Herding and agricultural activities at the early neolithic site of Ayn Abu Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan). The results of phytolith and spherulite analyses

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Paléorient, vol. 30/2, p. 81-92 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2004 Manuscrit reçu le 5 avril 2004, accepté le 16 décembre 2004

HERDING AND AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES AT THE EARLY NEOLITHIC SITE OF AYN ABfl NUKHAYLA (WADI RUM, JORDAN).THE RESULTS OF PHYTOLITH AND SPHERULITE ANALYSES

R.M. ALBERT and D.O. HENRY

Abstract : The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan) contains large structural installations defined byrock walls (loci) that are interconnected and differ in design and construction. One of the questions that arose from their study was howto identify possible herding and agricultural activities and their spatial relationship to the architecture of the site. The combined studyof phytoliths and spherulites identified from Locus 2 and Locus 20 and of a dry lake (Qa’) located 1,3 km east of the site is presentedhere. Different uses are traced for the two loci. Locus 2 appears to have served as a residential structure accompanied by domestic activ-ities that included cereal grinding and preparation of other plant resources. In contrast, Locus 20 seems to have been used as a pen forherding animals (sheep/goat) in conjunction with other activities. The Qa’ sediments provide a well dated succession with phytolith,spherulite, pollen and diatom data.

Résumé : Le site néolithique pré-céramique B de Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan) est caractérisé par la présence de grandesstructures délimitées par des murs de pierres (loci). Tous les loci sont en relation et chacun se différencie par son plan et par sa cons-truction. Il s’agit de structures semi-enterrées. Une des questions posées pendant la réalisation des travaux archéologiques a été de tenterd’identifier leurs fonctions possibles ainsi que de trouver des vestiges d’autre nature mettant en évidence des pratiques agricoles et d’éle-vage. Ainsi, il est intéressant de mettre en relation les différentes fonctions des loci, leurs morphologies et leurs localisations dans le site.Les résultats obtenus à l’issue de l’étude conjointe des phytolithes et des sphérolithes dans deux loci (locus 2 et locus 20) sont présentés.Ces deux loci sont situés en deux endroits séparés, les blocs I et II. L’identification de sphérolithes d’origine fécale informe sur la miseen œuvre de pratiques pastorales alors que l’étude des phytolithes indique la présence de végétaux dans chaque structure et leur utilisa-tion éventuelle dans le cadre de pratiques agricoles : activité de mouture ou engrais naturels (excréments d’animaux herbivores). Unetroisième zone (Qa’), localisée à 1,3 km à l’est du site, a été étudiée pour identifier le type de végétation présent, son évolution au coursdu temps et la relation de ces restes avec les dynamiques de sédimentation. L’étude des phytolithes et des sphérolithes identifiés dans lesdeux loci a permis de reconnaître des fonctions différentes pour chacun. Le locus 2 est une structure résidentielle dans laquelle ont étémises en œuvre des activités domestiques en relation avec la mouture des céréales et la préparation d’autres ressources végétales dontle but nous échappe pour l’instant. Le locus 20 a été interprété comme une structure dans laquelle les animaux (chèvres et moutons) ontété parqués et un traitement des céréales réalisé. Les résultats obtenus de l’étude de la zone Qa’ croisés avec ceux des pollens et desdiatomées apportent des informations stratigraphiques sur la composition végétale du sol qui est dominée par les petits buissons.

Key-Words : Phytolith, Spherulites, Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, Wadi-Rum, Herding, Agricultural practices.Mots Clefs : Phytolithes, Sphérolithes, Néolithique pré-céramique B, Wadi-Rum, Elevage, Pratiques agricoles.

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82 R.M. ALBERT and D.O. HENRY

Paléorient, vol. 30/2, p. 81-92 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2004

Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla is a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)site located 3 km south of the police post at the village of Ramin Wadi Rum (Jordan). The site rests on a sediment lobeformed by an alluvial fan overlain by aeolian sands andextends over an area of ca 1 200 m2 (fig. 1)1.

The excavations carried out up to now have focused ontwo blocks (I and II), placed along a NW-SE trending transectin the western portion of the site ; totaling 151 m2. The blockscontain curvilinear structures (loci) defined by rock walls(fig. 2). Although their design and construction vary, the lociare interconnected with adjacent structures forming a honey-comb pattern. The outwardly inclined walls indicate semi-subterranean constructions. Many of the loci also displayinternal divisions represented by voids between adjoiningwalls of adjacent structures and by internal partition walls2.

Three occupational phases (earliest to latest – I, II and III)have been identified at the site. All three phases appear to datewithin a relatively brief interval of 2-3 centuries as evidencedby the radiocarbon based chronology of the site. Phase III, themajor period of settlement, is followed by a period of siteabandonment and partial deterioration.

The radiocarbon analysis of the site’s deposit indicates acommon date of 8509 ± 64 bp (uncalibrated) with an esti-mated duration of occupation of 180-260 years. The datesplace the occupation within the later part of the MiddlePPNB3. In an effort to obtain off-site paleoenvironmental evi-dence a nearby dry lake (Qa’) was sounded. Radiocarbondates from charcoal recovered from the sediments in thesounding ranged from 1475±65 to 7070±238 bp (uncali-brated) between depths of 65-238 cm. When plotted againstage and depth, the seven dates show a strong linear correlation(r = 0.988) and a rate of deposition calculated at ca 1 cm :29 years.

The artifact inventory of Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla includeschipped stone, ground stone, worked bone, and ornamentalshell. The chipped stone technology is characterized by theproduction of blades from the naviform core technique(NCT). Typologically points (>93% Amuq) and retouchedblades dominate. The relative proportions and varieties oftools, debitage, and debris indicate that chert was imported tothe site from distant (50-60 km) sources on the Ma’an Plateauand shaped on-site. About 6 % of blades also show silicapolish. In addition to the wear traces, organic residue (feath-

ers, wood phytoliths) was observed on several specimens4.The ground stone analysis5 identifies an intensive use of mill-ing stones. The worked bone is dominated by points and awls.The ornamental shell resembles in species compositions andmodifications those observed from other southern LevantinePPNB assemblages, especially those from southern Sinai6.

A previous pilot study (1999) indicated the presence ofpollen and phytoliths7. Subsequent more comprehensive anal-yses8 show the deposit within the site to be uniformly rich inpollen. Pollen from steppe or desert vegetation is most com-mon and includes xerophytic shrubs, such as saltwood(Haloxylon articulata) and/or shrub (Haloxylon persicum),and sage (Artemisia). Moist ground related to the nearbyspring and/or the seasonal ponding of the Qa’, is indicated by

1. HENRY et al., 2001, 2002 and 2003.2. Ibid.3. KUIJT and GORING-MORRIS, 2002.

4. HENRY et al., 2003.5. KADOWAKI, 2002.6. BAR-YOSEF, 1997.7. SCOTT-CUMMINGS in HENRY et al., 2003.8. EMERY-BARBIER, n.d. ; HENRY et al., 2003.

Fig. 1 : Map of the area indicating the location of Wadi AynAb_ Nukhayla.

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Herding and agricultural activities at the early neolithic site of Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan) 83


pollen from willows (Salix) and sedges (Cyperaceae). Smallquantities of Pinus and Cupressaceae pollen point to stands ofpines and junipers, perhaps nearby or at a greater distance athigh elevations on the Ma’an Plateau. Palynological analysesalso confirm the presence of Cerealia type grains9, althoughnot in great number. Furthermore, the identification of rela-tively high frequencies of stamens points to a late spring -early summer harvest period.

A 3 m long core, drilled into a small dry lake (Qa’) locatedca 1,3 km east of the site, and a sounding consisting of a 2 mx 3 m x 2,4 m deep excavation revealed three sedimentaryintervals : (1) an upper unit (0-150 cm) of alternating silt,sand and gravel lenses, (2) a middle unit (150-240 cm) of siltwith two root horizons, and (3) a lower unit (240-300 cm) offine-medium red sand inter-stratified with silty layers10. The

silt is thought to indicate the presence of standing water,whereas gravel points to higher energy flows associated withflash floods. Sand would have accumulated during drier peri-ods when the lake bed was covered by advancing dunes. Theroot zones observed in the middle unit suggest intervals ofsurface stability and increased sediment accumulation mostlikely associated with moister periods in which grasses andother annuals grew on moist soils associated with seasonallakes. Diatoms recovered from the top of the middle unit(160-165) include benthic species (Amphora sp., Denticulasubtilis, Denticula cf elegans, Encyonema minutum, andNavicula halophila) typically found in shallow, clear, slightlyalkaline, often carbonate-rich lake water11.

The inhabitants of Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla are thought to havefollowed a combination of foraging, herding, and farmingintegrated within a strategy of transhumance12. Faunalremains confirm that gazelle, ibex, fox, hare and wild ass werehunted.

Despite the fact that none of the ovicaprid elements recov-ered from the site provide diagnostic morphometric indicatorsof domesticated sheep or goats, there are other indirect indi-cators of ovicaprid herding such as the high proportion of ovi-caprids in the fauna and the presence of sheep (and perhapsgoats) in a setting well outside of their natural habitats. Addi-tionally, faecal spherulites (indicative of dung and thereforepenning) were identified in some of the sediments in a pilotstudy by Scott-Cummings13.

Agricultural practices are also based upon indirect evi-dence. Very few macrobotanical remains were recovered andof these, none came from cereals. However, the large numberand types of milling stones recovered, flint blades withmacro- and microscopic silica polish, and the results of thepollen and previous phytolith analyses suggest that cerealswere cultivated. Of the over 300 grinding stones recoveredfrom Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla, 58 % represent querns, grindingslabs, and handstones14. These elements are usually associ-ated with the milling of tough seeds and provide the evidencefor the processing of cereals15. Blades with macro- and micro-scopic evidence of silica sheen are present in substantial num-bers at the site. This suggests that cereal, most likely barley,given its tolerance for heat and drought, was not only proc-essed there, but also harvested nearby. While the cutting of

9. A Emery-Barbier, pers. comm. and n.d. ; HENRY et al., 2003.10. CORDOVA in HENRY et al., 2002, 2003.

Fig. 2 : Photograph of Wadi Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla showing the twoblocks in which the site has been divided, (a) block I ; (b) block II.

11. B Winsborough, pers. comm. ; HENRY et al., 2003.12. HENRY et al., 2003.13. Ibid.14. KADOWAKI, 2002.15. WRIGHT, 1992.

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reeds cannot be ruled out, the combined evidence of abundantmilling stones, silica polish on flint implements, and micro-botanic evidence of cereals is most consistent with the notionof cereal cultivation.

In view of the lack of direct evidence for ovicaprid herdingand agricultural practices at the site, however, we decided tocarry out a more comprehensive and exhaustive phytolith andspherulite study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-five samples were collected in total for phytolithand spherulite analyses. Two loci (Locus 2 from Block I andLocus 20 from Block II) were selected for analyses given theirwell defined living floors associated with features such asrock pavement, rock lined hearths, and large grinding querns(fig. 3a and 3b). Additionally 7 samples were collected fromthe Qa’ at different depths. It was thought that the informationobtained from the lake deposit would provide us with an off-site comparative column. Unfortunately, the lake column wassomewhat younger in age than that of the site at its maximumdepth. We now plan to extend the sounding in the Qa’ todepths equivalent in age and even earlier than that of the site.

PHYTOLITH ANALYSES

The methods used to carry out the phytolith analyses are similarto those described in a study of Tabun cave16. A weighed aliquot ofabout 1 g of air-dried sediment was treated with 10 ml of an equiv-olume solution of 3N HCl and 3N HNO3 for 30 min and then centri-fuged at 3000 rpm for 2 min. After washing the pellet with water theorganic material was oxidized with 10 ml of 30 % hydrogen perox-ide at 70o. With the acid treatment we eliminate carbonates, phos-phates and organic material that can interfere with the correctidentification and quantification of phytoliths. The sample was driedand the remaining sediment was weighed. This is referred to as theinorganic acid insoluble fraction (or AIF).

The mineral components of the AIF were then separated accord-ing to their densities in order to concentrate the phytoliths. The AIFwas transferred to a 15 ml polypropylene centrifuge tube and 5 ml ofsodium polytungstate solution [Na6(H2W12O40).H2O] of 2,4 g/mldensity was added. The suspension was thoroughly dispersed by vor-texing and sonication, and was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for5 min. The supernatant was transferred to another centrifuge tube,1,0 ml of deionized water was added and the tube was vortexed and

again centrifuged as above. This cycle was repeated until no visiblemineral particles remained in the supernatant. The heavy liquid wasthen diluted by filling the centrifuge tube with deionized water, so asto ensure that even the lightest minerals are recovered. After eachcentrifuge step the sediment deposited at the bottom of the tube (pel-let) was washed in a microcentrifuge tube, by resuspending in deion-ized water and centrifuging at 4500 rpm for 4 min.

For examination under the optical microscope, slides of the pel-lets were prepared by weighing around 1 mg of the pellet and placingit on a microscope slide. Three or 4 drops of Entellan New (Merck)were added. The samples were well mixed with the Entellan, andthen a cover slide was placed over the suspension. The areal cover-age of the sample on the slide was estimated by counting the totalnumber of fields containing sediment grains. Phytoliths in a specificnumber of randomly chosen fields were counted at 400x magnifica-tion. If possible a minimum of 200 phytoliths were counted. Albertand Weiner17 demonstrated that the counting of 194 phytoliths gives

16. ALBERT et al., 1999. 17. ALBERT and WEINER, 2001.

Fig. 3 : Photograph of the two loci studied (a) locus 2 ; (b) locus 20.

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an error margin of 23 % whereas for 265 phytoliths the error marginis 12 %.

The phytoliths identified in the archaeological samples werecompared to quantitative and morphological analyses of a phytolithreference collection of modern plants from Israel18. The terms usedto describe the phytoliths followed wherever possible the anatomicalterminology of the cell in which they were formed. When this wasnot possible, terms describing the geometrical characteristics of thephytoliths were used.

SPHERULITE ANALYSES

Faecal spherulites are calcium carbonate crystals formed in theintestines of certain animals, mainly herbivores19 and they show upin archaeological sites as a component of dung. Due to their minera-logical composition, they preserve mostly in alkaline environments.In order to avoid dissolution, samples were mounted directly on theslides as liquid mounts following Canti’s methods20. Slides wereprepared by weighing around 1 mg of air-dried sediment, and plac-ing it on a microscope slide. Three or 4 drops of Entellan New(Merck) were added. The samples were well mixed with the Entel-lan, and then a cover slide was placed over the suspension. The arealcoverage of the sample on the slide was estimated by counting thetotal number of fields containing sediment grains. Spherulites in aspecific number of randomly chosen fields were counted at 400xmagnification. Samples were compared to a spherulite reference col-lection obtained through the study of faecal remains from severalherbivores.

RESULTS

Table 1 (a, b and c) lists the samples analyzed, togetherwith their location in the site, percentages of Acid InsolubleFraction (AIF), numbers of phytoliths per 1 g of AIF andnumber of spherulites per 1 g of sediment.

The differences in percentage of AIF help for a bettercomprehension of the distribution of the different mineralog-ical components and to better understand the preservationconditions of phytoliths. All the samples showed a high per-centage presence of AIF. This means that there is an importantamount of siliceous material, including quartz, sand and clayparticles. This is especially true for Locus 2 and Locus 20where the average of the AIF is 91 % for Locus 2 and 92 forLocus 20. Samples from Qa’ also show a high percentage of

AIF although slightly lower than the archaeological samples.The average AIF for Qa’ samples is 84 %. Samples collectedfrom depths 130-135 m to 30-35 m show, in general, a lowerAIF percentage in relation to samples collected from the bot-

18. ALBERT and WEINER, 2001 ; ALBERT et al., 2000.19. CANTI, 1997 ; BROCHIER et al., 1992.20. CANTI, 1998.

Table 1a : Locus 2, location, description of samples and quantitativephytolith and spherulite analysis

Area Unit Layer % AIFN. phytoliths

1 g AIFN. spherulites

1 g of sediment

Locus 2 F06 E 91 12.000 52.000

Locus 2 G04 E 92 101.000 175.000

Locus 2 G05 F 88 160.000 61.000

Locus 2 G06 E 92 317.000 39.000

Locus 2 G07 F 93 9.000 67.000

Locus 2 H05 F 92 110.000 26.000

Locus 2 H07 F 86 45.000 43.000

Locus 2 H04 F 94 11.000 33.000

Locus 2 E05 F 96 11.000 17.000

Locus 2 I06 F 91 31.000 35.000

Table 1b : Locus 20, location, description of samples and quantita-tive phytolith and spherulite analysis

Area Unit Layer % AIFN. phytoliths


1 g of sediment

Locus 20 A26 B 91 26.000 217.000

Locus 20 A27 C 92 8.000 275.000

Locus 20 A28 C 92 23.000 190.000

Locus 20 A29 C 94 41.000 231.000

Locus 20 B27 B 88 16.000 210.000

Locus 20 B28 C 91 30.000 488.095

Locus 20 C26 C 92 12.000 206.000

Locus 20 C27 C 93 8.000 415.000

Table 1c : Qa’, location, description of samples and quantitative phy-tolith and spherulite analysis

Area Depth % AIFN. phytoliths


1 g of sediment

QA 200-210 92 14.000 27.000

QA 160-165 93 18.000 43.000

QA 130-135 81 26.000 111.000

QA 90-95 74 137.000 52.000

QA 60-65 80 61.000 94.000

QA 30-35 78 60.000 515.000

QA 0-5 91 20.000 294.000

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tom of the column (160-210 m) and sample collected at thetop of the column (0-5) (table 1c).

Phytoliths and spherulites were observed in different pro-portions in all the samples analyzed. However, the fact thatsome of the samples gave a low number of phytoliths needs tobe considered. This is important for the interpretation of theresults since the margin of error can be very high as notedabove. This was taken into account for the analysis. Most ofthe phytoliths analyzed showed some degree of dissolution ;however, in most of the cases, this dissolution was not exten-sive enough to prevent their morphological identification.Those phytoliths which were unidentifiable because of disso-lution were grouped together in the list as weathered morpho-types.

The results obtained from the phytolith and spheruliteanalyses were analyzed separately according to the three dif-ferent locations (Locus 2, Locus 20, and the Qa’) from wherethey were collected.

LOCUS 2

Ten samples from Locus 2 (fig. 3a) were selected from dif-ferent units (table 1a) and from two different layers (E and F).In relation to the phytolith number estimated per gram of AIF,samples can be separated in two different groups ; one groupwith a high number of phytoliths (samples G04-G06 and H05)and a second group with a much lower number of phytolithsper gram of AIF (table 1a). The higher concentration of phy-toliths in the different units can be viewed in relation to theprovenance of the sample in the locus in figure 4. Unit G06showed about 30 times more phytoliths than the units with alower number of phytoliths (F06, G07, H04 and E05) (table1a). No differences were observed either in number or in mor-phology of phytoliths between the two layers.

Phytoliths were then subdivided in several groups accord-ing to their morphological characteristics and the type andpart of the plants in which they were formed (fig. 5) : grassphytoliths, phytoliths produced in dicotyledonous leaves,phytoliths produced in dicotyledonous wood/bark and palmphytoliths. Grass phytoliths are the most common group iden-tified in most of the samples. Only samples from units H04,E05 and I06 do not show phytoliths from grasses (fig. 5).These samples also indicate a low number of phytoliths pergram of AIF (table 1a) and when looking at their location inthe locus it can be observed that they were collected next tothe walls and/or in independent structures (fig. 4). Grass phy-

toliths were further subdivided, according to their morphol-ogy, in two different groups (fig. 6) : phytoliths produced inthe inflorescence (fig. 7a) and phytoliths produced in theleaves and stems of the plant (fig. 7b). Phytoliths formed inthe inflorescence are more abundant in units G04, G05 andespecially in H05, whereas they are less abundant in unit G06.

Phytoliths from dicotyledonous leaves are poorly repre-sented in the samples. The most characteristic forms (SS Ph,Hairs and Hair bases) (fig. 7c)21 are only present in samplesG04, G05 and H05 and are absent in G06. On the contrary,phytoliths from wood/bark of dicotyledonous plants arepresent in higher number in G06 and in lower number in unitsG04, G05 and H05. Palm phytoliths are only present, in verylow number, in unit G04. Phytoliths characteristics of reedswere not noted in the samples.

Spherulites from dung were noted also in these samplesalthough not in large numbers (table 1a). Only unit G04showed a higher presence of spherulites. It is important topoint out the identification of calcium oxalates (polyhedron

21. BOZARTH, 1992 ; ALBERT, 2000.

Fig. 4 : Map of locus 2 showing the locations of the samples studiedand the samples with the highest phytolith concentration (plantdrawing).

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types) in unit G05 (fig. 7d) where they are present in signifi-cant numbers. Calcium oxalate crystals are produced in spe-cialized plant cells called idioblasts and they are found mainlyon the leaves of dicotyledonous trees and bushes22.

LOCUS 20

Eight samples were analyzed from Locus 20 (fig. 3b). Thesamples were selected from different units listed in table 1band from two different layers (B & C). Layer B is defined asa cobble floor, associated with hearths and a high density ofcultural residue and layer C is a single anthropogenic layer(dark ash immediately above the cobble floor), 15-20 cmthick23.

In contrast to Locus 2, all of the samples from Locus 20have relatively low numbers of phytoliths per gram of AIF(table 1b). It was not possible to count enough phytoliths fromthese samples to make a reliable morphological study.Figure 8 shows the location of the samples and the units with

higher numbers of phytoliths identified. No differences wereobserved between samples from the two different layers.

The morphological classification of the phytoliths identi-fied can be viewed in figure 9. Grasses are present over 70 %only in units A29 and B28, which are also the samples withthe highest number of phytoliths. In contrast to some of theunits from Locus 2, almost no phytoliths produced in theinflorescences of the grass family have been identified in thesamples. Unit A26 showed the highest presence (10 %) of thispart of the plant. No phytoliths from reeds were noted in anyof the samples. Dicotyledonous leaves are practically absentfrom the samples. On the contrary, wood/bark phytoliths arepresent in most of the samples in important amounts (fig. 9).

Another important difference between the two loci is theabundant presence, in all the samples from Locus 20, of faecalspherulites (table 1b) (fig. 7e-7f). Unit B28 and, to a lesserextent, unit C27 showed the largest amount of spherulites.Spherulites were morphologically uniform (rounded type).Calcium oxalate crystals were also noted in sample A26.

QA’

The results obtained from Qa’ samples indicated both thepresence of phytoliths and spherulites, although in differentproportions (table 1c) in the different samples. Figure 10shows the estimated number of phytoliths per gram of AIF inrelation to the estimated amount of spherulites per gram ofsediment. Similar to Locus 20, there were not enough phyto-liths counted for a reliable interpretation. The frequency offaecal spherulites varies considerably by depth in the section.They are scarcely represented at the bottom of the section,increasing in number at depths 130-135 m. There is a decreaseagain at depths 90 to 65 m and they are quite abundant at thetop of the section (35 to 0 m) (table 1c). Phytoliths occur inlow numbers in most of the samples. Only the sample fromdepth 90-95 cm yielded higher numbers of phytoliths.

The main morphological groups in which phytoliths fromQa’ samples were identified can be seen in figure 11. Thedominant morphological group in the samples is the one fromdicotyledonous wood/bark. Phytoliths from grasses corre-spond mainly to the stem and the leaves of these plants. Nophytoliths formed in the inflorescence were noted. Phytolithscharacteristic of reeds were not identified in the sampleseither. Few diatoms were observed from the top samples ofthis section (fig. 7f).

22. FRANCHESCHI and HORNER, 1980.23. HENRY et al., 2003.

Fig. 5 : Histogram showing the relative abundances (%) ofphytoliths from grasses, dicotyledonous leaves, dicotyledonouswood/bark and palms obtained from sediments from locus 2.

Fig. 6 : Histogram showing the relative abundances (%) ofphytoliths from the inflorescences of grasses and the leaf/stem ofgrasses from locus 2 sample.

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Fig. 7 : Photomicrographs of some phytoliths identified in Wadi Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla sediments. The photographs have been taken at 400 x. Thephytolith types are as follows : a) cylindroid echinate phytolith identified in locus 2 characteristic of the grass inflorescence ; b) cylindroidpsilate phytolith identified in locus 2 characteristic of the stem/leaf of grass plants ; c) Epidermal appendage (hair) phytolith identified in locus2, from dicotyledonous leaf plants ; d) calcium oxalate crystal from locus 20 characteristic of dicotyledonous leaf plants ; e-f) spherulitesidentified in locus 20 ; f) diatom noted in Qa’ samples ; g) short cell phytolith from grasses identified in locus 20.

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DISCUSSION

One of the main characteristics of the samples analyzedfrom Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla is the high percentage of acid insol-uble material, silicate minerals (which includes quartz, phyto-liths and clay). In other words, the samples analyzed showeda very low amount of carbonates, phosphates and organicmatter. This is especially true for the archaeological samples.Samples from Qa’ show, in general, a slightly lower amountof AIF. The AIF variations in Qa’ samples are, most probably,related to the changes in the distribution of the different min-eralogical components in the different levels. Samples fromthe bottom of the column present a higher amount of sandsand quartz which increases the AIF, whereas in the middlesamples there is a major presence of silt associated with ahigher presence of phytoliths. In any case, detailed mineralog-ical analyses (FTIR, XR diffraction) of the sediments shouldbe performed in order to obtain more information.

There are important differences in the results obtainedfrom the two loci analyzed. Locus 2 has a high amount ofplant material, indicated by the large number of phytolithsrecovered. As it was noted in figure 4, there is a concentra-tion of plant material in the center of the locus, whereas theareas next to the walls show lesser amounts. Overall spher-ulites are not abundant in Locus 2. Only in unit G04 is therea major presence of spherulites, although nowhere as high asin Locus 20. In Locus 20 the low overall amount of phyto-liths does not allow for clearly distinguishing areas with

Fig. 8 : Map of locus 20 showing the locations of the samples studiedand the samples with the highest phytolith concentration (plantdrawing).

Fig. 9 : Histogram showing the relative abundances (%) ofphytoliths from grasses, dicotyledonous leaves, dicotyledonouswood/bark and palms obtained from sediments from locus 20.

Fig. 10 : Histogram showing the relative abundances of phytolithsand spherulites in Qa’ samples.

Fig. 11 : Histogram showing the relative abundances (%) ofphytoliths from grasses, dicotyledonous leaves, and dicotyledonouswood/bark obtained from sediments from Qa’ area.

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higher concentrations of plant material. Another importantdifference is the presence of spherulites. In contrast to thephytolith evidence, faecal spherulites, which are rare in mostof the samples from Locus 2, are abundant in all of the sam-ples from Locus 20. According to Canti24 spherulites cansurvive in alkaline soils or dry conditions. Therefore the dryconditions of the soil in the area can explain the good pres-ervation of the spherulites in Locus 20 but not its scarcepresence in Locus 2. The spherulites from both loci weresimilar in morphology and size, thus suggesting that the ani-mal producers were also the same.

The amount of phytoliths present and the morphologicaltypes identified indicate that in the center and southwesternpart of Locus 2 there is a concentration of plant remains(fig. 4). This area is divided into a portion with a predomi-nance of grass phytoliths (mainly from the inflorescences)and another portion (G06) with a predominance of dicoty-ledonous plants most probably herbaceous. The percentageof grass inflorescences in G04, G05 and especially in H05(see fig. 6) suggests that these plants were introduced to thelocus as a whole during spring time, when these plantsflower. The concentration of the plants in only certain areasof the locus suggests that they were not brought in for ani-mal fodder or general construction activities, but mostlikely were introduced for milling. The grass phytolithsbelonged mostly to the festucoid subfamily (fig. 7g). Thisgrass subfamily is uncommon in the native grasses of thesteppe and desert settings of the region, but it does includecereal grasses such as barley and wheat that are native to thebetter watered Mediterranean woodlands. Another indica-tion that the grass inflorescences in Locus 2 denote theprocessing of cereals is that their area of concentration isalso associated with a cluster of milling stones includingboth querns and handstones. Unfortunately, the absence ofgrass multicellular structures in the samples did not allowfor identifying the type of grass and therefore offer directconfirmation for the use of barley in the site. Grasses areabsent from some samples that are located near the walls ofthe locus. It also is worth noting the abundant presence ofcalcium oxalate crystals (polyhedrons) in sample G05. Cal-cium oxalates are richly produced in some dicotyledonoustrees and bushes and together with silica phytoliths in G06would confirm the presence of other plant types in thelocus. Nevertheless calcium oxalate crystals are not useful

for genus identification and thus the reason for the presenceof these types of plants remains unclear.

The substantial differences in the phytoliths and spheru-lites from Locus 20, relative to those from Locus 2, suggestdifferent uses for the loci. Phytoliths are not abundant in thesamples form Locus 20, whereas spherulites are. The phyto-lith morphological analyses indicate the presence of grassesand wood/bark in different proportions depending on thesamples. In contrast, spherulites are very abundant in all thesamples. The phytolith results suggest that few plants,although varied, were brought into the locus. The low num-bers of phytoliths, their more or less homogeneous distribu-tion, and their morphological variation, coupled with theabundance of spherulites, suggest that Locus 20 most likelyserved as an animal pen or corral. Alternatively, the dungmay have been introduced to the locus for use as fuel25. How-ever, if this were the case, one might expect the distributionof spherulites to be concentrated in certain areas, specificallyin proximity of the stone lined hearth located along the west-ern edge of the locus. The few phytoliths recovered could berelated to the animals’ diet (dicotyledonous bushes), whichwere common in the area, according to the palynologicalanalyses. Here again, it is important to note that although rarefor the locus as a whole, inflorescent phytoliths of the grassfamily are concentrated in Unit A26 in association withgrinding querns, slabs, and handstones. Given the associationof inflorescences grass phytoliths and milling stones in bothloci, it seems most likely that these areas within the structureswere used for processing cereals. Modern Bedouin herders inthe region also use areas that have served as animal pens forother activities26.

The results obtained from the Qa’ represent in general avery poor vegetation, especially when compared to the phyto-lith results from the archaeological samples. Phytoliths fromwood/bark probably represent bushes, which we infer to bethe dominant vegetation. Reeds were not identified in thesamples. Spherulites are also present in the Qa’ samples ; theyare low numbered in the bottom samples, with the exceptionof sample from depth 130-135, and then they increase innumber being most abundant in the upper two samples (0-5and 30-35). The variability in spherulite density is likelyrelated either to their preservation, depending on the type ofenvironment (acid or basic) and/or the absence of these typesof remains during deposition. The latter factor contributing to

24. CANTI, 1997.25. MILLER, 1984.26. Henry, personal observation ; SIMMS and RUSSELL, 1997.

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the numbers of spherulites would represent a proxy measureof herding in the vicinity of the Qa’. The differences observedamong samples : % of AIF, number and morphology of phy-toliths and spherulites may also be related to the different dep-ositional processes.

FINAL REMARKS

The results obtained through this study have allowed for abetter understanding of the herding and agricultural activitiesbeing carried out at Ayn Ab_ Nukhayla. The significant vari-ation in the frequencies of spherulites recorded between thetwo loci adds support to the notion of herding at the site andthe use of Locus 20 as an animal pen. The proposed process-ing of cereal at the site is further evidenced by the specificspatial co-variation of milling stones and the concentrationsof the inflorescent parts of festucoid grass phytoliths in bothLocus 2 and Locus 20. Moreover, the absence of reed phyto-liths detracts from the argument that silica sheen on flintblades was derived from the cutting of reeds and not fromcereal harvesting.

Beyond evidence tied to subsistence activities, theresearch provides novel data for tracing household and com-munity-wide activity patterns. Despite questions of social andeconomic organization within Early Neolithic communities inthe Levant, such a detailed study of intra- and inter-structuralactivities has rarely been undertaken in PPNB sites. Theresearch has been able to trace different uses for the two locianalyzed (Locus 2 and Locus 20). Locus 2 appears to havebeen used exclusively as a residential structure accompaniedby domestic activities including the grinding of cereals andpreparation of other plant resources. In contrast, Locus 20most likely served as a holding pen for herd animals (sheep/goat) in conjunction with other activities, including the grind-ing of cereal.

The Qa’ sediments provide a well dated succession withphytolith, spherulite, pollen, and diatom data. Although thesounding’s maximum depth of 240 cm did not reach sedi-ments of the age of the site, the sounding did show the pres-ence of varied paleoenvironmental evidence as early as ca7500 years ago. Additionally, the radiocarbon assays from theQa’ deposit indicate that an extension of the sounding todepths of 3-4 m should furnish a unique paleo-climatic recordfor this poorly understood hyper-arid region of the Levantback to ca 9-12000 bp. Moreover, the phytolith and spherulite

data within the column should pin-point the times at whichcereal cultivation and herding were first practiced in the area.

Rosa M. ALBERTICREA (Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats)

SERP Dept de PrehistòriaHistòria Antiga i Arqueologia

Facultat de Geografia i HistòriaUniversitat de Barcelona

c/ Baldiri Reixac, s/n08028 Barcelona

[email protected]

Donald O. HENRYDepartment of Anthropology

Harwell HallUniversity of Tulsa

Tulsa, Oklahoma 74104-3126USA

[email protected]

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Documents

Herding and agricultural activities at the early neolithic site of Ayn Abu Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan). The results of phytolith and spherulite analyses