Sánchez/Mútiz 1

The impact of Cuban immigration on Jamaica’s history and culture:

The 90’s in Review

Maria Sanchez and Iris Mútiz, Northern Caribbean University

Introduction

The isolation of Cuba within the Caribbean region is a fact in current political

geography. Reasons, which can be found deep into the historiography of the region, range

from the socio political differences among the Caribbean islands to the US imposed

political and economic embargo against Cuba. This separation, however, denies the

historical evolution of the Caribbean; which points more towards a vast complex unity

than to a composite of detached islands. That is, despite any real or imposed separation,

the Caribbean is “a unique and complex concatenation of virtually every ethnic group in

the world” (Hillman, 11).

Hillman (2003:8) opposes the alleged separation by referring to an “approach

(which) reveals that beneath obvious differences lie similarities in common historical

themes, geopolitical and socio-cultural contexts, economic experiences, and

accommodation patterns that reflect the pressures of congruent sociopolitical

environments (and that) there has been significant convergence of mutual economic and

political interests to warrant the promotion of improved relations between the diverse

Caribbean states.”

An undeniable part of this complex Caribbean unity, Cuba is not alien to this

historical reality. This may seem a truism to many; but not to most Cubans living in other

Caribbean islands, and who more than often face the fact that many do not acknowledge

Cuba as part of the region; mainly based on political considerations. However, Cuba’s

membership within the wider Caribbean is afforded by proven socio historical ties;

especially between families which, despite residing in two or more countries, continue to

preserve their bond; as shown in regular correspondence and migratory flow.

Caribbean unity, furthermore, rests on the geographical closeness among the

islands. This proximity has been a major factor of inter-island migration; including the

migratory process from Cuba into Jamaica and vice versa. This process, which can be

traced back to pre-historical times, accentuated during and after the 19th

Century; as seen

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on an announcement published on a mid- November edition of the Daily Gleaner

referring to the arrival of Cubans into Jamaica:

The steamer “Tampico” arrived on November 5, 1868 from Santiago with

upwards of 100 men and women, among them ladies and gentlemen, who

are fleeing to a place of safety ere the worst comes about in a serious crisis

which appears to be looming up, if indeed it was not already begun, in the

island of Cuba. (Gambril,107).

Physical proximity, thus, as well as a peaceful environment1, appealed to most of

the 19th Century Cuban immigrants into Jamaica, who needed shelter and stable

conditions to fulfil their migratory goals.

Another factor usually referred to when explaining Caribbean separation is the

alleged cultural differences between the Hispanic and the English-speaking Caribbean.

Hillman (8) argues that “Hispanic countries within the Caribbean have been considered

an integral part of Latin America, and the English-speaking countries have been excluded

based on the assumption that different cultural heritages require a fundamentally different

analytical framework”. These cultural differences, however, have not prevented Cubans

from regularly migrating to Jamaica and managing to establish themselves, in some

instances raising their economic and financial status to remarkable levels in this

Anglophone Island.

The above ideas underlie the creation of this paper, bringing forth questions such

as: How have Cubans adapted and succeeded in the Jamaican context? How have they

managed to transcend cultural and political boundaries? Have they managed to preserve

their cultural traditions?

The paper emphasizes mostly in a comparative analysis of two decades: The 90’s

of the 19th

and 20th

centuries, based on the critical historical moments which marked the

lives of Cubans during those times. This comparison provides some answers to the

proposed questions by showing the peculiar features of the immigrant population at both

times, considering the compelling political and financial realities affecting those migrant

groups.

1 The history of Jamaica does not record a wide scale war like the Wars of Independence in Cuba.

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Furthermore, the comparative analysis of some of the most outstanding Cuban

business ventures during those decades in Jamaica allows understanding the rationale

behind their establishment, and provides valid information regarding the socio economic

and cultural impact of those generations.

Regrettably, there is a significant lack of academic studies about Cuban

immigration into Jamaica. Therefore, information has been mainly collected from

primary sources. The main source for studying the decade of the 1890’s was the local

newspaper the Daily Gleaner. The decade of the 1990’s was mainly surveyed by means

of face-to-face or electronic interviews with Cubans residing in Jamaica; as well as visits

to the places where Cubans regularly interact. These sources offered a direct day-to-day

vision of the lives Cubans lead in Jamaica.

Early Gleaner Review

A review of the Daily Gleaner2 publications during the decade of the 1890’s

reveals significant changes in the Jamaican commercial landscape. The regular

publication of advertisements indicates that several companies established by Cuban

nationals were conducting business in Kingston, Jamaica. This fact springs from the

regular marketing presence in the Daily Gleaner. It is interesting to note, in this regards,

that the Gleaner newspaper was mostly a commercial sheet at the time.

In its beginnings, the Daily Gleaner was a publication with few analytical

columns or local news items. International news were mainly introduced under the

heading “Telegrams” and, later in the decade, “Latest Telegrams”, with no analyses of

the news items. During the decade of the 1890’s, the newspaper already counted 15 to 20

pages, but still mostly showing merchandising information. It is interesting to note that,

in such considerable merchandising space, Cuban companies had a regular appearance; a

fact which proves their marketing acumen and aggressiveness.

Such commercial expertise evidenced despite the noticeable diversity of the

Cuban migrant population. Such population included “wealthy white Creoles, black field

2 “The Gleaner was born as a four-page weekly nerwspaper, issued on Saturday, September 13, 1834…It is the oldest newspaper in

the Caribbean currently being published.” (http://www.jamaicandiaspora.org/profiles/gleaner.htm

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hands and penniless middle class families, fighting men temporarily removed from

action, and revolutionary leaders seeking moral and financial support.” (Gambril, 108).

“The representatives of the upper rich immigrant hacendados established and

consolidated the Tobacco industry, an industry new to Jamaica but which was, in fact,

one of the main pillars of Cuban economic history” (Gambrill, 109).

The history of the tobacco industry in Jamaica,

therefore, is closely linked to the arrival of Cuban

immigrants, some of which had economic resources

to establish businesses, while most had a vast

commercial experience that allowed them to be

successful in establishing and positioning those businesses

within the Jamaican market.

Diversity in the 1990’s immigration should be viewed

from a different angle, especially due to the severe implication

of the crisis known as “Special Period” which brought forth the

“preoccupation on the part of the Cubans emanating from

virtually all social sectors, with finding a way to migrate.”

(McGarrity,57). This diversity has triggered a diverse impact as well. Unlike the 1890’s

immigrants, the post-1959 Cubans enjoy noticeable humanistic education, but very poor

business acumen; as a result of which Cuban impact during the 1990’s has been

evidenced mostly on cultural aspects (education,

music, dance, health), but practically unnoticed on the

commercial sector.

1890’s Cuban Immigration Impact on the

Tobacco Industry

The emergence and consolidation of the Tobacco

sector was one of the most relevant contributions of

Cubans during the 1890’s. It is known of the importance of tobacco seeds imported from

Cuba and how they allowed a considerable growth of Tobacco plantations, production

and merchandising, a contribution mostly attributed to the Palomino, Machado and

1

3

2

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Chacon families. These families are still remembered as the most successful tobacco

producers in Jamaica.

Lorenzo Garcia, a Palomino descendent still living in

Kingston, Jamaica, recounts how his great great-

grandfather “brought some seeds and planted them. In

time they had built plantations in Chappleton, May Penn;

Saint Thomas and Clarendon.” (Garcia, Personal

Interview).

One of the tobacco advertisements with daily appearance in the Gleaner reads:

Two facts can be surmised from a careful reading of the content of the above

advertisement. First, it is testimony of the competition to which these tobacco

merchandisers were exposed at the time; evidenced by the considerable number of

tobacco advertisements published by the Daily Gleaner during the decade. Secondly, it

shows how, in the midst of this competition, Cuban companies managed to imprint their

mark; indicated by the language used in the advertisement. A linguistic analysis reveals

that the language structure resembles more Spanish than English. This was also true for

several other advertisements published by the Cuban merchandisers of the time. These

merchandisers were not concerned about the linguistic purity of their message, as long as

they could get the message across. These two facts speak about the business acumen and

audacity of 1890’s Cuban merchants who were neither shied away by the competitive

environment, nor by a different linguistic environment.

DE LA HABANA

REVOLUTION

IN THE CIGAR TRADE

Owing to the vast amount of inferior Cigars placed in the market a reduced

rates, combined with enormous discounts, I am determined, having as my

ensign “THE FLOWER OF HAVANA” to maintain the high reputation of

my Cigars, by giving nothing but superior quality with fair discounts, and

to the wise a few words are sufficient they will readily see the advantages

that they will obtain by purchasing where quality and superiority of

manufacture with the best of material can be guaranteed and obtained at

The Flower of Havana.

L. Quesada

68 Kings Street

Country orders will receive our best attention and prompt dispatch.

4

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The Flor de la Habana advertisement appeared regularly in the Gleaner at a very

visible spot during the month of January 1892. On February 8, 1892, it was placed right

beneath Machado’s advertisement:

The publication of these advertisements

evidences the competition existing among these

companies, as well as their marketing aggressiveness.

The tobacco industry grew in success, not only

because of the producers’ knowledge about tobacco

growing and manufacturing, but also due to “their

(Cubans’) determination to succeed in an unfamiliar

environment with little hope of returning to their homeland” (Gambrill, 2004:110).

The Machado family enjoyed a considerable

preponderance in the emerging tobacco industry of the time,

being involved in the entire tobacco cycle, from plantation to

production to distribution. They were also involved in Cuban

politics; as evidenced in Benito Machado’s meeting with Jose

Marti in Temple Hall:

“…José Martí visited Temple Hall, presumably to meet with the tobacco

growers, a mission continued from his meetings with the Tampa tobacco

workers. On that occasion José Martí was photographed beside Don

Benito Machado with whom he spent 10 days.” (Gambrill, 2004:109).

Jamaica International Exhibition

THE ONLY DIPLOMA OF HONOR

Messes, B. & J.B. MACHADO respectfully call the attention of their

friends and patrons to the fact that their firm have received a Diploma of

Honor, the highest award possible as well as a Gold Medal for their

exhibits of Cigars and Cigarettes, thereby irrefutably proving the

superiority of their world-wide known Cigars as regards to their quality,

manufacture and style of putting up”

6

5

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On a detailed article, the Daily Gleaner of October 13, 1892, described the

meeting held by Cuban immigrants in Kingston, Jamaica on the occasion of the

constitution of the Revolutionary party:

“In all parts of the world Cubans meet of the 10th of October to celebrate

their “Declaration of Independence,” and this year the event was not

forgotten. Those in Jamaica met on Monday evening in the upper room of

Snr. Rondon’s establishment in Duke Street to the number of about

25…The delegate Snr Jose Marti closed with an eloquent and minute

exposition of the actual constitution of the island, the dangers to be

avoided in the creation of the Republic, and the means by which the

Cuban people hope to found an equitable and working constitution.”

The presence of Cuban commercial and political activities in the Daily Gleaner

speaks about the impact left by 9th

Century Cuban immigrants. Regular advertising

evidences the harsh competition; not only with Jamaican or other companies, but also

among Cuban companies. This also points towards the economic impact, especially in the

Tobacco sector; which resulted in an important development in the Jamaican economic

landscape. Jean Stubbs (1996:51) summarises the impact of tobacco industry as follows:

“Tobacco was grown and manufactured in Jamaica by Cubans fleeing from

Cuba’s First War of Independence from Spain (1868-1878). Within thirty years,

what initially developed as an economic mainstay of the émigré community and

became a springboard for support of the continued independence effort had

evolved into a Jamaican tobacco sector, with British and U.S. capital”

Language and Language Education during the 1890’s

The economic impact of the Cuban immigrants had been also possible on account

of the considerable cultural impact derived from the migratory wave initiated during the

1860’s as a result of the break of the War of Independence in Cuba. A review of the

articles and advertisements in the Daily Gleaner evidences the existence of a cultural

process, mainly visible in the area of language, language education and arts. The

emerging language need in Jamaica is evidenced in the advertisement below, published

on December 19, 1868 by the Daily Gleaner:

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TUITION IN SPANISH

SENOR PEDRO AGUERO, Professor of Languages, and formerly

Chief Master of one of the superior Educational Establishments of

Cuba for a space of 20 years, has the honor to offer his services to the

gentry and public of this City, in the instruction of the noble Spanish

Language which is becoming daily more important to the Sister Islands

of the West Indies. From the difficulty the meets the Cubanese3 in the

Fashionable Stores of this City, to be understood by the Clerks in

attendance he takes the opportunity to begin a course of instruction for

adults at convenient hours. Nor will he deprive the Ladies of the

advantage now offered to learn Spanish in a much shorter time than

usual, by a method peculiarly his own, and he will open a Ladies

Academy, if a sufficient number should apply. He assures that his

pupils will, in a short time, enjoy all the advantages of Spanish society,

by making themselves perfectly understood.

For terms apply at his Lodgings, Eagle House, No.1, Corner King and

Barry Streets.

PEDRO AGUERO

A linguistic analysis of the advertisement above shows that its creator was not as

knowledgeable of English as he was of Spanish; which did not stop him from trying to

market his company. Señor Pedro Agüero had found a niche. He had seen a potential new

trend in the Daily Gleaner with the publication of advertisements in Spanish, a need

derived from the arrival of wealthy Cubans (who might be good custom for the

salesmen); as well as other persons, who could not speak English. This trend offers an

idea of how relevant it was becoming for businesses to reach their customs in their

mother tongue; a novelty in the daily publication, and the promise of a profitable business

for the Cuban Professor.

Several other advertisements target the same market; a fact which shows

awareness on the part of several commercial companies operating in Jamaica about the

need to communicate with this immigrant population. Using Spanish in their

advertisement became a marketing tool to bring into effect the opportunity of increasing

their custom base and, ultimately, their sales. The preceding assumption finds testimony

in the advertisements reproduced below, which appear in the December 8 and 26 edition

of the daily Gleaner in 1868:

3 As spelled on the advertisement.

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AVISO

COMPTON HOUSE

CASA COMPTON

En aquel establecimiento siempre se halla un gran surtido de las

mercancías siguientes, directamente importadas de las mercados

ingleses y estrangeros4, las que se venden muy barato…

AVISO

SATRERIA DE ALBERT MOSES & CO.

ESTE establecimiento hace compras y vende ropa, hecha de todas

clases y de todas modas a precios módicos. Los pedidos se hacen en

poco tiempo y con puntualidad. El Dueño habla español. (Vive) No. 3.

North East Cormer of …Frente a Mr. G.

Language and Politics

Nowadays, the use of Spanish in the Jamaica Gleaner is rare. It has been done on

special occasions, as was the case of a recent headline discussing Fidel Castro’s

withdrawal as President of Cuba. The front page headline “Adios Fidel” (See Annex IX)

brought mixed feelings to the Cubans residing in Jamaica, since the word “adios” gave a

sense of eulogy rather than a greeting. However, anyone aware of the usage of certain

terms in modern socio linguistics would recognize that the Jamaican “adios” was not

exactly an indication of death; it was simply a way to empathize with a situation relevant

to the interests of most Jamaican readers. The content of the article was entirely in

English; which reveals the author’s eye-catching strategic use of Spanish. The same

strategy was used by the second national newspaper, the Jamaica Observer, on an article

about the same issue with the headline “Vaya con Dios, Fidel”, published on February

20, 2008.

The situation, however, was different in 19th

Century Jamaica. On December 21,

1868, the text of a letter entirely in Spanish was published:

“CUBA, y dieciembre5 13, 1868

Muy Sr. mio, La revolucion adelanta , á paso de gigante: con dificultad se podría

caminar bajo pié tan segron en tan poco tiempo y en medio de las mil dificultades que se

presentan para proveerse de armas.

Hoy la insurrección ocupa todo el Departamento Oriental, y el Gobierno sin elementos

de ninguna clase, no sabe qué hacerse, qué partido tomar. Cerca de Puerto Príncipe ha

sido derrotada completamente la columna de Operaciones del Conde de Balmaceda,

4 As spelled on the advertisement.

5 The spelling has been reproduced exactly as it appears in the newspaper.

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habiendosele hecho un espantoso número de bajas, habiendo salido malamente herido

Balmaceda y habiendo tenido que retroceder á Puerto Principe. Los insurrectos eran

mandados por el general camagueyano Augusto Arango.

Al Marques de Santa Lucia con lo mas escogido de la juventud de Puerto Principe se ha

lanzado al campo, y hoy se cuentan á los alrededores de la ciudad mas de 12,000

insurrectos perfectamente armados y equipados. La guarnicion entera de Holguin tuvo

que capitular, y hoy se halla prisionera de guerra con todas sus provisiones de guerra.

Hacía ya días que esta ciudad se hallaba en poder de los insurrectos y desde el 18 del

mes pasado publica un periódico con el nombre La estrella de Cuba.

El Coronel Loño, que salió de la Habana y desde el principio de la acción se hallaba

situado en las Tunas, después de haberle dado fuego miserablemente al pueblo de

Manatí, ha sido batido por la tropas del general Modesto Diaz, en cuya acción ha

muerto el coronel Loño. Como una buena presa conservan los insurrectos prisionera al

tristemente célebre coronel Campiño apellidado por sus por sus mismos soldados el

verdugo español.

Guantánamo hizo una pequeña resistencia á un cuerpo de insurrectos que se presentó,

haciéndole un gran número de muertos y heridos y es regular que con un segundo ataque

tenga al fin que rendirse.

Las tropas españolas después de la cacareada victoria del Cobre á cuatro leguas de esta

Ciudad, tuvo que evacuarla, y hoy en el Cobre funcionan las autoridades de los

insurrectos, habiendo hecho trincheras y todas clases de defensa para el caso de que

quieran volver las tropas españolas.

El Caney, á una legua de Cuba, ha sido también evacuado, y según van las cosas,

tenemos que esta ciudad se evacuará también. Todos los días se van á centenares jóvenes

de Cuba y voluntarios del país.

Se ha cortado el acueducto de esta ciudad y dentro de pocos días no habrá agua que

beber. El gobierno no se atreve á mover sus tropas. Esta ciudad, con sus 40,000 almas

hace días sufre la agradable peripecia del sitio, siendo muy contadas las personas y los

víveres que pueden entrar en la ciudad.

La población de Cuba, hasta los mismos peninsulares, lo mismo que los extranjeros

simpatizan con la insurrección, de manera que creemos que el Gobierno es un momento

dado no podrá obrar en medio de la escasez de recursos de que dispone. En Villa-Clara

y Sancti Spíritus hay amagos también de una revolución y es probable que en uno de

estos días haya un golpe de mano fuerte en Matanzas y la Vuelta Abajo, de manera que

ya entonces la insurrección no estará reducida á solo este Departamento, sino tambien al

del centro y al Occidental. Qué le quedará entonces al Gobierno?

Esta actitud no demuestra otra cosa sino el gran disgusto que habia en todas las clases

de la sociedad y la especie de horror que á todos inspiraba el Gobierno con sus medidas

bárbaras y ruinosas.

El Gobierno todos los dias da noticias de triunfos y batallas ganadas, pero todo es

falsedad lo cierto es que la insurrección cuenta ya dos meses y tres dias y todos los dias

se van evacuando pueblos y se pasa gente para los insurrectos.

Entre las falsedades que publica el Gobierno se cuenta la siguiente que es preciso

desvanecer. Dice que las insurrección es obra de los dominiacanos y mejicanos que se

hallaban aquí y a los cuales el Gobierno habia socorrido con generosidad. Esceptuando

a los Generales Modesto Diaz y Franciso Marcano, que son de Santo Domingo y les

estan dando que hacer a las tropas del Gobierno se cuentan en los siguientes generales

todos del pais.

Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, Capn Gral, et al

EL CORRESPONSAL

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The publication of this letter leads to several conclusions:

- There was a considerable Cuban presence in Jamaica;

- There was a growing interest on Cuban war issues;

- There was an increase in the Spanish reading public;

- There were attempts to provide information to those who were cooperating

with the war in Cuba, namely in favour of the insurrect side; as further shown

in the advertisement below:

ALERTA, CUBANOS, ALERTA!!!

Si, hermanos, tres zorros con levitas y vestidos como los demas hijos

de Adán, se han introducido entre nosotros, mezclándose en nuestras

conversaciones familiares o patrióticas, y hablando mal del gobierno

español, del cual poco o nada nos ocupamos.

¿Qué merece el hombre que acepta el honroso cargo de Espía?

No vayais a pronunciar una sentencia demasiado fuerte contra él: es un

miserable reptil mas digno de desprecio que de castigo

The linguistic situation in Jamaica, especially in regards to the use of Spanish in the

Daily Gleaner, had resulted from Cuban immigration into the island during the second

half of the 19th Century. The market niche opened with the arrival of Spanish speakers,

in turn, prompted the creation of teaching/learning opportunities, as testimony of the

commercial impact of Cuban immigration.

On the other hand, the political aspect of 19th century Cuban immigration also had an

impact on language usage in the Jamaica Gleaner; as many Cuban supporters of the

insurrect forces used the Daily Gleaner as a platform to announce and transmit strategic

and political messages to a specific reading public. This tendency intensified in the

1890’s when the Daily Gleaner became a source of regularly updated information about

political events in Cuba; thus ensuring to keep insurrect supporters and, by extension,

Jamaicans, abreast of the situation. The Maine reports, the Sanjon talks and the Baragua

Protest, the drafting of the Constitution after the Declaration of Independence from Spain,

the social unrest created by the war, Spain’s human and military losses, reports about the

insurrect actions in Cuba; as well as activities by immigrants in Jamaica appeared

regularly on Daily Gleaner publications.

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On October 12, 1995, the Gleaner reported:

CUBANS CELEBRATING

The anniversary of the first uprising in Cuba, which occurred on

10th October, 1868, was commemorated on Thursday when the

Cubans in Kingston assembled en masse at 68 King Street, and

celebrated the occasion by recalling memories of that day and

promulgating the principles of liberty and independence. The hall

in which the meeting was held was crowded with enthusiastic

Cuban patriots who recalled the glories of Cuba and pictured the

future when the yoke would be removed. Mr. Rondon, president of

the Cuban Society in Jamaica, presided, and gave a succinct resume

of the proceedings in Cuba so far as they were known up to the

present time. One gentleman who has just arrived from Cuba gave a

narrative of his experiences and an expression of opinion as to the

future of the insurrection. Rousing speeches were delivered by

other Cubans and the meeting terminated at a late hour with the

patriotic cry “Viva Cuba Libra6”

The above announcement remains as a reminder of the political commitment of

many 19th Century Cuban immigrants with their national cause. One aspect to consider is

the active role played by their social organization – the Cuban Society- which shows how

these Cubans managed to gather under one type of association. This aspect of Cuban

immigration contrasts sharply with 20th Century Cuban immigration, as will be analysed

further on.

The patriotic fervour of Cuban immigrants was often displayed on the Daily Gleaner,

as evidenced in the poem below published on January 16, 1897:

“CUBA LIBREY7”

Lands of Liberty; why stand and see

Cuba’s wild struggle to be free

And lend no helping hand?

And look you now on hideous wrong;

Nor raise your voice in protest strong;

To champion this trodden land?

2

Deeds the mere mention did we name

Would pallid make the cheek with shame

And make her stand aghast

Done in this glorious century’s end;

When peace should every effort lend

To make war of the past.

3

But No, each day the setting sun

6 Advertisement spelling

7 Advertisement spelling

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Has looked upon new murder done

‘Gainst every human Law;

Not slain in fair and open strife

But murdered by the assassin’s knife

Beneath the guise of War.

4

Such Horror done in days like these,

Unthinking men now at your ease,

Who know not grief nor pain;

Such crime in this enlightened age

Will darkly blot our history’s page

And leave a bloody stain.

5

The cause is just; rise up in might,

Let not such wrong o’ercome the right,

And stay the blood that’s shed;

Dry up a weeping sister’s tears,

And know you this; in after years

New wreaths will crown your heads.

A.J.H.

The author was making a passionate call to the “Lands of Liberty”, presumably

the United States, to raise their voice in support of Cuba; one of the trends within the

Independence movement at the end of the 19th the Century in Cuba which supported the

United States taking part in the conflict.

At the end of the 19th

Century, therefore, Cuban immigrants had not only

established themselves in Jamaica and made a living, but they had also impacted on the

press industry by creating an information niche for the Daily Gleaner. This fact explains

the publication of the following articles on Antonio Maceo and General Weyler on

Tuesday, Jan 12, 1897:

BRIGHT PARAGRAPHS: THE CUBAN REBELLION

Antonio Maceo, the Cuban rebel general who seems according to the Latest

telegrams to be surviving another report of his death, has had a most

adventurous career. He is –for we suppose we must still use the present tense- a

Cuban mulatto, his father being a muleteer. Their house was burnt by the

Spaniards in the rebellion of 1869, and the women-folk brutally illtreated. Of

Marcus Maceo and his ten stalwart sons all swore revenge, and they all joined

the insurgents. In that long and savage struggle, which lasted for fourteen years,

one by one the Maceos fell in battle. At last only the eldest – Antonio- was left.

He has risen in the confidence of the insurgents, and become one of their leaders.

He continued the desultory conflict until at last the Spaniards were glad to

promise him a safe conduct for himself and his officers to Jamaica. In New York

and Costa Rica, the big desperate mulatto with his heart full of race-hatred

against his oppressors studied military matters and in Feb. 1895, landed in Cuba

with some friends. They were surrounded by the Spaniards, but Maceo, who

knew the trailess forest of the island like a book, slipped through the cordon, and

Sánchez/Mútiz 14

after terrible hardships, reached safety. He soon had a thousand men under his

standard, and cleared one province of the Spaniards. By avoiding open

engagements, but lying in ambush, he has inflicted many defeats on the Spanish

troops, who have been utterly unable to dislodge him. His lack of artillery has

made it impossible for him to attack the enemy’s forts, but he has inflicted

immense losses upon them.

The notable figure on the Spanish side is Gen. Weyler, who was not long ago

appointed to succeed General Martinez Campos as Captain General. He seems

as unfortunate as his predecessor, for the Cuban rebels refuse to be

exterminated. In the last Cuban War Gen. Weyler was a colonel in the Spanish

Army, and the partisans of the Cubans in New York tell terrible tales of his

merciless cruelties to the men and women who fell into his hands. When he

landed in Havana it was generally understood that he was prepared to take

drastic measures with the rebels. One of his orders has been to order all non-

rebels to leave the insurgent districts, in order to cut off supplies to rebels, whom

they secretly supplied. He has also dealt very harshly with the American vessels,

which have been captured on suspicion of being blockade runners. One or two

correspondents of the New York newspapers have been expelled from Havana by

his orders, but he has never succeeded in stopping the supplies of food and

ammunition which somehow or other reach the rebels.

The contrast between the above historical characters would not pass unnoticed to

anyone familiar with the events unfolding in Cuba during that time. The advised reader

would recognize the intention of contrasting the deeds and personalities of two of the

most renowned participants in the 19th

Century Cuban War. The way Maceo is depicted

is far from the uncompromised language of the press. It is interesting to note, however,

that on the day of publication of the article Maceo had been dead for a month. The delay

in information could be attributed to the fact that at the time information was transmitted

by cable telegrammes or by vessel cargoes, which at times were not as expeditious as

desired.

Cultural Impact

The Daily Gleaner publications attest to the degree of the cultural impact of Cuban

immigration into Jamaica. On October 6 and 10,” 1892 a “Cuban concert” was

advertised. It was a charity concert “in aid of Cuban widows and orphans. But Jamaica

was not new to Cuban performances. From the second half of the 19th Century, Cuban

artists and performers had been visiting Jamaica, and many were praised; as evidenced by

the reviews on the performance of the Cuban magician Blanch published on November

25, 1868:

Sánchez/Mútiz 15

SENOR BLANCH gave his first performance at the Theatre Royal on

Tuesday evening...With regard to the entertainment, we but express

the general opinion of those present when we say that, of the many

Prestigistors8 who have visited this country during these many years

past, there has not been one who can be mentioned in comparison with

the extraordinary Gentleman who is now before the Kingston public.”

Blanch’s performance was so laudable that an additional special concert was

advertised for Christmas Eve on December 23, 1868:

Theatre Royal

Grand Combinations

For CHRISTMAS EVE CONCERT

AND

LEGERDEMAIN!

SEÑOR BLANCH The Celebrated Wizard

AND

SEÑOR FUENTES The Eminent Violinist and

COMPOSER

Assisted by Little Prodigy Lauranito Fuentes

It is interesting to note that the above advertises also the performance of Laureano

Fuentes Matons, one of the most celebrated 19th

Century

Cuban musicians, also “the first Cuban musician to have

written an opera on the island, and a true symphonic poem.

(Carpentier, 1946: 235). Laureanito, his son, was also an

important Cuban musician.

Thus, the Jamaican society was opening up to the

Cuban culture during the second half of the 19th

Century; a

phenomenon notably repeated during the decade of the

1990’s with the blooming of Spanish language schools,

Latin nights, the inclusion of several Cuban teachers of

different subjects in the school system and, even, a tendency

towards a Cuban inspired “Latin look”, mostly on the part of young Jamaican women.

8 As spelled on the advertisement.

7

Sánchez/Mútiz 16

The 1990’s generation

The 1990’s was a period of extreme difficulty for Cubans. Swamped by the severe

economic crisis known as “Special Period”, hundreds of Cubans decided to abandon

loved ones, properties and their homeland in search for a relieve which could allow them

to survive and have their relatives back home survive, which points towards economic

reasons as the main cause for migration.

Some aspects remain the same in the Cuban immigrants. Their love for their

homeland, their undeniable dedication to relatives left behind, their desire to work and

succeed with the hope of returning, the constant agony of being away; as well as the

desire to build a “little Cuba” wherever they reside. The latter is very visible in the Cuban

immigration into the United States where Cubans have created entire neighbourhoods “a

la Cubana”. The situation have been different in Jamaica, where immigrants have been

less successful in their attempts to recreate their Mother culture.

The reasons for such situation would need deeper consideration, but primary

observation points towards the transient or temporary character of Cuban immigration

into Jamaica. It has been observed that a considerable number of Cubans continue their

journey towards the United States, only using Jamaica as a springboard to reach the

“promised” American land. This feeling of transience may have had a negative impact on

the desire to establish businesses, or create communities based on Cuban standards.

Another possible reason lies on the limited financial possibilities of the vast

majority of Cuban immigrants. Nevertheless, despite their financial deprivation, the

1990’s generation of immigrants carried a considerable humanistic wealth, based on their

high educational and professional level. That is why, though lacking the capacity to build

and sustain businesses, they have shown a remarkable tendency to impact on the cultural

side of the social spectrum of Jamaica.

Different from their 19th century compatriots, Cuban immigrants at the end of the

20th

Century have shown less regard for politics. In general, Cubans in Jamaica have tried

to remain aside by distancing themselves from the political life in their homeland or

Jamaica. This aspect of the Cuban immigration also deserves a separate study; but it may

be empirically related to the failure in establishing a social organization able to unite all

Sánchez/Mútiz 17

or, at least, most of the Cubans living in Jamaica. It has been observed that many Cubans

see any attempt of creating a social organisation or association as a political move.

Attempts of Association

The idea of an association has always been latent among

Cuban immigrants residing in Jamaica. In the 19th Century,

the Cuban Society played a vital role in uniting Cuban

immigrants around a common cause: Supporting the War of

Independence in Cuba, and the ideal of independence from

Spain. The desire to associate as compatriots has continued

to be part of Cuban immigration. According to Rosa Nuñes,

a Jamaican-born Cuban, whose father immigrated in the

1920’s, Cubans from that time remain very close. They

gather for special occasions, and every time calls for

celebration. It is interesting to note that that generation of

immigrants have tried to keep their roots alive and do not

brush aside the possibility of associating with other Cubans.

Her nephew Chris Nuñez, who has never been to Cuba,

affirms without hesitation that he would like “to rekindle his

roots”. The Nuñez family have maintained ties with their

relatives in Manzanillo, Cuba.

During the 1990’s, Cubans residing in Jamaica continue to strive with the idea of

associating. From early 1990’s the idea resurfaced with a great impetus, but similarly

disappeared on the light of a deep political divide. The reasons for such demise may be

related to:

a) The transient character of the immigrant community which has prevented

permanent settlement in Jamaica. As a result, many Cubans have failed to

establish themselves, at times leaving aside promising businesses and potentially

prosperous opportunities in favour of the American dream. This has been the case

of many doctors who have left successful practices in Jamaica to go to the United

States, many losing the possibility of ever practicing their profession again. Such

has been the lot of many musicians and engineers as well, who abandoned

9

8

Sánchez/Mútiz 18

potentially successful professional careers in Jamaica. The constant hope of

leaving has prevented many Cuban immigrants from getting involved in the

Jamaican society or relating with other Cubans.

b) The lack of spare time to dedicate to activities other than work. Consistently with

the main purpose of exiting their homeland, most Cuban immigrants hold two or

three jobs which may assist them in their attempt to increase their earning to the

maximum, as many other relatives back home depend on those earnings.

Therefore, many Cubans residing in Jamaica find it difficult to spare an hour or

two for the benefit of supporting the association in which many of them do not

believe.

c) The role of the Cuban embassy was a deterrent for the establishment of the

association during the 1990’s, and as a result many Cuban immigrants chose to

stay away from any organization or institution representing the Cuban

government. Carrying their own agenda, the Embassy attempted to curve the

actual interest of the immigrant population by imposing a political angle to the

organization which was categorically rejected by most Cubans residing in

Jamaica. Another issue was the segregating thrust of the Embassy in Kingston in

regards to Cuban immigrants; who, having been branded as “emigrants”, become

potential “enemies” with whom “faithful Cubans” should not associate.

Nevertheless, this tendency has shown a positive curve, especially after 1999 with

the arrival of Consul Arsenio Lesmes, who focused on a positive approach and

better understanding of the Cuban immigrant community in Jamaica.

d) Rejection to meetings expressed by most Cuban immigrants. The 1990’s

generation comes from a history of meetings: the Neighbourhood Commissions,

the Party, Trade Unions, Women’s Organization, meetings in their communities,

schools and several other organizations. This practice has apparently overloaded

and surpassed the margin of tolerance to gatherings and is reflected with a

complete rejection, first to the word “meeting” and then to the notion of sitting in

groups for any formal discussion.

e) Fear of control possibly resulting from individuals’ personal agendas. Cubans in

Jamaica have the tendency to be secretive about their personal lives and plans.

Sánchez/Mútiz 19

This aspect of the Cuban immigration deserves a deeper psychological research

which falls outside of the realm of this paper.

f) Lack of suitable leadership has also prevented the successful establishment of an

association. Many Cubans view the prospective organisers as “secret agents” of

the Cuban government and, consequently, avoid contact with them; thus

discarding any involvement in the association.

g) Rejection to politically oriented activities has also been a major turn off for the

association. As stated before, the 1990’s generation has tried to stay away from

any political association with their homeland.

Therefore, during the 1990’s all attempts to establish the long awaited

Association of Cubans failed; thus hindering and severing the opportunity of

uniting and finding common support.

Commercial Impact

Aside from a very few exceptions, the 1990’s generation showed less business

acumen than their 1890’s compatriots. Very few businesses bearing a Cuban signature

were opened and, of the few opened, even less have survived. At the end of the 1990’s,

only four Cuban businesses had been strong enough to survive the “Jamaica test”: The

Company Goncura Co. Ltd., in Kingston; the Compay Gallo and Patio Latino

restaurants, in Montego Bay; and the Caribbean Institute of Languages, previously

Martha TTI Services, in Kingston.

It is interesting to note the diversity in the services these businesses offer.

Goncura Company Ltd. is a medical engineering company which offers highly

specialised technical and maintenance services to medical centres, laboratories and

hospitals. Compay Gallo and Patio Latino are among the most visited restaurants in the

Montego Bay hip strip; and the Caribbean Institute of Languages offers educational,

translation and interpretation services.

The most consolidated of all those businesses, Goncura Co. Lt, has been

operating in Jamaica for over 10 years. General Manager Jorge Gonzales explained that

they have managed to access a niche market which offers services to the Biomedical

industry, mostly with the manufacture of laboratory equipment; repairs of precision

instruments such as microscopes; and, more recently, they have ventured as project

Sánchez/Mútiz 20

contractors. Repairs have been readily accepted by those Jamaican companies which

otherwise would have had to replace instruments at international market prices. Their

services have been contracted by Jamaican hospitals, universities and bauxite companies

such as Alpart and Jamalco, mainly for servicing laboratories. The company has also

added a social component with donation of services to institutions such as Food for the

Poor, and the sponsorship to the Cornwall hospital football team. (Personal Interview)

Asked about the difficulties in entering the Jamaican market, Gonzales assures

that it was “not so difficult because we had our credibility as professionals. Some of our

competitors in fact need our services. So the relationship is decent. We don’t have to face

a rough competition.”

The lot of Goncura Co. Ltd. may be compared with the 19th Century tobacco

companies. They too have managed to penetrate the Jamaica market with services that

“no other company was offering” (Gonzales, personal interview), but they lacked the

commercial expertise of the 19th century tobacco producers/merchandisers. “We come

from Cuba as engineers. We know the work as technicians, but not as businessmen”

(Gonzales, personal interview).

The Caribbean Institute of Languages, previously Martha TTI Services, has been

operational for more than 10 years. Their language services offer has been welcome, but

at the same time has been subject to competition from the Language Training Centre and

other small language service companies operating in Jamaica. As a result, they have not

managed to position themselves in the market with the same degree of success enjoyed

by Goncura Co. Ltd.

Compay Gallo and Patio Latino restaurants have been operating in the highly

competitive Jamaican food industry. The uniqueness of Compay gallo is their offer of the

typical Cuban cuisine; which is attractive to many tourists visiting Montego Bay. Patio

Latino has been operational for over ten years mostly with an offer of international

cuisine. Despite being operational for several years, these businesses still lack the

shrewdness and aggressiveness of other immigrants like the Chinese and Indians. Their

marketing strategies are very simple, mostly based on word-to-mouth promotion, and

they have no visibility in terms of press or television advertisement.

Sánchez/Mútiz 21

A very popular spot during the 1990’s was the Little Havana Wholesale & Retail

shop, owned by Rosa and Eugenio, where several Cubans used to converge and share

precious moments. Location and commercial reasons led to

the demise of the shop, which remains closed as a

monument to the Cuban commercial failure of the 1990’s.

The same lot was followed by other small and incipient

businesses, mainly on the food industry, such as Alberto’s

“Daily Bread”, Aracely’s “Nijacub”, Thony Price’s

“Havana Cafe” and Isabel & Iris’s “Pachanga Cubana”, to

mention a few.

Therefore, despite some attempts to adapt to the commercial environment in

Jamaica and establish successful business ventures, it may be concluded that the 1990’s

generation of Cuban immigrants have had a very low commercial impact on the Jamaican

context.

High educational level, namely humanistic.

The most remarkable feature of the 1990’s generation has been their solid

educational level. This has allowed them to succeed in their jobs as teachers, doctors,

nurses or engineers. During the 1990’s, there were Cuban teachers in a considerable

number of schools and universities in Jamaica. Cuban professionals residing in Jamaica

have enjoyed recognition on account of their sound preparation and serious dedication to

their work. A non official distribution of Cuban professionals residing and working in

Jamaica from the 1990’s shows 20 employed in higher education, 38 in the health sector,

9 in the cultural sector, 3 offering technical instruction, 7

offering engineering and technical services, 3 in the

tourism sector and 13 employed by private organisations.

Despite being noticeably conservative, these figures offer

an idea of the Cuban contribution to important sectors of

the Jamaican society.

Observations on the distribution of teachers offering services in the general

education system in Jamaica during the 1990’s show that a considerable number of

Cubans residing in Jamaica had been contracted, mainly for the teaching of Spanish;

9

10

Sánchez/Mútiz 22

Graph 1: Cubans hired by the LTC

1994

1995

1996

1997

1999

2003

2008

though there were some teaching biology and mathematics. Many Cubans had favoured

from the passing of the Jamaica Language Policy, which establishes that “Spanish should

be regarded as the official foreign language. Therefore, all children should be exposed to

the Spanish language (P. 24). However, official figures including the number of

Cuban immigrants hired by the school system are difficult to find because many of them

have become Jamaican citizens; thus, being counted as Jamaicans; others have applied

for the job as individuals and not as representatives of Cuba; and many others have

succeeded in keeping any sort of personal information as private as possible.

Nevertheless, the teaching of Spanish whether in the general school system or

privately is a very important fact regarding Cuban participation and impact on education

in Jamaica. Language Institutions such as the Language training Centre in Kingston and

Montego Bay, as well as the Institute of Venezuela have traditionally hired Cuban

teachers.

Graph 1 summarises yearly figures filed at the Language Training Centre in

Kingston, Jamaica regarding Cubans hired as Spanish teachers during and after the

1990’s. The bars show a

significant increase in the number

of Cubans hired to teach Spanish

at the Language Training Centre,

with the highest peak in 1997.

According to Mrs. Karen Hoyte-

Braham, Director and Course

Coordinator for the Language

Training Centre, Cuban language instructors were hired not only because “they were

available, but also because of their qualification”. Mrs. Hoyte-Braham summarises the

impact of the services offered by Cubans as generally positive, based on their high

professional level. “By bringing their cultural influence, they have impacted the cultural

environment of the LTC as well, namely in the area of dancing; as seen during the

cultural concerts held at the end of every term” (Personal Interview).

1

Sánchez/Mútiz 23

During the decade of the 1990’s, there was a noticeable increase in student

registration at the LTC (Graph 2).

The reasons for such increased

demand needs to be further studied,

but the resulting factor was an

increase in the demand for teachers,

and most of the posts were filled

with Cuban teachers. In

summarising the good qualities of

the Cuban teachers hired by the

LTC, Mrs. Hoyte-Braham stated:

“I am happy with them. They are able to connect with students, presenting a culture of

openness. They adjust to the needs in Jamaica, and in general, exhibit good quality in

their training” (Personal Interview).

The academic quality of Cubans has been acknowledged by the Jamaican

Ministry of Education, and explains the high numbers of Cuban teachers/instructors9

who have participated in the methodological workshops held by the Ministry, and

which are organised by the National Education Officer for Modern Languages, Mrs.

Martha Corbett-Baugh, a Cuban residing in Jamaica. Cubans have been involved in the

teaching of Spanish at all educational levels, form Primary, secondary to higher

education, and have had a remarkable impact on these workshops which have been

aimed at improving the quality of teaching methods and finalising national Spanish

curricula in Jamaica.

Cultural impact

Cuban professional involvement in the life of

Jamaica has also brought about a cultural impact.

Professional services offered by Cubans, especially the

teaching of Spanish in Jamaica, have translated into a

noticeable opportunity for spreading cultural

information and understanding of Cuban culture. One

9 The workshops have also been attended by Cuban government cooperants.

11

Graph 2: LTC Student Registration. Fall, 1995-1999

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Sánchez/Mútiz 24

of the most remarkable outputs of this cultural impact is evidenced in the emergence and

consolidation of Latin Nights, namely in Kingston.

Zobeida Sanchez, one of the pioneers in the celebration of Latin Nights in

Jamaica recalled that the first Latin Night was held in Kingston in “December 1989, at

the Mingles Discothèque of the Courtleigh Hotel. The

first edition saw around 350 persons, and mostly played

Merengue and salsa10

. Before 1989, despite the presence

of several Latin persons residing in Jamaica, Latin music

was rarely, if ever, played in Jamaica. In 1992, Latin

Nights gained more momentum with the introduction of

better music equipment and more varied music. It even

included live music, played by Cuban bands which were

visiting the island” (Sanchez, Personal Interview).

From inception, Latin Nights became an attraction; not only for the residing Latin

population, but also for scores of Jamaicans. Their impact resulted in the opening of

several places which offered the trendy niche entertainment and which were often

crowded with an audience attracted to the Latin beat, dances, food, drinks and the exotic

ambiance. Places such as Carlos Café, Jankanoo Lounge, Mingles, Priscillas, Epiphany

II, Pepper’s, Medusa and Waterfalls attracted the Kingston crowd. In Ocho Rios, the

Italian Restaurant Evita’s added a Latin Night to their Saturday offer and, in Montego

Bay, Latin Nights have been held at Doctor’s Cave, Peer I and Patio Latino restaurant.

Despite a wide variety of music, including Merengue, Cumbia, ballenato and

Zamba, Latin Nights were mostly associated with Cuban music and dance. Cuban tunes,

especially by popular bands such as Van Van, Issac Delgado, Adalberto Alvarez and

Paulito FG were played, and it became customary to witness the performances of Ruedas

de casino. It is interesting to point out that, in most occasions, the Ruedas were danced by

Jamaican dancers.

In her interview, Zobeida Sanchez recalls that “people went to those places to

listen to the music, meet friends and to learn to dance. At that time, the Cubans Ricardo

Smith, Toky and Arsenio started teaching Latin dance, thus widening the participating

10

In Jamaica the term “Salsa” includes almost all types of Cuban music.

12

Sánchez/Mútiz 25

audience.” Latin Nights, therefore, became synonymous to Cuban names such as Ricardo

Smith, Toki, Arsenio, Perez Prado, Francis, and Thony Price, which were regarded as

representatives of Cuban dancing. A Jamaican dancer, Keith Cousins, started teaching

and still runs one of the most successful Latin dance schools in Jamaica.

Hutton (2001:119) cites as one of the factors for the obvious influence of Cuban

music on popular Jamaican music “the recruiting of Cuban musicians and dancers to play

in Jamaican night-clubs, (as) a direct consequence of a demand for Latin-music

emanating primarily from the Jamaica Cuba migration ethos”

Latin Nights have had a considerable impact on Jamaica. Thony Pryce, the most

successful Cuban D.J. in Jamaica considers that “the most important participant to Latin

Nights has been the audience, either the Latin or Jamaican. On most occasions, around

ninety percent of the dancers are young Jamaicans who have been impacted and attracted

by the Latin flavour. Names such as Dean, Mark, Ana, Arthur Williams and Ted

Emmanuel, as well as Keith Cousins and his friends are constantly mentioned in the Latin

Night environment” (Personal Interview).

Latin Nights brought along an explosion in

Latin dance classes. Learners age ranged “from 9 to

75” (Cousins, personal interview), many of them

becoming instructors when their learning was

complete. There was also a visible impact on couple

dancing. According to Cousins, Latin dancing has

contributed to bringing back couples dancing

together “(In Jamaica) we had lost that. The Cubans always have had it, but Jamaica’s

lost it. We lost it along the music. In Reggae and Socca we don’t hold hands…we don’t

hold and respect each other” (Personal Interview).

Latin nights transformed Jamaica’s night life during the 1990’s, and brought

along a promotion of Cuban cultural and linguistic practices. This increased interest in

the Latin11

culture and language may have been one of the factors explaining the growth

11

The term Latin is used in Jamaica as a generic reference to all aspects of Hispanic culture, and it is often

indistinctively used to describe Cuban music, dance, food and Cuban Spanish.

13

Sánchez/Mútiz 26

in registration numbers for Spanish classes at the Language Training Centre and the

Institute of Venezuela during the 1990’s.

Conclusions

The preceding comparative study is far from complete. It is in fact a preliminary

approach to a very deep social phenomenon. Nevertheless, there are some general

conclusions which can be derived from the study:

a) End of 19th and 20th Century Cuban immigrations into Jamaica had different

characteristics. In spite of the fact that both immigration waves had an economic

character, they differed in their ultimate purpose. During the 19th

Century, most of

the economic success was sought with the purpose of supporting the War of

Independence in Cuba. It was, then, an emigration for political and economic

support. During the 20th

century, on the other hand, economic interests of Cubans

have been mostly dedicated to the personal aims of supporting relatives and loved

ones; thus being a migration for personal aims and family financial support;

b) Despite their diversity, end of 19th

Century Cuban immigrants into Jamaica carried a

considerable commercial acumen which allowed them to succeed and establish

themselves within an apparently aggressive environment. 20th

Century immigration,

conversely, has not shown a considerable impact on the economic aspect of Jamaica,

mainly due to their lack of business expertise and/or commercial aggressiveness;

c) 19th

Century migration had an important economic impact on Jamaica which

revolutionised and put into the world map a Jamaican tobacco industry. 20th

Century

migration has not been as economically visible;

d) 19th

Century migration maintained political ties with Cuba, namely with their support

to the Wars of Independence. 20th Century Cuban immigrants, on the other hand,

have tried to keep their distance from any political attachment to their motherland,

which points towards the failure of establishing an association of Cubans in Jamaica;

e) Characterised by their remarkable professional level, 20th

Century migration has

been a humanistic immigration which has had an important cultural impact on

Jamaica, namely on the fields of education, dancing and health.

Sánchez/Mútiz 27

Works Cited

Carpentier, Alejo (1946) Music in Cuba, Ed. Timothy Brennan, Translated by Alan West

-Duran, University of Minnesota, 2001

Gambrill (2004) Cubans in Jamaica: The Early years of the Jamaica Tobacco Industry.

In Intra-Caribbean Migration: The Cuban Connection (1898 –Present). Second in Seminar Series

on Intra-Regional Migration. UWI, Mona, 2001.

Gleaner Company Profile, http://www.jamaicandiaspora.org/profiles/gleaner.htm

Accessed December 15, 2007)

Hillman R & Thomas J. D’Agostino, 2003 (Editors), Understanding the Contemporary

Caribbean. Lynne Rienner Publishers. www.rienner.com. Accessed January 25, 2008

Hutton Clinton (2001), The Cuban Influence on Popular Jamaican Music, In Intra-Caribbean

Migration: The Cuban Connection (1898 –Present). Second in Seminar Series on Intra-Regional

Migration. UWI, Mona, 2001.

McGarrity G. (1996) ‘Cubans in Jamaica: A Previously Neglected Segment of the Cuban Diaspora,’

Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp.55-80.

Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture, Jamaica, Language Education Policy,

http://www.moeyc.gov.jm/policies/languagepolicy.pdf Accessed January 15, 2008

Stubbs, Jean (1996), Political Idealism and Commodity Production: Cuban Tobacco in

Jamaica, 1870- 1930. In Cuban Studies 25, by Louis A. Perez. Univ of Pittsburgh Press.

http://books.google.com.jm/books (accessed January 15, 2008)

Sánchez/Mútiz 28

Personal Interviews

Garcia, Lorenzo, The Story of the Palomino Family.

Gonzales, Jorge, The Story of Goncura Limited, (Video and personal interview)

Hoyte-Braham, Karen, Reflections on the Cuban Impact of the Language Training Centre

Nuñez Rosa and Chris, The History of the Nuñez Family, (video and personal Interview)

Pryce, Thony, Latin Nights in Kingston, Jamaica

Sanchez, Zobeida, Latin Nights in Jamaica

List of Photographs

1. Road in Kingston named after the Palomino Family

2. Two generations of Palominos, Daughter and Granddaughter.

3. Diedre Soutar, a Palomino descendent now residing in Kingston

4. Lorenzo Garcia, a Palomino descendent recounts the history of the Palomino Family.

5. Temple Hall Residents still remember the Palomino and Machado tobacco plantations.

6. The bell which presumably witnessed Jose Marti’s meeting with the Temple Hall tobacco planters.

7. The late Ricardo Smith an icon of Cuban cultural impact on Jamaican culture.

8. Rosa and Chris Nuñez recount the history of the Nuñez family

9. Meeting of the Association of Cubans recently held at Pepper’s Club, Kingston.

10. The Little Havana Wholesale and Retail shop owned by Rosa and Eugenio.

11. Jamaican children playing Cuban rhythms.

12. Zobeida Sanchez and Thony Pryce, past and present Latin Night DJs.

13. Salsa class in full swing at Jankanoo Lounge in Kingston.

14. Keith Cousins at his Latin dance class, Jankanoo Lounge, Kingston.

Sánchez/Mútiz 29

ANNEX I

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ANNEX II

Sánchez/Mútiz 31

ANNEX III

Sánchez/Mútiz 32

ANNEX IV

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ANNEX V

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ANNEX VI

Sánchez/Mútiz 35

ANNEX VII

Sánchez/Mútiz 36

ANNEX VIII

Sánchez/Mútiz 37

ANNEX XIX