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HOMEWORK IMPLICATIONS ACROSS DIVERSE STUDENT POPULATIONS
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION
in
School Psychology
by
Melissa Hernandez
Victoria Morales
SPRING 2020
ii
© 2020
Melissa Hernandez
Victoria Morales
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
iii
HOMEWORK IMPLICATIONS ACROSS DIVERSE STUDENT POPULATIONS
A Thesis
by
Melissa Hernandez
Victoria Morales Approved by: __________________________________, Committee Chair Melissa Holland, Ph.D. __________________________________, Second Reader Stephen Brock, Ph.D. ____________________________ Date
iv
Students: Melissa Hernandez Victoria Morales
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and this thesis is suitable for electronic submission to the
library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis.
, Graduate Coordinator Geni Cowan, Ph.D. Date Department of Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
v
Abstract
of
HOMEWORK IMPLICATIONS ACROSS DIVERSE STUDENT POPULATIONS
by
Melissa Hernandez
Victoria Morales
Homework is commonly perceived as a valued and normalized educational practice.
Many parents and educators expect daily assigned homework, while neglecting to
question its effectiveness or acknowledge the stress and inequity that it may cause (Kohn,
2006). Over the last several decades, there has been an increase in the intense scholastic
demands placed on students, with amplified emphasis on achieving excellent grades,
performing well on standardized tests, and assigning students larger amounts of
homework (Kohn, 2006). Despite research suggesting there is no correlation between
homework and achievement for the elementary population, there is a dearth of research
on the social-emotional impact on elementary-aged students (Cooper, 2006). Even fewer
studies take into account the perspectives of homework’s effects on the social and
emotional health of diverse student populations. Given the rising numbers of students of
nondominant language and backgrounds attending American schools, a question that
merits deliberation is how nondominant families are impacted by homework.
Consequently, further examination of this issue is vital as a result of the present lack of
research.
vi
The present research study investigated parent, teacher, and student perspectives
regarding homework and students’ social-emotional health, with the emphasis of
understanding the perspectives of nondominant families. The perceived purposes of
homework and the beliefs surrounding the ideal amount of time students should spend on
homework were also investigated. The participants in this study were students in grades
4-6 (n = 112), their parents (n = 107), and their teachers (n = 6).
Preliminary research data suggests that (a) the impact of homework on students’
social-emotional health is inconsistent across raters, as parents generally perceive a more
positive impact relative to teachers and students; and students reported more positive
feeling when completing homework at school versus home; (b) the perceptions of
monolingual English-speaking parents and non-English-speaking or bilingual parents on
the purposes of homework are mixed, as the latter group perceive homework more
positively than their counterparts; and (c) there are similarities in the perceptions of the
actual and ideal amounts of assigned homework amongst monolingual English-speaking
parents and non-English-speaking or bilingual parents, with the exception of homework
on weekends. Limitations, implications for future research, and a sample of
recommendations for educators and families surrounding homework assistance and for
promoting social-emotional health are discussed.
____________________, Committee Chair Melissa Holland, Ph.D. _______________________ Date
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, this thesis would have been impossible without the
unconditional support, encouragement, and resolute dedication of our advisor, Dr.
Melissa L. Holland. We are immensely grateful for her guidance throughout each step of
the process, as well as her willingness to give her time so generously. We are also greatly
appreciative of the entire research team, for their continued support and contribution to
the development and analysis of the research. We would also like to thank Dr. Stephen
Brock for his invaluable insight and recommendations. Finally, we wish to thank our
respective partners, friends, and families for their unwavering love and support
throughout our journey to becoming school psychologists.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION…………… .............................................................................. 1
Statement of Collaboration ............................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem .............................................................................. 1
Purpose of the Research ................................................................................... 3
Research Questions ........................................................................................... 4
Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 4
Limitations ........................................................................................................ 5
2. LITERAURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 6
Defining Homework ......................................................................................... 6
History of Homework ....................................................................................... 7
Homework and Student Achievement ............................................................ 13
The Achievement Gap .................................................................................... 15
Perceptions of Homework .............................................................................. 17
Homework and Social-Emotional Health ....................................................... 20
Homework and Students with Diverse Needs ................................................ 22
Home-to-School Connection .......................................................................... 34
Homework Policies ......................................................................................... 37
ix
Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 39
3. METHOD ............................................................................................................. 42
Participants .................................................................................................... 42
Instruments ..................................................................................................... 42
Procedure ........................................................................................................ 44
4. RESULTS ............................................................................................................. 47
Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 47
5. DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 68
Impact of Homework on Students’ Social-Emotional Health According to
Teachers, Parents, and Students ..................................................................... 69
Parental Perceptions on the Purposes of Homework ...................................... 72
Parental Perceptions on the Amount of Time Students Spend
on Homework ................................................................................................. 74
The Ideal Amount of Time Students Should Spend Completing
Homework According to Parents ................................................................... 75
Summary ......................................................................................................... 76
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 76
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................... 78
Appendix A. Student Survey ...................................................................................... 80
Appendix B. Parent Survey (English) ....................................................................... 83
Appendix C. Parent Survey (Spanish) ....................................................................... 87
Appendix D. Parent Survey (Farsi/Dari) ................................................................... 92
x
Appendix E. Teacher Survey ...................................................................................... 95
Appendix F. Supplemental Teacher Questionnaire ................................................... 99
Appendix G. Survey Research Description ............................................................. 100
Appendix H. Teacher Instructions ........................................................................... 102
Appendix I. Parent Consent (English) ..................................................................... 103
Appendix J. Parent Consent (Spanish) .................................................................... 104
Appendix K. Parent Consent (Farsi/Dari) ............................................................... 105
Appendix L. Survey Administration Instructions to Students ................................. 106
Appendix M. Teacher Coding Sheet ....................................................................... 107
Appendix N. Parent Coding Sheet ........................................................................... 115
Appendix O. Student Coding Sheet ......................................................................... 125
References ............................................................................................................... 133
xi
LIST OF TABLES Tables Page
1. 2018-2019 California Smarter Balanced Assessment Percentage of
Students who Met or Exceeded State Standards ............................................ 16
2. 2018-2019 National Assessment of Education Progress Percentage of
Students at the Proficient Level ...................................................................... 16
3. Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Grade ...................................................... 48
4. Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Age ......................................................... 48
5. Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Gender .................................................... 49
6. Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Ethnicity Reported by Parents ............... 50
7. Descriptive Statistics for Teachers’ Years of Teaching Experience .............. 50
8. Descriptive Statistics for Teachers’ Current Grade Taught ............................ 51
9. Descriptive Statistics for Student’s Primary Language: English and
Non-English or Bilingual ................................................................................ 51
10. Descriptive Statistics for Parents’ Primary Language: English and
Non-English or Bilingual ................................................................................ 52
11. Descriptive Statistics for Parents’ Primary Language .................................... 52
12. Descriptive Statistics for Teacher and Parent Responses, “Homework has
a positive impact on my students’/child’s social and emotional health” ........ 53
13. Descriptive Statistics for Student Responses, “Homework makes me feel
good about myself” ......................................................................................... 54
xii
14. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework has a positive
impact on my child’s social and emotional health” as related to
Parents’ Primary Language ` ........................................................................... 54
15. Descriptive Statistics for Teacher Responses, “Doing their homework
after-school makes my students feel” ............................................................. 55
16. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Doing their homework
makes my child feel” ...................................................................................... 56
17. Descriptive Statistics for Student Responses, “Working on my homework
at home makes me feel…” .............................................................................. 56
18. Descriptive Statistics for Student Responses, “Starting homework while
I’m at school makes feel…” ........................................................................... 57
19. Descriptive Statistics for Student Emotions Regarding Homework
Completed at School ....................................................................................... 58
20. Descriptive Statistics for Student Emotions Regarding Homework
Completed at Home ........................................................................................ 58
21. Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Positive Emotions Regarding
Homework Completed at Home versus School .............................................. 59
22. Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Negative Emotions Regarding
Homework Completed at Home versus School .............................................. 59
23. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework helps my child
learn.” .............................................................................................................. 60
xiii
24. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework helps prepare
my child for State/National Standardized Tests” ........................................... 61
25. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “My child’s teacher uses student
performance on their homework to guide their lessons on the next day.” ..... 61
26. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework is necessary in
order to cover all the required curriculum for a school year.” ....................... 62
27. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework helps my child
build character/work ethic” ............................................................................ 62
28. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework brings us
together as a family to focus on a joint goal.” ................................................ 63
29. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses of Amount of Time Children
Spend on Homework ...................................................................................... 65
30. Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses of Ideal Amount of Time
Children Spend on Homework ....................................................................... 67
31. Suggestions for Educators and Parents ........................................................... 79
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Statement of Collaboration
The authors, Melissa Hernandez and Victoria Morales, collaborated on all aspects
of this thesis. They shared responsibilities including reviewing the literature; creating
parent, teacher, and student surveys; distributing the surveys; writing and incorporating
research; and analyzing the research.
Background of the Problem
As mental health related issues are on the rise among children and adolescents,
the topic of students’ social-emotional well-being in relation to learning is becoming
widely discussed (American Psychological Association [APA], 2014). Accordingly, there
is a need for parents and educators to develop awareness of the social and emotional
impact that increased academic demands have on students. There have been rising
demands on our youth in their academics, including an increased focus on grades,
standardized test scores, and larger amounts of assigned homework. Students who
experience school-related stress tend to develop more physical symptoms, such as
headaches, fatigue, and sleeping difficulties (Galloway et al., 2013). While high school
students have reported feeling stressed by homework, more recently, the rise of stress is
also affecting young students (Pope, 2010; Vatterott, 2018). Across the United States,
counselors and pediatricians have reported elementary school students are experiencing
stress-related symptoms related to homework (Vatterott, 2018). While there is some
2
research surrounding the effects of homework on elementary aged students, most
research to date has been conducted with middle- and high school students.
Homework has become common practice over the years. It has often been
normalized and accepted by parents, teachers, and students, yet the stress caused by
homework often goes unrecognized (Kohn, 2006). Federal educational policies, such as
the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and the Common Core State Standards Initiative,
have put greater pressure on educators to meet stringent academic standards which in turn
lead educators to assign more homework (Bennett & Kalish, 2006; Theodore et al.,
2014). As academic demands increase, so does the amount of homework with the
assumption that student achievement will increase. However, there is minimal research to
support the practice of increased and excessive homework as a means to improve
standardized test scores and grades. Formative research conducted by Cooper (1989)
suggested there is no relationship between homework and student achievement in the
elementary years, and only a slight correlation in the middle- and high school age range.
Another study replicated this research with similar findings (Cooper et al., 2006).
Although research does not support an positive correlation between achievement and
homework in the elementary years, primary age students continually receive hours of
homework to complete each week (Fairbanks et al., 2005). This added task demand
interferes with the students’ leisure activities, family time, and their opportunity to
participate in extracurricular activities (Fairbanks et al., 2005; Vatterott, 2018).
As the nation’s population continues to grow evermore diverse, educators must be
well-versed in the best practices that permit all students to reach their greatest academic
3
potential. Notably, a review of the literature surrounding homework practices, social-
emotional well-being, and student achievement reveals there is minimal research that
specifically examines the experience of diverse student populations, including: students
from varying cultures, English Language Learners, students from low-income families,
and students with disabilities. Given that the current research calls into question the
relationship between achievement and homework among the elementary student
population, it is relevant for teachers to consider if homework is potentially creating an
additional burden in the lives of their students (Cooper et al., 2002; Vatterott, 2018).
Overall, there is limited research that provides insight into the social-emotional
experience students face across varying backgrounds in relation to homework practices.
Additionally, there are gaps in the research that evaluate the effects of homework for
diverse student populations. This indicates there are a number of questions that remain to
be addressed concerning the effects of homework practices on students of diverse
backgrounds.
Purpose of the Research
The purpose of this research is to investigate and expand the research surrounding
the social-emotional well-being of elementary age youth and the effect of homework,
specifically of students from diverse populations. This includes students from diverse
linguistic, cultural, socioeconomic status, and students with disabilities. This research
investigated the effects of homework on diverse populations via results from
comprehensive questionnaires completed by teachers, parents, and students to address
their perspectives of the social-emotional effect of homework of students third to sixth
4
grade. Recommendations regarding homework, its effects, and future practices for
historically marginalized communities are included based on the research results. With
the constant changes within the United States, school systems are encouraged to become
more aware of the needs within their schools, their districts, and their community to help
support their students’ learning from varying backgrounds.
Research Questions
1. What is the perceived impact of homework on students’ social-emotional health
among parents, teachers, and students in a diverse school setting?
2. What are the perceptions of the purposes of homework according to monolingual
English-speaking parents and non-English-speaking or bilingual parents?
3. How much time are students from non-English-speaking or bilingual households
spending on homework compared to their monolingual English-speaking peers?
4. What is the ideal amount of time students should be assigned homework
according to monolingual English-speaking parents and non-English-speaking
parents?
Definition of Terms
Achievement Gap
The difference in academic performance among groups of students.
English Language Learner
An individual whose native language is other than English and is not yet
proficient in English.
5
Homework
Tasks that are assigned to be completed at home during non-school hours.
Immigrants
Individuals who identify as a naturalized citizen, lawful permanent resident,
certain legal nonimmigrants, individuals under refugee or asylee status and
individuals illegally residing within the United States.
Social-emotional Health
A student’s ability to build and maintain relationships with others, express
emotions and manage emotions.
Social Justice
Social justice refers to a concept in which equity or justice is achieved in every
aspect of society rather than in only some aspects or for some people.
Socioeconomic Status
Refers to the social class of a group or an individual that is often measured by
income and educational attainment.
Limitations
Due to the preliminary nature of this research, some limitations must be
addressed. First, the participation of the research was voluntary, and the small sample
size may limit the generalizability of the results. Second, numerous districts and schools
within the Northern California region were contacted; however, data was collected from
one public school within the Sacramento region of California. Therefore, the normative
group may not be representative of the general population.
6
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Defining Homework
Homework is a commonplace practice for most school-age children in the United
States. The term homework is often defined as assignments given to students by teachers
to be completed during non-school hours (Cooper, 1989). For many decades, homework
has been a topic surrounded by much debate and while homework has become a part of
students’ and parents’ daily lives, the role of homework often varies among academic
settings and teachers. Among teachers, some may view homework as a way to help
students develop positive study skills, generalize learning across environments, help build
time management skills and help develop a sense of responsibility (Bembenutty, 2011).
Other teachers may view homework as “busywork” or they assign the work due to parent
demand (Cooper et al., 2006; Vatterott, 2018).
While homework has generally been accepted as part of a student’s routine, over
the years homework has evolved and become more complex in nature. As the culture of
homework, family and school has changed, the role of homework has changed from
practicing spelling words or memorizing math facts to more complex assignments
(Vatterott, 2018). As homework plays a significant role in students’ everyday lives it is
important to understand how it originated and evolved into what it is today.
7
History of Homework
The importance of homework has remained a widely debated topic within society
throughout the last century. Public attitudes concerning homework practices go through
cyclical patterns in regard to the benefit and detriment experienced by students and
families (Cooper, 1989). Presently, there has been an increase in academic pressure for
students, of which homework is a component. Although homework is often perceived as
being integral to student learning, research suggests there is various adverse impact on
students’ social-emotional well-being, physical health, and familial relationships (Cooper
et al., 2006; Kohn, 2006). The trends that shaped current homework practices and views
in the United States are discussed below to examine the development of homework
ideologies and the accompanying effect on students and families.
The 19th Century
According to Gill and Schlossman (1996), the cornerstone of learning during the
nineteenth century was dominated by rote learning practices. Generally, homework was
not viewed as a problem during the 19th century, and expectations were high for students
to perform well academically. Students were required to memorize lengthy lists of
grammar rules, extensive excerpts of literature, poetry, history, geography facts, and math
facts (Gill & Schlossman, 1996). If students came to school unprepared, they faced
emotional and physical consequences in the form of ridicule and corporal punishment
(Gill & Schlossman, 2003). The high school student population was primarily assigned
homework and had expectations of completing two to three hours of work per night,
which included weekends (Reese, 1995). Home study was not as commonly assigned for
8
the middle and elementary age groups in comparison to high school students (Gill &
Schlossman, 2003). Children in grades one through four had limited homework
assignments due to irregular attendance patterns and overloaded classrooms, while
students in fifth grade and above had homework that consisted of drill, memorization,
and recitation (Gill & Schlossman, 2004). In this time period, family duties such as
completing chores, contributing financially, or other familial responsibilities heavily
influenced engagement in school. Thus, the demand of completing hours of homework
every day often meant families could not afford to have their children continue schooling
(Kralovec & Buell, 2000; Reese, 1995). Participating in schooling, including completing
homework, was a privilege for a minute portion of the American population.
The Turn of the 20th Century – 1950s
As the 19th century came to an end, the argument against homework began to
grow with the rapid awareness and rise of child health studies, parent education, and
progressive education movements (Gill & Schlossman, 1996). Support from physicians,
educators, and groups such as the Parent Teacher Alliance (PTA) stemmed from the
claim that homework impacted children’s overall well-being (Gill & Schlossman, 2003).
During this time, the main emphasis of concern was primarily for students in grades four
to eight, as homework in younger grades was still an uncommon practice. The pedagogy
of the drill, memorization, and recitation routine was now perceived as a threat to the
psychological and physiological health of students in grades eighth and below (Gill &
Schlossman, 2004). Further, researchers began to question if homework actually
contributed to academic achievement and student learning. Popular and professional
9
periodicals joined the attack on homework and influenced the opinions of parents and
educators on a national scale (Gill & Schlossman, 2004). In 1900, Edward Bok, editor of
the Ladies’ Home Journal, released an article calling for the abolition of homework for
children under the age of 15 and added that students in high school should not be
assigned more than one hour of homework per night (Vatterott, 2018). Bok was strongly
influenced by the child study movement and insisted that homework was significantly
hazardous to the mental and physical health of children. Despite the growing nationwide
criticism of home study, select parents and “school officials consistently defended
homework, denying that it harmed pupils” and upheld the belief that it was a necessary
educational tool (Gill & Schlossman, 1996, p. 31).
The progressive education movement continued through the 1940s, with
homework continuing to undergo significant critique. The progressive educational
community viewed homework as intrusive, unnecessary, and found little research
supporting the idea that homework contributed to student learning (Theodore et al.,
2014). During this period, the momentum shifted into holistically educating the whole
child, as to foster emotional and physical growth rather than solely focusing on
promoting intellectual learning. Exposure to sunshine, fresh air, exercise, and playing
outside became widely accepted as an essential component to children’s development
(Gill & Schlossman, 1996). Homework was viewed as a direct threat to health because it
prevented children from playing outside. Pediatricians identified homework as
responsible for eyestrain, stress, nervous conditions, lack of sleep, and other conditions
(Vatterott, 2018); furthermore, others viewed homework as an impeding factor to social
10
interaction with peers and time spent with family (Gill & Schlossman, 2004). Across the
nation, several school districts voted to abolish homework for some grades, or throughout
the entire district across all grades (Gill & Schlossman, 2003).
1950s – 1990s
In the 1950s, the anti-homework movement was rapidly replaced by an academic
excellence movement with the emergence of the space race with Russia. The launch of
the Sputnik 1 satellite reformed national attitudes towards homework, with too little
assigned homework viewed as a causal factor to the underperformance of schools in
America (Gill & Schlossman, 2004). Parents and school officials grew fearful that
students were unable to compete with Russian children and questioned the academic rigor
of the American educational system. The United States was losing the Cold War, and the
progressive education movement was perceived as a reason for America’s failures
(Theodore et al., 2014). The homework issue was reconceived as part of a national crisis;
a commitment to heavy homework loads became the instrument of a national defense
policy and was thought to restore economic and military supremacy (Gill & Schlossman,
2000). Through the 1950s and early 1960s, scholarly and popular educational periodicals
reflected this political shift, with favorable positions published declaring homework
improved academic achievement (Gill & Schlossman, 2004). During this period, the
practice of drilling information was reformed; when used appropriately and not
excessively, the National Education Association noted it could serve a valuable
educational purpose (Gill & Schlossman, 2004).
11
Beliefs surrounding the efficacy of excessive homework transformed once again
with a changing political tide in the late 1960s through the late 1970s. The Vietnam War
and civil rights movement redirected focus from what types of homework improved
academic achievement to concerns regarding behavior, truancy, motivation, compliance,
and social and personal freedom (Theodore et al., 2014). The anti-homework criticisms
discussed during the progressive education movement were echoed once again, with
homework viewed as a symptom of the immense pressure on students to achieve
(Vatterott, 2018). Some parents called for a reduction in homework, arguing that their
children should be able to play and rest during the evenings (Bennet & Kalish, 2006).
The National Education Association issued a statement endorsing a limitation on
homework, specifically outlining the following guidelines: children in the early
elementary years to not be assigned homework, upper elementary and middle school
students to be assigned up to an hour or less of homework per day, only assigning
homework four nights a week, and assigning students in secondary school no more than
an hour and a half of work per night (Wildman, 1968). This opposition of excessive
homework was mirrored by the American Educational Research Association,
highlighting that the basic needs of children and adolescents are seized when homework
obstructs sleep, socialization, time devoted to creative activities, and outdoor recreation
(Wildman, 1968).
The 1983 study, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform,
published by President Reagan’s administration, swung the pendulum of the homework
debate yet again, serving as the catalyst for the reemergence of the academic excellence
12
movement (Cooper, 1989; Gill & Schlossman, 2003). The report suggested there was a
surge of mediocrity in schools and called for longer school days, more testing, and an
increase in homework to maintain a global competitive workforce (National Commission
on Excellence in Education, 1983). The report implied that the inadequacies of the
educational system and students were responsible for the nation’s economic success or
lack thereof (Kralovec & Buell, 2000). Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, homework was
regarded as an indispensable vehicle to increase educational standards, promote
American’s international competition, build character, and improve the nation’s social
economic status (Gill & Schlossman, 2003; Theodore et al., 2014). A push for an increase
in homework was observed for all grade levels as a means to raise America’s academic
standards. Perhaps for the first time in history, the movement to raise academic standards
established homework as a standard component of the elementary student’s experience
(Gill & Schlossman, 2004).
2000s – The Present
In the last 20 years, there appears to be varied opinion in regard to the argument
surrounding homework. The anti-homework movement was brought back into the
spotlight by parents and researchers at the beginning of new millennium. Popular media
publications depict the narrative of overwhelmed families with parents reporting that the
increase in homework is causing unwarranted stress on their children and family
constellation (Kohn, 2006). Homework is described as an additional stressor for parents,
especially for students in two-career families with limited time and possibly fewer
resources (Vatterott, 2018). There is a substantial increase in the amount of homework
13
assigned to primary students in recent times, although the value of homework at the
elementary school level remains questionable (Cooper, 1989; Cooper 2001). However,
federal educational policies such as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and the
Common Core State Standards Initiative have pressed educators to meet rigorous
academic standards that translate into assigning more homework (Bennett & Kalish,
2006; Theodore et al., 2014). Students are experiencing an increase in academic
demands, given the intensified pressure to perform well on standardized tests.
Generally, the changing tides of the homework debate appear to be swayed when
the nation is faced with an ambiguous political future and economic hardship (Theodore
et al., 2014). The prevailing educational philosophy at a given time largely reflects
societal trends and the latest publication of research on the topic. Another overarching
theme reflected in the national discourse on homework is a limited discussion of
individual differences amongst the student population. For instance, evidence that both
support and call into question homework practices throughout the previous century
suggest little to no contemplation on the experience of students from historically
marginalized communities. Although the United States is one of the most diverse
countries in the world, the voices of students from diverse backgrounds such as those
with disabilities, different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, varied family structures, or
lower economic status is not widely addressed in the homework debate.
Homework and Student Achievement
Over many decades, there has been a continuous debate whether a correlation
exists between homework and academic achievement. One of the earliest researchers to
14
address this issue was Dr. Harris Cooper, Duke University Professor of Psychology and
Neuroscience. In a meta-analysis examining the relationship between homework and
student achievement, Cooper (1989) reviewed nearly 120 studies that addressed this
question. Within Cooper’s (1989) review, he concluded the amount of time students spent
on homework and the achievement outcome was dependent on the students’ grade level.
Results for students in elementary indicated no relationship between homework and
student achievement; however, there was a positive relationship of the amount of
homework and academic achievement for students in middle school and high school
(Cooper, 1989). While there was a positive relationship for the secondary grades, the
effect size was minimal (r = 0.25; r2 = 0.06). Cooper and colleagues replicated his
seminal work and the results were consistent with his previous research (Cooper et al.,
2006). Specifically, for middle school students, the ideal amount of time spent on
homework to have a positive effect on student achievement was one to two hours, and for
high school students a positive effect was determined when there was no greater than two
hours spent on homework (Cooper, 1989; Cooper et al., 2006).
Over the last few decades, there continues to be research surrounding whether a
relationship exists between homework and achievement. With the abundance of studies
regarding the connection of homework and achievement, there is still ambiguity between
the correlation between homework and achievement (Corno, 1996; Trautwein & Köller,
2003). The sheer amount of homework does not constitute the student’s achievement
because many students have different home environments, interests, study habits and may
respond differently to the same assignment given to the class (Corno, 1996). When
15
students are presented with too much homework at an early age, they may learn to find
these tasks aversive at a later age and therefore not complete homework tasks (Corno,
1996; Muhlenbruck et al., 1999). They may view homework as a daunting task that is
required to attain a passing grade which contributes to their overall grades; however, their
grades may not necessarily measure their achievement due to outlying factors that may be
contributing to lack of homework completion (e.g., lack of resources, parental support,
and motivation). It is important to consider the amount of homework being assigned at
early years and recognize that it may be detrimental to students’ overall learning, though
that may not be the teacher’s intentions. As Cooper (2001) suggested, “[t]he amount and
type of homework students do should depend on their developmental level and the
quality of their support at home” (p. 37).
The Achievement Gap
Achievement gaps have been present in the educational system for many decades
and while there has been progress to close the gaps, there continues to be educational
disparities related to socioeconomic status, disability, English language proficiency, and
racial and ethnic backgrounds (National Education Association [NEA], n.d.). Although
there are many groups that factor into the disparity of the achievement gap, among all
groups, English Language Learners (ELL) are the fastest growing group of students in the
public schools within the United States (NEA, 2011). The 2018-2019 California Smarter
Balanced Assessment and the 2018-2019 National Assessment of Education Progress
(NAEP) showed the performance among these groups are consistent with the NEA (n.d.)
and the ELL students continue to have the greatest educational disparities overall (see
16
Table 1 and Table 2; California Department of Education [CDE], 2019a; CDE, 2019b;
CDE, 2019c; CDE, 2019d; CDE, 2019e; CDE, 2019f; The Nation’s Report Card, 2019a;
The Nation’s Report Card, 2019b). The NAEP measures students at the 4th grade and 8th
grade. For this research, the focus remains on the disparities among elementary age
students and therefore this data reflects 4th grade students only.
Table 1
2018-2019 California Smarter Balanced Assessment Percentage of Students who Met
or Exceeded State Standards
English Language Learners
English Only
Economically Disadvantaged
Not Economically Disadvantaged
Students with
Disabilities
Students with No Reported
Disabilities
Mathematics 12.58% 44.37% 27.48% 58.88% 12.61% 43.25%
English Language Arts/Literacy
12.69% 56.22% 38.97% 69.48% 16.26% 55.40%
Table 2
2018-2019 National Assessment of Education Progress Percentage of Students at the
Proficient Level
English
Language Learners
English Only
Economically Disadvantaged
Not Economically Disadvantaged
Students with
Disabilities
Students with No Reported
Disabilities
Mathematics 16% 44% 23% 43% 14% 35%
Reading 10% 39% 21% 51% 12% 38%
Note. Economically Disadvantaged students are measured by the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) which is a federal assistance program that provides free or low-cost lunches to eligible students.
17
These statistics indicate that specific groups of students continue to fall behind
their more privileged peers across academic achievement and educators will need to
continue evaluating the proper interventions and supports that are needed to address this
area of need.
Perceptions of Homework
Among parents, teachers and students, there are mixed opinions of the nature of
homework and the perceived value. Homework has been a long tradition that educators
have practiced and accepted by schools and parents.
Teachers and Parents
The opinions of parents and teachers are mixed regarding the topic of homework.
There are teachers who assign homework simply because they do not want to be viewed
as the “easy” teacher if they do not assign any homework (Vatterott, 2018). With this
perception of how others will view them, the benefits of their homework assignments are
questionable. Other teachers believe homework is something that “they ‘have’ to assign”
due to the demand from parents, when actually they do not believe homework contributes
to their students’ learning and believe homework is a “waste of time” (Cameron & Bartel,
2009, p. 48). Teachers further believe there is an overall lack of support by parents
surrounding the teacher’s homework practices. Additionally, teachers report they do not
have adequate training on how to assign homework and they do not have enough time to
prepare effective assignments (Cooper et al., 2006). Teachers do not take courses
regarding homework, yet parents trust the education system and their children’s teacher
to justify the amount of homework being assigned to their children (Bennett & Kalish,
18
2006). Conversely, there are some teachers that believe homework is beneficial. Teachers
who are proponents of the practice often believe homework helps students develop study
habits that help them generalize learning or that helps the student foster a sense of
responsibility and develop time management skills. Furthermore, some teachers believe
homework allows parents to see what their children are learning in school and it builds
the home-to-school communication teachers strive to achieve (Bembenutty, 2011).
Parents share similar mixed opinions about the purpose of homework. Some
parents believe teachers assign too much homework and it causes unnecessary family
stress (Cameron & Bartel, 2009). A survey in Canada reported parents believe more
homework is being sent home on a daily basis than teachers believe they are sending;
there is a disconnect between the school and home communication about the amount of
homework and the amount of time spent on homework (Cameron & Bartell, 2009). Some
parents also view homework as an exhausting task that is added to their daily schedules
where they are not able to relax with their family or engage with their children as they
would prefer (Bembenutty, 2011). Instead, parents’ time after work is spent helping their
children with their homework that may take longer to complete than expected. Parents of
younger children report when their children receive a vague, lengthy, difficult homework
assignment, they often reevaluate the value of the homework for their children (Corno,
1996). Additionally, in a survey conducted by Fairbanks et al. (2005), the authors
determined over one third of the parents reported homework interfered with their family’s
daily life and more importantly, the life of the student. Parents of elementary aged
students revealed that 93% of the students had one or more after-school activities and
19
42% of these students spent two to four hours on homework, with 23% of these students
spending four to six hours on homework (Fairbanks et al., 2005). With students engaging
in extracurricular activities after school, it can be taxing for all parties to complete the
amount of homework being sent home on a daily basis. While there has been many parent
opponents of homework, some parents believe homework is essential and beneficial
simply due to tradition (Cameron & Bartell, 2009). Additionally, similar to teachers,
some parents believe homework builds responsibility, self-discipline, and has long-term
positive effects (Cooper et al., 2006). While they witness the negative effects on their
children, their perceptions of success related to homework outweigh their instincts as
parents to put an end to the abundance of homework given to their children (Bennett &
Kalish, 2006).
Students
When parents or teachers ask students what they think of homework, their
perceptions often vary. Students’ overall perceptions may be dependent on their
motivation, their developmental level, academic demands, pressure from parents, parental
involvement, and their free time. When students have access to parental support at home,
they tend to view homework more positively, report they enjoy doing homework, and
find it easy, especially in the elementary years (Bryan & Nelson, 1994). More positive
support such as parental involvement is vital in a children’s lives and can reinforce
positive aspects of learning. This can lead to student’s gaining more self-confidence in
their ability to learn and create intrinsic motivation to strive to excel. Conversely, if
parental involvement is not present, if parents pressure their students, or parents create
20
confusion surrounding homework assignments, students perceive homework more
negatively and may feel overwhelmed and frustrated (Bembenutty, 2011; Bryan &
Nelson, 1994; Cooper et al., 2006; Muhlenbruck, et al., 1999). Additionally, students may
have negative perceptions surrounding homework simply because it takes away from
their enjoyment engaging in non-academic activities when school is over (Bembenutty,
2011; Cameron & Bartel, 2009; Cooper et al., 2006; Vatterott, 2018). However, when
students have a choice of homework assignments, there was a more intrinsic motivation
component to complete their homework (Bembenutty, 2011). With choices, students feel
more competent completing their homework, there is a higher completion rate, students
receive higher grade averages on their homework and they perform better on their tests
(Bembenutty, 2011). While students may feel more confident in their skills when given
the choice of types of homework to complete, students who do not have this option tend
to feel more negatively toward their homework. It is important to take into consideration
the individual differences between students to understand their perception of homework.
Homework and Social-Emotional Health
The academic relationship between homework and achievement is often the focal
point of educators. While academic factors are important when evaluating the effects of
homework, non-academic factors such as social-emotional health are often overlooked;
however, both need to be taken into account. A quality education is an integral part of
any student’s life, but it should not come at a cost to a student’s social-emotional well-
being. While parents, teachers, and students have normalized and accepted the increasing
academic pressures and homework demands as a part of their students’ lives, some often
21
do not recognize the stress it may be causing the child (Kohn, 2006). It is important to
recognize the positive and negative effects academic demands have on students.
Some proponents of homework argue that homework can help foster skills such as
time management, responsibility, improve study habits and improve attitudes towards
school (Cooper, 2001; Galloway et al., 2013). These are important skills to build upon;
however, research has indicated these effects of homework are geared toward middle and
high school students. Additionally, more often, students in elementary through high
school are becoming stressed, overwhelmed and anxious by the amount of homework
being assigned (Galloway et al., 2013; Leung et al., 2010). Other negative effects from
the increasing academic demands are sleep deprivation, less playtime and compromised
mental health (Bennett & Kalish, 2006; Galloway et al., 2013). These consequences can
negatively impact the students’ overall ability to learn which is ironic because typically
teachers assign additional homework to increase the student’s learning capacity. While
more homework has had a slight positive effect on older students, there still remains a
time limit to which homework is beneficial (e.g., one to two hours for high school
students; Cooper, 1989; Cooper et al., 2006). When students are spending an extensive
amount of time on homework every night, such as three or more hours, negative effects
arise, such as stress, headaches, depressive symptoms, anxiety, sleeping difficulties, and
fatigue (Galloway et al., 2013). To add to the stress students are feeling, when students
are assigned homework that is complex, beyond their comprehension level, or too long,
they may become frustrated (Vatterott, 2018). Instead of completing the homework to
learn, students are completing homework for a grade. More often, high school students
22
often admit they are “doing school” to go through the motions and receive a grade, not
necessarily master the material (Pope, 2010). This frustration may lead to lack of
motivation to complete the work when it is not meaningful, which may then lead to
incomplete and/or incorrect work; the vicious cycle can lead to harmful effects on
students such as feeling helpless (Vatterott, 2018).
While high school students have reported feeling stressed by homework, more
recently, the rise of stress is also affecting young students (Pope, 2010; Vatterott, 2018).
Throughout the United States, pediatricians and counselors are reporting that elementary
age students are experiencing stress-related symptoms such as headaches and
stomachaches related to homework (Vatterott, 2018). Additionally, with mental health
issues currently on the rise in children and adolescents, parents and educators need to
become more aware of the social and emotional impact increased academic pressure has
on students (American Psychological Association [APA], 2014). Most research to date
surrounding the effects of homework has been conducted with students in middle- and
high school. While more research is being conducted regarding elementary aged
students, it still remains scarce.
Homework and Students with Diverse Needs
Educators are aware that each of their students are unique and learn differently
(Duek, 2014). Individual learning differences among the student population require
thoughtful cultivation of personalized instructional design coupled with the application of
evidence-based practices. This sentiment also pertains to an educator’s responsibility to
implement conscientious practices regarding homework. Cooper (1989) noted teachers
23
largely assign homework under the assumption that all students have the tools and
resources available to adequately accomplish the task. However, the time spent on a
given homework assignment may vary significantly from one child to the next (Abeles,
2015). Homework might be effective with one set of students but not with others for
various reasons. Student differences that shape an educator’s pedagogical delivery may
include the consideration of serving students with disabilities, those who live in low-
income households, and students with linguistic and cultural diversities. Additionally,
students may exhibit more than one of these highlighted features, indicating even more
complications for learning than their same age typical peers.
Homework and a Social Justice Framework
The disparities amongst diverse student groups such as those with disabilities,
cultural and linguistic differences, and those from lower income families are well
documented (NEA, n.d.; Pollock et al., 2012; Theodore et al., 2014); yet these inequities
are not readily and typically discussed in relation to homework practices. Given these
concerns, homework can be viewed as a social justice issue. The advocacy related
construct of social justice includes three specific ecological system qualities that promote
educational success and psychological well-being, including: 1) access to necessary and
appropriate resources, 2) experiences of being treated with respect, and, 3) treatment of
fairness (Sander et al., 2011). It is an educator’s responsibility to understand obstacles
students may face and act as an agent of social change. Therefore, an essential facet in
evaluating the effectiveness of homework practices requires the examination of the
efficacy and impact experienced by diverse students.
24
Students with Educational Disabilities
According to the National Center for Education Statistics ([NCES] 2018c), in the
2017-2018 school year, of the overall students enrolled in public-schools, 13.7% of
children, or approximately 7 million students were served by federally supported special
education programs under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The
learning and/or emotional challenges encountered by exceptional students require that
they receive specialized help to succeed and reach their full potential (Theodore et al.,
2014). The four eligibility categories of disability with the highest prevalence are as
follows: specific learning disability (33.6%), speech or language impairment (19.5%),
other health impairment (14.4%), and autism (10.2%) (NCES, 2018c). These students
with exceptionalities experience a variety of difficulties, including but not limited to;
deficits in cognitive processing abilities; challenges with academic skills; language
impairment; executive functioning deficits; adaptive skills deficits; and problems with
attention (Brock et al., 2006; Joseph, 2006; Sheridan, 2009).
Regardless of the setting in which students with disabilities are served, for
instance in an inclusive classroom or a special education setting, they are likely assigned
homework. Research suggests that students with disabilities experience far more
difficulty with homework than their peers without disabilities (Theodore et al., 2014).
Students with learning problems and attention difficulties experience significant
homework problems that adversely affect their academic achievement, increase their risk
for developing depressive and anxiety disorders, generate a negative attitude towards
learning, and create conflict between parents and their children (Bryan et al., 2001;
25
Sheridan, 2009; Theodore et al., 2014). Teachers and parents of students with disabilities
identify characteristics that interfere with the student’s ability to independently complete
homework, including; difficulty with maintaining and shifting attention; problems in self-
monitoring skills and self-management behavior; having an external locus of control;
possessing an underdeveloped ability to manage emotions; having poor organizational,
study, and planning skills; possessing an increased likelihood to procrastinate; and having
an over- reliance on support from others to learn (Bryan et al., 2001; Epstein et al., 1993;
Gajria & Salend, 1995; Theodore et al., 2014).
Overall, the empirical database is limited in relation to the investigation of
effective homework practices within the special education population that are shown to
increase academic achievement. Nevertheless, the research available suggests that when
teachers accommodate for differences in learners, rather than applying a one-size-fits-all
approach to homework, the utility of homework can increase (Carr, 2013; Lynch et al.,
2009). A literature review conducted by Cooper and Nye (1994) investigated homework
practices for students with specific learning disabilities; results suggested the emphasis of
short and simple assignments, careful homework monitoring and teacher follow-up, the
use of class time to begin assignments, and prominent rewards given by teachers
improved student success. Their study also noted, “students who fall below a minimum
competency in a skill area may not benefit from homework at all” (Cooper & Nye, 1994,
p. 478). Appropriate homework assignments are important for all students, though it
appears to be more critical for students with exceptional needs.
Students of Lower Socioeconomic Status
26
The latest data indicate that for the first time in recent history, the majority of
public-school students in the nation come from low-income families (Suitts, 2016).
According to the NCES (2018a), the percentage of students that are eligible to receive
free and reduced-price lunch in the United States is at 52%, while the estimate for public-
school students in California is at 58%. Economic diversity amongst families is viewed as
one of the greatest challenges schools and teachers must consider when seeking to
implement equitable homework policies (Vatterott, 2018). Researchers offer compelling
arguments against homework, proposing it marginalizes economically disadvantaged
students who experience inequities in their home environments that make homework
completion difficult (Bennet & Kalish, 2006; Kohn, 2006; Kralovec & Buell, 2000).
Socioeconomic status (SES) has major implications on student outcomes across
physical, behavioral, emotional, and educational domains. Multiple gaps between
students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds and higher socio-economic
households have been recognized, with four overviewed here. The health and housing
gap suggests that students from low-income households are generally in poorer health
than their counterparts. When students experience poor nutrition and diminished health
practices, it adversely impacts their educational performance and attendance (Jensen,
2013; Rothstein, 2010; Vatterott, 2018). The reading gap suggests that students from
lower SES families may not have books at home, are less likely to read at home, may not
observe their parents reading, and enter high school with average literacy skills that are
five years behind students of higher income families (Reardon et al., 2013; Rothstein,
2004). Research behind the language gap reveals that children from low-income families
27
hear 13 million words by the age of four years, whereas children from working-class
families hear 26 million words, and upper-income families hear 46 million words
(Jensen, 2013). Recently in 2014, the concept of the homework gap was brought to public
attention by the Federal Communications Commission; the term describes yet another
disadvantage low-income families face (Vatterott, 2018). It was noted that approximately
seven out of 10 teachers assign homework that requires the internet, although roughly one
in three households do not have internet access.
The homework gap extends beyond access to technology and internet. The
discrepancy in the experience of homework across social classes is indicative of
inequities in the access to quality schools, educational assistance, home resources,
parental involvement, and exposure to chronic stress (Jensen, 2013; Kralovec & Buell,
2000; Vatterott, 2018). Students from low-income families are likely to encounter more
obstacles in homework completion and learning than their peers. For these families,
homework may be perceived as a low priority in comparison to survival (Corno, 1996;
Dueck, 2014). In consideration of the disadvantages created by class differences,
Vatterott (2018) remarked “homework has the potential to exacerbate class differences
and widen the achievement gap” (p. 45).
28
Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Students
The demographics of the United States have experienced a rapid shift in
population within recent years and continues to grow evermore racially and ethnically
diverse. According to the United States Census Bureau’s national projections, the
nation’s percentage of people of color is predicted to grow to approximately 50% of the
population by 2044, and nearly one in five of the nation’s total population is projected to
be born outside of the United States. (Colby & Ortman, 2015). As a result, culturally and
linguistically diverse groups are one of the fastest growing student populations in the
nation. This includes English language learner (ELL) students who are characterized by
having limited English proficiency (Vanderwood & Socie, 2014). Over the last two
decades, the general school-age population has grown by 12%, while the ELL school-age
population has grown by 169% (Francis et al., 2006). Recent data indicates that the state
of California has the highest concentration of ELL students across the nation, with 20.2%
of public-school students identified as ELLs (NCES, 2018b).
Although the ELL population is a heterogenous group with varying linguistic,
ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds, research suggests ELL students across all grades
and content areas consistently perform below their monolingual English-speaking peers
(Francis et al., 2006). ELL students especially demonstrate difficulty in the academic
skill area of reading, given they encounter language deficits and low vocabulary levels
(Joseph, 2006). The literature highlighting the empirically driven practices that are most
effective in developing a student’s mastery of the English language emphasizes the
following strategies: utilization of explicit and systematic English language instruction in
29
the general education setting; core instruction in heterogenous language groups; use of
visual aides to make core content more comprehensible; peer-assisted learning
opportunities; and incorporation of evidence-based interventions for reading development
(Francis et al., 2006; Syrja, 2011; Vanderwood & Socie, 2014). Notably, homework was
not widely identified as a salient research-based recommendation for the provision of
English language development.
Assigning homework to ELLs is often viewed as a challenge by teachers given a
student’s varying needs, language proficiency, and environmental factors (Haynes &
Zacarian, 2010). In comparison to their monolingual English-speaking peers, homework
for ELLs often has the additional purpose for developing academic English proficiency.
An English learner’s ability to successfully complete homework assignments can be
compromised by challenges due to living in economic disadvantage as they are
overrepresented in low income groups in society and are more likely to attend high
poverty schools (Francis et al., 2006; Joseph, 2006). Additional barriers to homework
completion for an ELL student may include the unavailability of assistance at home,
having an arduous familial role such as translator or caretaker, having parents with
limited education, students having low literacy levels in their native language, limited
English proficiency, and socio-economic status factors (Francis et al., 2006; Fuligni et al.,
1999; Kralovec & Buell, 2001; Martinez, 2011; Vanderwood & Socie, 2014).
Although language nondominant parents might not always be able to assist their
child with the content of homework assignments, research suggests parents provide
support to their children through encouragement and nurturing advice (Martinez, 2011).
30
Studies have found that linguistically nondominant parents are very involved in their
children’s schooling, value education, ensure their children complete their homework,
and often provide their child with advice-giving narratives (Delgado-Gaitan, 1992;
Thelamour & Jacobs, 2014; Valencia & Black, 2002). For instance, Martinez (2011)
exemplifies the perspectives of some Latino parents, noting they often communicate with
their children that they must take advantage of the educational opportunities presented to
them in the United States as they did not have the opportunity to attend school
themselves (Martinez, 2011). While parents of ELLs may not have proficiency in the
English language, they appear to value education and find ways to become involved in
their child’s schooling (Thelamour & Jacobs, 2014).
Regarding homework and the social-emotional impact on this particular
population, ELLs most often report feeling overwhelmed, frustrated, inadequate,
exhausted or disengaged with school (Bang, 2011; Haynes & Zacarian, 2010; Martinez,
2011; Vanderwood & Socie, 2014; Xu, 2005). English language learners are typically
drained from exerting energy throughout the day to complete their schoolwork and
communicate their thoughts and needs, which could make the task of completing work at
home even more daunting and enervating. While there is considerable research studying
the attitudes of parents and teachers toward homework, far less is known about students’
attitudes towards homework (Warton, 2001). Therefore, it is likely that even less is
known about the perceptions of ELL students towards homework.
31
Refugee and Immigrant Populations
In consideration of serving culturally and linguistically diverse students, educators
should be privy of the steady increase in the refugee and immigrant population in the
United States. National statistical agencies utilize the term immigrant to include
individuals who identify as naturalized citizens, lawful permanent residents, certain legal
nonimmigrants, those admitted under refugee or asylee status, and persons illegally
residing in the United States (Migration Policy Institute, n.d.). A refugee is an individual
escaping persecution in their native country and is granted protected status before
resettling in a third country (Dettlaff & Fong, 2016); refugees are unable or unwilling to
return to their country of origin given fear of persecution due to religion, race,
nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion (Miller et al.,
2014). Recent data indicates more than 44.5 million immigrants resided in the United
States in 2017, or 13.7% of the nation’s population; in California, approximately 10.5
million immigrants, or 26.9% of California’s population, were identified as being
foreign-born (Migration Policy Institute, n.d.).
Migrant students are a diverse population, with variances in language, culture,
schooling history, parental education, social and economic support, and migration
experience (Elizalde-Utnick & Guerrero, 2014). Although there are individual differences
amongst the immigrant population, they likely share common challenges to learning such
as social, economic, second language acquisition, discrimination, and acculturation
factors (Dettlaff & Fong, 2016; Miller et al., 2014). Further, migrant children may be
exposed to stressors such as trauma from premigration, resettlement experiences,
32
separation from loved ones, or the stress of their legal status of immigration (Doran-
Myers & Davies, 2011; Elizalde-Utnick & Guerrero, 2014). Childhood adversity, chronic
stress, and trauma can obstruct cognitive functioning, memory, concentration, emotional
regulation, and social relationships (Brock et al., 2016). Specifically, refugee students are
at increased risk for developing trauma and other mental health disorders that impact
their ability to function effectively in school (Doran-Myers & Davies, 2011). Given such
difficult conditions at home, it may be impractical and unrealistic to expect children to
fare well academically, let alone complete homework, as they may manage to function
well emotionally.
While migrant students may experience some barriers to learning, several studies
suggest immigrant students possess resources and strengths that contribute to their initial
academic achievement (Nesteruk et al., 2009). The determination to succeed and work
hard have continuously been associated as major strengths for many immigrant groups
(Dettlaff & Fong, 2016). Further, among many immigrant groups, parents highly value
educational achievement, have high educational aspirations, maintain optimistic attitudes
for the future, and view education as a means for financial and personal success
(Nesteruk et al., 2009; Schaller et al., 2007). While immigrant parents may have a low
educational attainment, these parents may hold positive attitudes toward education which
can be a motivator for their children to want to achieve success (Schaller et al., 2007).
Research suggests that migrant children of various groups tend to exhibit highly adaptive
achievement-oriented behaviors; children of immigrants and refugees dedicate more time
33
to homework, often spending several hours on homework rather than engaging in
activities of leisure such as watching television (Nesteruk et al., 2009).
Presently, a number of questions pertaining to effective homework design and the
association to student achievement with the ELL and migrant student population remain
to be addressed in the literature. Homework assignments that extend beyond the skill
levels of immigrant students ultimately provide them with failed opportunities to learn,
lower academic self-efficacy, increase academic disengagement over time, and may
result in negative teacher perceptions (Bang, 2011; Schunk, 1991; Weinstein, 2002).
Bang’s (2011) study examined the homework practices of eight high school teachers
designed to serve newcomer immigrant students through the method of individual
structured interviews. Results from the study provided insight into ways homework may
be adapted to support student learning, including: adjusting the amount, providing
feedback and rewards, encouragement from teachers and parents, creating assignments at
the student’s level to allow students to promote self-efficacy, simplifying the language in
directions, use of visual aids, annotated examples, choice in tasks, providing the
opportunity to start assignments in class, referring students to after-school homework
sessions, and offering help before school or during lunch. It should be noted that the
authors cautioned the generalization of the results from this study given their limited
sample. A publication from the National Association of School Psychologists suggested
homework assignments for newcomer students should provide a nonthreatening way for
family members and students to interact or work together on fun and easily completed
projects (Miller et al., 2014). Overall, a more systematic and theoretical analysis of the
34
effectiveness of homework with this population is warranted, as well as exploration into
the first-hand experience of newcomer students.
Home-to-School Connection
Several studies suggest that a strong connection between families and school is
positively associated with student achievement and behavior, which highlights the critical
role guardians and teachers have in the success of students (Blandin, 2017; Gregory &
Weinstein, 2004; Jeynes, 2010). The home-to-school connection emphasizes the shared
responsibility between guardians and teachers; it involves communication and
collaboration amongst these two parties in the educational interest of the student
(Christenson, 2003). A meta-analysis conducted by Jeynes (2005) suggested that when
parents set expectations, communicate with their child, and read with their child, they
have a significant effect on overall student achievement. There appears to be a consensus
in the literature that reflects when schools engage families in the educational process,
benefits are experienced by all. LeBlanc-Esparza and LeBlanc-Esparza (2012) noted
when schools honor the family’s involvement in the student’s educational experience,
communicate effectively, and build positive connections with students and parents,
students’ have higher attendance rates, reduced discipline issues, and higher test scores
and grades. Just as it is important to evaluate the efficacy and types of homework
practices that promote student growth, it is essential to examine what methods of family
and school engagement are effective to the contribution of student learning.
35
Parental Involvement
One component of parental involvement is helping with homework, which is
considered to be one of the most typical ways parents contribute to their child’s schooling
(Dumont et al., 2014). However, a review of the literature suggested parental
involvement in homework is a controversial form of family engagement as it has been
found to both interfere with student achievement and enhance student outcomes (Cooper
et al., 2000; Desimone, 1999; Pomerantz et al., 2005). Research suggests certain benefits
are experienced by students when parental assistance with homework is characterized by
positive affect and emotional support, positive beliefs, autonomy support, and the
promotion of self-regulation (Gonida & Cortina, 2014; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Sui-Chu &
Willms, 1996). In contrast, negative associations with learning outcomes are reported
when parent homework help is controlling and intrusive, inconsistent with school
expectations, accompanied by negative parental emotions, developmentally
inappropriate, and confusing to the child (Blandin, 2017; Cooper et al., 2000; Desimone,
1999; Dumont et al., 2014; Ng et al., 2004; Pomerantz et al., 2005).
Overall, findings from a meta-analysis of parental involvement and homework
conducted by Patall et al. (2008) suggested “the overall effect of parent involvement in
homework was small and often not significant” on student achievement (p. 1087).
Jeynes’ (2010) meta-analysis on parental involvement and elementary school
achievement corroborated these findings, indicating parents checking student homework
did not yield statistically significant results. These findings suggest parental involvement
associated with homework may not be as effective as educators believe. Several studies
36
found the method of parental involvement that was most favorably associated with
student achievement to be a subtle aspect of family support. Several studies suggested
when parental involvement includes the expression of parental expectations for future
educational attainment and engagement in academic discussions, a strong relationship
was associated with student achievement (Chen & Gregory, 2010; Corno, 1996; Hayes,
2011; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Jeynes, 2010).
Diverse Families
Schools have a responsibility to create a welcoming atmosphere and engage all
families in having an active role in their child’s education. Although families across all
economic statuses reported increased stress and work demands that make it difficult to be
involved in their children’s education, communication with some families may be more
complex due to the factors of economic disadvantage, language, or cultural barriers
(LeBlanc-Esparza & LeBlanc-Esparza, 2012). However, regarding cultural diversity and
socioeconomic status, multiple sources indicated that a strong connection between the
home and school settings can transcend differences in culture, SES, and other factors
(Blandin, 2017; Jeynes, 2005). Further, Bryk et al. (2010) found parent involvement to be
considered as one of the key ingredients that contributes to school improvement for low-
income schools. Research suggests both parents and teachers desire more parental
involvement and communication with one another, yet parents reported uncertainty of
how to become more involved in their children’s education (Markow et al., 2007).
Strategies that can assist in increasing the home-to-school connection include the
following: fostering a welcoming environment, creating systems for two-way
37
communication, having at least one front office staff member that speaks the language
spoken by the majority of students served, signs in multiple languages, reaching out to
community leaders, creating staff procedures, and establishing a family center on campus
(LeBlanc-Esparza & LeBlanc-Esparza, 2012; Miller et al., 2014). Results from a study
conducted by Hughes and Kwok (2007), indicated elementary students and their families
gain more in achievement when they perceive supportive relationships with teachers.
Students who do not experience quality relationships with adults at school are twice as
likely to not like school which may result in adverse impacts to their academic
achievement. Often times, homework can potentially create a strain on the relationship
between teachers and students. This speaks to the need for the educational field to
dedicate resources to reach all students and families. Schools can consider promoting
culturally competent practices, providing implicit bias training, recruiting more educators
of color, and promoting culturally sensitive teaching practices to reach as many diverse
families and students as possible (Elizalde-Utnick & Guerrero, 2014; LeBlanc-Esparza &
LeBlanc-Esparza, 2012). It is essential that educators are knowledgeable of the evidenced
based practices that increase family engagement and promote academic achievement.
Homework Policies
Many researchers have advocated for homework policies to be implemented
within every school. While this is ideal, only about 35% of the districts within the United
States have a homework policy. Of these, most tend to be aimed toward secondary
schools (Bembenutty, 2011; Bennett & Kalish, 2006; Roderiquez et al., 1994). With more
awareness of how homework affects students as early as elementary-age, establishing
38
homework policies within elementary schools has become a topic of much debate.
Bringing attention to the importance of establishing homework policies that are evidence
based, developmentally appropriate and specific to the school and/or districts is vital.
Homework Policy Considerations
For many decades, researchers have discussed the ideal amount of homework
teachers should assign. While some policies suggest the optimal amount of homework
should be dependent on the “10-minute rule,” which is the student’s grade level
multiplied by 10 (e.g., 3rd students receive 30-minutes of homework; 3 x 10 = 30) (NEA,
2017; U.S. Department of Education, 2005); there is no research to support this claim.
Cooper (2001) reports that there is nearly zero correlation between homework and
achievement during the elementary school years. Researchers recommend if homework is
given, the students’ individuals needs must be considered prior to assigning homework
(Corno, 1996; Protheroe, 2009; Vatterrott, 2018). Each student responds differently to the
assignments given so teachers are encouraged to differentiate assignments, move from
grading homework to establishing checks for understanding and utilize completion
strategies (Corno, 1996; Vatterott, 2018). Lastly, students with disabilities, low
socioeconomic status, and English Language Learners are other factors that need to be
considered when homework policies are being developed. These will help to ensure
students are being supported and successful within the learning environment.
Establishing Homework Policies
While there are many different policies being utilized within the United States,
there are some guidelines researchers suggest when creating a homework policy that will
39
help with students’ learning. Many researchers suggest the quality of homework is
important, assignments should have clear objectives, should be relevant to the students,
age and grade appropriate, and meaningful (National Parent Teacher Association, 2016;
Protheroe, 2009; Vatterott, 2018). When quantity over quality of homework is being
assigned, homework may potentially have a negative impact on the family-child dynamic
as well as lead to adverse effects on the student’s academic outcomes (California State
Parent Teacher Association, 2014). When establishing homework policies, it is also
important for districts and school to “take into account the diversity of socio-economic
circumstances, languages spoken at home, educational background of parents, and other
considerations that impacts children’s successful completion of homework” (California
State Parent Teacher Association, 2014, p.1). To further help students be successful, it is
important to have parental involvement and support established within the homework
policy, specify the role and responsibilities of parents, students and educators, and ensure
the homework objectives are defined (Bembenutty, 2011; Cooper, 2001; Vatterott, 2018).
Conclusion
Homework is a practice that has become a tradition within the educational system,
and rarely is it questioned by parents and teachers alike. Historically, education was
blamed for economic hardship or dissonance within the nation, and homework was often
viewed as the solution to America’s predicaments. The historical narrative also reveals a
limited perspective within the homework debate, as the efficacy of homework and the
experiences of individuals from historically marginalized groups are not systematically
analyzed. Given the routine nature of homework assignments, it is important to
40
reevaluate the effectiveness, the type, the reasoning for assignment, and the effect
homework has on the overall well-being of students. Research has indicated there is no
correlation between homework and achievement for the elementary population (Cooper,
2006). Additionally, when there are high academic demands, parental pressure, and a lack
of parental involvement, students often perceive their work, and themselves in a negative
light. Similarly, when students do not have access to materials or support, this may also
contribute to the lack of ability or motivation to complete their homework.
The larger goal that remains to be attained within the educational system is
bridging the achievement gap and reducing disproportionality. However, as the research
indicates, presently there still remain large gaps for students from culturally diverse and
linguistic backgrounds, low socioeconomic status, and those with an educational
disability. When homework is examined in the framework of social justice, the critical
question arises as to whether educators are implementing practices that broaden the
achievement gap or promote student growth and educational equity. Data trends and
population projections indicate students today are experiencing more disadvantage than
ever before; the nation continues to grow steadily diverse which further highlights the
need for educators to implement equitable and culturally competent practices. Schools
must take into consideration the needs of all students, and cease giving excessive work
and applying a one-size-fits-all approach to learning. It is important for educators to
account for the individuality of their populations when developing homework polices and
ensure there is evidence-based guidelines to reach all students and families. While the
effectiveness of homework in relation to academic achievement is not supported within
41
the elementary population, the social-emotional and physical impact experienced by
students must be explored, especially with the diverse student population who may
experience higher stress levels and fewer advantages in comparison to their counterparts.
This review of the literature signals the need for additional studies to investigate the
perspectives of elementary students, parents, and educators, to further understand the
relationship between homework and social-emotional impact, particularly amongst
diverse populations whose voices are typically underrepresented in the research.
42
Chapter 3
METHOD
Participants
The participants in this study were students attending a Title 1 school within the
Northern California region, grades fourth through sixth (n= 112), their parents (n= 107),
and their teachers (n=6). Additional descriptive statistics of the sample are provided in
Chapter 4.
Instruments
In this research, the instruments used included student, parent, and teacher
surveys, with an additional supplemental questionnaire for the teachers. Surveys included
both closed and open-ended items regarding the perceptions of homework, including the
amount of homework assigned, purpose of homework, students’ social-emotional well-
being, and barriers to homework completion. Each of the surveys and questionnaire,
developed for the purpose of the research, are discussed below.
Student Survey
The Student survey is a 38-item questionnaire that asked questions concerning the
student’s views of homework, including how homework makes them feel (see Appendix
A). Survey items included questions such as, “Working on my homework at home makes
me feel…,” “When my homework is too hard, it is because I…,” and, “If you could
change anything about homework, what would you change?”
43
Parent Survey
The Parent Survey is a 45-item questionnaire that asked questions surrounding
students’ parents perceptions regarding their child’s homework. The surveys asked
questions such as, “Homework helps my child learn,” “When my child has a hard time
completing their homework, it is because they…,” and “On weekdays that your child has
homework, about how long does it take then to do it?” (see Appendix B). Parent surveys
were available in English, Spanish (see Appendix C), and Dari/Farsi (see Appendix D)
Parents who spoke Spanish or Dari/Farsi were provided surveys in both English and their
native language, and were given the option to complete the survey in their preferred
language.
Teacher Survey
The Teacher survey is a 37-item questionnaire that asked the students’ teacher
questions regarding their perceptions related to the purpose of assigning homework,
amount of homework assigned, the existence of a school-wide homework policy within
the school they teach, and the social-emotional impact of homework. Items on the teacher
survey included, “Doing their homework after-school makes my students feel…,” and,
“My students seem to understand the actual content of their homework” (See Appendix
E). Teachers were also given a supplemental questionnaire with six questions regarding
the teacher’s experience working with students from diverse backgrounds. The
supplemental questionnaire included items such as, “How would you describe the
positive and/or negative effects of homework on the emotional well-being of students of
44
diverse backgrounds (i.e., students with disabilities, English language learners, and
students of lower socioeconomic status)?” (See Appendix F).
Procedure
The data was collected by the researchers after the representing university
approved the application for the research study via the University Institutional Review
Board (IRB) process and school district approval was obtained for the data collection by
the lead researcher. This process included a formal application and a qualitative
description of the research (see Appendix G). Approval was obtained to conduct research
in a school district in Northern California.
Once district-level approval was obtained, the researchers contacted individual
site principals to request approval. After obtaining approval from the site principal,
teachers of grades third-sixth were asked to voluntarily participate. The school that chose
to participate benefited from this research by being provided with individualized
information and recommendations for developing a homework policy that promotes
student learning, social-emotional health, and equitable practices that meet the needs of
their student population.
When teacher participation was agreed upon, researchers obtained information
regarding their class size and the number of students’ parents/guardians requiring
paperwork in English, Spanish, and Dari/Farsi. The teacher was provided with
corresponding student and parent/guardian consent forms and surveys, as well as a
teacher survey and supplemental questionnaire. Each consent form and survey were
coded according to the number of students in the class. Upon data collection, teachers
45
were provided manila envelopes, teacher instructions (see Appendix H), a Teacher
Survey, Supplemental Teacher Questionnaire, and Parent Packets. The teacher was then
assigned a number, and all consent forms and surveys for that teacher’s classroom were
labeled with the corresponding teacher number.
Instructions provided to teachers specified the steps in which to prepare,
distribute, and gather parent/guardian consent forms and surveys. Teachers that agreed to
participate were instructed to assign each student a number according to their class roster.
Teachers were then asked to send home the Parent Packet, which included the Parent
Consent, in English (see Appendix I), Spanish (see Appendix J), or Farsi/Dari (see
Appendix K), and Parent Survey, corresponding to each student’s assigned number.
Teachers identified students that needed parent/guardian paperwork in Dari/Farsi or
Spanish; Parent Packets were provided in both English and in the parent/guardians’
native language (e.g., Farsi/Dari, Spanish). The parent consent form provided information
regarding the purpose of the research, the benefits and risks of participation,
confidentiality, and the voluntary nature of completing the survey. Parents/guardians that
agreed to participate in the research were asked to complete and return the consent form
and survey by a specified date. Then the researchers visited individual classrooms and
administered corresponding numbered surveys to students with returned parent/guardian
consent forms. Student surveys were administered in a group setting by the researchers in
a standardized format to each participating class and read aloud the instructions to the
students (Appendix L).
46
Teachers were also asked to complete the Teacher Survey and Supplemental
Teacher Questionnaire. All completed materials were then placed in the manila envelope
provided to the teacher and were returned to the researchers once data had been collected.
47
Chapter 4
RESULTS
Data Analysis
The researchers created a systematic coding system to structure the data collection
and analysis procedure. All survey items were coded with the exception of the items
within the Supplemental Teacher Questionnaire. Those survey items were analyzed
qualitatively. Coding keys were created for the teacher (see Appendix M), parent (see
Appendix N), and student (see Appendix O) surveys. The data was then entered into a
computer software system, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics for students were summarized, including grade, age, gender,
language, and ethnicity. For the students’ grade level, the mean, minimum, and maximum
were calculated. The minimum grade among students was 4, which indicates the
youngest student in the sample was in the fourth grade. The maximum grade among
students in the sample was 6, which indicates the oldest student in the sample was in
sixth grade. The mean grade among students was 5.03. The frequencies and percentages
for students’ grade levels were calculated and are presented in Table 3.
48
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Grade
Grade Frequency Percent 4 40 35.7 5 27 24.1 6 44 39.3
Missing 1 0.9 Total 112 100
The mean, minimum, and maximum were calculated for students’ age. The
minimum age among students was eight, which indicates the youngest student in the
sample was eight years old. The maximum age among students was 12, which indicates
the oldest student in the sample was 12 years old. The mean age among students was
10.66. Frequencies and percentages for students’ ages were calculated and are presented
in Table 4.
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Age
Age Frequency Percent 8 1 0.9 9 15 13.4 10 28 25 11 44 39.3 12 23 20.5
Missing 1 0.9 Total 112 100
For students’ gender, frequencies and percentages were calculated. The data were
coded according to the following: Female (1), Male (2), and Other (3). Frequencies and
percentages for students’ gender were calculated and are presented in Table 5.
49
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Gender
Gender Frequency Percent Female 59 52.7 Male 50 44.6 Other 0 0 Missing 3 2.7 Total 112 100
For students’ ethnicity, frequencies and percentages were calculated from parent
surveys. Participants wrote in their ethnicity and the researchers coded the data responses
according to the following: White (1), Black (2), Hispanic (3), Native American (4),
Asian/Pacific Islander (5), Other (6). This item allowed participants to write in their
ethnicity. Some participants indicated multiple ethnicities. The ethnicity data under
“Other” was further parceled to include the specific ethnic groups indicated by parents
(i.e., Middle Eastern, Moor, Ukranian). Frequencies and percentages for students’
ethnicity were calculated and are presented in Table 6.
50
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Ethnicity Reported by Parents
Ethnicity Frequency Percent White 31 29.0 Black 12 11.2 Hispanic 21 19.6 Native American 2 11.8 Asian/Pacific Islander 15 14.0 Middle Eastern 17 15.9 Moor 1 0.9 Ukranian 1 0.9 Other 19 7.8 Missing 20 18.7 Total 107/120* 100/100+
Note. Participants were able to write in their responses. Of the 107 participants, 20 did not write in a response and 15 wrote in more than one ethnicity.
Teachers provided information regarding their years of teaching experience and
grades taught. All the teachers included within the sample were general education
teachers. Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 7 and Table 8.
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics for Teachers’ Years of Teaching Experience
Years of Teaching Frequency Percent 0 to 2 years 0 0 3 to 5 years 2 33.3 6 to 7 years 4 66.7 Total 6 100
51
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics for Teachers’ Current Grade Taught
Grade Level Frequency Percent Fourth Grade 2 33.3 Fifth Grade 1 16.7 Sixth Grade 3 50.0 Total 6 100
For student primary language, frequencies and percentages were calculated from
parent surveys. The student surveys did not include a question regarding primary
language. The primary language responses were diverse and due to the small sample size
of each language reported, the examiners categorized the responses as monolingual
English and Non-English or Bilingual. The student data is displayed in Table 9 and the
parent data is displayed in Table 10.
Table 9
Descriptive Statistics for Student’s Primary Language: English and Non-English or
Bilingual
Language Frequency Percent English 52 48.6 Non-English or Bilingual 51 47.7 Missing 5 3.7 Total 107 100
52
Table 10
Descriptive Statistics for Parents’ Primary Language: English and Non-English or
Bilingual
Language Frequency Percent English 45 42.1 Non-English or Bilingual 53 49.5 Missing 9 8.4 Total 107 100
For parent primary language, frequencies and percentages were calculated from
parent surveys. The language data were coded according to the following coding: English
(1), Spanish (2), and Other (3). Upon further evaluation, parents indicated they spoke
multiple languages within the home. The parent languages reported are displayed in
Table 11. Participants were allowed to write in their response; therefore, several
participants responded with multiple languages.
Table 11
Descriptive Statistics for Parents’ Primary Language
Language Frequency Percent English 48 44.9 Dari/Farsi 23 21.5 Spanish 9 8.4 Pashto 7 6.5 Arabic 5 4.7 Russian 2 1.9 American Sign Language 1 0.9 Amharic 1 0.9 Turkmani 1 0.9 Uzbek 1 0.9 Vietnamese 1 0.9 Missing 11 10.3 Total 107/110 100/100+
53
First Research Question Descriptive Statistics
The first research question investigated in this study was: What is the perceived
impact of homework on students’ social-emotional health among parents, teachers, and
students in a diverse school setting? This question was examined by questions from
teacher, parent and student surveys. Teachers and parents were asked whether homework
had a positive impact on their students’ or child’s social and emotional health,
respectively. Frequencies and percentages for teacher and parent responses are reported
in Table 12. Students were asked “Homework makes me feel good about myself.”
Students were able to select one response, Always, Often, Sometimes, Rarely, or Never.
Student frequencies and percentages are reported in Table 13. To further examine
whether significant differences across languages existed, the researchers created a
language variable and reanalyzed parent responses to “Homework has a positive impact
on my child’s social and emotional health.” Frequencies are reported in Table 14.
Table 12
Descriptive Statistics for Teacher and Parent Responses, “Homework has a positive
impact on my students’/child’s social and emotional health”
Responses Teacher Parent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Always 0 0 34 31.8 Often 0 0 27 25.2 Sometimes 4 66.7 21 19.6 Rarely 2 33.3 15 14.0 Never 0 0 5 4.7 Missing 0 0 5 4.7 Total 6 100 107 100
54
Table 13
Descriptive Statistics for Student Responses, “Homework makes me feel good about
myself”
Responses Frequency Percent Always 30 26.8 Often 22 19.6 Sometimes 27 24.1 Rarely 16 14.3 Never 14 12.5 Missing 3 2.7 Total 112 100
Table 14
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework has a positive impact on my
child’s social and emotional health” as Related to Parents’ Primary Language
Responses English Non-English or Bilingual
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total Always 8 18.2 23 46.9 31 Often 10 22.7 13 26.5 23 Sometimes 11 25.0 8 16.3 19 Rarely 11 25.0 4 8.2 15 Never 4 9.1 1 2.0 5 Missing -- -- -- -- 14 Total 44 100 49 100 107 Note. n = 107.
Research question one further examined the perceptions of students’ feelings
while completing their homework. Teachers, parents, and students provided responses.
Participants were allowed to select multiple responses. Teachers and students were
specifically asked about completing homework afterschool. Frequencies and percentages
for teacher responses are reported in Table 15 and student responses are reported in Table
55
17. Parents were asked in general how their children feel while completing homework.
Frequencies and percentages for parent responses are reported in Table 16. Students were
also asked about their feelings when completing their homework at school. Frequencies
and percentages are reported in Table 18.
Table 15
Descriptive Statistics for Teacher Responses, “Doing their homework after-school makes
my students feel”
Responses Frequency Percent Smart 5 83.3 Excited 4 66.7 Frustrated 4 66.7 Not Smart 4 66.7 Stressed 4 66.7 Bored 3 50.0 Confused 3 50.0 Curious 3 50.0 Happy 3 50.0 Tired 3 50.0 Sad 3 50.0 Other 4 66.7 Note. n = 6. Participants could select more than one response.
56
Table 16
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Doing their homework makes my child
feel”
Responses Frequency Percent Happy 54 50.5 Smart/Competent 41 38.3 Curious/Interested 34 31.8 Tired 31 29.0 Confused 30 28.0 Bored 27 25.2 Frustrated/Angry 27 25.2 Stressed/Anxious 21 19.6 Excited 20 18.7 Not Smart/Incompetent 13 12.1 Sad/Depressed 9 8.4 Other 8 7.5 Note. n = 107. Participants could select more than one response.
Table 17
Descriptive Statistics for Student Responses, “Working on my homework at home makes
me feel…”
Responses Frequency Percent Happy 53 47.3 Tired 51 45.5 Bored 48 42.8 Smart/Competent 34 30.4 Confused 29 25.9 Stressed/Anxious 27 24.1 Curious/Interested 24 21.4 Excited 23 20.5 Frustrated/Angry 20 17.9 Sad/Depressed 18 16.1 Not Smart/Incompetent 18 16.1 Other 7 6.3 Note. n = 112. Participants were able to select more than one response.
57
Table 18
Descriptive Statistics for Student Responses, “Starting homework while I’m at school
makes feel...”
Responses Frequency Percent Happy 77 68.8 Smart/Competent 44 39.3 Excited 36 32.1 Tired 34 30.4 Bored 29 25.9 Curious/Interested 28 25.0 Confused 22 19.6 Stressed/Anxious 18 16.1 Frustrated/Angry 12 10.7 Not Smart/Incompetent 12 10.7 Sad/Depressed 9 8.0 Other 10 8.9
The researchers further investigated the positive emotions the students felt
surrounding completing their homework at home versus school. Positive emotions were
defined by the researchers as “Curious/Interested,” “Excited,” “Happy,” and
“Smart/Competent;” while, negative emotions were defined as “Bored,” “Confused,”
“Frustrated/Angry,” “Not Smart/Competent,” “Sad/Depressed,” “Stressed/Anxious,” and
“Tired.” In order to analyze significant differences, an independent-samples t-test was
conducted. On average, students reported more positive emotions (M = 1.65) than
negative emotions (M=1.21) when asked how they felt about completing their homework
at school. A dependent samples t-test showed that these means were significantly
different, t (111) = 7.208, p > .001. A summary of results, including means, standard
deviation, and standard error of the mean are reported in Table 19.
58
Table 19
Descriptive Statistics for Student Emotions Regarding Homework Completed at School
N Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Error of the mean
Positive 112 1.65 1.26 0.12 Negative 112 1.21 1.78 0.17
An independent-samples t-test was also conducted to compare students’ positive
and negative emotions surrounding completing their homework at home. Students
reported more negative emotions (M = 1.88) about completing homework at home than
positive emotions (M = 1.20). A dependent samples t-test confirmed these means were
significantly different, t (110) = 9.706, p < .001. A summary of results, including means,
standard deviation, and standard error of the mean are reported in Table 20.
Table 20
Descriptive Statistics for Student Emotions Regarding Homework Completed at Home
N Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Error of the mean
Positive 112 1.20 1.20 0.11 Negative 111 1.88 2.04 0.19
Note. n = 112. One student participant’s response was missing in the Negative data set.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare students’ positive
emotions completing homework at home versus school. Students reported more positive
emotions surrounding completing their homework at school (M = 1.65) than at home (M=
1.20). A dependent samples t-test showed that these means are significantly different, t
(111) = 10.557, p > .001. A summary of results, including means, standard deviation, and
standard error of the mean are reported in Table 21.
59
Table 21
Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Positive Emotions Regarding Homework Completed
at Home versus School
N Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Error of the mean
School 112 1.65 1.26 0.12 Home 112 1.20 1.20 0.11
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare students’ negative
emotions completing homework at home versus school. Students reported more negative
emotions surrounding completing their homework at home (M = 1.88) than at school (M
= 1.12). A dependent samples t-test showed that these means are significantly different, t
(110) = 9.706, p > .001. A summary of results, including means, standard deviation, and
standard error of the mean are reported in Table 22.
Table 22
Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Negative Emotions Regarding Homework Completed
at Home versus School
N Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Error of the mean
School 112 1.21 1.78 0.17 Home 111 1.88 2.04 0.19
Note. n = 112. One student participant’s response was missing in the Home data set.
60
Second Research Question Descriptive Statistics
The second research question investigated in this study was: What are the
perceptions of the purposes of homework according to monolingual English-speaking
parents and non-English-speaking or bilingual parents? For this question, the researchers
looked at seven questions and separated the responses into two categories, academic
purposes and non-academic purposes. The researchers further compared responses by
parents who were monolingual English speakers and non-English-speakers or bilingual.
In regards to academic purposes, parents responded to the questions, ““Homework helps
my child learn;” “Homework helps prepare my child for State/National Standardized
Tests;” “My child’s teacher uses student performance on their homework to guide their
lessons on the next day;” and “Homework is necessary in order to cover all the required
curriculum for a school year.” Frequencies and totals of the responses are reported in
Table 23, Table 24, Table 25, and Table 26, respectively.
Table 23
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework helps my child learn.”
Responses English Non-English or Bilingual
Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Always 19 42.2 40 78.4 59 Often 11 24.4 7 13.7 18 Sometimes 13 28.9 3 5.9 16 Rarely 2 4.4 1 2.0 3 Never 0 0 0 0 0 Missing -- -- -- -- 11 Total 45 100 51 100 107
61
Table 24
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework helps prepare my child for
State/National Standardized Tests”
Responses English Non-English or Bilingual
Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Always 11 24.4 32 64.0 43 Often 14 31.1 10 20.0 24 Sometimes 14 31.1 8 16.0 22 Rarely 5 11.1 0 0 5 Never 1 2.2 0 0 1 Missing -- -- -- -- 14 Total 45 100 50 100 107
Table 25
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “My child’s teacher uses student
performance on their homework to guide their lessons on the next day.”
Responses English Non-English or Bilingual
Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Always 9 23.7 24 49.0 33 Often 13 34.2 12 24.5 25 Sometimes 12 31.6 8 16.3 20 Rarely 4 10.5 3 6.1 7 Never 0 0 2 4.1 2 Missing -- -- -- -- 20 Total 38 100 49 100 107
62
Table 26
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework is necessary in order to cover
all the required curriculum for a school year.”
Responses English Non-English or Bilingual
Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Always 21 46.7 29 58.0 50 Often 12 26.7 15 30.0 27 Sometimes 10 22.2 4 8.0 14 Rarely 2 4.4 1 2.0 3 Never 0 0 1 2.0 1 Missing -- -- -- 14 Total 45 100 50 100 107
In regard to non-academic purposes for homework, the researchers examined two
specific questions. Parents responded to the questions, “Homework helps my child build
character/work ethic” and “Homework brings us together as a family to focus on a joint
goal.” Frequencies and totals of the responses are reported in Table 27 and Table 28.
Table 27
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework helps my child build
character/work ethic”
Responses English Non-English or Bilingual
Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Always 12 30.0 28 59.6 40 Often 15 37.5 6 12.8 21 Sometimes 10 25.0 10 21.3 20 Rarely 2 5.0 3 6.4 5 Never 1 2.5 0 0 1 Missing -- -- -- -- 20 Total 40 100 47 100 107
63
Table 28
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses, “Homework brings us together as a family to
focus on a joint goal.”
Responses English Non-English or Bilingual
Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Always 5 11.1 18 36.0 23 Often 12 26.7 9 18.0 21 Sometimes 15 33.3 16 32.0 31 Rarely 7 15.6 6 12.0 13 Never 6 13.3 1 2.0 7 Missing -- -- -- -- 12 Total 45 100 50 100 107
Third Research Question Descriptive Statistics
The third research question investigated in this study was: How much time are
students from non-English-speaking or bilingual households spending on homework
compared to their monolingual English-speaking peers? The language differences among
the parents’ perceptions surrounding the purpose of homework led the researchers to
investigate whether the amount of homework between English and non-English or
bilingual speaking parents differed. The examiners looked at questions from the parent
surveys. Furthermore, when respondents reported a range of minutes, such as 40-50
minutes, the researchers took the average minutes of that response (e.g., 45 minutes).
In order to analyze significant differences between English and Non-English or
Bilingual speaking parents, a Levene’s test was conducted. The results of the Levene’s
test indicated equal variances could be assumed and results could be interpreted. An
64
independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the amount of time students spend
on homework during the weekdays as reported by monolingual English-speaking parents
and Non-English or Bilingual speaking parents. There was no significant difference
between time spent on homework reported by English-speaking parents (M = 45.72, SD =
29.52) and Non-English or Bilingual speaking parents (M = 35.06, SD = 27.24); t (82) =
1.72, p > 0.05. This means that both parent groups reported their children spent similar
amounts of time completing their homework during weekdays. A summary of results
with means, standard deviation and standard error of the mean are displayed in Table 29.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the amount of time
students spend on homework during the weekends as reported by monolingual English-
speaking parents and Non-English or Bilingual speaking parents. There was no
significant difference between time spent on homework reported by English-speaking
parents (M = 31.80, SD = 27.55) and Non-English or Bilingual speaking parents (M =
35.33, SD = 28.37); t (80) = -0.57, p > 0.05. Similar to the weekdays question, this means
both parent groups reported their children spend nearly the same amount of time working
on homework during the weekend. A summary of results with means, standard deviation
and standard error of the mean are displayed in Table 29.
65
Table 29
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses of Amount of Time Children Spend on
Homework
Language N Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Error of
the Mean Weekday Minutes English 41 45.72 29.52 4.61
Non-English or Bilingual 43 35.06 27.24 4.15 Weekend Minutes English 38 31.80 27.55 4.47
Non-English or Bilingual 44 35.33 28.37 4.28
Fourth Research Question Descriptive Statistics
The fourth research question investigated in this study was: What is the ideal
amount of time students should be assigned homework according to monolingual
English-speaking parents and non-English-speaking parents? The examiners looked at
questions from the parent surveys. Consistent with analyzing research question three, the
respondents reported a range of minutes, such as 40-50 minutes, the researchers took the
average minutes of that response (e.g., 45 minutes).
In order to analyze significant differences between English and Non-English or
Bilingual speaking parents, a Levene’s test was conducted. The results of the Levene’s
test indicated equal variances could be assumed and results could be interpreted. An
independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the ideal amount of time students
should spend on homework during the weeknights as reported by monolingual English-
speaking parents and Non-English or Bilingual speaking parents. There was no
significant difference between the ideal time students should spend on homework as
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reported by English-speaking parents (M = 39.36, SD = 22.52) and Non-English or
Bilingual speaking parents (M = 42.43, SD = 29.63); t (86) = -0.55 , p > 0.05. This means
that both parents groups had similar perceptions around the ideal amount of time their
children should be spending during the week. A summary of results with means, standard
deviation and standard error of the mean are displayed in Table 30.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the ideal amount of
time students should spend on homework during the weekend as reported by monolingual
English-speaking parents and Non-English or Bilingual speaking parents. There was a
significant difference between the ideal amount of time students should spend on
homework as reported by English-speaking parents (M = 25.00, SD = 27.80) and Non-
English or Bilingual speaking parents (M = 41.07, SD = 28.47); t (84) = -2.64 , p > 0.05.
This means that Non-English or Bilingual parents preferred their children to spend more
time on homework during weekends than monolingual English-speaking parents. A
summary of results with means, standard deviation and standard error of the mean are
displayed in Table 30. This result is consistent with teachers’ reports that Non-English or
Bilingual parents often ask for more homework to be sent home and these parents tend to
have positive reactions toward homework.
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Table 30
Descriptive Statistics for Parent Responses of Ideal Amount of Time Children Spend on
Homework
Language N Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Error of the
Mean Weeknights Minutes English 42 39.36 22.52 3.48
Non-English or Bilingual 46 42.43 29.63 4.37
Weekend Minutes English 41 25.00 27.80 4.34 Non-English or Bilingual 45 41.07 28.47 4.24
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Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this research was to examine elementary-aged student, parent, and
teacher perceptions of homework in relation to the social-emotional health of students in
a diverse school setting. The perceived purposes of homework and the beliefs
surrounding the ideal amount of time students should spend on homework were also
investigated. The emphasis of this study was to explore and understand the first-hand
perceptions of how homework impacts parents and students of linguistically nondominant
backgrounds in comparison to monolingual English-speaking families. It is thought that
this knowledge can assist educators to better comprehend the educational needs of their
students and adjust educational practices to promote positive outcomes for all students.
The objectives of this study were to answer the following questions: (a) What is the
perceived impact of homework on students’ social-emotional health among teachers,
parents, and students in a diverse school setting?; (b) What are the perceptions of the
purposes of homework according to monolingual English-speaking parents and non-
English-speaking or bilingual parents?; (c) How much time are students from non-
English-speaking or bilingual households spending on homework compared to their
monolingual English-speaking peers?; and (d) What is the ideal amount of time students
should be assigned homework according to monolingual English-speaking parents and
non-English-speaking parents?
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This chapter provides an analysis of the objectives of the study, research
questions, and a summary of the results. Additionally, limitations, implications for future
research, and recommendations for educators and parents are provided.
Impact of Homework on Students’ Social-Emotional Health According to Teachers,
Parents, and Students
According to teacher survey data, the perceived effects of homework on their
students’ social and emotional wellbeing suggest uncertainty among respondents. Of the
six teachers’ respondents, 66.7% indicated that homework sometimes has a positive
impact on their students’ social and emotional health. Conversely, 33.3% of teachers
reported that homework rarely has a positive impact on student’s social and emotional
health. Teacher data further indicated that completing homework at home generates
various feelings among students. While nearly all teachers reported positive emotions
brought upon when completing homework, “Smart” (83.3%) and “Excited” (66.7%),
there appeared to be more negative responses. Teachers reported students’ feel
“Frustrated” (66.7%), “Not Smart” (66.7%), and “Stressed” (66.7%) as a result of
completing homework. In addition, 66.7% of teachers indicated homework has “Other”
effects, specifically explaining that the feelings students experience when they complete
homework at home is dependent on the student. While no definitive conclusions can be
determined in relation to teachers’ perceptions regarding the impact of homework, it
should be noted that no teachers indicated that homework Always or Often positively
impacts students’ social and emotional wellbeing.
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Parent data results indicate mixed perception surrounding the belief of homework
having a positive impact on their child’s social and emotional health, dependent on the
parent’s primary language variable. Per the report of non-English-speaking parents and
bilingual parents, 73.4% reported homework Always or Often has a positive impact on
their child. Conversely, 40.9% of monolingual-English speaking parents reported
homework always or often has a positive impact on their child’s social and emotional
health. Qualitative teacher data from the supplemental teacher questionnaire indicated
that 4 out of 5 teachers noted that parents of English language learner students often ask
for more homework and demonstrate positive emotions such as gratitude when
homework is sent home. Further data indicated that parents perceive completing
homework at home to primarily generate positive feelings among their children. A
substantial number of parents reported their child felt “Happy” (50.5%),
“Smart/Competent” (38.3%), and “Curious/Interested” (31.8%) while completing
homework. The current data suggests that linguistically nondominant parents likely
regard homework as an essential aspect of their child’s schooling that contributes to their
social-emotional well-being; this is consistent with previous research indicating that
families of nondominant backgrounds highly value education and consider academic
study essential to student success (Nesteruk et al., 2009; Schaller et al., 2007; Thelamour
& Jacobs, 2014). While linguistically nondominant parents perceive the relationship
between homework and social and emotional health more positively than monolingual
English-speaking parents, the latter parent group perceive the relationship more
positively than teachers.
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Student survey results also indicate varied responses. Of the 112 students who
responded to the surveys, 46.4% reported homework Always or Often makes them feel
good about themselves. In contrast, 26.8% of students reported homework Never or
Rarely makes them feel good about themselves. Moreover, student data indicate that
completing homework generates various feelings among students; notably, the array of
feelings students reported appeared to be impacted by the setting variable. When students
were asked how they feel when they start homework while they are at school, on average,
students reported experiencing more positive emotions at school compared to when they
complete homework at home. Based on the data collected, the most common feelings
students reported regarding working on homework while at school were “Happy”
(68.8%), “Smart/Competent” (39.3%), “Excited” (32.1%), and “Tired” (30.4%).
When further analyzing student data, students on average reported more negative
emotions (M = 1.88) in regard to completing homework at home than positive emotions
(M = 1.20). Although students frequently reported feeling “Happy” (50.5%) when
completing homework at home, they also reported feeling “Bored” (42.8%) and “Tired”
(45.5%). While parent responses suggest homework mostly positively impacts students’
social-emotional health, student data indicate homework impacts how they feel.
Specifically, results suggest that students are likely experiencing feelings of boredom and
fatigue toward completing homework at home, whereas they have more positive
emotions when completing the homework while still at school. Implications for these
findings include exploring ways of enabling students to complete their homework at
school in order to support their emotional well-being. The results are consistent with
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research suggesting that homework can cause a variety of undesirable emotions, be
perceived as monotonous, and can potentially deny children the opportunity to engage in
leisure activities (Bembenutty (2011). In consideration of the emotional difficulties and
the familial obligations some students may encounter, Martinez (2011) recommends that
schools can provide homework help sessions or tutoring on grounds during the regular
school day.
Parental Perceptions on the Purposes of Homework
According to parent survey data, perceptions of monolingual English-speaking
parents on the purpose of homework appeared to be inconsistent with the perceptions of
non-English-speaking and bilingual parents, with few exceptions. In regard to beliefs
surrounding the academic purposes of homework, non-English-speaking or bilingual
parents appeared to perceive homework more positively than their monolingual English-
speaking counterparts. According to non- English-speaking or bilingual parents, 92.1%
believe homework Always or Often helps students learn, 84% Always or Often believe
homework helps prepare students for standardized tests, and 73.5% Always or Often
believe teachers use student performance on their homework to guide their lessons on the
next day. Conversely, 66.8% of monolingual English-speaking parents believe homework
Always or Often helps students learn, 55.5% Always or Often believe homework helps
prepare students for standardized tests, and 57.9% Always or Often believe teachers use
student performance on their homework to guide their lessons on the next day.
Perceptions on homework as being necessary to cover all the required school curriculum
for a school year revealed similar stances between parent groups, though parents of
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linguistically nondominant backgrounds continued to perceive homework more favorably
(88%) than monolingual English-speaking parents (73.4%).
In evaluating parental perceptions of non-academic purposes associated with
homework, such as building character/work ethic and uniting the family, responses varied
among parent groups. Results indicate the majority of parents in this study believe
homework helps their child build character/work ethic, with 72.4% of linguistically
nondominant parents and 67.5% of monolingual English-speaking parents reporting
homework Always or Often helps. Although parents perceive homework to possess this
nonacademic purpose, research suggests homework is not an effective way to build
positive character traits and work ethic. For instance, Kralovec and Buell (2000) found
that daily responsibilities and unstructured learning opportunities promote learning good
work habits, as well as leadership qualities, self-advocacy skills, and problem-solving
skills. Regarding uniting the family as a non-academic purpose associated with
homework, parental attitudes were less favorable than the other homework purposes
evaluated. When asked if homework brings the family together to focus on a joint goal,
54% of linguistically nondominant parents and 37.8% of monolingual English-speaking
reported Always or Often to this item. Further, a comparable amount of monolingual
English-speaking parents (33.3%) and non-English-speaking or bilingual parents (32%)
reported homework Sometimes brings the family together, suggesting ambiguity among
groups. Similar to the non-English-speaking and bilingual parents’ perceptions on
homework’s positive impact on social-emotional well-being and homework, the
respondents consistently perceive homework to have a substantial contribution to their
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child’s learning. This is consistent with the literature surrounding the beliefs of
nondominant parents on education, which is perceived as a major life value that
contributes to their children’s future and personal talents (Martinez, 2011; Nesteruk et al.,
2009). Due to the limited sample size, more data is necessary to draw significant
conclusions regarding the differences between monolingual English-speaking parental
perceptions and non-English-speaking and bilingual parental perceptions.
Parental Perceptions on the Amount of Time Students Spend on Homework
According to the parent survey, parent perceptions amongst monolingual English-
speaking parents and non-English-speaking parents or bilingual parents appeared
relatively similar in regard to the amount of time they perceive their children to spend
completing homework during weekdays and weekends. While monolingual English-
speaking parents reported, on average, more time (in minutes) spent on homework (M =
45.72) during the week, there were no significant differences between the non-English or
bilingual parents (M = 35.06). When analyzing time (in minutes) spent on homework
during weekends, respondents in the non-English or bilingual group reported slightly
more time, on average, spent on homework (M = 35.33) compared to monolingual
English-speaking parents (M = 31.80); however, these differences were not significant.
While non-English or Bilingual parents appeared to value homework more, the perceived
amount of homework was similar between groups. An important issue emerging from
these findings is the need to directly investigate students’ report to corroborate or refute
parent findings.
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The Ideal Amount of Time Students Should Spend Completing Homework
According to Parents
When analyzing the monolingual English-speaking and non-English or bilingual
parent perceptions surrounding the ideal amount of homework their children should
spend completing homework during weeknights, there appeared to be no significant
differences between groups. Both parent groups reported similar ideal amounts of time in
minutes their children should spend on homework during weeknights; monolingual
English (M = 39.36) and non-English or Bilingual (M = 42.43). This means while past
research suggests non-English or bilingual parents prefer their students to spend multiple
hours on homework (Nesteruk et al., 2009), the current research study suggests parents in
both groups perceive similar ideal amounts of time spent on weekday homework.
Conversely, the parent surveys indicated there was a significant difference
between monolingual English and non-English or bilingual parent groups in regard to the
ideal amount of homework their children should receive on the weekends. non-English or
bilingual parents indicated they thought their children should be spending more time on
homework (M = 41.07) on weekends than monolingual English parents (M = 25.00). This
is consistent with Nesteruk et al., (2009) in which homework is highly valued, and more
time is expected to be spent on homework on a daily basis. Furthermore, these findings
were also consistent with qualitative data from the supplemental teacher questionnaire
which indicated the majority of teachers report parents of English language learners ask
for more homework to be sent home.
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Summary
The existing research exploring the perceived relationship between homework
and the social-emotional health of elementary-aged students’ is substantially absent in the
literature. Moreover, current research on the perspectives of linguistically nondominant
families on homework is ever scarcer. This study contributes to current data by
examining the perspectives of teachers, parents, and students on homework, with the
emphasis of highlighting the experience of culturally and linguistically diverse families.
The survey research provides data with respect to perceived social-emotional impact and
parental perceptions related to the purpose of homework. Additionally, parental
perceptions are evaluated in relation to the amount of time students spend and should
spend to complete homework. The preliminary conclusions would ideally promote a
collaborative relationship between schools and linguistically nondominant families,
social-emotional education programs, guide practices that can be implemented within
such communities, and generate future homework policy. A sample of recommendations
for educators and families surrounding homework assistance and promoting social-
emotional health are listed in Table 31.
Limitations
Given the preliminary nature of this research, there are some limitations that must
be addressed. Research was conducted using newly restructured parent, teacher, and
student surveys, as well as a newly developed supplemental teacher questionnaire, none
of which had yet been piloted. Additionally, the parent survey was newly translated into
the language of Farsi/Dari. Upon analyzing the data, some limitations within the surveys
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were discovered. For instance, some formulated questions appeared to have been unclear
or may have been culturally loaded, which could have impacted translation and the
respondents’ understanding. Consequently, this may have limited the utilization of
specific items.
Furthermore, this study had a relatively small sample size that was not randomly
selected, which may limit the generalizability of the results. Participation was voluntary
and depended upon whether the participants responded to the invitation. Although
numerous districts were contacted, research data was gathered from one public school
within the Northern California region. Further, there was a low return rate amongst
participants. Thus, the normative group cannot necessarily be generalized to the general
population.
Lastly, researcher-participant language barriers were present, as this study had a
relatively linguistically diverse sample. Approximately 10 languages other than English
were reported as a participant’s primary language. Present parent surveys were only
available in English, Spanish, and Farsi/Dari, as they were the majority of languages
spoken by the participants. Given the vast range of languages reported by participants at
this school, more translations were warranted to accommodate for multiple languages and
to better ensure the understanding of items amongst participants. Further, the present
study did not employ interpreters to assist parents and students in completing surveys.
Although the utilization of interpreters can potentially affect results obtained from
participants, using interpreters can enhance communication.
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Recommendations for Future Research
Prior to implementing future research, limitations within the surveys must be
addressed. It is recommended that survey questions are reviewed to determine if there is
any ambiguity among items. Survey items should be worded in a clear and concise
manner. Additionally, surveys should be translated into other languages in order to reach
more families. This includes working with a cultural broker, in addition to a translator, to
determine if any items may differ in cultural meaning when translated.
The present research is, of course, preliminary. It is unclear whether the findings
would generalize to other groups or settings. Before conclusions can be made, a larger
sample size and replication of results are necessary. Future studies should continue to
include a diverse sample and may consider enlisting schools outside of the Northern
California region. Moreover, the administration and collection of surveys should be more
closely monitored to increase return rates and accuracy of data collection. Specifically,
researchers can partner with schools and districts to create greater buy-in among families.
Schools can provide parents the opportunity to complete the survey after school with the
assistance of an interpreter. This would allow for parents and students to meaningfully
participate and ensure understanding.
Conclusively, more research is warranted to better understand the perspectives of
non-English-speaking students and bilingual students to evaluate if their beliefs differ
from their monolingual English-speaking peers, as well as if they align with their parents’
views. Conducting this study from the linguistically nondominant student’s point of view
can provide educators and families with insight about the lived experience of students
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and their interaction with homework. Understanding how nondominant students feel,
view the purposes of homework, the time they spend on homework, and their ideal
amount of assigned homework can assist teachers to differentiate homework practices.
This type of study could provide teachers and administrators with the understanding
needed to promote positive outcomes for nondominant students.
Table 31
Suggestions for Educators and Parents
Educators
• Provide students with opportunities to complete homework during the regular
school day such as incorporating homework help times within the classroom
and afterschool tutoring (e.g., math, reading, writing).
• Provide social-emotional learning curriculums within the classroom setting.
• To the extent possible, provide translated material to help aide parents when
they help their students with homework.
• Encourage parental involvement in the classroom (e.g., volunteering)
• Ensure homework objectives and instructions are clear.
• Provide culturally responsive training to all teachers, administrators, and staff.
• Provide information nights for parents and families regarding homework and
overall social-emotional health.
Parents
• Prioritize children’s overall social-emotional health over academic
achievement.
• Volunteer in your child’s classroom.
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APPENDIX A
Student Survey
Thank you for answering our questions below. We are interested in what your homework is like and how you feel about it. Please answer honestly and the best you can – your
answers will not be shared with parents, other students, or teachers. Section 1 – Homework
On average, how many days per week do you have homework? ________ days
Do you have homework on weekends? � Never � Rarely � Sometimes � Often � Always
About how long does it take you to do homework…? On weekdays: ________minutes On weekends: ________minutes
How many minutes of homework should there be…? On weekdays: ________minutes On weekends: ________minutes
Section 2 – What I think Starting homework while I’m at school makes me feel … (Check all that apply) _____ Happy _____ Bored _____ Sad / Depressed _____ Smart / Competent _____ Frustrated / Angry _____ Tired _____ Stressed / Anxious _____ Excited _____ Curious / Interested _____ Other: _________________________ _____ Not Smart/Incompetent _____ Confused
Working on my homework at home makes me feel … (Check all that apply) _____ Happy _____ Bored _____ Sad / Depressed _____ Smart / Competent _____ Frustrated / Angry _____ Tired _____ Stressed / Anxious _____ Excited _____ Curious / Interested _____ Other: ________________________ _____ Not Smart/Incompetent _____ Confused
When my homework is too hard, it is because I… (Check all that apply) _____ Am tired _____ Don’t have enough time _____ Don’t understand the subject _____ Need help _____ Have too much homework
_____ Have extracurricular activities (like
sports, music, and clubs) _____ Can’t focus _____ Don’t have a good place to work _____ Have chores _____ Confused
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When my homework is too hard, I… (Check all that apply) _____ Stick with it _____ Get mad _____ Take a break _____ Ask for help _____ Cry _____ Give up / say I can’t do it _____ Can’t focus _____ Other: _________________________
If you could change anything about homework, what would you change? ________________________________________________________________________
Please rate the below statements using this scale: 1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Often 5 = Always
Homework helps me learn. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework helps me prepare for State/National standardized tests (like the CAASPP or STAR test).
1 2 3 4 5
I understand what is expected of me in my homework. 1 2 3 4 5
I understand the subjects in my homework. 1 2 3 4 5
We need homework to make sure we get through all the material in our school year.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework helps me build good habits/work ethic. 1 2 3 4 5
My teacher gives me homework just to keep me busy. 1 2 3 4 5
My teacher looks at how we do on our homework and teaches the next day based on that.
1 2 3 4 5
I have a choice in the type of the homework I get. 1 2 3 4 5
It’s best to do my homework before extracurricular activities like sports, music, or clubs.
1 2 3 4 5
I can do my homework by myself (without parents or tutors). 1 2 3 4 5
I enjoy/take pride in doing my homework by myself. 1 2 3 4 5
My teacher gives me a grade or points for doing the homework they assign me.
1 2 3 4 5
I get feedback on my homework more than just a grade or points for doing it.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework makes me feel good about myself. 1 2 3 4 5
I get less sleep because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
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I have less time for extracurricular activities because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
I have less time to spend with my family because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
I have less time to spend with my friends because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
I have less time to spend on things I like to do for fun because of homework.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework brings us together as a family to work on things together. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework creates fights in my family. 1 2 3 4 5
I am a good student when I think about…
(a) my grades 1 2 3 4 5
(b) how hard I work 1 2 3 4 5
(c) how well I behave 1 2 3 4 5
Section 3 – About Me
Please tell us your… Grade: _____ Age: _____ Gender: __________
Do you participate in extracurricular activities?
If yes, please specify:
How many nights per week? ________
How many minutes per night? __________
Check all that apply:
_____ Sports _____ Clubs _____ Music _____ After school day care _____ Theatre
(sports, music, clubs, etc.)
About how many hours of sleep do you get each night? ________ Hours
Is there anything else you would like to share with us?
______________________________________________________________________________
Thank you so much for your participation!
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APPENDIX B
Parent Survey (English)
Thank you for participating in our research by taking this survey. We are interested in homework philosophies and practices in schools such as yours. Please answer honestly and to the best of your knowledge – your responses will remain anonymous and will not be shared with teachers,
students, or administration. Section 1 – My Child’s Homework
On average, how many days per week is your child assigned homework? ___________________
On weekdays that your child has homework, about how long does it take them to do it? ______ minutes
Does your child have homework on weekends? � Never � Rarely � Sometimes � Often � Always
On weekends that your child has homework, about how long does it take them to do it? ______ minutes
How many minutes of homework on weeknights is appropriate/ideal for their grade level? ____ minutes
How many minutes of homework on weekend nights is appropriate/ideal for their grade level? ______ minutes
My child receives the following types of homework…
Please indicate the types of homework using this scale: 1 = Never 2 = Sometimes 3 = Always
Reading 1 2 3 Content Review (e.g. worksheets) 1 2 3 Independent Projects 1 2 3 Group Work 1 2 3
Other: _______________________________________________________
Section 2 – My Opinions
Doing their homework makes my child feel… (Check all that apply) _____ Happy _____ Bored _____ Sad / Depressed _____ Smart / Competent _____ Frustrated / Angry _____ Tired _____ Stressed / Anxious _____ Excited
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_____ Curious / Interested _____ Confused _____ Not smart / Incompetent _____ Other: ___________________________
When my child has a hard time completing their homework, it is because they… (Check all that apply)
_____ Are tired _____ Don’t have enough time _____ Don’t understand the subject _____ Need help _____ Have too much homework _____ Have extracurricular activities _____ Can’t focus _____ Don’t have a good place to work _____ Have chores _____ Other: ____________________________
When my child encounters a challenge in their homework, they… (Check all that apply) _____ Become determined _____ Become frustrated _____ Take a break _____ Ask for help _____ Cry _____ Give up / say they can’t do it _____ Get distracted _____ Other: ____________________________
Please indicate your opinion about the following statements using this scale:
1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Often 5 = Always
Homework helps my child learn. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework helps prepare my child for State/National standardized tests (e.g., CAASPP, STAR).
1 2 3 4 5
My child understands what is expected of them with the homework they receive.
1 2 3 4 5
My child understands the actual content of their homework. 1 2 3 4 5
I myself understand the content of my child’s homework. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework is necessary in order to cover all of the required curriculum for a school year.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework helps my child build character/work ethic. 1 2 3 4 5
My child has homework that is just “busy work.” 1 2 3 4 5
My child’s teacher uses student performance on homework to guide their lessons the next day.
1 2 3 4 5
My child has a choice/is given options (e.g. format, topic) about the homework they get.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework should be completed before extracurricular activities. 1 2 3 4 5
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My child is able to do their homework independently (e.g. without parents or tutors).
1 2 3 4 5
My child enjoys/takes pride in doing their homework independently. 1 2 3 4 5
My child’s teacher grades the homework they assign my child. 1 2 3 4 5
My child gets feedback on their homework that is more than a letter grade or completion points.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework has a positive impact on my child’s social and emotional health.
1 2 3 4 5
My child gets less sleep because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
My child has less time for extracurricular activities because of homework.
1 2 3 4 5
My child has less time to spend with their family because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
My child has less time to spend with friends because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework brings us together as a family to focus on a joint goal. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework creates a power struggle between my child and me. 1 2 3 4 5
My child has less time to spend on hobbies because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
My child is a good student, considering their…
(a) grades 1 2 3 4 5
(b) work ethic 1 2 3 4 5
(c) behavior 1 2 3 4 5
Does your school have a school-wide homework policy? � Yes � No � I don’t know
If yes, do you agree? Why or why not? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
If no, do you wish there was a policy? If so, what should it be? ___________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
If you could change anything about homework, what would you change? ___________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Section 3 – About My Child Please specify your child’s… Grade: ___ Age: ___ Gender: ________ Ethnicity: _________
What is your relationship to this child? � Mother � Father � Other___________________
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What is the composition of this child’s household? � Both Parents Full-Time � Both Parents, Equal Custody Part-Time � Both Parents, Unequal Part-Time (please specify custody/visitation) ___________________ � Single Parent � Step Parents � Other_____________________________ What is the highest level of education completed by the child’s guardian (mother, father, other)? � Less than High School
� Some High School
� High School Diploma
� Some College
� College-2 Year Degree
� College-4 Year Degree
� Advanced College Degree
� Unknown
What is the highest level of education completed by any other primary guardian (mother, father, other)? � Less than High School
� Some High School
� High School Diploma
� Some College
� College-2 Year Degree
� College-4 Year Degree
� Advanced College Degree
� Unknown
What kind of classroom is your child a student in? � General Education � Special Education � GATE (Gifted and Talented) � Self-Contained Classroom for Children with Emotional/Behavioral Needs
� Other: _____________
What is the primary language spoken in the home… by the child: ________________________ by the adults: _______________________
Does your child participate in extracurricular activities (e.g., sports, music, clubs)? � Yes � No
If yes, please specify:
How many nights per week? __________
How many minutes per night? __________
Check all that apply:
_____ Sports _____ Clubs _____ Music _____ After school day care _____ Theatre
About how many hours of sleep does your child get each night? ________ Hours
Is there anything else you would like to share with us?_________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Thank you so much for your participation!
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APPENDIX C
Parent Survey (Spanish) Gracias por participar en nuestra investigación al completar esta encuesta. Estamos interesados en las filosofías y prácticas de tarea en escuelas como la suya. Por favor conteste honestamente y en la mejor manera que usted entienda. Sus respuestas se mantendrán anónimas y no serán compartidas con maestros(as), estudiantes, ni directores.
Sección 1 – La tarea de mi hijo(a) En promedio, ¿cuántos días por semana le asignan tarea a su hijo(a)? ____________________ Cuando su hijo(a) tiene tarea entre semana, ¿aproximadamente cuánto tiempo toma para completarla?______ minutos por día ¿Tiene su hijo(a) tarea durante el fin de semana? � Nunca � Raramente � A veces � Frecuentemente � Siempre ¿Los fines de semana que su hijo(a) tiene tarea, más o menos cuánto tiempo necesita para terminar? ____ minutos Entre semana, ¿cuantos minutos de tarea son apropiados/ideales para estudiantes del mismo grado de su hijo(a)? ______ minutos por día En el fin de semana, ¿cuantos minutos de tarea son apropiados/ideales para estudiantes del mismo grado de su hijo(a)? ______ minutos Mi hijo(a) recibe los siguientes tipos de tarea… Por favor indique los tipos de tarea usando esta escala de valoración:
1 = Nunca 2 = A veces 3 = Siempre Lectura 1 2 3 Repaso del contenido (p. ej. hojas de trabajo) 1 2 3 Proyectos independientes 1 2 3 Trabajo en grupo 1 2 3 Otro: ________________________________________________________________________
Sección 2 – Mis opiniones
Al hacer tarea mi hijo(a) se siente… (marque todos los que aplican) ____ Contento / Feliz ____ Aburrido(a) ____ Triste / Deprimido(a) ____ Inteligente / Competente ____ Frustrado(a) / Enojado(a) ____ Cansado(a) ____ Estresado(a) / Ansioso(a) ____ Emocionado(a) ____ Curioso(a) / Interesado(a) ____ Confundido ____ Poco inteligente / Incompetente ____ Otro:____________________________
Nunca
A
vece
s
Siem
pre
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Cuando mi hijo(a) tiene dificultad completando su tarea, es porque… (marque todos los que aplican) ____ Está cansado(a) ____ No tiene suficiente tiempo ____ No entiende el tema ____ Necesita ayuda ____ Tiene mucha tarea ____ Tiene actividades extraescolares ____ No se puede concentrar ____ No tiene un buen lugar para trabajar ____ Tiene quehaceres ____ Otro:___________________________
Cuando mi hijo(a) enfrenta un reto en su tarea, el/ella… (marque todos los que aplican) _____ Se vuelve determinado _____ Se vuelve frustrado _____ Toma un descanso _____ Pide ayuda
_____ Llora _____ Se da por vencido / dice que no lo puede hacer
_____ Se vuelve distraído _____ Otro:______________________________
Por favor indique su opinión sobre las siguientes frases usando esta escala de valoración: 1 = Nunca 2 = Raramente 3 = A Veces 4 = Frecuentemente 5 = Siempre
La tarea le ayuda a mi hijo(a) aprender. 1 2 3 4 5
La tarea le ayuda a mi hijo(a) prepararse para exámenes estatales/nacionales estandarizados (p. ej., CAASPP, STAR).
1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) comprende las expectativas que le exigen para completar la tarea.
1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) entiende el contenido de su tarea. 1 2 3 4 5
Yo mismo(a) entiendo el contenido de la tarea de mi hijo(a). 1 2 3 4 5
La tarea es necesaria para poder cubrir toda la materia requerida para el año escolar.
1 2 3 4 5
La tarea le ayuda a mi hijo(a) desarrollar carácter/ética de trabajo. 1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) tiene tarea que es simplemente para mantenerlo ocupado. 1 2 3 4 5
El/La maestro(a) de mi hijo(a) basa su lección del día siguiente utilizando los resultados de la tarea del día anterior.
1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) tiene opciones (p. ej., formato, tema) en completar la tarea. 1 2 3 4 5
La tarea debe ser terminada antes de participar en actividades extraescolares.
1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) tiene la habilidad de hacer su tarea independientemente (p. ej., sin la ayuda de padres o tutores).
1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) disfruta/se enorgullece en hacer su tarea independientemente. 1 2 3 4 5
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El/la maestro(a) de mi hijo(a) califica la tarea que asigna. 1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) recibe comentarios en su tarea, más allá de un grado de letra o puntos por completarla.
1 2 3 4 5
La tarea tiene un impacto positivo en la salud social y emocional de mi hijo(a).
1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) duerme menos debido a la tarea. 1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) tiene menos tiempo para actividades extracurriculares debido a la tarea.
1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) tiene menos tiempo para pasar con su familia debido a la tarea. 1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) tiene menos tiempo para pasar con sus amigos(as) debido a la tarea.
1 2 3 4 5
La tarea nos une como familia porque nos enfoca en una meta [común?]. 1 2 3 4 5
La tarea crea una lucha por el poder entre mi hijo(a) y yo. 1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) tiene menos tiempo para explorar sus intereses debido a la tarea. 1 2 3 4 5
Mi hijo(a) es un buen estudiante, considerando su(s) ... 1 2 3 4 5 (a) calificaciones/grados
1 2 3 4 5
(b) ética de trabajo 1 2 3 4 5
(c) comportamiento 1 2 3 4 5
¿La escuela de su hijo(a) tiene una póliza de tarea para la escuela entera? � Sí � No � No se Si sí la tiene, ¿está usted de acuerdo con la póliza? ¿Porque si o porque no? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Si no la tiene, ¿usted desearía que hubiera una póliza? ¿Qué debería ser? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Si pudiera cambiar algo sobre la tarea, ¿qué cambiaría? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Con respecto a su hijo(a), por favor especifique: Grado: ___Edad: ___ Sexo: ___Etnicidad: _____ ¿Cuál es su relación con este niño(a)? � Madre � Padre � Otro: ________________
Sección 3 –Mi hijo(a)
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¿Cuál es la composición del hogar de su hijo(a)? � Ambos Padres, tiempo completo
� Ambos Padres - custodia compartida, partes iguales
� Ambos Padres – custodia compartida, partes desiguales (especifique custodia/visitación) _______________ � Padre/Madre soltera(a) � Padrastro/Madrasta � Otro: ______________________ ¿Cuál es el nivel más alto de educación completado por el guardián (madre, padre, otro) del niño(a)? � Menos de preparatoria
� Algo de Preparatoria/Secundaria
� Diploma de Preparatoria
� Algo de Colegio
� Colegio Comunitario (Licenciatura de 2 Anos, ej., Asociado)
� Licenciatura Universitaria de 4 años (ej., Bachillerato)
� Licenciatura Universitaria Avanzada (ej. maestría)
� Desconocido
¿Cuál es el nivel más alto de educación completado por el guardián (madre, padre, otro) del niño(a)? � Menos de preparatoria
� Algo de Preparatoria/Secundaria
� Diploma de Preparatoria
� Algo de Colegio
� Colegio Comunitario (Licenciatura de 2 Anos, ej., Asociado)
� Licenciatura Universitaria de 4 años (ej., Bachillerato)
� Licenciatura Universitaria Avanzada (ej. maestría)
� Desconocido
¿En qué tipo de salón/clase está inscrito(a) su hijo(a)? � Educación general
� Educación especial
� GATE (dotado y talentoso)
� Salón autocontenido para niños con necesidades emocionales/de comportamiento
� Otro: ____________
¿Cuál es el idioma primario del hogar, hablado por…?
el niño(a): __________________________ los adultos(as): ______________________ ¿Su hijo(a) participa en actividades extracurriculares? � Si � No Si sí participa en actividades, por favor díganos...
¿Cuántas noches por semana? _____ ¿Cuántos minutes por día? _____
Marque todos los que apliquen:
____ Deportes ____ Clubs ____ Música ____ Guardería después de la escuela ____ Teatro
¿Aproximadamente cuantas horas duerme su hijo(a) cada noche? ________ Horas
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¿Hay algo más que quisiera compartir con nosotros? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
¡Muchas gracias por su participación!
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APPENDIX D
Parent Survey (Farsi/Dari)
93
94
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APPENDIX E
Teacher Survey
Thank you for participating in our research by taking this survey. We are interested in homework philosophies and practices in schools such as yours. Please answer honestly and to the best of your knowledge – your responses will remain anonymous and will not be shared with parents,
students, or administration.
Section 1 – My Classroom 1. On average, how many days per week do you assign homework? _________________
2. On weekdays that you assign homework, on average, about how many minutes do you assign? ____ minutes
3. Do you assign homework on weekends? � Never � Rarely � Sometimes � Often � Always
4. On weekends that you assign homework, on average, about how many minutes do you assign? ____ minutes
5. How many minutes of homework on weeknights is appropriate/ideal for your grade level? ____ minutes
6. How many minutes of homework on weekend nights is appropriate/ideal for your grade level? ____ minutes
7. My students receive the following types of homework… Please indicate the types of homework using this scale: 1 = Never 2 = Sometimes 3 = Always
Reading 1 2 3 Content Review (e.g. worksheets) 1 2 3 Independent Projects 1 2 3 Group Work 1 2 3
Other: ____________________________________________________________
Never
Som
etim
es
Al
ways
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Please indicate the reasons you assign homework using this scale:
1 = Never 2 = Sometimes 3 = Always
For skill practice 1 2 3 Pressure from parents 1 2 3
To check for comprehension 1 2 3 Pressure from other
teachers
1 2 3
To keep students occupied after
school
1 2 3 Pressure from school
administration
1 2 3
It is school policy to assign it 1 2 3 To introduce upcoming
content
1 2 3
To create a link between school
and home
1 2 3 To develop work
ethic/character
1 2 3
To prepare students for
standardized tests
1 2 3 Other: __________________________
Section 2 – My Opinions
Neve
r So
met
imes
Alwa
ys
Neve
r So
met
imes
Alwa
ys
97
Please indicate your opinion about the following statements using this scale: 1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Often 5 = Always
Homework helps my students learn. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework helps prepare my students for State/National standardized tests (ex: CAASPP, STAR).
1 2 3 4 5
My students seem to understand what I expect of them with the homework I assign.
1 2 3 4 5
My students seem to understand the actual content of their homework.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework is necessary in order to cover all of the required curriculum for a school year.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework helps my students build character/work ethic. 1 2 3 4 5
Homework is assigned to keep students occupied after school. 1 2 3 4 5
The student performance on homework I observe guides my instruction the following day.
1 2 3 4 5
Student choice (e.g. format, topic) is an aspect of how I assign homework.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework should be completed before extracurricular activities. 1 2 3 4 5
My students are able to do their homework independently (e.g. without parents or tutors).
1 2 3 4 5
My students enjoy/take pride in doing their homework independently.
1 2 3 4 5
I grade the homework I assign. 1 2 3 4 5
I give feedback on homework that is more than a letter grade or completion points.
1 2 3 4 5
Homework has a positive impact on my students’ social and emotional health.
1 2 3 4 5
My students sleep less because of homework. 1 2 3 4 5
My students have less time for extracurricular activities because of homework.
1 2 3 4 5
My students have less time to spend with their family because of homework.
1 2 3 4 5
My students have less time to spend with friends or on their hobbies because of homework.
1 2 3 4 5
Neve
r
Som
etim
es
Alwa
ys
Ofte
n Ra
rely
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Doing their homework after-school makes my students feel… (Check all that apply) _____ Happy _____ Bored _____ Sad / Depressed _____ Smart / Competent _____ Frustrated / Angry _____ Tired _____ Stressed / Anxious _____ Excited _____ Curious / Interested _____ Confused _____ Not smart / Incompetent _____ Other:______________________
Does your school have a school-wide homework policy? � Yes � No � I don’t know
If yes, do you agree? Why or why not? _____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
If no, do you wish there was a policy? If so, what should it be? ___________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
If you could change anything about homework, what would you change? ___________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Is there anything else you would like to share with us? _________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What grade level(s) do you teach?
_______ How many years have you been teaching?
_________
Do you teach at a Title 1 school?
_______ How many hours do you teach daily?
_________
What kind of classroom do you teach? � General Education � Special Education � GATE (Gifted and Talented) � Self-Contained Classroom for Children with Emotional/Behavioral Needs � Other: ____________________________________________________________
Please specify your… Gender _______ Ethnicity __________________________ Do you have children? � Yes � No
If yes, how many? ____________ If yes, what are their ages? ____________
Thank you so much for your participation!
Section 3 – My Background
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APPENDIX F
Supplemental Teacher Questionnaire
Thank you for participating in our research by taking this survey. We are interested in homework philosophies and practices in schools such as yours. Please answer honestly and to the best of your knowledge – your responses will remain anonymous and will not be shared with parents, students, or administration. When answering each question, please refrain from using any
identifying information.
Supplemental Teacher Questionnaire 1. Can you share any stories/experiences of students from diverse backgrounds (i.e.,
students with disabilities, English language learners, and students of lower socioeconomic status) and their reactions to homework?
2. How would you describe the positive and/or negative effects of homework on the
emotional well-being of students of diverse backgrounds (i.e., students with disabilities, English language learners, and students of lower socioeconomic status)?
3. Do you feel adequately trained to work with students and parents from diverse backgrounds (i.e., students with disabilities, English language learners, and students of lower socioeconomic status)?
4. Do you feel adequately trained to prepare homework for students from diverse
backgrounds (i.e., students with disabilities, English language learners, and students of lower socioeconomic status)?
5. Are there any barriers you have identified that students from diverse backgrounds (i.e., students with disabilities, English language learners, and students of lower socioeconomic status) encounter when completing homework?
6. How have your experiences working with students from diverse backgrounds (i.e., students with disabilities, English language learners, and students of lower socioeconomic status) altered your teaching strategies?
Thank you so much for your participation!
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APPENDIX G
Survey Research Description
1. Name of researcher(s) and academic credentials. Melissa Holland, Ph.D. Associate Faculty School Psychology Program California State University, Sacramento Melissa Hernandez – CSUS School Psychology Graduate Student Victoria Morales – CSUS School Psychology Graduate Student 2. Purpose and scope of the project. The social-emotional health of students is moving to the forefront of our attention in schools. With depression, anxiety, and suicide rates on the rise for our youth (Perou et al., 2013), now more than ever school psychologists are playing an integral role in assessing and intervening in the mental health needs of children. This comes at a time when there are also intense demands on our youth in their academics, including an increased focus on grades, standardized test scores, and larger amounts of assigned homework (Kohn, 2006). This interplay between the rise in anxiety and depression and scholastic demands has been postulated upon frequently in the literature (Kackar, Shumow, Schmidt, & Grezetich, 2011; Katz, Buzukashvili, & Feingold, 2012). With the authorization of No Child Left Behind, and the Common Core requirements, teachers have felt added pressures to keep up with the tougher standards movement (Tokarski, 2011). In particular, misconceptions on the effectiveness of homework and student achievement have lead many teachers to increase the amount of homework assigned to keep up with such political demands (Kohn, 2006). However, there has been little evidence that supports this trend. In fact, there is a significant body of research that demonstrates the lack of correlation between homework and student success. In a meta-analysis examining homework, grades, and standardized test scores, Cooper, Robinson and Patall (2006) found that there was little correlation between the amount of homework assigned and achievement in elementary school, and only a moderate correlation in middle school. Furthermore, Wolchover (2012) found an inverse relationship between the amount of time spent on homework and students standardized test scores. In children 3rd grade and below, there was a negative correlation found between the variables. Due to many parents, students and teachers normalizing increasing academic pressure and homework demands as a part of school life, few question the value of its content or fail to recognize the stress that it may cause (Kohn, 2006). Parents and school personnel are also often unaware, or perhaps minimize, the social and emotional impacts such demands are creating for our youth.
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3. Purpose and scope of the project: The purpose of our research is to investigate the social-emotional health of elementary students in relation to the scholastic pressures they face, namely homework. 4. Method of study or investigation to be used: Newly developed, comprehensive questionnaires will be utilized to address student, teacher, and parent perspectives on homework and its effect on students’ social and emotional health. The pervasive effects of homework on student’s nonacademic interests such as play, sports, and family life will also be examined. 5. Extent of participation of students and staff: Students will be asked to answer closed and open- ended questions regarding their perspective on homework as well as nonacademic interests. Completion of the questionnaire may take students approximately 10 minutes to complete. Teachers will also be asked to complete a questionnaire containing closed and open-ended questions regarding their perspective on homework. In addition to students and staff, the parents or legal guardian of each student will be asked to complete a similar questionnaire. Each of these is designed to take 10 minutes or less to complete. 6. Uses to which project results will be used: Results will be incorporated into journal articles, as well as a thesis project. These publications will provide guidance to districts, educators, and parent advisory groups as they develop an evidence-based homework policy that prioritizes student learning, nonacademic benefits, and social and emotional health. 7. Benefits to the school or district: Participating schools and school districts shall benefit from this research by being provided with information and recommendations for developing a homework policy that prioritizes student learning, nonacademic benefits, and social and emotional health. If you have further questions or would like to contact us, please use the below information. Thank you for your potential interest in our research study. Contact Information: Melissa Holland, Ph.D. Lead Researcher [email protected] 916-XXX-XXXX
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APPENDIX H
Teacher Instructions
Dear Teachers, Thank you for your willingness to participate in our research. We look forward to working with you and providing your school specific feedback. Below are instructions on how to pass out surveys to ensure each student receives the correct survey correlated with their parent/guardian consent form.
1. Each student on the roster has a correlated number with each survey and/or consent forms. For example, the first student on the roster (e.g., Yasmin Abed) receives the first survey (e.g., 6-3-1). The second student, Jocelyn Barton, receives, 6-3-2; Samuel Boyle receives 6-3-3, etc.
1 Yasmin Abed Farsi 2 Jocelyn Barton 3 Samuel Boyle
2. Students who have parents/guardians that speak another language, (e.g., Farsi/Dari, Spanish) will receive surveys and/or consent forms in both English and their native language. Their native language will also be indicated on the roster for reference. Parents are encouraged to complete the form in the language of their choice.
1 Yasmin Abed Farsi 2 Jocelyn Barton 3 Samuel Boyle
3. Give parents until Friday to return the surveys. When Parent Permission forms are
returned with consent, the student may complete the corresponding numbered survey. Parent Permission forms must be returned in order for a student to complete their survey. On Friday, we will assist you in administering the student surveys to your class.
4. You also have an enclosed Teacher Survey and a free response questionnaire. Please complete your survey and place it in the manila envelope.
Thank you so much! If you have any questions or concerns, please contact the researchers: Melissa Hernandez [email protected] Victoria Morales [email protected]
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APPENDIX I
Parent Consent (English)
You are being asked to take part in a research study investigating homework and the social-emotional health of elementary and middle school aged students. Please read this form carefully and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to take part in the study. If you agree to be in this study, we will ask you to complete a survey. The survey will include questions about your background, your child’s school work, your perceptions of homework, and your child’s social-emotional health. We will also ask your child and their teacher to fill out a similar survey. The benefit of participating in this study is that you will be helping progress knowledge in the area of academic work and social and emotional health. There is the risk that you or your child may find some of the questions sensitive in nature as some questions inquire about your child’s emotional well-being as it relates to school work. You may skip any questions that you do not want to answer. Each survey will be kept private and numbers will be used to match up you and your child’s surveys, as opposed to identifying information, such as your or your child’s name. In any sort of report we make public, we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify you, your child, or your child’s teacher. Research records will be kept in a locked file and only the researchers will have access to the records. Taking part in this study is completely voluntary. If you decide not to take part in this study or to skip some of the questions, it will not affect your child or his or her progress at school in any way. If you decide to take part, you are free to withdraw at any time. The principal researcher conducting this study is Melissa L. Holland, Ph.D. and several of her graduate students at Sacramento State University. If you have any questions, please contact Melissa at [email protected]. If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the Sacramento State IRB at [email protected]. Statement of Consent: I have read the above information and I consent to take part in the study. Signature of Parent/Legal Guardian:
____________________________ Date: ___________________
Parent/Legal Guardian Name (printed): _____________________________________________________ Child’s Signature: ___________________________ Date: ___________________ Child’s Name (printed): ____________________________________________________
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APPENDIX J
Parent Consent (Spanish) Se le pide que participe en un estudio que investiga la tarea y la salud socio-emocional de estudiantes en la primaria y secundaria. Por favor, lea cuidadosamente este formulario y haga cualquier pregunta que tenga antes de aceptar participar en el estudio. Si acepta participar en este estudio, le pediremos que complete una encuesta. La encuesta incluirá preguntas sobre sus antecedentes, el trabajo escolar de su hijo, sus percepciones de la tarea y la salud social-emocional de su hijo. También le pediremos a su hijo ya su maestro que llenen una encuesta similar. El beneficio de participar en este estudio es que usted estará ayudando a progresar el conocimiento en el área de trabajo académico y la salud social y emocional. Existe el riesgo de que usted o su hijo encuentren algunas de las preguntas sensibles ya que algunas preguntas preguntan sobre el bienestar emocional de su hijo en relación con el trabajo escolar. Puede omitir cualquier pregunta que no quiere contestar. Cada encuesta se mantendrá en privado y números serán utilizados para agrupar su encuesta con la de su hijo en vez de incluir información identificativa, como su nombre o el nombre de su hijo. En cualquier tipo de informe que hagamos público, no incluiremos ninguna información que permita identificarlo a usted, a su hijo o al maestro de su hijo. Los registros de investigación se mantendrán en un archivo bloqueado y sólo los investigadores tendrán acceso a los registros. Participar en este estudio es completamente voluntario. Si usted decide no tomar parte en este estudio u omitir algunas de las preguntas, no afectará a su hijo ni a su progreso en la escuela de ninguna manera. Si decide participar, puede retirarse del estudio en cualquier momento. La investigadora principal que realiza este estudio es Melissa L. Holland, Ph.D. y varios de sus estudiantes graduados en Sacramento State University. Si tiene alguna pregunta, por favor póngase en contacto con Melissa en [email protected]. Si tiene alguna pregunta sobre sus derechos como participante de estudio, contactese Sacramento State University IRB al [email protected]. Declaración de consentimiento: He leído la información anterior y consiento en participar en el estudio. Firma del Padre/ Guardián Legal:
_________________________
Fecha:
___________________
Nombre del padre/ Guardián legal (impreso):
________________________________________________________
Firma del niño:
________________________
Fecha:
____________________
Nombre del niño (impreso):
________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX K
Parent Consent (Farsi/Dari)
106
APPENDIX L
Survey Administration Instructions to Students
Hello students! My name is __________ and I am a Sac State student and research
member.
We are so excited that you are participating and completing our survey. You are going to
answer a series of questions to help us learn about your thoughts and feelings about
homework. Remember, we just want to know your honest opinion and thoughts.
Please do not write your name on the survey. We promise your answers will remain
anonymous; which means your teacher, parents, and principal won’t know how you
answer these questions. That’s why we created a special and unique number on the top
right corner of your page.
Okay, here are just a few instructions before we get started:
• This is a paper survey. Please make sure you read each question carefully and
select the response that best fits you. Mark your answers carefully.
• If you have a question, or don’t understand a word, raise your hand, and I will
help you.
• I am going to read each question to you aloud and you will respond to the
question silently by writing it down on your paper survey.
• When you are finished, turn your survey over so it is facing down.
• Any questions before we begin?
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Appendix M
Teacher Coding Sheet General Guidelines:
• Code teacher survey as follows: • Code "99" if participant did not respond • For "other" items, code and access the "V3 Other Questions" document to record the
participant's response
Section 1 1. On average, how many days per week do you assign homework?
• Write in response
2. On weekdays that you assign homework, on average, about how many minutes do you assign? • Write in response in minutes
3. Do you assign homework on weekends? 1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
4. On weekends that you assign homework, on average, about how many minutes do you assign?
• Write in response in minutes
5. How many minutes of homework on weeknights is appropriate/ideal for your grade level? • Write in response
6. How many minutes of homework on weekend nights is appropriate/ideal for your grade level? • Write in response
7. My students receive the following types of homework a. Reading
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
b. Content Review 1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
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c. Independent Projects 1 – Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
d. Group Work
1 – Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
e. Other
o Record response on "Other: Teacher" document Section 2 8. Please indicate the reasons you assign homework using this scale: a. For skill practice
1 - Never 2 – Sometimes 3 - Always
b. To check for comprehension
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
c. To keep students occupied after school
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
d. It is school policy to assign it
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
e. To create a link between school and home
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
f. To prepare students for standardized tests
1 - Never 2 – Sometimes
3 - Always g. Pressure from parents
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
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h. Pressure from other teachers 1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
i. Pressure from school administration
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
j. To introduce upcoming content
1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
k. To develop work ethic/character 1 - Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
l. Other
o Record response on "Other: Teacher" document
9. Homework helps my students learn. 1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
10. Homework helps prepare my students for State/National standardized tests
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
11. My students seem to understand what I expect of them with the homework I assign.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
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12. My students seem to understand the actual content of their homework 1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
13. Homework is necessary in order to cover all of the required curriculum for a school year. 1 -
Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
14. Homework helps my students build character/work ethic. 1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 – Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
15. Homework is assigned to keep students occupied after school.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
16. The student performance on homework I observe guides my instruction the following day. 1 -
Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
17. Student choice (e.g. format, topic) is an aspect of how I assign homework.
1 – Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
18. Homework should be completed before extracurricular activities.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
111
19. My students are able to do their homework independently (e.g. without parents or tutors). 1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
20. My students enjoy/take pride in doing their homework independently.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 – Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
21. I grade the homework I assign.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
22. I give feedback on homework that is more than a letter grade or completion points.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
23. Homework has a positive impact on my students’ social and emotional health.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
24. My students get less sleep because of homework
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 – Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
25. My students have less time for extracurricular activities because of homework.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 – Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
112
26. My students have less time to spend with their family because of homework. 1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
27. My students have less time to spend with friends or on their hobbies because of homework
1 – Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
28. Doing their homework makes my students feel
• Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked a. Happy
b. Sad / Depression c. Frustrated / Angry
d. Stressed / Anxious
e. Curious / Interested
f. Not smart / Incompetent g. Bored h. Smart / Competent i. Tired
j. Excited
k. Confused l. Other
§ If checked 1, record response on "Other: Teacher" document
29. Does your school have a school-wide homework policy? 1 - Yes 2 - No 3 - I don't know
a. If yes, do you agree? Why or why not? • Record response on "Other: Teacher" document
b. If no, do you wish there was a policy? If so, what should it be?
• Record response on "Other: Teacher" document
113
c. If you could change anything about homework, what would you change? • Record response on "Other: Teacher" document
d. Is there anything else you would like to share with us?
• Record response on "Other: Teacher" document Section 3 30. What grade level(s) do you teach?
• Write in response
31. Do you teach at a Title 1 school? 1 - Yes
2 - No 3 - Other
32. How many years have you been teaching?
• Write in response
33. How many hours do you teach daily? • Write in response in minutes
34. What kind of classroom do you teach?
1- Gen. Ed. 2 - SPED 3 - GATE 4 - Self-Cont. 5 - Other
35. Do you have children? 1 - Yes 2 - No
a. If yes, how many? Write in response
b. If yes, what are their ages? Write in response on "Other: Teacher" document
36. Gender 1 - Female 2 - Male 3 - Other
37. Ethnicity
1 - White
114
2 - Black 3 - Hispanic 4 - American Indian 5 - Asian/Pacific Islander 6 - Other
115
Appendix N
Parent Coding Sheet
General Guidelines:
• Code parent survey as follows: • Code "99" if participant did not respond • For "other" items, code and access the "V3 Other Questions" document to record the
participant's response Section 1
1. On average, how many days per week is your child assigned homework? • Write in response
2. On weekdays that your child has homework, about how long does it take them to do it?
• Write in response in minutes
3. Does your child have homework on weekends? 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
4. On weekends that your child has homework, about how long does it take them to do it?
• Write response in minutes
5. How many minutes of homework on weeknights is appropriate/ideal for their grade level?
• Write response in minutes
6. How many minutes on weekend nights is appropriate/ideal for their grade level? • Write response in minutes
116
7. My child receives the following types of homework:
a. Reading 1 – Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
b. Content Review (e.g., worksheets) 1 – Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
c. Independent Projects 1 – Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
d. Group work 1 – Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
e. Other 1 – Never 2 - Sometimes 3 - Always
Section 2
8. Doing their homework makes my child feel… Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
a. Happy b. Sad/Depressed c. Frustrated/Angry d. Stressed/Anxious e. Curious/Interested f. Not smart/Incompetent g. Bored h. Smart/Competent i. Tired j. Excited k. Confused l. Other
117
9. When my child has a hard time completing their homework, it is because they: Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
a. Are tired b. Don't understand the subject c. Have too much homework d. Can't focus e. Have chores f. Don't have enough time g. Need help h. Have extracurricular activities i. Don't have a good place to work j. Other
10. When my child encounters a challenge in their homework, they
Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked a. Become determined : b. Take a break c. Cry d. Get distracted e. Become frustrated f. Ask for help g. Give up/say they can't do it h. Other
11. Homework helps my child learn.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
12. Homework helps prepare my child for State/National standardized tests (e.g., CAASPP,
STAR) 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
13. My child understands what is expected of them with the homework they receive.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
118
14. My child understands the content of their homework. 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
15. I myself understand the content of my child's homework.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
16. Homework is necessary in order to cover all of the required curriculum for a school year.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
17. Homework helps my child build character/work ethic.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
18. My child has homework that is just "busy work".
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
19. My child's teacher uses student performance on homework to guide their lessons the next
day. 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
20. My child has a choice/is given options (e.g., format, topic) about the homework they get.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes
119
4 - Often 5 - Always
21. Homework should be completed before extracurricular activities.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
22. My child is able to do their homework independently (e.g. without parents or tutors).
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
23. My child enjoys/takes pride in doing their homework independently.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
24. My child’s teacher grades the homework they assign my child.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
25. My child gets feedback on their homework that is more than a letter grade or completion
points. 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
26. Homework has a positive impact on my child’s social and emotional health.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
27. My child gets less sleep because of homework.
120
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
28. My child has less time for extracurricular activities because of homework.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
29. My child has less time to spend with their family because of homework.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
30. My child has less time to spend with friends because of homework.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
31. Homework brings us together as a family to focus on a joint goal.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
32. Homework creates a power struggle between my child and me.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
33. My child has less time to spend on hobbies because of homework.
1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
121
34. My child is a good student, considering their:
a. grades 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
b. work ethic 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
c. behavior 1 – Never
2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
35. Does your school have a school-wide homework policy?
1 – Yes 2 – No 3 – I don’t know
a. If yes, do you agree? Why or why not?
• Record response on "V3 Other Questions" document
b. If no, do you wish there was a policy? If so, what should it be? • Record response on "V3 Other Questions" document
c. If you could change anything about homework, what would you change?
• Record response on "V3 Other Questions" document Section 3
36. Please specify your child’s: a. Grade
• Write in response b. Age
• Write in response c. Gender:
1 – Female 2 – Male 3 – Other
122
d. Ethnicity: 1 – White 2 – Black 3 – Hispanic 4 – American Indian 5 – Asian/Pacific Islander 6 – Other
37. What is your relationship to this child? 1 – Mother 2 – Father 3 – Other and record response on “V3 Other Questions” Document
38. What is the composition of this child’s household?
1 - Both parents full-time 2 - Both parents, equal custody part-time 3 - Both parents, unequal part-time (please specify custody/visitation) 4 - Single parent 5 - Step parents 6 - Other: Record response on "V3 Other Questions" document
39. What is the highest level of education completed by the child’s guardian (mother, father,
other)? a. mother, father, other?
1 – Mother 2 – Father 3 – Other and record response on “V3 Other Questions” Document
b. highest level 1 - Less than high school 2 - Some high school 3 - High school diploma 4 - Some College 5 - College-2 year degree 6 - College-4 year degree 7 - Advanced college degree 8 - Unknown
40. What is the highest level of education completed by any other primary guardian (mother,
father, other)? a. mother, father, other?
1 – Mother 2 – Father 3 – Other and record response on “V3 Other Questions” Document
b. highest level 1 - Less than high school 2 - Some high school 3 - High school diploma
123
4 - Some College 5 - College-2 year degree 6 - College-4 year degree 7 - Advanced college degree 8 - Unknown
41. What kind of classroom is your child a student in? 1 – Gen. Ed
2 – SPED 3 – GATE 4 – Self-Cont. 5 – Other and record response on “V3 Other Questions” Document
42. What is the primary language is spoken in home...
a. by the child 1 – English 2 – Spanish 3 – Other and record response on “V3 Other Questions” Document
b. by the adults 1 – English 2 – Spanish 3 – Other and record response on “V3 Other Questions” Document
43. Does your child participate in extracurricular activities (e.g., sports, music, clubs)? 1 – Yes
2 – No a. Nights per week
• Write in response b. Minutes per night
• Write in response in minutes c. Sports
• Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked d. Music
• Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked e. Theatre
• Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked f. Clubs
• Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked g. After school day care
• Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
124
44. About how many hours of sleep does your child get each night? • Write in response in minutes
45. Is there anything else you would like to share with us?
• Record response on "V3 Other Questions" document
46. Last column: Survey was completed in... 1 – English 2 – Spanish 3 – Farsi/Dari
125
Appendix O
Student Coding Sheet General Guidelines:
• Code student survey as follows: • Code "99" if participant did not respond • For "other" items, code and access the "V3 Other Questions" document to record the
participant's response
Section 1
1. On average, how many days per week do you have homework? • Write in response
2. Do you have homework on weekends?
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
3. About how long does it take you to do homework…?
a. weekdays • Write in response in minutes
b. weekends
• Write in response in minutes
4. How many minutes of homework should there be…? a. weekdays
• Write in response in minutes b. weekends
• Write in response in minutes
126
Section 2 5. Starting homework while I’m at school makes me feel...
Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked a. Happy b. Sad/Depressed
c. Frustrated/Angry
d. Stressed/Anxious e. Curious/Interested
f. Not Smart/Incompetent g. Bored
h. Smart/Competent
i. Tired
j. Excited
k. Other • Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked and Record response on "Other
Questions" document
l. Confused 6. Working on my homework at home makes me feel … Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
a. Happy b. Sad/Depressed c. Frustrated/Angry d. Stressed/Anxious e. Curious/Interested f. Not Smart/Incompetent g. Bored h. Smart/Competent i. Tired j. Excited k. Other
• Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked and Record response on "V3 Other Questions" document l. Confused
127
7. When my homework is too hard, it is because I... Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
a. Am tired b. Don't understand the subject c. Have too much homework d. Can't focus e. Have chores
f. Don't have enough time g. Need help h. Have extracurricular activities i. Don't have a good place to work j. Confused
8. When my homework is too hard, I… Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
a. Stick with it b. Take a break c. Cry d. Can't focus e. Get mad
f. Ask for help
g. Give up/say I can't do it
h. Other • Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked and Record response on "V3 Other
Questions" document Free response Question:
• If you could change anything about homework, what would you change? • If student responds, record response on "V3 Other Questions" document
9. Homework helps me learn.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
128
10. Homework helps me prepare for State/National standardized tests (like the CAASPP or START test).
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 – Sometimes
4 - Often 5 - Always 11. I understand what is expected of me in my homework.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 – Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
12. I understand the subjects in my homework.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
13. We need homework to make sure we get through all the material in our school year.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
14. Homework helps me build good habits/work ethic.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
15. My teacher gives me homework just to keep me busy.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
16. My teacher looks at how we do on our homework and teaches the next day based on that.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often
129
5 - Always 17. I have a choice in the type of the homework I get.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
18. It’s best to do my homework before extracurricular activities like sports, music, or clubs.
1 – Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
19. I can do my homework by myself (without parents or tutors).
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
20. I enjoy/take pride in doing my homework by myself.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
21. My teacher gives me a grade or points for doing the homework they assign me.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 – Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
22. I get feedback on my homework more than just a grade or points for doing it.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
23. Homework makes me feel good about myself.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes
130
4 - Often 5 - Always
24. I get less sleep because of homework.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
25. I have less time for extracurricular activities because of homework.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
26. I have less time to spend with my family because of homework.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
27. I have less time to spend with my friends because of homework.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
28. I have less time to spend on things I like to do for fun because of homework.
1 - Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
29. Homework brings us together as a family to work on things together.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
30. Homework creates fights in my family.
1 - Never 2 - Rarely
131
3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
31. I am a good student when I think about…
a. my grades 1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
b. how hard I work
1 - Never 2 – Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
c. how well I behave
1 - Never 2 - Rarely 3 - Sometimes 4 - Often 5 - Always
Section 3 32. Grade
• Write in response
33. Age • Write in response
34. Gender
1 - Female 2 - Male 3 - Other; Record response on "Other: Student" document
35. Do you participate in extracurricular activities?
a. How many nights per week? • Write in response
b. How many minutes per night? • Write response in minutes
c. Sports • Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
d. Music • Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
e. Theatre • Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
132
f. Clubs • Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
g. After school day care • Code 0 if not checked, code 1 if checked
36. About how many hours of sleep do you get each night?
• Write in response in hours
Free Response Question:
• Is there anything else you would like to share with us? • Record response on "V3 Other Questions" document
133
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