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This article was downloaded by: [Vivian W. Q. Lou]On: 07 January 2014, At: 15:30Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: MortimerHouse, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Aging & Mental HealthPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/camh20
Factorial structure and psychometric properties ofa brief version of the Reminiscence Functions Scalewith Chinese older adultsVivian W.Q. Loua & Jacky C.P. Choya
a Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Sau Po Centre on Ageing, TheUniversity of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong KongPublished online: 03 Dec 2013.
To cite this article: Vivian W.Q. Lou & Jacky C.P. Choy , Aging & Mental Health (2013): Factorial structure andpsychometric properties of a brief version of the Reminiscence Functions Scale with Chinese older adults, Aging & MentalHealth, DOI: 10.1080/13607863.2013.860423
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2013.860423
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Factorial structure and psychometric properties of a brief version of the Reminiscence
Functions Scale with Chinese older adults
Vivian W.Q. Lou* and Jacky C.P. Choy
Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Sau Po Centre on Ageing, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
(Received 1 February 2013; accepted 16 October 2013)
Objective: The current study aims to examine the factorial structure and psychometric properties of a brief version of theReminiscence Functions Scale (RFS), a 14-item assessment tool of reminiscence functions, with Chinese older adults.Method: The scale, covering four reminiscence functions (boredom reduction, bitterness revival, problem solving, andidentity) was translated from English into Chinese and administered to older adults (N ¼ 675). Confirmatory factoranalysis and hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis were conducted to examine its factorial structure, and itspsychometric properties and criterion validity were examined.Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supports a second-order model comprising one second-order factor and four first-order factors of RFS. The Cronbach’s alpha of the subscales ranged from 0.75 to 0.90.Conclusion: The brief RFS contains a second-order factorial structure. Its psychometric properties support it as a soundinstrument for measuring reminiscence functions among Chinese older adults.
Keywords: reminiscence; assessment; factorial structure; psychometric properties; Chinese older adults
Introduction
Reminiscence is the universal process of recalling one’s
past memories, which is a naturally occurring phenome-
non throughout the lifespan (Bluck & Levine, 1998;
Westerhof, Bohlmeijer, & Webster, 2010). Reminiscing
is associated with happiness (Webster, 1998; Webster &
McCall, 1999), state and trait anxiety (Cully, LaVoie, &
Gfeller, 2001), meaning in life (Cappeliez & O’Rourke,
2002), and life satisfaction and psychological distress
(Cappeliez, O’Rourke, & Chaudhury, 2005). Previous
studies have recognized that reminiscence can serve dif-
ferent functions, which are referred to as the taxonomy
of reminiscence (Coleman, 1986; Lo Gerfo, 1980; Wong
& Watt, 1991). In order to assess the functions of remi-
niscence, the English version of the Reminiscence Func-
tions Scale (RFS) was first developed in the 1990s
(Webster, 1993, 1997), and then validated in French
(Mezred, Petigenet, Fort, Blaison, & Gana, 2006) and
Portuguese (Goncalves, Guedes, Fonseca, & Martin,
2010).
Although cross-cultural studies have revealed that
Chinese and Americans demonstrate differences in mem-
ory content (i.e. relation-centered vs. self-focused auto-
biographical history; Conway, Wang, Hanyu, & Haque,
2005), we argue that the functions served by reminiscence
should be similar across different cultural contexts. Given
the large number of Chinese people worldwide, this study
aims to examine the factorial structure and psychometric
properties of the brief version of the RFS with Chinese
older adults, thereby generating a better understanding of
reminiscence functions in research and social practices
among the Chinese population.
Core components of reminiscence and its measure
Webster (1993, 1997) empirically identified eight uses of
reminiscence and, on that basis, constructed the 43-item
RFS, the most widely adopted assessment tool to date for
measuring reminiscence functions (Westerhof et al.,
2010). Robitaille and his colleagues (2010) recently con-
firmed the original eight-factor structure, yet questioned
the value of some items. Accordingly, the scale was modi-
fied by including 29 items for the eight factors. Adequate
levels of internal consistency of the subscales, ranging
from 0.76 to 0.86, supported this modified version of the
RFS. Test–retest reliability, at an 8-month interval, ranged
from 0.48 to 0.63.
Among the eight reminiscence functions identified,
four of them (boredom reduction, bitterness revival, prob-
lem solving, and identity) have demonstrated strong asso-
ciations with mental health in studies exploring the
relationship between reminiscence and psychological
well-being (Cappeliez & O’Rourke, 2006; Cully et al.,
2001; O’Rourke, Cappeliez, & Claxton, 2011; Webster,
1998). Boredom reduction refers to recalling past experi-
ences to escape from a current understimulating environ-
ment. Bitterness revival involves ruminating on previous
memories of painful life events and unjust treatments.
Problem solving means using past coping strategies to
solve current problems. Finally, identity refers to search-
ing for the meaning of life and a sense of who we are
(Webster, 1997). Cappeliez and O’Rourke (2006) devel-
oped a model explaining the relationship between the
reminiscence functions and well-being in later life (i.e.
life satisfaction, psychiatric distress, perceived health,
and health conditions). This model proposed that four
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
� 2013 Taylor & Francis
Aging & Mental Health, 2013
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functions of reminiscences impact on subjective well-
being via two possible mechanisms. One mechanism
enhances self-positive evaluation via problem solving
and identity functions, whereas the second mechanism
triggers self-negative evaluation via boredom reduction
and bitterness revival (O’Rourke et al., 2011). Moreover,
compared to other reminiscence functions, previous stud-
ies on the association of RFS subscales with mental
health have shown a more consistent relationship
between these four functions and psychological well-
being (Cappeliez & O’Rourke, 2006; Cappeliez et al.,
2005; Cully et al., 2001; Korte, Bohlmeijer, Westerhof,
& Pot, 2011; Westerhof et al., 2010; Wong & Watt,
1991). Hence, the present study focused on the brief
RFS, which comprised four reminiscence functions,
namely boredom reduction, bitterness revival, problem
solving, and identity.
However, the factorial structure and psychometric
properties of the brief RFS were subjected to re-evalua-
tion. When the RFS was initially developed, the problem
solving and identity items loaded onto the same factor in
exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Webster, 1993). How-
ever, in a replication of this original study, Webster
(1997) reported results supporting the distinction of the
two factors. Yet, in a recent study (Robitaille, Cappeliez,
Coulombe, & Webster, 2010), EFA of the RFS again
reflected that the two components loaded onto the same
factor. More empirical evidence is needed in order to the-
oretically regard problem solving and identity as distinct
notions.
The factorial structure of the brief RFS was exam-
ined using the original English version, and also vali-
dated in French and Portuguese (Goncalves et al., 2010;
Mezred et al., 2006). Importantly, previous studies have
also used a total composite score to assess the reminis-
cence functions (Cully et al., 2001). Is it possible that
reminiscence functions could be represented according
to a one-factor structure? If so, is this one-factor struc-
ture valid at the levels of direct observation and/or sec-
ond-order? Answers to these questions would not only
contribute to theories concerning reminiscence func-
tions, but also offer practical implications for clinical
interventions.
In sum, prior studies investigating the factorial struc-
ture of RFS have revealed that its factorial structure
deserves further examination. Specifically, the possibility
of a distinction between problem solving and identify fac-
tors must be examined. Therefore, the first objective of
the present study was to examine model fit by comparing
a three-factor model and a four-factor model of the brief
RFS. Moreover, considering both factor scores and total
sum scores have often been used to examine relationships
between reminiscence and psychological well-being, it is
crucial to examine the underlying structure of such an
aggregation. Therefore, we examined the one-factor
model fit at the direct observation and second-order factor
levels. Finally, psychometric properties of the brief RFS
were examined among Chinese older adults, a previously
unexplored population.
Design and methods
Participants
The participants were older adults (N ¼ 675), 60 years or
older, who either lived alone or only with their spouse in
the community. They comprised 227 men (33.6%) and
448 women (66.4%), and their ages ranged from 60 to
100 years (M ¼ 77.6, SD ¼ 7.0). With regard to the par-
ticipants’ levels of education, 42.4% had received no pre-
vious schooling, 43.7% had completed primary education,
and 13.9% had completed secondary education.
Procedure
The current study was part of a larger study examining the
psychological well-being of community-dwelling older
adults in Hong Kong. All participants were recruited from
a local district elderly community center (DECC). DECCs
are community centers operated by non-government
organizations and accountable for the Hong Kong
Special-Administrative Region Government. Located in
every district in Hong Kong, they provide comprehensive
support services to meet elders’ community needs. Their
scope of service includes health education, community
reach and networking, career support services, social and
recreational services, and case management. Each DECC
serves a similar function and accommodates a similar
population of older adults in Hong Kong.
Four reminiscence functions, namely boredom reduc-
tion, bitterness revival, problem solving, and identity,
were selected deliberately for examination in the present
study. Only the items of these functions from the modified
RFS (RFS-29; Robitaille et al., 2010) were translated into
Chinese by the principal investigator and a research assis-
tant with a psychology background. The general proposi-
tion ‘When I reminisce, it is. . .’ in the English version
was retained in each of the items in the Chinese version.
Another research assistant, who was blind to the original
English version, then translated the scale back into
English. The Chinese version was carefully assessed by
the researchers to ensure its meaning was equivalent to
the English version. During the process, we removed one
of the items from the boredom reduction subscale (i.e.
When I reminisce, it is because it fills the gap when I find
time ‘heavy on my hands’.) in order to balance the num-
bers of items of the subscales. This was consistent with
recommendations made by Robitaille et al. (2010). The
resulting brief RFS consisted of 14 items with seven items
on the self-positive functions (i.e. problem solving: four
items; identity: three items) and other seven items on the
self-negative functions (boredom reduction: four items;
bitterness revival: three items).
The questionnaire was administered verbally in Can-
tonese. Trained interviewers conducted face-to-face
interviews to collect data by using standardized question-
naires, which assessed reminiscence, depressive symp-
toms, service utilization, health status, and demographic
characteristics. Variables related to reminiscence, depres-
sive symptoms, and demographic characteristics were
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analyzed for the current study. Informed consent was
obtained from the participants before the administration
of the questionnaire.
Measures
Reminiscence functions. The brief 14-item RFS was used
to measure reminiscence functions (Robitaille et al.,
2010): boredom reduction (four items), bitterness revival
(three items), problem solving (four items), and identity
(three items). For each item, participants indicated the fre-
quency with which they used that specific function of
reminiscence, using a 6-point scale (1 ¼ never to 6 ¼ very
frequently). Scores on the bitterness revival and identity
subscales ranged from 3 to 18, whereas those on the prob-
lem solving and boredom reduction subscales ranged
from 4 to 24.
Depressive symptoms. We used the Chinese version of
the Geriatric Depression Scale – short form (GDS-15;
Lee, Chiu, & Kwong, 1994) to assess the elders’ depres-
sive symptoms. It consisted of 15 items, with each item
asking about participants’ experiences of depressive
symptoms in the week preceding the interview; higher
scores indicated higher levels of depression. The reliabil-
ity of the scale as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha was .81.
Demographic characteristics measured included gen-
der, age, and level of education.
Data analyses
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test
the factorial structure of the brief RFS. First, we com-
pared fit indices for three- and four-factor models. Next,
we tested model fit by comparing fit indices for a one-
factor model based on direct observation and for a one-
factor model based on the second-order of a four-factor
structure. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed second-order
factor structure of the brief RFS. Amos 18.0 was used to
complete the analyses, and model fit was evaluated by
examining important indices: the chi-square likelihood
ratio statistic, the comparative fit index (CFI), the good-
ness-of-fit index (GFI), the incremental fit index (IFI),
the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square
error of approximation (RMSEA), the standardized root
mean square residual (SRMR), and the expected cross-
validation index (ECVI).
We tested the psychometric properties of the Chinese
RFS by analyzing its internal consistency, reliability, cri-
terion-related validity, and descriptive statistics via SPSS
20. Regression analysis was also conducted to further
examine the relationship of the reminiscence functions
and depressive symptoms.
Results
Factor structure of the brief RFS: comparing a four-factor
solution and a three-factor solution. The fit indices from
the CFA of the tested first-order factor models are shown
in Table 1. Among the first-order factor models, a four-
factor model, with x2(71) ¼ 217.17, CFI ¼ .97, GFI ¼ .
96, IFI ¼ .97, TLI ¼ .97, RMSEA ¼ .055, SRMR ¼ .035,
and ECVI ¼ .42, demonstrated better fit than the three-
factor solution. Factor loadings from the four-factor
model ranged from .63 to .90. The four-factor model repli-
cated the expected brief RFS structure, with four factors
extracted from the original scale. Moreover, medium-
sized correlations were observed between factors
(r ¼ .42–.66; Table 2).
Factor structure of the brief RFS: comparing a first-
order solution and a second-order solution. The second-
order model, when compared to the one-factor model
based on direct observation, evidenced better model fit
Figure 1. Illustration of the proposed second-order factorial structure of the brief RFS. Notes: Bo ¼ boredom reduction; Bi ¼ bitternessrevival; PS ¼ problem solving; Id ¼ identity.
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(Table 1). Modifications in two pairs of error covariances
were made according to the observation of the modifica-
tion indices. Each pair of the items belonged to the same
factor, so that correlation of error covariance was allowed
(e.g. items 11 and 26 in boredom reduction, and items 1
and 17 in problem solving). The modified model demon-
strated a sound model fit for explaining the data, with
x2(71) ¼ 212.16, CFI ¼ .97, GFI ¼ . 96, IFI ¼ .97, TLI ¼.97, RMSEA ¼ .054, SRMR ¼ .049, ECVI ¼ .42, and
high and statistically significant factor loadings (p < .001).
The factor loadings of the items that loaded on to the first-
order factors ranged from 0.62 to 0.90, whereas the load-
ings of these factors on to the second-order factors ranged
from 0.62 to 0.94 (Table 3). As suggested by previous
research (Marsh, 1985), a hierarchical model is preferred
over a lower order model when comparable fit indices
between models are observed.
Psychometric properties of the brief Chinese version
of the RFS. Internal consistency, as indicated by
Cronbach’s alpha, ranged from .75 to .90 for the four fac-
tors (e.g. subscales) and 0.91 for the RFS. Correlations
between the four factors and depressive symptoms were
computed to examine criterion validity; the results are
listed in Table 2. Negative functions (boredom reduction
and bitterness revival) were moderately correlated with
depressive symptoms (r ¼ .33 and .35, respectively),
whereas positive functions (problem solving and identity)
demonstrated weak correlations (r ¼ .16 and .14, respec-
tively). The mean and standard deviation of the four sub-
scales and the RFS were also computed (Table 2).
Relationships of reminiscence functions with psycho-
logical well-being: multiple regressions on depressive
symptoms. Multiple regression analysis was conducted on
GDS with the four reminiscence functions as independent
variables. Results showed that negative functions
(boredom reduction and bitterness revival) contributed to
more depressive symptoms (b ¼ .24, p < .001; b ¼ .27,
p < .001). On the other hand, identity was found to be
negatively related to depressive symptoms (b ¼ �.12,
p < .05) (Table 4).
Discussion
The key objective of this study was to examine the facto-
rial structure of a brief RFS, consisting of the four sub-
scales (boredom reduction, bitterness revival, problem
solving, and identity), within a sample of older Chinese
adults. Results from a sample of 675 elders supported a
four-factor model solution. Furthermore, a second-order
model better represented the data, suggesting that the
four first-order factors loaded on to one second-order
factor.
Findings from the current study replicated the original
four-factor model (Robitaille et al., 2010; Webster, 1997),
indicating a sound cultural adaptation of the RFS scale for
the Chinese older adults. The problem solving and identity
subscales have been argued to be indistinct since their items
have loaded onto the same factor in exploratory factor anal-
yses of prior studies (Robitaille et al., 2010; Webster,
1993). Owing to this controversy, both three- and four-fac-
tor models were tested in the current study. We demon-
strated that a four-factor model was a better representation
of the data, suggesting that these two factors tended to be
distinct (as suggested by their theoretical meanings). Crite-
rion validity results were also consistent with previous
work (Cappeliez & O’Rourke, 2006). The results from
regression analysis showed that both negative functions
(boredom reduction and bitterness revival) have significant
positive association with depressive symptoms; whereas
identity demonstrates significant negative association with
depressive symptoms. This Chinese brief RFS can now be
Table 1. Summary of fit indices for the models tested.
Model Chi-square df CFI GFI IFI TLI RMSEA SRMR ECVI
Three-factor model 334.03��� 74 0.95 0.93 0.95 0.94 0.072 0.0467 0.59Four-factor model 217.17��� 71 0.97 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.055 0.0352 0.42
One-factor model based on direct observation
1760.19��� 77 0.69 0.67 0.69 0.63 0.18 0.1061 2.7
Second-order one-factor model 267.52��� 73 0.96 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.063 0.0516 0.49Second-order one-factor model with
modification212.16��� 71 0.97 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.054 0.0489 0.42
Note: ���p < .001.
Table 2. Correlation coefficients and internal consistency (N ¼ 675).
Cronbach’s alpha M (SD) 2 3 4 GDS
1. Reminiscence .91 22.9 (9.9)2. Boredom reduction .90 6.9 (3.9) .333. Bitterness revival .89 5.1 (3.0) .54 .354. Problem solving .82 6.0 (3.0) .48 .42 .165. Identity .75 4.9 (2.5) .55 .46 .66 .14
Note: All correlation coefficients were significant at the p < .001 level.
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used with confidence to study the relationships between
functions of reminiscence and psychological well-being.
Moreover, findings of the present study supported a
second-order factor model of the brief RFS, thereby
expanding the measurement and conceptualization areas
of the reminiscence literature. Responses to the brief RFS
could be explained by four first-order factors (i.e. bore-
dom reduction, bitterness revival, problem solving, and
identity) and one second-order factor (i.e. reminiscence)
underlying these four factors. Thus, these distinct four-
factor factorial constructs are related and can be explained
by one common underlying higher level factor. When
compared to a first-order model with correlated factors, a
second-order model is more parsimonious and provides
theoretically error-free estimates of both the higher-order
general factor and each specific factor (Chen, Sousa, &
West, 2005). Theoretically, these results imply that remi-
niscence can function as an aggregated function on top of
four distinct functions, a result that should be considered
when designing future intervention programs.
A few limitations of the current study should be
noted. First, a loss of the original meaning in some items
might not have been fully avoided during the translation
of the RFS from English to Chinese: there might have
still been semantic or linguistic discrepancies between
the original and the targeted language (Bontempo,
1993). Second, all participants included in the current
study were elders living alone or only with their spouses.
Third, even though the four functions of reminiscence
included in the present study was selected purposefully,
there is the possibility that other prosocial reminiscence
functions (i.e. teach/inform and conversation) are also
associated with depressive symptoms. Manifestation of
these functions and their relationship with psychological
well-being in Chinese older adults deserve further study.
Therefore, interpretations and/or generalizations from
these data must be made with caution. Studies with
larger and more diverse samples are needed to replicate
our findings.
Conclusion
The current study is the first of its kind to examine remi-
niscence functions among Chinese older adults. Our find-
ings support a four-factor model of the brief RFS with
Chinese older adults, distinguishing the problem solving
and identity functions of reminiscence. More importantly,
a second-order model comprising one second-order factor
was established, extending previous literature on the con-
ceptualization and measurement of the functions of remi-
niscence. Finally, the reliability and validity of the brief
Chinese version of the RFS were satisfactory, supporting
its future use in research and practice among Chinese
older adults.
Table 4. Multiple regression on GDS.
95% CI for b
Factor b SE b Lower Upper
Reminiscence functionsBoredom reduction 0.22 0.04 0.24��� 0.14 0.30Bitterness revival 0.32 0.05 0.27��� 0.22 0.42Problem solving 0.01 0.06 0.01 �0.10 0.12Identity �0.17 0.07 �0.12� �0.31 �0.03
R2– 0.16���
Notes: �p < .05; ���p < .001.
Table 3. Factor loadings of the second-order model of the brief RFS.
RFS item Standardized Unstandardized (SE)
Boredom reduction 0.73 0.95 (0.078)11b. To pass the time during idle or restless hours 0.89 1.33 (0.055)19. To reduce boredom 0.84 1.12 (0.046)26b. For lack of any better mental simulation 0.88 1.13 (0.047)29a. For something to do 0.78 1.00
Bitterness revival 0.64 1.04 (0.089)7. To remember an earlier time when I was treated unfairly by others 0.76 0.79 (0.032)15. To rekindle bitter memories 0.89 1.02 (0.033)23a. To keep memories of old hurts fresh in my mind 0.90 1.00
Problem solving 0.84 0.76 (0.066)1b. To remind me that I have the skills to cope with present problems 0.69 1.28 (0.087)9. To put current problems in perspective 0.79 1.21 (0.073)17b. To see how my strengths can help me solve a current problem 0.74 1.22 (0.079)25a. To avoid repeating past mistakes at some later date 0.66 1.00
Identity 0.94 1.002. Because it helps me contrast the ways I have changed with the ways
I have stayed the same0.77 1.23 (0.082)
10. Because remembering my past, helps me define who I am now 0.76 1.07 (0.072)18a. As a means of self-exploration and growth 0.62 1.00
Notes: aParameters fixed to the value of 1.00. bItem pair with their error of covariance correlated.Source of item wordings: Robitaille et al. (2010).
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Prof. Phil-ippe Cappeliez, who provided valuable comments on a priordraft of the manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by the Hong Kong Jockey Club Chari-ties Trust, CADENZA Community Project.
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