes.
Information Processing Models
The models of this type are concerned with the intellectual development of
the individual and help to develop the method of processing information
from the environment. These models focus on intellectual capacity. They are
concerned with the ability of the learner to observe, organise data,
understand information, form concepts, employ verbal and nonverbal
symbols and solve problems. The primary purposes are :
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1. The mastery of methods of inquiry
2. The mastery of academic concepts and facts
3. The development of general intellectual skills such as the ability to reason
and think more logically
The models which belong to this family are :
a. The Concept Attainment Model
b. Inquiry Training Model
c. The Advance Organizer Model
d. Cognitive Growth Development Model
e. Biological Science Inquiry Model
Brief Review of the Information Processing Source Models:
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II. Personal Models
Personal development models assist the individual in the development of
selfhood, they focus on the emotional life an individual,.
The emphasis of these models is on developing an individual into an
integrated, confident and competent personality. They attempt to help
students understand themselves and their goals, and to develop the means for
educating themselves. Many of the personal models of teaching have been
developed by counselors, therapists and other persons interested in
stimulating individual‘s creativity and self expression.
The primary goals are:
To increase the student‘s self worth,
To help students understand themselves more fully.
To help students recognise their emotions and become more aware of
the way emotions effect other aspects of their behaviour,
To help them develop goals for learning,
To help students develop plans for increasing their competence,
To increase the students‘ creativity and playfulness,
To increase the students‘ openness to new experience.
The models which belong to this family are:
a. Non-Directive Teaching Model,
b. Synectics Teaching Model,
c. Awareness Training Model,
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d. Classroom Meeting Model.
e. Conceptual System Model
Brief Review of the Personal Source Models
Ill. Social Interaction Models
The models in this family emphasize the relationships of the individual to the
society or other persons. The core objective is to help students learn to work
together, to identify and solve problems, either academic or social in nature.
The primary goals are:
To help students work together to identify and solve problems
To develop skills to human relations, and
To become aware of personal and social values.
The models which belong to this family are :
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a. Group Investigation Model,
b. Role Playing Model,
c. Jurisprudential Inquiry Model,
d. Laboratory Training Model,
e. Social Simulation Model,
f. Social Inquiry Model.
Brief review of The Social Interaction Source Models
IV. Behaviour Modification Model
All the models in this family share a common theoretical base, a body of
knowledge which referred to as behaviour theory. The common thrust of
these models is the emphasis on changing the visible behaviour of the
learner.
The models which belong to this family is Operant Conditioning Model
Brief Review of the Behaviour Modification Source Model:
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A number of instructional strategies to realise different instructional goals
have been developed recently by different researchers They have
transformed existing knowledge in the learning and teaching processes into
‗Models of Teaching‘ which can be used by teachers in the teaching,
learning process for realising different instructional objectives. There is a
need to incorporate a few ‗Models of Teaching‘ in the curriculum of teacher
education programme at the secondary as well as elementary level so that
prospective teachers attain a higher degree of ‗ability to teach‘.
Effective teachers are always on the prowl for new and exciting teaching
strategies that will keep their students motivated and engaged. With all the
information available, it‘s hard to decide which strategies are right for our
classroom. Sometimes, the old tried-and-true ones that we have been using in
your classroom just happen to work the best.
Here are a few teaching strategies that have been a staple in most
classrooms. Depending upon our style, preference, and our students, we can
choose the ones that suite our needs.
1. Cooperative Learning: The Jigsaw
Cooperative learning gives students the opportunity to work with
others and see different points of view. Research shows that students
learn more effectively when working together rather than apart, and it
is also known to improve self-confidence in students. The jigsaw
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technique is especially effective because each student is responsible
for one another‘s learning, and students find out really quick that
each group member has something equally important to contribute to
the group in order to make the task a successful one. Students are
exposed to and use many skills throughout this strategy:
Communication, problem-solving skills, cognition, and critical
thinking -- all of which are essential for a successful academic career.
2. Inquiry-Based Instruction
Inquiry-based learning implies involving students in the learning
process so they will have a deeper understanding of what they are
learning. We are born with the instinct to inquire -- as babies we use
our senses to make connections to our surroundings. Inquiry-based
learning strategies are used to engage students to learn by asking
questions, investigating, exploring, and reporting what they see. This
process leads students to a deeper understanding of the content that
they are learning, which helps them be able to apply these concepts
they are learning in new situations. In order for our students to be
able to be successful in the 21stcentury, they need to be able to
answer complex questions and develop solutions for these problems.
The Inquiry-based learning strategy is a great tool to do just that.
3. Differentiated Instruction: Learning Stations
Differentiated instruction strategies allow teachers to engage each
student by accommodating to their specific learning style. According
to Howard Gardner‘s Multiple Intelligence Theory, every person has
a different mind, and therefore each person learns and understands
information differently. Differentiating instruction offers a way to
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meet all students‘ needs. One helpful strategy to differentiate
instruction is learning stations. Learning stations can easily be
designed to enable students with diverse learning needs. Teachers can
set up each station where students will be able to complete the same
task, but at the level and style that is specifically designed for them.
3. Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are a simple and effective tool to help students
brainstorm and organize their thoughts and ideas in a visual
presentation. Simply put, they help students organize information so
it is easier for them to comprehend. Graphic organizers can be used
for any lesson; to structure writing, brainstorming, planning, problem
solving, or decision-making. The most popular organizers are the
Venn diagram, concept map, KWL chart, and T Chart.
5. Utilizing Technology in the Classroom
Integrating technology into the classroom is a great way to empower
students to stay connected in this technological era. Technology-rich
lessons have been found to keep students motivated and engaged
longer. Some examples of utilizing technology in the classroom is to
create web-based lessons or a Webquest, multimedia presentations
such as a video, animation, or some type of graphic, utilizing a tablet
or an iPad, taking your class on a virtual field trip, participating in an
online research project, or even creating a class website. Any of these
technology integration strategies will have a positive impact on
student learning.
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An experienced teacher knows that not every teaching strategy that
could be used will be an effective one. There will be some hits and
misses, and depending upon our teaching style, and the way our
students learn, we can figure out which strategies work and which do
not.
Models of teaching and learning are critical pieces to instructional
planning and delivery because they help educators:
1) Develop highly tuned and more varied professional repertoires;
2) Allow them to reach larger numbers for students more effectively;
3) Create either more uniform, or varied, or effective instructional events,
guided by targeted subjects, content, or processes;
4) Understand curricular foci better, especially as different models can be
matched specifically to both learning outcomes and/or targeted learning
populations;
5) Gain needed insights into why some methods work with some learners,
while others do not;
6) Radically modify or redesign existing methods of teaching and
instructional delivery so that emerging or altered instructional techniques
may better meet the needs of today‘s students.
Presentation of a model:
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Conclusively it can be said that ‗strategy‘ is a proper/systematic plan which
aims to achieve the goal.
In education, strategy means the ability to select suitable approach in
teaching by means of using appropriate methods and techniques
Teaching strategy may well stand for the plans, means and specific way
especially devised and employed by the teachers for guiding, directing and
showing path to the learners for the realization of the set instructional or
teaching learning objectives.
According to E. Stones and S. Morris, ―Teaching strategy is a generalized
plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired learner behavior in terms
of goals of instruction and an outline of planned tactics necessary to
implement the strategy.‖ If we analyze this definition, following are the
features of the strategy:
Stands for a generalized plan, way and means for carrying out the
task of teaching i.e. more specifically for teaching a particular lesson
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Directed towards the realization of the set teaching learning
objectives
Devised and employed for helping the learners in the realization of
the set teaching learning objectives
Brings out a scheme, program or teaching learning structure, which if
followed may help in the better realization of the set teaching
learning objectives
Requires a number of well planned tactics (those behaviors and
activities of a teacher which he/she works out and makes use of for
the development of a particular teaching strategy) for its effective
implementation.
TEACHING AIDS:
An aid is understood as a tool, an appliance or any other object necessary
while performing an action. A teaching aid is an aid used for teaching
purposes (i.e. used while teaching). They can be classified according to
various criteria:
Educational approach: Usage of teaching aids while teaching lessons
User (teacher work-related aids vs. student activities related aids vs.
aids for both teacher and student activities);
Subject (mathematics teaching aids, history teaching aids, etc.);
Main element (computer-based training tools, paper teaching aids,
technical teaching aids, teaching aids for cars, etc.);
Nature of the application (teaching aids designed for teaching about
them vs. teaching aids designed for teaching with them, integrated
aids);
Transmission of information (sound (audio) teaching aids, visual
(media) teaching aids, sensory aids, etc.);
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Type of presentation (digital teaching aids, paper teaching aids,
fabric, hardware, network, etc.);
Interactivity (demonstration (static, static with moving images and
sound), exercises control (allowing to give answers (with tasks),
allowing to update the initial conditions), modeling (design,
simulation).
Materials of educational technology:
New term ‗‗Educational technology‘‘ includes the development, application
and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids in the field of learning.
Classification
Educational technology materials can be classified into hardware and
software.
The equipments and machines like epidiascope, different types of
projectors, ratio, T.V, tape recorder, video, teaching machine and computer
are named as hardware.
The materials like picture and other printed materials, graphics like
charts, maps, diagrams, three dimensional objects like models, specimens
and actual objects and other specially prepared material like slide, film strips,
audio and visual tapes are included in software.
Classification of audio, visual and audio-visual aids materials
Audio materials Visual materials Audio-visual
materials
Radio Chalk board Films
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Tape and disco
recording
Charts Television
Language laboratories Filmstrips Videotapes
Flash Printed materials with
recorded sound
Maps
Models
Pictures
Posters
Slides
Photographs
Classification project and non-projected aids
Projecte
d aids
Non-projected aids
Graphic
aids
Display
board
3-
dimention
al aids
Audio
aids
Activity aids
Films Cartoons Black
board
Diagrams Radio Computer
assisted
instruction
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Film
strips
Charts Bulletin
board
Models Recording
s
Demonstration
Slide
Projector
Comics Flannel
board
mock-up Television Dramatics
OHP
projector
Diagram
s
Magneti
c board
Objects Experimentatio
n
Flash
card and
graphs
Peg
board
specimens Field trips
Projector:
Displayed image on the screen
Types of projector
1. Slide projector
2. OHP projector
3. Multimedia projector
Slide projector:
The slide projector is available with separate slide carriers. Photographic
slide can be projected on the screen. Many models are now available, with
different types of slide carriers (carousel, tray and single slide changer) and
storage trays. Some offer both manual and remote control systems, the latter
offering great advantage to the teacher for carefully programmed materials.
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There are some models with timing device for automatic slide changing.
(celluloid slide)
Slide projectors with a filmstrip attachment are available but as a
consequence.
How to use:
Fix the slide carrier gently in the right position.
Arrange the slide in a proper sequence
Insert the slide in an exactly ‗inverted position to have the image
projected in the right position on the screen.
Focus and centre the image on the screen
Project the first slide, second one and proceed smoothly in the proper
sequence.
Salient points:
At the end of the slide show push the switch to fan position, to cool
the lamp and projector, and then switch to off position.
Remove the slides from the projector after completion of projection.
The slide should be numbered according to sequence, place them
proper to order with thumb marks on each slide on the upper right
hand corner for easy handling. Keep the slide in the appropriate
container/boxes with labels for quick reference.
Advantage:
Create interest and curiosity among students
Explain the concepts very well
Can be viewed the entire class.
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Can e shown in a semi darkened room
Can be used according to our desired pace
Kinds of slide:
Handmade
photographic
OHP:
An overhead projector is a variant of slide projector that is used to
display images to an audience.
An overhead projector typically consists of a large box containing a
very bright lamp and a fan to cool it. On top of the box is a large fresnel
lens that collimates the light. Above the box, typically on a long arm, is a
mirror and lens that focuses and redirects the light forward instead of up.
Transparencies are placed on top of the lens for display. The light
from the lamp travels through the transparency and into the mirror where it
shines forward onto a screen for display.
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Focal-length adjustment
Better-quality overhead projectors offer an adjustment wheel or
screw on the body of the projector, to move the lamp towards or away from
the fresnel lens. When the mirror above the lens is moved too high or too
low, it moves out of the best focal distance for an evenly white image,
resulting in a projected image with either blue or brown color fringing
around the outside edge of the screen.
Illumination
The lamp technology of an overhead projector is typically very
simple compared to a modern LCD or DLP video projector. Most overheads
use an extremely high-power halogen lamp that may consume up to 750
watts yet produces a fairly dim, yellowed image. A high-flow blower is
required to keep the bulb from melting itself due to the heat output. Further,
the intense heat usually causes the halogen lamp to fail quickly, often lasting
less than 100 hours before failing and requiring replacement. A modern LCD
or DLP uses an arc lamp which has a higher luminous efficacy and lasts for
thousands of hours. A negative to LCD/DLP technology is the warm up time
required for arc lamps.
Advantage:
It facilitates two-way communication:
In this way, the teacher can observe the reaction the students about
higher teaching process. This also helps the students to interact
simultaneously with the teaching.
It is time – saving device
It is very easy to handle
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It is easy to transport
Operation of OHP:
Ensure the glass plate, lens and the mirror are clear dust free. Then
connect the power supply. Place the transparence on the glass plate. View the
image adjust the mirror on position.
Multimedia projector
A single medium can consist of features of more than one medium.
Such medium called multimedia. For example advanced computer are called
multimedia computer. This computer comprises text, data, sound animation,
visual picture and interaction.
A multimedia projector is a compact, high resolution, full-color
projector capable of projecting text, images, video and audio content.
Typically the projector will feature inputs for a computer, DVD player,
VCR, CD player and storage device.
Uses
Multimedia projectors are used frequently in classrooms, offices and
gatherings at which multimedia presentations are made.
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Multimedia projectors are also referred to as data projectors, digital
projectors and data/video projectors.
Projector
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Slide
Projector
Battery operated units
available.
Simple to use.
Comparatively inexpensive.
High quality images.
Battery operated units have less
power and magnification.
Outdated technology.
Wall-power units big and bulky.
Only projects slides.
Overhead
Projector
Comparatively inexpensive.
Interactive.
Easy to use.
Transparencies can be
expensive.
Not battery powered.
Large and bulky.
Only projects transparencies.
Digital
Projector
Interactive when combined
with an interactive
whiteboard.
Small and compact.
Battery or wall-current
More expensive than other
projector types.
Less interactive than other types
without an interactive
whiteboard.
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Projector
Type Advantages Disadvantages
operated models available.
Projects a wide range of
different media.
Battery powered units subject to
short life before needing
recharging.
Radio:
By definition, a ratio is the transmission and reception of signals by
means of electromagnetic waves. It exerts an influence on his attitude and
appreciation, social behavior and power to develop critical thinking.
Advantage of ratio listening
It is highly interesting and can provide a strong motivation stimulus.
It provide an out let for student ability and talent
It develops better speech habits
It develop good listening habit
Disadvantage of ratio listening
Timing of the school ratio programme often clashes with the school
timetable
This is a one way communication
Radios must be kept in excellent conditions.
Educational value:
a) Gives current events:
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Ratio gives us the current events of the world. It helps to students
listen to the talks of great scientists, scholars.
b) Brings reality:
Ratio brings reality to the classroom.
c) Variety: ratio brings variety to the class room, its break monotony of
the class room.
d) Mass media:
Radio is adaptable to group instruction and number of the students and
distance are immaterial.
e) Economic
A programmed on radio can be listened and comprehended by large
group simultaneously.
h) Temporary replacement of textbook:
j) Adds freshness to learning
k) Link school with community life
Tape recorder
An audio tape recorder, tape deck or tape machine is an audio
storage device that records and plays back sounds, including articulated
voices, usually using magnetic tape, either wound on a reel or in a cassette,
for storage. In its present day form, it records a fluctuating signal by moving
the tape across a tape head that polarizes the magnetic domains in the tape in
proportion to the audio signal. Tape-recording devices include reel-to-
reel tape deck and the cassette deck.
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Main criteria to be looked onto when choosing a cassette recorder
are,
Portability:
Recording equipment should be light weight and easy to carry if it is
to be moved form one to another
Versatility:
Does the school need only a tape recorder or would two in one with a stereo
system be a good buy
Performance: it should be record and reproduce good sound and operate at
constant speeds.
Simplicity: it should be easy to operate so that any layman can operate it.
Construction:
The construction and design should be such as to stand the wear and tear of
daily life.
Price: select equipment on the merits of performance relative to its price
level and how well it meets the need of the school.
Educational values:
They are used to record radio programmers for later use.
They are used to record commentary for slides or filmstrip or silent
film and thereby they reduce the work of the teacher.
They are widely used in language laboratories for teaching foreign
language.
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TELEVISION
Television, which has an important place in mass communication,
has a significant role in distance education with its special position, the way
of presentation and qualities peculiar to itself.
Technological developments in the field of communication can be
adapted in the field of education as it is adapted to many fields of life.
Thanks to the new technologies available in this field and the advantages
they provide, television can already be seen as an outdated tool. Yet as long
as the opportunities it provides still keep its validity, television technology is
not far from the new developments.
Functions:
Supporting and enhancing teaching
Instructing
Explaining, clarifying
Summarizing
Reinforcement
Motivation and encouragement
Using as supplementary for the other materials
Imposing study speed ( determining rate of study)
Presenting a reference to large masses
Changing behavior
Presenting unreachable facts and events
Limitations:
Television is a one way communication
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Encourage the passive learning (not provide laboratory
experiments)
Educational telecasts go at their own speed.
Closed circuit television (CCTV)
Cctv is an internal television transmission system that
distributed television programmes live on tape, both audio and
video to a limited network connected cable system.
Educational value:
Increase range of instruction
Exchange of teaching experts
Helps to develop and improve teaching skills.
Using Podcasts for Educational Purposes
The Copyright Act allows the University to record, reproduce, perform
and/or communicate radio and TV broadcasts for educational purposes.
Communicate means to make the item available online or to email or fax the
item to someone. This provision includes any material that has been
broadcast such as films, commercials, recorded music, radio interviews etc
on free-to-air radio or TV, pay television, satellite broadcasts or podcasts of
broadcasts. It does not include reproducing moving images or sounds from
the internet.
record a radio or TV program to show in class, use as teaching
material or make a copy available in the library.
download a podcast of a broadcast to show in class, use as teaching
material or make a copy available in the library.
make multiple copies of a recording to give to students.
make a copy of the recording available online via FLO for students
to watch or download.
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This provision is very flexible, you can:
record the program yourself, either at home or at work.
record the broadcast in part or in full. You can record an entire
series if required, for example all episodes of Buffy the Vampire
Slayer.
use any format - broadcasts can be recorded on DVD or CD or as an
mp3 or mpeg file to play on a digital player or downloaded
make multiple copies - if each student enrolled in the course
requires a copy, then you can make enough copies for each student.
However, if you wanted to charge students for the copy, you could
only do so on a cost-recovery basis.
Using Podcasts for Educational Purposes
You can download a podcast of a broadcast from the web to show in
class, use as teaching material or make a copy available in the library.
Podcasts and webcasts that were originally broadcast overseas can
also be copied - so long as the country of origin has signed the Rome
Convention.
Computer Use in Schools
The role and function of computers in schools can be classified according to
three categories:
(1) computer literacy
(2) computers as tools and
(3) computers as a catalyst for school transformation.
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Computer literacy. Beginning in the 1980s it was assumed that all children
should become computer literate. While the meaning of the term computer
literacy has changed over time, all children are expected to graduate with
knowledge about the role of computers in society and essential skills in their
operation. Educators continue to debate what skills are essential and when
and how they are best learned, but there is little controversy about whether
students should be competent in the use of computers. No such discussion
surrounds the school use of film, radio, and instructional television.
Computers as tools: With the continuing increase in computer power and
the decline in cost, schools have steadily increased the numbers of computers
in schools and their use by students. Rather than place computers in
specialized laboratories where students have access to them for only a
limited period each week, computers have increasingly been placed in
libraries and in classrooms. Beginning in the 1990s the goal became to make
computers ubiquitous and to integrate them across the curriculum.
Computers had become something more that a curriculum topic; they had
become a tool that students needed in order to perform their work. Students
were expected to use the Internet to gather information and to use word
processing and multimedia software to produce their reports. While other
instructional media were seen as tools for teachers, computers are accepted
as tools for both teachers and students.
Computers as a catalyst for school reform: Throughout the twentieth
century, technology zealots have heralded one technology or another as
having the capacity to transform schools, but such transformations have not
occurred. Film, radio, television, and other instructional media have enriched
the classroom resources available to teachers. However, rather than
challenging traditional classroom practices, they were used to maintain
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traditional practices. The culture of schooling, with teachers in charge of
instruction before a class of students, has remained relatively constant. Some
proponents believe that computers have the power to transform schools
because they empower learners in ways that previous technologies were
unable to, because they challenge the authority of teachers to be the sole
source of information, and because they encourage an active, rather than a
passive, learner. Computers may eventually provide the catalyst that will
result in school transformation.
Digital camera
The majority of students today have their own cell or smart phones.
One thing that we can do to stop having them use them for purposes and
distractions that we don't want, is to begin to use them as
the educational tools that they show so much potential for. Photos may be
used in many different types of classroom lessons.
Here are a few applications that students‘ cell or smart phone's digital
camera may be used for:
illustrate steps in a procedure, to aid in writing "how to" paragraphs
use a photo as a prompt for narrative or descriptive writing
school newspaper, class newspaper or newsletter
graphics for written reports and presentations
write letters to pen pals and others (such as reading buddies in
another grade), inserting photos
send photos via e-mail to electronic pen pals
e-mail class updates to parents, with attached photos
class books
write a class novel with live-action photos as illustrations
Other ideas for using the digital camera with projects and presentations
include:
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make personalized name tags or desk plates
recording projects and presentations for Open House
create a digital class archive
demonstrate vocabulary, emotions, compare/contrast
observe weather over a period of time
student portfolio
illustrate process for complicated projects
illustrate a science experiment
document growth of classroom plant or pet
demonstrate a P.E. exercise
develop a student-generated, graphical web research site as a school
showcase
Methods for preparing 35mm film strips
The most typical slide, the 2" x 2" transparency, is made from a strip of
35mm film with a width twice that of a filmstrip. After processing, the slides
are mounted in cardboard or glass mounts for easy use and for protection.
Advantages:
The sequence of slides can be altered to meet specific needs.
One can control the length of time each one is shown to allow for
explanation, questions from the audience, or discussion of the
problem at hand. The audience will focus its attention on the one
slide being shown.
Slides are easily made with an inexpensive 35 mm camera. Copying
materials with the same camera is a relatively simple task. Local
Photographic facilities can often be used in making slides, and even
colour film can usually be processed at seas reproduction centres.
Can be held on screen as long as needed.
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Can be arranged in any order to suit the specific need.
Can be easily revised and updated.
Easily handled, stored and rearranged for various uses.
Increased usefulness with magazine storage and automatic projection.
Can be combined with lapsed, narration for greater effectiveness.
May be adopted to group or to individual user.
Filmstrips:
Filmstrip is a length of 35 mm film containing a series of still pictures
intended for projection in sequence one at a time. Some filmstrips come with
a tape or disc recording that contains the narration. When the proper
equipment is used, a low frequency signal activates a mechanism to advance
the filmstrip one frame. (The filmstrip is sometimes called a strip film and a
slide film).
A filmstrip projector is an instrument designed to accept 35 mm filmstrips.
It is often equipped with an adapter to accept 2‖ x 2‖ slides. Models are
available with manual advance and remote control.
A filmstrip contains a series of still pictures in color or black and white on
film which is 35 mm wide. The film is perforated along both edges for
movement through the projector. Each picture in a filmstrip is called a frame.
Commercially prepared filmstrips vary in length some are as short as ten
frames, while others may contain from 70 to 80 frames or more.
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Advantages:
The filmstrip is a widely used instructional medium because of the many
advantages.
1. Provide a logical; pre-arranged order fro presentation.
2. The sequence of pictures is always the same. Careful planning has
preceded the production of each filmstrip.
3. Present an idea or process not involving motion.
4. May be supplemented with captions or recordings.
5. Information can be presented either through photographs or through
art work depending on which tells the story better.
6. Individual pictures can be held on the screen for discussion for as
long as desired and is therefore easy for group and individual study.
7. Pictorial or graphic materials can be used alone or in combination.
8. The small size of the filmstrip permits easy storage and handling.
9. Sound filmstrips insures the recording with suitable voice accept and
dialect. Speed of projection is governed by the recording so as to suit
the purpose and target audience.
10. Filmstrip equipment is relatively inexpensive, light-weight, small,
and easy to operate.
11. The room need not be extremely dark for projection.
Limitations:
1. The fixed sequence does not permit easy flexibility.
2. Filmstrips lack the attention-compelling qualities of the motion-
picture and television which are more familiar to student.
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3. Filmstrips are relatively difficult to make in the local place and
therefore selection is confined to materials made by outside sources.
How to use the filmstrip and the projector:
Most filmstrip and slide projectors are equipped with a blower fan to prevent
scorching of the film. If yours does not have such a cooling fan, be careful
not be hold the film in the aperture gate too long.
Clean your projector just before each use. Use a soft camels hair brush or a
soft lint-free cloth dampened in carbon tetrachloride, acetone or alcohol and
clean water (hale and half). Clean the lenses and two glass plates through
which the filmstrip passes. Dust particles and bits of film emulsion on the
glass plates will scratch the film.
Always handle the film only by its edges. Finger marks will show up badly
in projection. Clean your film, if it becomes dirty, with a soft cloth
dampened in carbon tetrachloride or acetone.
35 mm filmstrip projects are normally equipped with a 5‖ focal length lens.
They should be placed slightly further back from your screen than your 16
mm motion picture projector. When using the projector for slides, since the
slide film is larger, your projector should be moved closer to the screen
preparing details for filmstrip projectors:
Feed the film upside down between the glass sheets. See that the
words read backwards when you look at the film while threading. Be
sure that film perforations are properly engaged by transport
mechanism.
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Frame this picture correctly by moving the framing handle up or
down. Focus sharply by turning the lens.
Advance the strip, frame by frame, by turning the film advance knob.
If your are projecting from someone else who is doing the talking,
arrange foolproof signals so that you advance each frame at the
proper moment.
Rewind the film so that the beginning is outside after each showing.
Wrap carefully and place it in its proper storage box or cane.
To change from filmstrip head to slide head, loosen thumb nut,
remove filmstrip head, insert slide head and tighten the nut.
Have two slides in carrier at all times to prevent white glare on the
screen. Turn the projector light off while last slide is in the machine.
Selection of filmstrips:
Filmstrips should be selected and used with definite purposes in
mind. Instructors should select filmstrips that are applicable to the
subject being taught are accurate, truthful and up-to-date present
materials at a level suitable for the audience encourage audience
participation.
Prepare yourself:
You must preview the filmstrip before showing it to an audience.
During the preview you should not the sequence and content of the
filmstrip and consult the accompanying teaching notes, if available.
Determine the main teaching points. Develop a list of three or four
key questions. Note several key frames that will require detailed
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explanation. As you preview the film-strip, plan the activities that
will follow the showing.
Prepare your audience:
When filmstrips are ―just shown‖ they seldom contribute much to
learning. You can do a number of things to help the learning process.
You might begin asking questions about the topic covered by the
filmstrip. A filmstrip on the prevention of cholera might be preceded
by such questions as: ―Do any one of you know what caused
cholera?‖ ―How can cholera be prevented?‖; ―What are the first
symptoms of cholera?‖.
Audience participation:
Every effort should be made to encourage audience discussion during the
showing. If the audience is literate, and capable of reading the captions, they
should not be read by the instructor. Rather, you should enlarge upon the
captions by presenting additional information.
Thinking can be stimulated by asking pertinent questions and calling
members of the audiences to comment on certain frames. If questions arise
concerning frames already passed, don‘t hesitate to turn back and review
them.
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The emulsion is attached to the film base with a transparent adhesive called
the subbing layer. Below the base is an undercoat called the anti-halation
backing, which usually contains absorber dyes or a thin layer of silver or
carbon (called rem-jet on color negative stocks). Without this coating, bright
points of light would penetrate the emulsion, reflect off the inner surface of
the base, and re-expose the emulsion, creating a halo around these bright
areas. The anti-halation backing can also serve to reduce static buildup,
which was a significant problem with old black-and-white films.
The film, which runs through the camera at 18 inches (460 mm) per second,
could build up enough static electricity to cause a spark bright enough to
expose the film; anti-halation backing solved this problem. Color films have
multiple layers of silver halide emulsion to separately record the red, green
and blue thirds of the spectrum. For every silver halide grain there is a
matching color coupler grain (except Kodachrome film, to which color
couplers were added during processing). The top layer of emulsion is
sensitive to blue; below it is a yellow filter layer to block blue light; and
under that is a green-sensitive layer followed by a red-sensitive layer.
PREPARATION METHOD FOR TRANSPANRCE OHP
General Instructions
Leave at least a 1" margin on all four sides of the text.
Use characters not less than 1/2" in height. If you use word processing
software, use bold type, 28 point or larger. Please note that the projected
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image is distorted in such a way that the upper part of each page is
considerably larger than the lower part. To balance the image, make the
characters on the bottom of the sheet larger and farther apart than those at the
top.
Use no more than 12 lines per sheet, and leave ample space between lines.
Limit each transparency to one topic. Complicated problems may, however,
be simplified in presentation by the use of overlays, which consist of several
acetate sheets hinged together like the pages of a book. A complex image can
be built up from simple components added to the picture, one at a time, by
turning the pages. This mode of presentation can be very effective but calls
for careful preparation.
Use of the Overhead Projector:
Overhead projection equipment is relatively easy to use; however, a speaker
unfamiliar with the overhead projector should practice with it prior to the
lecture in order to become familiar with its features and feel comfortable
with it during the lecture.
For maximum effectiveness in the use of the projector, please note the
following suggestions:
Keep your shoulder out of the way! If it is lighted by the projector, it is
blocking the screen.
Avoid distracting the audience by continually turning around to look at the
screen. Be sure, however, to glance at the screen when placing a new
transparency on the projector to ensure its proper placement.
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Keep in mind that the projector's lamp can be turned on or off to direct the
audience's attention to the speaker or to the screen as desired.
Designing OHTs (PowerPoint) presentations
1 Conceive of your OHTs as a sequence, rather than as "one-offs". Do not
try to cram too much on each one. See notes on using the OHP, and on
the reveal technique, below.
2 KISS: Keep It Simple, Stupid.
3 If at all possible, use a presentation package to prepare them. They
feature in all the major office suites on all platforms, and they almost
impose good practice on you.
If you must use a word-processor:
Use landscape rather than portrait format, with wide left and right
margins (12 pica, 5cm, 2 inch). This stops the line getting too long, so
the eye has difficulty in following it, and also ensures that the border of
the OHP stage do not cut off the edges of your OHT. Landscape rather
than portrait makes it less likely that you will try to cram too much in.
Use a minimum text size of 18pt: this is recommended for legibility.
Dedicated packages will encourage large sizes by default.
Use a sans-serif font such as this one (Verdana) or Arial, for a cleaner
look, unless you know what you are doing.
4 Use both UPPER and lower case
for your text: this shows the shape
of the word more clearly and
greatly enhances legibility.
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PRINTING may be clearer for poor
handwriting, but that is not an issue
with computer-prepared OHTs
5 Three or four points per OHT is generally enough—certainly no more
than six.
6 Use bullet points and paragraph spacing to distinguish the points: all
packages encourage you to use a hierarchy of bullet points to show the
relative importance of the topics
7 You can also use bold face and larger sizes or both (and colour) to
emphasise key words or phrases. Do not use underlining: it interferes
with the shape of the word.
8 On the other hand, be selective about what you emphasise: too many
competing emphases interfere with comprehension. Putting everything
in bold does not necessarily help legibility.
9 Better still, use graphics. I don't mean the clip-art which is so readily and
seductively available in most packages it rarely adds anything to the
sense. I mean diagrams, charts, and the occasional scanned picture. All
packages have simple but adequate drawing tools, and an hour's playing
with them will pay great dividends.
10 In particular, use mind-mapping to give an overview of your session.
You can keep returning to the mind-map OHT to help students keep
track of what has been covered. You can also give it to them as a
handout to help them to structure their own notes, or as an aide-
memoire.
There are free copies of mind-mapping software available
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from here and here
11 A popular technique for using OHTs is that of the "reveal". You start
with the OHT concealed by a piece of paper, which you withdraw
paragraph or point by point, as you talk about them.
12 In particular, there is no excuse for photocopying blocks of text from a
book onto an OHT. If you need direct quotations, scan them and use an
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) program to convert them to text so
you can format them properly.
Edgar Dale’s cone of experience and components: Instructional
Technology
Dale‘s Cone of Experience is a model that incorporates several theories
related to instructional design and learning processes. During the 1960s,
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Edgar Dale theorized that learners retain more information by what they
―do‖ as opposed to what is ―heard‖, ―read‖ or ―observed‖. His research led to
the development of the Cone of Experience.
Edgar Dale (April 27, 1900 – March 8, 1985) was a U.S. educationist who
developed the famous Cone of Experience. Dale was a professor of
education at University. He made several contributions to audio and visual
instruction, including a methodology for analyzing the content of motion
pictures Edgar Dale, an expert in audiovisual education, created a model in
his 1946 book Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching that he named the Cone of
Experience to discuss various modalities/channels of imparting information. .
The cone of experience given by Edgar dale has rightly said that it is not
offered as a perfect or mechanically flaw less picture to be taken with
absolute literalness in its simplified form. It is merely a visual aid to explain
the interrelationships of various types of audiovisual materials, as well as
their individual positions in learning process His cone did not refer to
learning or retention at all, instead modeling levels of abstraction: words
being the most abstract in his model, at the top of the cone, and real-life
experiences the most concrete, and at the base of the cone.
Dale‘s Cone of Experience is a model that incorporates several theories
related to instructional design and learning processes. During the 1960s,
Edgar Dale theorized that learners retain more information by what they
―do‖ as opposed to what is ―heard‖, ―read‖ or ―observed‖. His research led
to the development of the Cone of Experience. The Cone was originally
developed in 1946 and was intended as a way to describe various learning
experiences. Essentially, the Cone shows the progression of experiences
from the most concrete (at the bottom of the cone) to the most abstract (at the
top of the cone).
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The cone of experience is a pictorial device use to explain the
interrelationships of the various types of audio-visual media, as well as their
individual ―positions‖ in the learning process. The cone‘s utility in selecting
instructional resources and activities is as practical today as
when Dale created it.
EDGAR DALE’S CONE/ PYRAMID OF EXPERIENCE
Dale‘s Cone of Experience is a visual model that is composed of eleven (11)
stages starting from concrete experiences at the bottom of the cone then it
becomes more and more abstract as it reach the peak of the cone. Also,
according to Dale, the arrangement in the cone is not based on its difficulty
but rather based on abstraction and on the number of senses involved. The
experiences in each stages can be mixed and are interrelated that fosters
more meaningful learning.
According to one of the principles in the selection and use of teaching
strategies, the more senses that are involved in learning, the more and the
better the learning will be but it does not mean that concrete experience is the
only effective experience that educators should use in transferring
knowledge to the learner. Like what was mentioned above, the experiences
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in each stages can be mixed and are interrelated thus, a balance must be
achieved between concrete and abstract experiences in order to cater the and
address all the need of the learner in all the domains of development and in
order to help each learner in their holistic development.
The generalization about the Cone of Experience that was presented above is
not enough. Actually, we should try to go deeper in each of the component of
the cone since Educational Technology basically revolves around the Cone
of Experience. By going one-by-one, starting from concrete to abstract, we
will understand more the different components of the cone that will help us
in grasping the real meaning of educational technology.
Direct Purposeful Experiences.
These are first hand experiences which serve as the foundation of learning.
In this level, more senses are used in order to build up the knowledge. Also,
in this level, the learner learned by doing things by him/herself. Learning
happens through actual hands-on experiences. This level explains and proves
one of the principles in the selection and use of teaching strategies, the more
senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the learning will
be. This level also proves that educational technology is not limited to the
modern gadgets and software that are commercially available nowadays.
This shows that even the simple opportunity that you give to each child
could help them learn.
The Contrived Experiences.
In this level, representative models and mock-ups of reality are being used in
order to provide an experience that as close as reality. This level is very
practical and it makes learning experience more accessible to the learner. In
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this stage, it provides more concrete experiences, even if not as concrete as
direct experiences, that allows visualization that fosters better understanding
of the concept.
The Dramatized experiences.
In this level, learners can participate in a reconstructed experiences that
could give them better understanding of the event or of a concept. Through
dramatized experiences, learners become more familiar with the concept as
they emerge themselves to the ―as-if‖ situation.
The Demonstrations.
It is a visualize explanation of important fact, idea, or process through the
use of pictures, drawings, film and other types of media in order to facilitate
clear and effective learning. In this level, things are shown based on how
they are done.
The Study Trips.
This level extends the learning experience through excursions and visits on
the different places that are not available inside the classroom. Through this
level, the learning experience will not be limited to the classroom setting but
rather extended in a more complex environment.
The Exhibits
The level of study trips is followed by exhibits. It is a somewhat a
combination of some of the first levels in the cone. Actually, exhibits are
combination of several mock ups and models. Most of the time, exhibits are
experiences that is ―for your eyes‖ only but some exhibits includes sensory
experiences which could be related to direct purposeful experiences. In this
level, meanings ideas are presented to the learners in a more abstract manner.
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This experience allows student to see the meaning and relevance of things
based on the different pictures and representations presented.
The television and motion pictures etc.
The next levels would be the level of television and motion pictures and still
pictures, recordings, and Radio. For television and motion pictures, it implies
values and messages through television and films. On the other hand, still
pictures, recordings and radio are visual and audio devices that can be used
by a group of learner that could enhance and extend learning experience
The Visual symbolic and Verbal symbolic
The last two levels would be the Visual symbolic and Verbal symbolic.
These two levels are the most complex and abstract among all the
components of the Cone of Experience. In the visual symbolic level, charts,
maps, graphs, and diagrams are used for abstract representations. On the
other hand, the verbal symbolic level does not involve visual representation
or clues to their meanings. Mostly, the things involved in this level are
words, ideas, principles, formula, and the likes.
After going through the different components of the Cone of Experience, it
could be said that in facilitating learning, we can use variety of materials and
medium in order to maximize the learning experience. One medium is not
enough so there‘s nothing wrong with trying to combine several medium for
as long as it could benefit the learners.
Through the levels provided by the Cone of Experience, it could be said that
concrete experiences must be provided first in order to support abstract
learning. Lastly, staying on the concrete experiences is not even ideal
because through providing abstract experiences to the learner, the more he
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will develop his higher order thinking skills which is important for more
complex way of thinking and for dealing with more complex life situations.
Through understanding each component of the Cone of Experience, it could
be said that Educational Technology is not limited to the modern gadgets that
we have right now but rather it is a broad concept that includes all the media
that we can use to attain balance as we facilitate effective and meaningful
learning.
To understand more the Cone of Experience, you may refer to this picture:
Modes of learning in Cone of Experience
In Edgar Dale introduced the Cone of Experience demonstrate a progression
from direct, first-hand experience to pictorial representation and on to purely
abstract, symbolic expression.
The Cone of Experience corresponds with three major modes of
learning:
Enactive (direct experience),- Enactive or direct experience involves
practicing with objects (the student actually ties a knot to learn knot-tying).
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Enactive experience involves concrete, immediate action and use of the
senses and body.
Iconic (pictorial experience) - Iconic experience involves interpreting
images and drawings (the student looks at drawings, pictures or films to
learn to tie knots). Iconic experience is once removed from the physical
realm and limited to two or three senses.
Symbolic (highly abstract experience)- Symbolic experience involves
reading or hearing symbols (the student reads or hears the word ―knot‖ and
forms an image in the mind). In symbolic experience, action is removed
nearly altogether and the experience is limited to thoughts and ideas.
Some theorists prefer to be more specific and refer to these possible
modes of learning
Conditioned- Conditioning refers to learning by pre-design or control via a
series of punishments and rewards.
Imitative – Imitation refers to learning tasks by observation or modeling.
Trial and error – Trial and error refers to learning via a series of successful
and unsuccessful trials and deliberations.
Investigative - Investigation refers to learning via a series of informed
hypotheses and inquiries into problems
Expansive learning - Refers to the questioning of the validity of tasks and
problems of a given context to the transformation of the context itself.
Passive and Active Aspects of the Cone of Experience
Although no experience is fully passive, iconic and symbolic experiences are
generally more passive than direct experiences. Dale proposed that active
and passive modes of participation can be contrasted by assigning a
percentage of we tend to remember after two weeks after our experience.
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The concrete and abstract aspects in the Cone of Experience
The Cone of Experience invokes a bi-directional movement from the
concrete to abstract and from the abstract to concrete. Dale‘s theory suggests
that objects and the material culture of technology are mere augmentations or
media to be used in the learning process. To fully empower teachers with a
theory of practice in technology studies, technologies and physical settings
have to play a more active role in cognition, emotion and action.
Learning and Experiences: A Step model based on Dale Cone of
Experience
When Dale researched learning and teaching methods he found that much of
what we found to be true of direct and indirect (and of concrete and abstract)
experience could be summarized in a pyramid or ‗pictorial device‘ Dales
called ‗the Cone of Experience‘. In his book ‗Audio visual methods in
teaching‘ – 1957, he stated that the cone was not offered as a perfect or
mechanically flawless picture to be taken absolutely literally. It was merely
designed as a visual aid to help explain the interrelationships of the various
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types of audio-visual materials, as well as their individual ‗positions‘ in the
learning process.
Dale points out that it would be a dangerous mistake to regard the bands on
the cone as rigid, inflexible divisions. He said ―The cone device is a visual
metaphor of learning experiences, in which the various types of audio-visual
materials are arranged in the order of increasing abstractness as one proceeds
from direct experiences.‖
In true sense the bands of the (Edgar Dale‘s) cone are not only the types of
audiovisual materials but the different experiences are also included. In fact
the upper four bands like verbal symbols, visual symbols, Radio, Recordings,
and still pictures, and motion pictures are more related with Audiovisual
materials but the later six bands of the cone like Exhibits, Field Trips,
Demonstrations, Dramatic Participation, are the strategies of teaching-
learning.
Contrived Experiences and Direct, Purposeful Experiences are related with
term Experiences .Each division represents a stage between two extremes-
direct experience and pure abstraction. As we move from base of the cone to
the up in order of decreasing directness. Similarly, if we move down from
pinnacle of the cone in the order of the decreasing abstraction .Based on
experience of teaching at different levels it was felt that, there are many
experiences and audiovisual materials which are missing in dale‘s cone and
to be included by making a new model of experiences which is presented in
the following Step Learning Experiences model.
The base of the step learning experiences model is direct and purposeful
experience which is always preferable for any new learner and any kind of
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learning concept and gives firsthand experience in turn leads to the
permanent learning. At the top of the cone is verbal or text these are the least
effective ways to introduce new content to students. The step learning
experience model includes 17 different experiences.
Verbal Symbols:
Verbal symbols are words, sentences, sounds, or other utterances that are
said aloud in order to convey some meaning. The verbal symbol may be a
word , an idea , concept , a scientific principle , a formula , a philosophic
aphorism or any other representation of experience that has been classified
in some verbal symbolism.
Olfactory Experience:
It is also called Aroma Experience; Aroma is a quality that can be perceived
by the olfactory sense. It is a type of Experience where the learner can have
the concrete idea of the abstract thing through the sense of smell.
Gustatory Experience:
Gustatory is an adjective that refers to tasting or the sense of taste, Gustatory
has its roots in the Latin Gustare, meaning ―to taste,‖ It is a type of
Experience where the learner can have the concrete idea of the thing or
object or concept through the sense of taste. We can have the taste of real
thing which may be in different forms (different Size, shape, color)..
Tactile-kinesthetic Experience:
It is a type of Experience where the learner can have the idea or the concept
of the thing or object through the sense of touch and feel; it is learning
through a hands-on approach and learners will be physically involved.
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Kinesthetic Learning Experience refers to one of the modalities that learners
use in order to approach and absorb new information.
Kinesthetic-tactile refers to a pupil who learns by movement and by
touching. This type of experience can be given through hands-on activities,
manipulating objects or flash cards, working problems or re-typing notes.
Visual symbols:
Visual symbol may be a picture or shape that has a particular meaning or
represents a particular process or idea. Something visible that by association
or convention represents something else that is invisible; and something that
represents or stands for something else, usually by association or used to
represent something abstract. Visual experience has a rich predictive
structure.
Still Pictures, Radio, and Recordings:
This stage includes number of devices that might be classified roughly as
―one dimensional aids‖ because they use only one sense organ that is either
eye (seeing) or ear (hearing). All these materials are less direct than the
audio-visual experiences.
Motion pictures, Television and computers:
These can eliminate the unnecessary and unimportant material and
concentrate upon only selected points. The important processes can be
watched with slow motion and vital content and issues can be repeated
number of times. The pupils are mere spectators and are distant from the
experiences like touching, tasting, handling and feeling from directly
experiencing.
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Television‘s influence on language habits, vocabulary, consumer patterns,
cultural values and behavior patterns should not be underestimated. Research
suggests that even the learning pace can be enhanced or improved through
television learning.
The present day computers are not only compact, extremely powerful and
versatile, commonly accessible and easy to use. The computer has, indeed
become an integral part of our teaching process and daily life. Students then
simulate the entire lab experience using the CAI, which saves time,
resources.
Exhibits:
In education normally the arranged working models exhibited in a
meaningful way. Sometimes they may be series of photographs or of
photographs mixed with models and charts . The opportunity to handle the
materials by the participant makes the way to use more sense organs and
Learning by doing always helpful for meaningful or concrete learning.
Field-trip (Educational Excursion):
It is a trip by the students to gain firsthand knowledge away from the
classroom as to a museum, factory, geological area, or environment of
certain plants and animals. A field trip gives students a chance to study
something in real environment, rather than in a classroom or laboratory. At
field trips normally students see and note down certain important things.
Sometimes they get chance to interview and discuss the things with officials
or local people to clarify the doubts with supportive to observation.
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Demonstrations:
A demonstration is another means whereby pupils can see how certain things
are done. Demonstration may require nothing more than observation on the
part of the pupil or observer. It is the act of showing or making evident or
circumstance of proving or being proved conclusively as by reasoning. It
may be description or explanation of a process and illustrated by examples,
specimens and it also includes the act of exhibiting the operation or use of a
device, machine, process and product.
Dramatization:
There are many things we cannot possibly experience at first hand and we
cannot experience directly something that has already happened.
Furthermore some matters cannot be reduced to contrived experience and
some ideas must of necessary be somewhat abstract and symbolic. Dramatic
participation can help us get close as possible to certain realities that we
cannot reach at first hand.
As students re-create images, pictures, visual details, staging, movement,
location and direction with drama their spatial learning skills are developed.
Logical learning follows from using rational patterns, cause and effect
relationships and other believable concepts involved with the drama.
Sometimes music, or even the music of language, is also used in working
with drama.
Contrived Experiences (Artificial Experience):
A contrived experience is editing of reality, an editing which makes the
reality easier to grasp. It may be illustrated by working model and it differs
from the original either in size or complexity; contrived experiences lead to a
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suspension of disbelief. In other words, during the period of experience, the
learner believes in the reality of the experience. We make use of contrived
experiences to overcome limitation of space and time, to edit reality for us to
be able to focus on parts or a process of a system that we intend to study and
to overcome difficulties of size and finally to understand easily and
effectively
Virtual learning experience:
Though the virtual experience can be called as contrived experience but the
pupils level of experience may differ and the kind of joy and level of
understanding may be high at virtual than the contrived experiences which
include models mock ups and cut-away as we can consider them as
hardware. A virtual learning experience involves a set of teaching and
learning tools designed to enhance a student‘s learning experience by
including computers and the Internet in the learning process. The
representation of the learning environment ranges from text-based interfaces
to the most complex 3D graphical output.
Smart boards are the best examples for virtual experience where students can
conduct science experiments in simulated way. In virtual experience pupil
can see and hear but not use the senses of touch and smell. We can bring
reality in the classroom which is more than contrived experience and as near
as the real experience.
Four-Dimensional Experiences:
Four-Dimensional Experiences that describes a presentation system
combining a Three Dimensional film with Physical effects in the theater,
which occurs in synchronization with the film.
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Because physical effects can be expensive to install, 4-D films are usually
presented only at special venues, such as theme parks and amusement parks.
Due to the fast growth of technology, 3-D Theaters have been enhanced by
the addition of special simulations.In Education some of the abstract
concepts of literature, history and science can be taught with Four
dimensional effects and pupil may enjoy the abstract content in a concrete
way with same effect as it is given by the poets in the poems, even at science
issues and concepts as if they are experiencing in a real situation.
Ubiquitous learning Experience:
Ubiquitous means ―pervasive, omnipresent, ever present, and everywhere‖.
A ubiquitous learning experience is any setting of the environment in which
students can become totally immersed in the learning process. To define, it is
a kind of experience where learning is happening all around the student but
the student may not even be conscious of the learning process.
The Ubiquitous learning Environment includes an ubiquitous computing
technology-equipped system supplies users with timely information and
relevant services by automatically sensing users‘ various context data and
smartly generating proper results. So the characteristics of a pervasive
computing environment can be mainly concluded as the following: User
mobility, Resource and location discovery, Context awareness
(user/time/location), Collaborative interaction, Ambient information, Calm
technology, Event notification, Adaptive interfaces, Invisibility object
augmentation, and Any time/anywhere.
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Direct Real Experience
These experiences can be observed live or in real time through technological
gadgets and the same can be used effectively to the students understanding of
the processes, certain special environments and sometimes the special
actions too.
Direct real experience can give greater experience in learning for the
students than virtual or contrived experiences. The pupil will have an
opportunity to observe and study directly. Hence its impact may be high on
learning than the other earlier experiences. It is also an alternative experience
to the direct purposeful experience. When teachers are unable to provide
direct purposeful experience, they may only have the best option of direct
real experience.
Direct Purposeful Experience: The Base of the Step Learning Experiences
Model represents direct reality itself as we experience it at first hand. It is the
rich full bodied experience that is the base of education. It is the purposeful
experience that is seen, handled, tasted, felt, touched, and smelled. It is the
experience of life and we get it by living. Some of our richest, most vivid
sense impressions are those which involve our feelings and perceptions in an
eager exploration of the world.
Critical Appraisal
The cone of experience given by Edgar dale has rightly said that it is not
offered as a perfect or mechanically flaw less picture to be taken with
absolute literalness in its simplified form. It is merely a visual aid to explain
the interrelationships of various types of audiovisual materials, as well as
their individual positions in learning process.
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The Cone should be considered as a continuum rather than a hierarchy.
Learning occurs through all of the experiences present in the Cone, and all
experiences may be appropriate at different stages in the learning process or
for different audiences.
The Cone does not demonstrate which is the best method of learning? One
can conclude that many different kinds of instruction should be used in the
classroom. Since no single method is superior to another, instructors must
analyze the audience as well as the content. Some content may fit into one
teaching method, while other content may be better suited to another method.
The use of audio-visual materials in teaching does not depend primarily upon
reading to convey their meaning. It is based upon the principle that all
teaching can be greatly improved by the use of such materials because they
can help make the learning experience memorable we do not mean that
sensory materials must be introduced into every teaching situation
Mathematics is a subject of abstract concepts and can be learnt better through
verbal and visual symbols, contrived and virtual experiences. It may not be
possible to give direct experiences for pupil in subjects like mathematics and
statistics. Verbal and visual experiences are suitable only for Language
learning.
Experiences are meant to experience not to evaluate or compare among
them. Experiences are purely individualized, with the same kind of
experience one‘s perception may be differing from others. One can learn
better than other, some pupil can learn better with the direct experiences and
others can learn easily with virtual experience, some through contrived, one
dimensional and two dimensional aids.
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John Dewey says that ―Direct experience had the disadvantage of being
limited in range and fatally restricted‖. Indeed, we learn many things
indirectly even better than the direct experience. The direct experience is not
necessary or suitable for learning all kinds of concepts.
James P. Lalley and Robert H. Miller have examined many different studies
about learning and retention and have concluded that the most learning and
retention occurs when many different teaching methods are used in the
classroom. They found that direct instruction, or lecture, is most commonly
used in the classroom and has ―a significant effect on retention‖. Reading,
although it appears to have little value based on Dale‘s Cone will influence
the students‘ ability to learn throughout their lives.
When Dale researched learning and teaching methods he found that much of
what we found to be true of direct and indirect (and of concrete and abstract)
experience could be summarized in a pyramid or ‗pictorial device‘. He stated
that the cone was not offered as a perfect or mechanically flawless picture to
be taken absolutely literally. It was merely designed as a visual aid to help
explain the interrelationships of the various types of audio-visual materials,
as well as their individual ‗positions‘ in the learning process.
It is important to note that Dale never intended the Cone to depict a value
judgment of experiences; in other words, his argument was not that more
concrete experiences were better than more abstract ones. Dale believed that
any and all of the approaches could and should be used, depending on the
needs of the learner.
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Practicability of Learning Pyramid
In order for students to develop meaningful knowledge, feelings and skills,
their direct experiences must be ―associated with abstractions,‖ as Dale
noted. Language and expression are essential to skill acquisition.
Beyond its sketchy background, the learning pyramid should raise concerns:
1. What kind of research results end up in such tidy percentages, all
multiples of 10?
2. How would one even develop a method for testing such broad claims?
3. Do we really believe a learner can remember 90% of anything?
4. Can an activity be separated from its content and be given credit for
learning?
Many distinguished authors have gutted the pyramid‘s claims. Educational
expert Daniel Willingham was against the pyramid related to
oversimplification; providing an optimal learning experience does not boil
down to the instruction method. There are many different variables that
impact learning. Looking at Dale‘s cone of experience, one can realize that
there can be numbers of model that can be used by the teacher to reach the
learner depending on the learners need. Despite the pyramid having been
debunked in many venues for decades, it continues to show up in educational
presentations and literature.
To conclude, the Cone of Experience is essentially a visual metaphor for the
idea that learning activities can be placed in broad categories based on the
extent to which they convey the concrete referents of real-life experiences. It
has also been interpreted by many as a prescriptive formula for selecting
instructional media. Dale‘s own explanations are nebulous enough to enable
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a wide variety of interpretations to find support. Finally, the fact that the
Cone has been taken seriously enough to be used in so many ways testifies to
the robustness and attractiveness of Dale‘s visual metaphor
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UNIT V
INNOVATION IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Multimedia in education:
Effective Service Delivery in Teaching and Learning Processes
In order to have effective service delivery in teaching and learning the use of
educational media and multimedia technology is paramount and higher
education media and multimedia technology service delivery has had a
dramatic impact on teaching and learning, especially with the ready access to
new technologies, educational institutions are well positioned to take
advantage of these rapid changes. There are a number of ways that
educational media and multimedia technology can enhance effective service
delivery programs while conserving program resources through:
(1)Program Management
Databases can help program staff to track learners‘ placements, community
partner contact information and the academic calendar.
(2)Community Partner Participation
A well-publicized web site can describe the service delivery programs to
enhance co-operative learning within the community, and provide easy
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access to forms for registering a community project and highlight stories of
positive community partner experiences.
(3)Curricular Tools
Online modules and case studies can enhance classroom and community-
based learning.
(4)Community Service
Meaningful community service doesn‘t necessarily have to involve regular
or on-going face-to-face contact between learner and community partner, and
it can entail, meeting with community learners in a web design course with a
service-learning component.
(5)Reflection Electronic discussion groups can enable learners across
different service-learning sites to regularly communicate, share their
experiences and respond to reflective questions posed by faculty and one
another.
(6) Program Evaluation
Online surveys can enable learners and community partners to respond to
questions about their experiences and the impact of the program. Databases
can facilitate the tracking and storage of program evaluation information.
What is Educational Multimedia?
Multimedia is media and content that uses a combination of different content
forms. This contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer
displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced
material. Multimedia includes a combination of text, audio, still images,
animation, video, or interactivity content forms.
Multimedia is usually recorded and played, displayed, or accessed by
information content processing devices, such as computerized and electronic
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devices, but can also be part of a live performance. Multimedia devices are
electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content.
Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in fine art; by including
audio, for example, it has a broader scope.
Multimedia efficiency in education and the benefits:
Multimedia activities encourage students to work in groups, express their
knowledge in multiple ways, solve problems, revise their own work, and
construct knowledge. The advantages of integrating multimedia in the
classroom are many.
Through participation in multimedia activities, students can learn:
Real-world skills related to technology
The value of teamwork
Effective collaboration techniques
The impact and importance of different media
The challenges of communicating to different audiences
How to present information in compelling ways
Techniques for synthesizing and analyzing complex content
The importance of research, planning, and organization skills
The significance of presentation and speaking skills
How to accept and provide constructive feedback
How to express their ideas creatively
There are, however, some constraints to using multimedia in the classroom,
including:
Technological resources, both hardware and software
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Technological skills, for both the students and teacher
Time required for planning, designing, developing, and evaluating
multimedia activities
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique
whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor
the learning that takes place. CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound
and video in enhancing the learning process
A brief list of some of the main terms that are used in CAI related fields are
given below:
CBT - Computer Based Training
CAI- Computer Assisted Instruction
CAL- Computer Assisted Learning
CALL- Computer Assisted Language Learning
WBI- Web Based Instruction
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WBT- Web Based Training
CAI, as the name suggests, is the use of a computer to provide instruction.
The format can be from a simple program to teach typing to a complex
system that uses the latest technology to teach new keyhole surgery
techniques. CAI draws on knowledge from the fields of learning, cognition,
Human Computer Interaction (HCI) amongst others. Many of the major
themes in CALL are reflected in the field of CAI.
History
CAL started in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly in the USA. Pioneers such as
Suppes (Stanford University), Kemeny and Kurtz (BASIC, 1960s (Kemeny
and Kurtz, 1968, 1985)) and Bitzer (PLATO, University of Illinois (Hart,
1981, 1995)) were among the first to use a computer as part of the learning
process.
The early CAI programs were rudimentary by today's standards, with mainly
text-based interfaces. Bitzer was one of the first to realise the importance of
graphics and sound in the teaching process. Initially, CAI programs simply
tried to teach a particular topic without a basis on any particular educational
philosophy.
Benefits of CAI
CAI brings with it several potential benefits as a teaching/learning medium.
These include self-paced learning, self-directed learning, the exercising of
various senses and the ability to represent content in a variety of media. With
self-paced learning, learners can move as slowly or as quickly as they like
through a program. If they want to repeat some task or review some material
again, they can do so as many times as they choose.
The program will not tire or complain about repetitions. Learners can skip
over a topic if information is already known, making the learning process
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more efficient. With self-directed learning, learners can decide what they
want to learn and in what order. Various studies have shown that when
learners can learn in a way that suits them, improvements in the effectiveness
of the learning process normally ensue. Humans are multi-sensory animals.
The more senses through which we receive information, the easier it is to
remember. According to Fletcher (1990), people remember 20% of what
they hear, 40% of what they see and hear and 75% of what they see, hear and
do. The fact that the computer can exercise various senses and present
information in a variety of media can enhance the learning process. Modern
theories report that computers encourage learning as it provides a stimulating
environment and promote enthusiasm.
Computers may help the reticent student who is afraid to make mistakes in a
classroom situation.
They are good for online reference which useful in a language learning
situation and can cater for students of different abilities.
Also, the ability to provide quicker feedback is a further benefit of CAI.
What is computer-assisted instruction? Computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) refers to instruction or remediation presented on a computer. Many
educational computer programs are available online and from computer
stores and textbook companies. They enhance teacher instruction in several
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ways. Computer programs are interactive and can illustrate a concept
through attractive animation, sound, and demonstration. They allow students
to progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve in a
group.
Computers provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their
answer is correct. If the answer is not correct, the program shows students
how to correctly answer the question.
Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from
teacher-led or group instruction.
Computer-assisted instruction improves instruction for students with
disabilities because students receive immediate feedback and do not continue
to practice the wrong skills. Computers capture the attention of students
because the programs are interactive and engage the students' spirit of
competitiveness to increase their scores. Also, computer-assisted instruction
moves at the students' pace and usually does not move ahead until they have
mastered the skill. Programs provide differentiated lessons to challenge
students who are at risk, average, or gifted
Learning Style and CAI: CAI has the potential as an instructional medium
to individualize the learning process. It may be more beneficial to some
learners than others. For example, graphics and visually active instruction
helps field dependent learners. Motivated learners, who require specific
instruction in a sequential format and enjoy frequent feedback, will generally
benefit for CAI. Kinesthetic, peer-oriented learners will not gain as much
from CAI as there are limitations regarding what a learner can physically do
with a computer.
Each model can be used to identify those learner types that will benefit most
from CAI. In the Kolb model, it is the concrete learners (i.e. those that learn
from direct involvement in a new experience) that benefit. In the Gardner
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model, different techniques can be used to accommodate each type of
intelligence (e.g. moving things around with a mouse for bodily intelligence,
paint for spatial and telecommunications for interpersonal intelligence).
Teleconferencing:
Teleconferencing means meeting through a telecommunications medium. It
is a generic term for linking people between two or more locations by
electronics. There are at least six types of teleconferencing: audio, audio-
graphic, computer, video, business television (BTV), and distance education.
The methods used differ in the technology, but common factors contribute to
the shared definition of teleconferencing:
o Use a telecommunications channel
o Link people at multiple locations
o Interactive to provide two-way communications
o Dynamic to require users' active participation
Interactive Technologies
The new systems have varying degrees of interactivity - the capability to talk
back to the user. They are enabling and satellites, computers, teletext,
viewdata, cassettes, cable, and videodiscs all fit the same emerging pattern.
They provide ways for individuals to step out of the mass audiences and take
an active role in the process by which information is transmitted. The new
technologies are demassified so that a special message can be exchanged
with each individual in a large audience. They are the opposite o mass media
and shift control to the user.
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Many are asynchronous and can send or receive a message at a time
convenient for individuals without being in communication at the same time.
This overcomes time as a variable affecting communication. A video, data
and voice delivery system reduces travel costs. When the material is
retrieved and saved to a video tape or disc, the material can be used at
anytime or anyplace.
As more interactive technologies emerge, the value of being an independent
learner will increase. Research shows that learning from new technologies is
as effective as traditional methods. Large groups are cost-effective and
everyone gets the same information.
Types of Teleconferences
Audio Teleconference: Voice-only; sometimes called conference calling.
Interactively links people in remote locations via telephone lines. Audio
bridges tie all lines together. Meetings can be conducted via audio
conference. Preplanning is necessary which includes naming a chair, setting
an agenda, and providing printed materials to participants ahead of time so
that they can be reviewed.
Distance learning can be conducted by audio conference. In fact, it is one of
the most underutilized, yet cost effective methods available to education.
Instructors should receive training on how to best utilize audio conferences
to augment other forms of distance learning.
Audio-graphics Teleconference: Uses narrowband telecommunications
channels to transmit visual information such as graphics, alpha-numerics,
documents, and video pictures as an adjunct to voice communication. Other
terms are desk-top computer conferencing and enhanced audio. Devices
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include electronic tablets/boards,freeze-frame video terminals, integrated
graphics systems (as part of personal computers), Fax, remote-access
microfiche and slide projectors, optical graphic scanners, and voice/data
terminals.
Audio-graphics can be used for meetings and distance learning.
Computer Teleconference: Uses telephone lines to connect two or more
computers and modems. Anything that can be done on a computer can be
sent over the lines. It can be synchronous or asynchronous. An example of an
asychronous mode is electronic mail. Using electronic mail (E-Mail),
memos, reports, updates, newsletters can be sent to anyone on the local area
network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). Items generated on computer
which are normally printed and then sent by facsimile can be sent by E-Mail.
Computer conferencing is an emerging area for distance education. Some
institutions offer credit programs completely by computer. Students receive
texts and workbooks via mail. Through common files assigned to a class
which each student can assess, teachers upload syllabi, lectures, grades and
remarks. Students download these files, compose their assignment and
remarks off-line, then upload them to the common files.
Students and instructors are usually required to log on for a prescribed
number of days during the week. Interaction is a large component of the
students' grades.
Through computers, faculty, students and administrators have easy access to
one another as well as access to database resources provided through
libraries. The academic resources of libraries and special resources can be
accessed such as OCLC, ERIC, and Internet.
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Administrators can access student files, retrieve institutional information
from central repositories such as district or system offices, government
agencies, or communicate with one another. Other resources can be created
such as updates on state or federal legislation.
Video Teleconference: Combines audio and video to provide voice
communications and video images. Can be one-way video/two-way audio or
two-way video/two-way audio. It can display anything that can be captured
by a TV camera. The advantage is the capability to display moving images.
In two-way audio/video systems, a common application is to show a person
which creates a social presence that resembles face-to-face meetings and
classes and enables participants to see the facial expressions and physical
demeanor of participants at remote sites. Graphics are used to enhance
understanding. There are three basic systems: freeze frame, compressed, and
full-motion video.
Video conferencing is an effective way to use one teacher who teaches to a
number of sites. It is very cost effective for classes which may have a small
number of students enrolled at each site. In many cases, video conferencing
enables the institution or a group of institutions to provide courses which
would be canceled due to low enrollment or which could not be supported
otherwise because of the cost of providing an instructor in an unusual subject
area. Rural areas benefit particularly from classes provided through video
conferencing when they work with a larger metropolitan institution that has
full-time faculty.
Through teleconferencing, institutions are able to serve all students
equitably.
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Why Use a Teleconference?
Videoconferencing increases efficiency and results in a more profitable use
of limited resources. It is a very personal medium for human issues where
face-to-face communications are necessary. When you can see and hear the
person you are talking to on a television monitor, they respond as though you
were in the same room together. It is an effective alternative to travel which
can easily add up to weeks of non-productive time each year. With
videoconferencing, you never have to leave the office. Documents are
available, and experts can be on hand. A crisis that might take on major
proportions if you are out of town can be handled because you're on the job.
Videoconferencing maximizes efficiency because it provides a way to meet
with several groups in different locations, at the same time.
As the limited resource of funding has decreased, limited resources now
include instructors, parking spaces and buildings. Students now include time
as a limited resource. Teleconferencing enables institutions to share facilities
and instructors which will increase our ability to serve students.
Move Information - Not People
Electronic delivery is more efficient than physically moving people to a site,
whether it is a faculty member or administrator.
Save Time: Content presented by one or many sources is received in many
places simultaneously and instantly. Travel is reduced resulting in more
productive time. Communication is improved and meetings are more
efficient. It adds a competitive edge that face-to-face meetings do not.
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Lower Costs: Costs (travel, meals, lodging) are reduced by keeping
employees in the office, speeding up product development cycles, improving
performance through frequent meetings with timely information.
Accessible: Through any origination site in the world. Larger Audiences:
More people can attend. The larger the audience, the lower the cost per
person.
Larger Audiences: More people can attend. The larger the audience, the
lower cost per person.
Adaptable: Useful for business, associations, hospitals, and institutions to
discuss, inform, train, educate or present.
Flexible: With a remote receive or transmit truck, a transmit or receive site
can be located anywhere.
Security: Signals can be encrypted (scrambled) when it is necessary.
Encryption prevents outside viewers.
Unity: Provides a shared sense of identity. People feel more a part of the
group...more often. Individuals or groups at multiple locations can be linked
frequently.
Timely: For time-critical information, sites can be linked quickly. An audio
or point-to-point teleconference can be convened in three minutes.
Interactive: Dynamic; requires the user's active participation. It enhances
personal communication. When used well for learning, the interactivity will
enhance the learning and the teaching experience.
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Satellite Communications
Long distance telephone calls, national and international televised sporting
events, and cable movie channels operate via satellites. Satellites have been
used for years.
Geostationary Orbit: British physicist and science fiction writer, Sir Arthur
C. Clarke, invented satellite communication in his 1954 paper Wireless
World, which explained this east-west orbit, 22,300 miles above the equator;
three satellites based in this orbit could provide world-wide communications.
Today, many satellites are arrayed in the Clarke belt. To earth stations, they
appear fixed in space.
Satellite Footprint: In geostationary orbit, communications satellites have
direct line-of-sight to almost half the earth - a large "footprint" which is a
major advantage. A signal sent via satellite can be transmitted
simultaneously to every U.S. city. Many downlinks can be aimed at one
satellite and each can receive the same program; this is called point to
multipoint.
Transponders: Via an uplink, video, audio or data signals can be
transmitted to a satellite transponder. There may be up to 40 transponders per
satellite; each can amplify and relay signals to earth which are picked up by
earth stations.
C/Ku-Band: Domestic communications satellites operate on two frequency
ranges designated C- and Ku-band. Each requires specific electronic
equipment. C-band is less expensive; operates at 4 kHz. Ku-band operates at
12 kHz. Some teleconferences are broadcast on both bands.
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Receivers: Convert satellite signals into channels viewed (one at a time) on a
TV monitor; designed to tune-in the format, bandwidth, and audio sub-
carrier. Programs broadcast in code (encryption) are decoded at receive sites.
Basic Receivers: Lowest cost; limited (or manual) channel tuning capability;
may use fixed antennas.
Multi-Format Receivers: Most versatile; adjusts for all broadcast formats;
receive any satellite video program in six or more bandwidth selections, and
two agile audio subcarrier switches; usually a motorized systems.
Fixed Position System: Low cost systems limited to reception from one
satellite and one band.
Motorized System: Receives programs on different satellites by adjusting
the dish position.
Automated Systems: Microprocessor controlled for instant movement to
satellites (positions stored in memory).
International Satellite
Alpha Lyracom Space Communications/Pan American Satellite is the
world's first private international satellite system. PAS-1 carries many
specialized communications services including full and part-time video, low
and high speed data, broadcast data and radio and business television to over
70 countries on three continents. It can be seen (received) by a 2.4 meter
antenna. It has 18 C-band and six Ku-band transponders with a shared
capacity that increases traffic.
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PanAmSat handles all phases of an international broadcast as compared to
INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization)
where the customer must book the domestic and foreign half circuits and pay
for each downlink. INTELSAT was established primarily to handle the PTT
telephone transmissions, while PanAmSat was established to be easily
accessible by distance education institutions and private enterprise. The FCC
licenses PanAmSat transportables for years, as compared to the FCC special
temporary authority (STA) license for INTELSAT.
Compressed Video
Digital compression means that the codec compresses the video signal or
data to a fraction of its original size so that the data rate is appropriate to
transmit over low-cost terrestrial telephone lines or on a fraction of a satellite
transponder. Codecs (COder/DECorder) compress the video and audio signal
allowing it to be transmitted in a smaller bandwidth which reduces the cost
of the transmission.
Standard transmission rates for video teleconferencing are multiples of 64
Kbs up to the T1 rate of 1.54 Mbs. Some codecs allow speed selection to
match the circuit used. The speed selected is based on the content. When
close to full motion video is needed, higher rates are needed.
T1 circuits connect PBXs to the telephone company's central office and can
carry up to 24 voice channels at a lower cost than 24 voice circuits. A 56 Kb
or 64 KBS codec operates in the range of one voice channel. A standard
video signal digitized at 90 Mbs is comprised of about 1400 voice channels.
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Freeze Frame Video
Freeze frame video uses telephone channels to transmit video information.
Because of the narrow bandwidth, the image takes a few moments to reach
the receive site where it appears on the TV as a still picture. The advantages
are lower costs and flexibility in linking multiple sites. Slow scan systems
are similar to freeze frame and the terms are often used synonymously.
Freeze frame technologies include a range of features; analog, digital,
monochrome or color pictures, resolutions, transmission speeds, and extra
memory. Newer models provide multiple send times to select the resolution
and transmission time through digital circuits and compression coding. Some
units transmit video information in digital format over a data circuit which
reduces the transmission time to about nine seconds to a 56 kilobit link.
Because of the faster transmission rates, many new freeze frame applications
use data circuits.
Compressed video (near motion) and full-motion video differ; compressed
video uses compression techniques to reduce channel bandwidth; images
may not look as natural and may blur or lose background resolution. The
advantage is that the significant reduction in bandwidth reduces costs.
Compressed video uses a telephone data circuit - currently a T1 carrier or 1.5
or 3 megabits - to transmit video, voice and data. It reduces video
information (NTSC Standard-color video) with a compression technique to
eliminate redundant information and reduce the 100 million bits signal to 1.5
or 3 million bits.
Digital video signals are broken down into thousands of elements called
pixels. Between frames, many are the same. A codec takes advantage of this
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duplication by sending complete information on the first pixel and a brief
code to repeat the values. This reduces the information sent and the
bandwidth required. Inter-frame coding for conditional replenishment
compares the changes between two frames and transmits changes. Motion
compensation predicts changes between frames and transmits only the
difference. Software holds the compression algorithm which can be
upgraded. The CCITT Px64 international standard requires rates to operate
in multiples of 64.
Full-Motion Video
Standard TV signals are broadcast using a significant amount of the
bandwidth of wideband channels - 4 to 6 megahertz for color analog - to
send video, voice and data. Because of the large channel capacity, it
transmits a picture with the full motion and resolution of broadcast TV. The
bandwidth used is the digital equivalent of 80 Mbps or more which
corresponds to a full satellite transponder or 1820 voice phone lines. This
translates into high costs for signal transmission.
Compression for One-Way Video
Consumer application for compressed video systems uses higher rates than
two-way compressed video to achieve near-broadcast quality video image. A
digitally compressed video signal can be broadcast over 1/20 of a regular
transponder channel reducing costs to under $200 per hour.
One use of the technology is SKY PIX, a pay per view movie service based
on a Compression Labs, Inc. codec marketed by NW Star Scan which offers
viewers a choice of up to 40 movies. The picture quality is better than VHS
transmission quality. Scientific Atlanta offers PrimeStar, a competing
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entertainment service, which transmits at a data rate of 4 to 4.5 Mbs. Using
the same technology, they will offer B-Mac users compatibility with
compressed video users at a lower price because the transmission uses a
fraction of a regular transponder channel.
Compression Labs, Inc. has recently introduced the Spectrum Saver System
which can broadcast a digital signal to a fraction of a satellite transponder.
Because up to 15 or 18 signals can be carried on a transponder (depending
upon the system configuration), the cost of satellite time is significantly
reduced. Each institution reports a savings of $1 million in satellite time
during the first year of operation. The system is entirely digital.
Scientific Atlanta is about to bring its new digital satellite system to the
market. This system is an upgrade to an existing Scientific Atlanta analog
satellite system. As such, users will be able to broadcast in either analog or
digital format.
Fiber Optic Systems
The transmission of voice, video and data by light wave signals inside a thin,
transparent glass fiber cable, is providing more choices for
telecommunications users and is rapidly bringing digital communication to
the home and office. One pair of fibers can carry up to 10,000 telephone calls
simultaneously. Advantages: transmission clarity, speed, accuracy, security,
and volume. Disadvantages: Construction, installation and maintenance
costs, but they are declining.
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Open Education resources:
What is ‗open education‘? Open education (often abbreviated to OE) in
higher education is academic practice that stresses a philosophy of sharing
freely and openly the ideas, knowledge, methods, platforms, tools,
approaches and materials used in learning and teaching. Through shared
improvements in resources and techniques, quality can be enhanced to a
measurable degree. Open education can also be referred to as ‗open
educational practice‘ or simply ‗open practice‘.
More generally, the open movement covers open source developments in
technology, software and standards, open content and knowledge, and it
includes open educational practice. The principles underlying all these areas
of activity are based on the idea that opening up our work to others‘
incremental improvements and insights can generate much better materials,
technologies and ideas with wider use and application, than in closed
environments, where input and use are restricted. Wikipedia is an example of
an open ‗crowd-sourced‘ resource created in this way; such resources can
also be more specialized in scope and narrower in the collaborative field that
chooses to engage with them, for specific tasks. The crucial point is in
adaptation and improvement, not just making resources available, because it
is here that real value in added as an ‗open fountain of goods‘
What are Open Educational Resources?
―OER can be defined as teaching and learning resources in any medium,
digital or otherwise, that permit no-cost access, use, reuse and repurposing
by others with no or limited restrictions‖.
Why are Open Educational Resources important?
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The demand for accessible, affordable and free, quality learning
materials across countries, across languages and across cultures is huge
and increasing
Open Educational Resources can be states as:
“A well-established, properly-regulated tertiary education system supported
by technology, Open Educational Resources (OERs) and distance education
modalities can increase access, equity, quality and relevance, and narrow the
gap between what is taught at tertiary education institutions and what
economies and societies demand. The provision of tertiary education should
be progressively free, in line with existing international agreements‖.
The 4Rs Framework is a great tool and describes the four most important
rights when we work with the concept of OER:
Reuse - the right to use the application without changing the original
form (display an exact copy);
Review - the right to adapt, adjust, modify, or change the resource
(translation, localization);
Remix - the right to match the original or adapted resource with other
resources to create something new (mashup);
Redistribute - the right to share copies of the appeal, adaptations or
remixes.
Another important issue related with ―openness‖ is the differences
between Big OER and Little OER.
What is a Big OER?
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"Big OER" are institutional projects, consortia and organizations that have
the goal to have the learning content available. Many of the big OERs have
explicit learning aims or an intended level They are institutionally generated
and have some characteristics:
Usually high quality (quality control)
Explanation of planned learning (teaching aims, uniform style)
Reputation
Relatively high cost
An example of a Big OER is OpenLearn . OpenLearn provides free
educational resources (Interactives, games, video, podcasts or entire online
courses).
What is a Little OER?
"Little OER" are produced by individuals and are low cost resources. They
can be produced by anyone; they may not have teaching aims and are usually
low quality. They are distributed through online free services, such as blogs,
Slideshare, YouTube, Scribd, and so on.
Produced individually, not necessarily by educators
May not have explicit educational goals
Low cost
More adaptable
Variable quality
An example of a Little OER could be a blog or a presentation for a session or
a recorded lecture.
Core characteristics of OER:
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Types of OER’s:
Programmed Instruction:
Programmed Instruction was invented by an American psychologist
B.F.Skinner, who through laboratory research discovered certain laws of
animal behavior. He thought that these could be used for teaching and to
teaching human beings. Programmed Instruction then can be thought of as
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the application to teaching of discoveries made in the course of experimental
laboratory research.
As programming technology developed so did the range of teaching
machines and other programmed instruction materials. Programs have been
devised for the teaching of spelling, reading, arithmetic, foreign languages,
physics, psychology, and a number of other subjects. Some programs are
linear in concept, allowing advancement only in a particular order as the
correct answer is given. Others are branching, giving additional information
at the appropriate level whether a correct or incorrect answer is given
Fundamentals of Programmed Instruction:
1. Stimulus and Response.
2. Behavior and Behavior repertoire.
3. Reinforcement
4. Transfer of Stimulus control
5. Feedback
6. Confirmation
7. Prompting
8. Generalization and Discrimination
9. Gradual Progression
10. Successive approximation.
11. Diagnosis and Remediation.
12. Retrogressive chain.
13. Programmed text.
14. Learner controlled Instruction
The components of programmed instruction are:
• Behavioural objectives, clearly stated
• Small frames of instruction, carefully sequenced
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• Self-pacing instructional sections, units, modules
• Active learner response to questions
• Immediate feedback and positive reinforcement
Steps in programmed instruction design
Specify the goals of instruction: what is to be learned
Identify the 'entry skills of the learners', i.e. what is the current level
of skills of the learners
Develop a series of steps that will get the students form where they
are to where they should be Instruction is programmed in small steps,
i.e. successive approximations to the desired behavior
Provide appropriate reinforcement Development of Programmed
Instructional Material
Preparation of programmed Instruction material is a very high level
specialized work.
Its preparation can be divided in three stages.
1. Preparatory phase
2. Developmental phase
3. Testing and Evaluation phase.
Preparatory Phase
It is first stage of programmed Instruction. It consists following steps.
Selection of the topic or units that need to be programmed.
Writing information‘s related to the previous knowledge of students.
Writing objectives in Behavioral terms.
Development of Specific outlines of Content.
Construction of Criterion test.
Developmental phase: In this step original text or programme is written.
Before writing about content, make each and every enquiry of content and
keep in mind three fundamental fact of programmed Instruction.
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Designing of frames – Normally in frames there are four steps existing:
Teaching frame, Practice frame, Testing frame, Using prime and prompts to
guide student‘s responses.
Sequencing of frames and writing initial drafts.
Testing and Evaluation phase: It is the last step of programme formation.
The following activities are carried out in it:
Individual tryout.
Small group tryout.
Field tryout.
Evaluation – on the basis of data obtained, three things are evaluated.
1. Error rate of programme
2. Programme density
3. Sequence progression.
There are following characteristics of Programmed Instruction learning
material.
1. PI based learning material is Individual and only one person can learn by
it at a time.
2. PI based learning material is divided into various small steps.
3. PI material is arranged into in a series of sequential step.
4. Each step is related with another step.
5. The learner should have made active response.
6. Learner get immediate feedback in PI based material.
7. Students learn by ―Principle of self pacing‖.
8. PI material is Pre-tested and valid.
9. In PI based learning Error Rate and Fault rate is very less.
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10. In PI based learning stimulus, Response and Reinforcement are both
active.
Principles of Skinner's programmed instruction
Shaping refers ―the reinforcement of successive approximations to a goal
behavior‖. This process requires the learner to perform successive
approximations of the target behavior by changing the criterion behavior for
reinforcement to become more like the final performance. In sum, learner's
behaviors are shaped by the reinforcement of desired learning behaviors. To
begin
learners should be rewarded for each step of the learning sequence, no matter
how small.
Chaining: Skinner proposed that acquiring complex behaviors is a result of
chaining. Chaining establishes "complex behaviors made up of discrete,
simpler behaviors already known to the learner". In programmed instruction,
content is arranged in small steps, and progress from simple to complex
tasks, and require a response from the learner to proceed. Behavioral
chaining occurs when a succession of steps is learned. Learners master each
step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned.
Styles/Types of programming
There are three types of programming.
1. Linear Programming.
2. Branching Programming.
3. Mathematics.
Linear Programming: The founder of this programming is B.F. Skinner. It
is based on theory of operant conditioning. It tells that ―A certain direction
can be given to human behavior‖, for this purpose activities is needed to
divide in small parts and make their analysis.
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Linear programming is based on five fundamental principles:
1. Principles of small steps.
2. Principle of Active responding.
3. Principle of immediate confirmation.
4. Principle of self pacing.
5. Principle of student testing.
The assumption behind the linear programming is that student learns better if
content is presented in small units, student response if immediately
confirmed, results in better learning, student‘s error create hindrance in
learning.
Frame size in small steps; include only one element of topic at a time.
Each step is complete in itself. It can be taught independently and can be
measured independently. Frame structure is based on stimulus response-
reinforcement. There are four types of frames. Introductory frames, Teaching
frame, practice frames and testing frames.
Responses in linear programming are structured responses and are controlled
by programmer and not by learners. Immediate confirmation of correct
responses provide reinforcement, wrong responses are ignored.
It is used for secondary level students, used for achieving lower objectives of
learning especially for recall and recognition, useful for student of average
and below average intelligence can be used in distance education program.
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Limitations of Linear programming:
1. No freedom for student to response.
2. Based on learning theories which were formulated by experience
conducted on animals. A human being is more intelligent, than animals, he
has got an intelligent brain.
3. Every learner has to follow the same path; therefore, student may cheat
from one another.
4. Wrong responses are avoided in the program. No remedy is provided for
them.
Branching programming:
The founder of Branching programming is Norman A Crowder. It is based
on configuration theory of learning.
It is a problem solving approach. It is stimulus centered approach of learning.
It is based on three basic principles:
1. Principle of Exposition,
2. Principle of Diagnosis,
3. Principle of remediation.
Assumptions behind this programming are-
A. Student learns better if he is exposed to whole situation or content.
1. Student errors help in diagnosis.
2. Student learns better if remediation is provided side by side.
3. Student learns better in democratic environment.
Frame size is large. There may be a Para or page in the frame. Frame
structure is Exposition – Diagnosis – Remediation types. There are two types
of frames- Home page (for teaching and diagnosis) and Wrong pages (for
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remediation). Responses not rigidly structured and responses are selected by
learner and not by the programmer.
Confirmation of correct responses provides reinforcement. Wrong responses
also help in diagnosis of weaknesses of the learner.
Remedy is provided on the basis of diagnosed weaknesses of the learner.
Error helps in diagnosis of the weaknesses of learner. More than 20% error
rate can be accepted. The purpose of Branching programming is to draw out
weak points of learner and provide remedy for recovering those weaknesses.
Branching programming is used for secondary as well as higher classes.
Higher objectives of multiple discrimination can be achieved. It is useful for
students of above average and high intelligence. It can also be used in
Distance education program.
Limitations of Branching programming
1. It does not consider learning process whether learning is taking place or
not. Main emphasis is on diagnosing the weakness of learners and providing
remedy to them.
2. There is no sequencing of pages. Student finds it difficult to follow the
steps. He does not find it exciting or motivating, therefore he does not want
to go through these pages.
3. More emphasis on remediation rather than teaching. Hence, it is only a
tutorial approach.
Mathetics Programming: The founder of Mathetics is Thomas F. Gilbert.
―Mathetics is defined as a systematic application of reinforcement theory to
the analysis and construction of complex repertoires which represent the
mastery in subject matter.‖ It is based on connectivist theory of learning. It is
a reverse chaining approach. It is based on Principle of chaining,
Discrimination and Generalization.
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Mathetics programming is based on following assumptions.
1. Chaining of responses helps in learning to reach up to mastery level.
2. Reverse chaining of stimuli helps in learning, i.e. from whole to part, from
Complex to simple.
3. Completion of task provides motivation to students. Frames size is
organized in small step but in a reverse chain i.e. from complex content to its
small, simple units to attain mastery level;
Frame structure is based on Demonstration-prompts-release.
There are two types of frames –
1. Demonstration frames
2. Prescription frames
Responses are structured responses and responses determined by the
programmer. Completion of task provides reinforcement. Wrong responses
are ignored. Error helps in discrimination but not in learning. Its main
purpose is to develop mastery of the content. Main focus is on Mathematics
and grammar. It used for higher classes useful for complex and difficult task.
It is useful for developing concepts of mathematics and grammar. It can be
used in Distance Education.
Limitations of Mathetics programming:
1. Main emphasis is on mastery of the content rather than changes in
behavior of the learner.
2. Retrogressive chaining of stimuli if not effective for terminal behavior.
3. It is very difficult to develop retrogressive learning package.
In total the advantages of Programmed Instruction are given below:
Learners will work individually. Students can proceed at their own pace and
at time convenient to them. A slow learner is not embarrassed. This offers a
method of teaching project leaders and others in local communities. Those
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who setup programmed instruction units may be motivated to plan their
efforts more deliberately and more thoroughly than with traditional teaching.
It may be less complicated to keep materials in current Programmed
Instruction unit than it is to update in a textbook. Programmed Materials can
be prepared for and adapted to fit almost any local situation related to
nationality, economic or cultural variations in a community. Material can be
exchanged from country to country and from state to state, giving flexibility
and variety to extension offering.
Disadvantages of Programmed Instruction
Programmed Instruction has disadvantage too, among them are-
1. The preparation of Programmed Instruction material is time demanding,
many hours are usually required to produce a unit.
2. Motivation is necessary for students, whether they‘re staff members or
layman, to complete units of programmed instruction. It may be that job
promotion in their own organization would be sufficient enticement. Possibly
an item in the individual personnel record would motivate him to complete a
unit.
3. The extension teacher must keep in touch with their students working on
units and let them know he‘s interested in progress and keeping in touch.
This may be difficult to do in some cases, like in case of high rate of
competition.
4. The technique may be new to the particular students and they may not
complete units satisfactorily because they don‘t adequately understand
Programmed Instruction.
5. Programmed Instruction done on an individual basis at student‘s home or
offices would likely have to be limited to the linear type.
6. The problem of teacher motivation, one of the human factors in
programmed learning, must be given attention if this method is to succeed.
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Benefits of educational technology to the modern world of education:
Educational technology is taken as the integration of Internet and other types
of information technologies into learning experience. Technology has caused
a revolutionary change in the classroom and teaching methods all over the
world. This term grows along with advancements made in the field of
education. With the increased use of technology in education, the methods
and aids used for learning and teaching have drastically changed in the past
few years. Apart from this, there are many benefits of incorporating
technology into education. Some of these benefits include:
It will be interesting to see how large a virtual schools would grow over the
next few years in assess to educational technology. The major benefits of
such a system would be as below:
1. Accessibility
One way technology allows students and education to improve is through the
accessibility of instruction and courses. Online courses allow students to
have access to courses the school they attend does not offer. It also allows
students who are unable to attend school for health and other complications
to still be able to obtain an education in a convenient way.
2. Individualized Instruction
Another benefit I have notice from educational technology is its ability to
automatically adjust to student needs. Technology can allow students to
receive instruction that is individualized to their level of understanding. It
allows students to progress at their own rate and pace. It allows gifted
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students and struggling students to move at a pace that does not leave them
with feelings of frustration.
3. Reporting and Analytics
Technology-based education is also beneficial because of the analytic and
reporting abilities technology provides. Teachers do not have to spend
valuable time assessing each student and grading assignments that could
easily be assessed with the right technological tools and programs. Also,
with immediate assessments of student progress, technology-based
instruction can instantly provide students with the material that best
promotes their individual learning.
4. Popularity to distance learning.
The increased use of technology in education has brought popularity to the
concept of distance learning. It is now one of the most preferred methods of
learning and teaching all over the world. Actual classrooms have been
replaced by virtual classrooms. Online classes, which employ file transfers,
chat rooms, and message boards facilitate students interactions to maximize
their learning experiences. Another benefit of this is that students can
maintain a flexible education schedule along with their jobs.
5. Enhanced potential.
The use of technology in education today has made a huge wealth of
knowledge accessible to students. This provides them a great potential in the
speed and requisite style of learning. With the use of technology, information
can be presented in many ways thus, facilitating learning for varied types of
people. Any kind of learner, whether intelligent or disabled, can find
appropriate study materials that can be used for enhancing knowledge. The
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term technology is very broad and not only includes the use of the Internet
but includes other technological improvements such as smart boards and
handheld dictionaries.
6. Accessible to all.
In earlier times education was considered as an elitist privilege. With the
inclusion of technology, education has become accessible to the common
masses as well. The information available on the Internet can be used by all
people who know and have the necessary equipment to access it. There is no
discrimination on the basis of any factor and people of all strata have equal
rights to education.
7. Ease of teaching.
Education technologies have made teaching quite easier for the instructors.
Virtual classrooms allow an instructor to instruct and teach in any location
around the world and reach students residing in remote locations where his
physical presence is almost impossible.
8. Enjoyable experience.
The inclusion of technology in education has made the teaching-learning
process an enjoyable and beneficial experience for the instructors and the
learners.
There are so many benefits of using technology in education that this method
of having virtual classes is now preferred by people all over the world.
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