CAVE ARCHAEOLOGY AND

KARST GEOMORPHOLOGY

OF

NORTH WEST ENGLAND

Field Guide

Edited by

H. J. O’Regan, T. Faulkner

and I. R. Smith

2012

ii

Cover photo: An erratic at Farleton Knott, Cumbria. Photo: Dave Wilkinson.

Produced to accompany the QRA/BCRA Joint Field Meeting to Cumbria, North Lancashire and the Yorkshire Dales, June 21st—24th 2012.

© Quaternary Research Association, London, 2012.

ISSN: 02613611

ISBN: 090778084925323

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers.

Printed by Rayross Print Factory, 96 Duke Street, Liverpool, L1 5AG.

Recommended reference: O’Regan, H.J., Faulkner, T. & Smith, I.R. (eds) 2012. Cave Archaeology and Karst Geomorphology in North West England: Field

Guide. Quaternary Research Association, London.

iii

CONTRIBUTORS AND EXCURSION LEADERS

Tim T. Barrows Geography, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon EX4 4RJ.

Arthur Batty Ingleton, North Yorkshire.

Eleanor Brown Natural England, Block B Government Buildings, Whittington Road, Worcester, WR5 2LQ

Trevor Faulkner School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT

Helen Goldie 2, Springwell Road, Durham, DH1 4LR.

Andrew Hinde Natural England, NNR base Ingleborough. Colt Park Barn, Chapel-le-Dale, via Carnforth, Lancashire LA6 3JF

Anna L.C. Hughes Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Allegaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway

Tom C. Lord Lower Winskill, Langcliffe, Settle, North Yorkshire, BD24 9PZ.

Joyce Lundberg Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.

Wishart A. Mitchell Department of Geography, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE

Phillip J. Murphy School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT.

Philip W. Prescott Department of Geography, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE

Hannah O’Regan School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF

Garry Rushworth Archaeological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP

Ian Smith School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF

Peter Standing Storth, Cumbria, LA7 7LJ

Nancy Stedman Natural England, 25 Queen Street, Leeds, LS1 2TW

Graeme Swindles School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT

Tim Taylor Archaeological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP

iv

Matt W. Telfer School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA

Hannah Townley Natural England. 3rd Floor, Touthill Close, City Road, Peterborough, PE1 1UA

Peter J. Vincent † † Deceased; formerly Department of Geography, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, LA1 4YB.

Tony Waltham Nottingham, tony@geophotos.co.uk

Peter Wilson Environmental Sciences Research Institute, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Co. Londonderry BT52 1SA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Peter Wilson, Matt W. Telfer, Tom C. Lord and Peter J. Vincent†

We are grateful to Robert White of the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority, The British Society for Geomorphology, the Manchester Geographical Society, and the Quaternary Research Association for the provision of funding that assisted with this work. Kilian McDaid at the University of Ulster prepared the figures for publication.

Ian Smith and Hannah O’Regan

The authors would like to thank Mark Brennand, Chantal Conneller, Dave Coward, Daniel Elsworth, Adrian Lister, Tom Lord, Jo Mackintosh, Alan Saville, Sabine Skae, Dorothy Sheppard and Caroline Wilkinson for their kind and invaluable help on various matters and the Holker Estate and Mr Whitton for access to the caves. We would also like to thank Neil Jones (LJMU) for his help with the figures.

Tony Waltham and Arthur Batty The authors thank the British Cave Research Association for funding dating of the Keld Head stalagmites as part of its cave science research initiative, the many cavers who mapped the caves, and John Cordingley for collecting the underwater calcite deposits.

Tom Lord, Joyce Lundberg, Philip Murphy

This work would not have been possible without the help and support of the late Roger Jacobi over many years, and more recently Terry O'Connor. Robert White of the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority has encouraged re-analysis of the Victoria Cave archive, and funded AMS radiocarbon dates.

The organisers thank the staff at the Dalesbridge Centre for their assistance in the smooth running of the field meeting.

v

INTRODUCTION

This field guide covers recent research into cave archaeology and aspects of karst geomorphology in Cumbria and the Yorkshire Dales, where the latest results are informing us about glaciations since MIS15 or earlier, the later stages of the Devensian glaciation, and human influences since the Lateglacial.

The field meeting that accompanied the publication of this volume was held on June 21st—24th 2012 and was jointly organised by the Quaternary Research Association and the British Cave Research Association. This is the first such joint meeting between the two associations and grew from contacts made at the AHRC-funded Upland Caves Network meetings (2008-2010). This field meeting was also the first meeting for the newly-formed BCRA Cave Archaeology Special Interest Group. For further details see: http://cag.bcra.org.uk/

The fieldmeeting was organised by Dr Trevor Faulkner and Dr Hannah O’Regan and it was based at the Dalesbridge Centre, Austwick, Settle, LA2 8AB.

Coverage

The Ordnance Survey Outdoor Leisure 1:25000 series map 2 (Yorkshire Dales, Southern and Western Areas) and map 7 (The English Lakes, South-eastern Area) are useful companions to this volume. Inclusion of sites in this guide does not imply public access and where public rights of way do not exist, the land-owners permission should be sought before visiting.

Orientation

The QRA Field Guides: Western Pennines (Mitchell, 1991e), The Quaternary of the eastern Yorkshire Dales (Howard and Macklin, 1998) and Isle of Man and NW England (Chiverrell et al., 2004) cover adjacent areas with little overlap. Other relevant books include Limestones and Caves of NW England

(Waltham, 1974), The geomorphology of NW England (Johnson, 1985a), Karst

and Caves of Great Britain (Chapters 2 & 3) (Waltham et al., 1997: GCR Vol. 12), Quaternary of Northern England (Huddart and Glasser, 2002: GCR Vol. 23) and The Yorkshire Dales (Waltham, 2007).

vi

ITINERARY

DAY 1 ����

Quaternary of Kingsdale (AM) Leaders: Trevor Faulkner and Arthur Batty.

Ribbleshead (Lunch) Leader: Wishart Mitchell.

Victoria and Jubilee Caves (PM) Leader: Tom Lord.

DAY 2 ����

Kirkhead, Kent’s Bank and Leader: Ian Smith.

Whitton’s Caves (AM)

Hale Pavement (Lunch) Leader: Peter Standing.

Gait Barrows Pavement (PM) Leader: Helen Goldie.

DAY 3 ����

Norber (AM) Leaders: Peter Wilson, Tom Lord, Helen Goldie.

Loess at Winskill (Lunch) Leaders: Peter Wilson, Tom Lord.

Palaeoecology at Attermire (PM) Leader: Graeme Swindles.

Fig. 1. Localities to be visited during the fieldtrip. See above itinerary for key. Map modified with permission from Wilson et al. (this volume).

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CONTENTS

The Yorkshire Dales Karst T. Waltham 1 North West Karst: evidence for pre-Devensian development? H. Goldie 6 Cave Geoconservation, Geodiversity and landscapes in Northern England

A. Hinde, H. Townley, N. Stedman, E. Brown 11

Caves in context—a brief overview of archaeology in the north west

I.R. Smith, H.J. O’Regan 15

Long term climate change in the Yorkshire Dales: the speleothem record W. Mitchell 25 The late Devensian glaciation in the Yorkshire Dales

W. Mitchell, A.L.C. Hughes 34

The Devensian deglaciation and a discussion of the Raistrick Evidence T. Faulkner 46 Quaternary development of Kingsdale T. Waltham,

A. Batty 57 Ribblehead drumlins W. Mitchell,

P. Prescott 72 Whernside W. Mitchell 79 A guide to work at Victoria Cave – from the 19th to 21st Centuries

T. Lord, J. Lundberg, P. Murphy 84

Kirkhead Cavern, Kent’s Bank Cavern and Whitton’s Cave near Allithwaite – Geology, sediments and archaeology I.R. Smith 98 Chronology of lowland limestone pavement development around Arnside and Silverdale AONB P. Standing 103 Gait Barrows, Arnside-Silverdale AONB H. Goldie 112 Cosmogenic isotope analysis and surface exposure dating in the Yorkshire Dales

P. Wilson, T.T. Barrows, T.C. Lord, P.J. Vincent 117

Pedestal studies at Norber, Ingleborough H. Goldie 136 Loessic sediments in NorthWest England P. Wilson, M.W.

Telfer, T.C. Lord, P.J. Vincent 143

Late Quaternary vegetation history of Attermire, Yorkshire Dales

G. Rushworth, G.T. Swindles, T.F. Taylor 151

A challenge for Karst Geomorphology T. Faulkner 154

143

LOESSIC SEDIMENTS IN NORTHWEST ENGLAND

Peter Wilson, Matt W. Telfer, Tom C. Lord and Peter J. Vincent†

Introduction

Loess is terrestrial, silt-rich, aeolian sediment with a discontinuous global distribution (Catt, 1988; Pye, 1995). Loess is abundant in those areas of main-land Europe that were close to the margins of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; ~26-21 ka BP; Peltier and Fairbanks, 2006) ice sheets and is regarded as a product of aeolian reworking of glacial and glaciofluvial deposits. Extensive loess accumulations also occur in the south and east of Britain, comprising a westerly extension of the European loess belt, but most of these loess deposits are less than 1 m in thickness (Catt, 2001). Nevertheless, loess is an important component of the British Quaternary stratigraphy and at several sites the age of the loess has been determined through application of luminescence dating techniques (Wintle, 1981; Gibbard et al. 1987; Parks and Rendell, 1992; Murton et al., 2003; Clarke et al., 2007). These studies have demonstrated that whilst most loess is of late Devensian – early Holocene age (~26-9 ka BP), isolated pockets of pre-Devensian and early- to mid-Devensian loess also occur.

It has been known for some considerable time that extensive but discontinuous deposits of loessic silt exist on the Carboniferous limestone of NW England, within the limit of the British Ice Sheet at the LGM. Aeolian silts were identified as soil parent materials in parts of the Yorkshire Dales and Westmorland during the 1950s and 1960s (Pigott and Pigott, 1963; Bullock,

1964; Bullock, 1971; Furness and King, 1972; Catt, 1977). Bullock (1964),

using mineralogical analyses, established that the silt deposits differed from underlying tills and were not weathered tills. On loess samples obtained from the limestone around Morecambe Bay, Vincent and Lee (1981) employed a variety of techniques (grain size, scanning electron microscope analysis of quartz grains, clay mineralogy and sediment stratigraphy) and demonstrated that the silts were distinctly different from the local tills and limestone weather-ing products. They regarded the silts as loess derived from the deflation of glacigenic sediments in Morecambe Bay as Lake District and Irish Sea ice wasted following the LGM. Until recently no direct age determinations had been obtained for the silts; following Vincent and Lee (1981) it has been

assumed that they were of deglacial/Lateglacial age (~18-12 ka BP) and were primary air-fall loesses derived by aeolian reworking of regional glacial and glaciofluvial sediments.

In 2006 we began a sampling and OSL dating programme aimed at establishing the age of the loess. As paraglacial sediment the loess is an important deposit because of its potential for providing age estimates for deglaciation of the karst landscapes. Of necessity our sampling has concentrated on dolines where loess is present and thick (usually ~1-1.5 m), but the assumption must be that loess previously blanketed the landscape of NW England, and that the present-day

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absence of loess from many areas (e.g. exposed limestone pavements) is probably a result of widespread and severe erosion (cf. Catt, 1977, 1978).

To-date we have obtained OSL ages on 29 silt samples from 6 general locations (Fig. 1). Three locations are close to Morecambe Bay, two are in the vicinity of Malham, and one is east of Shap. Dating of further samples from additional pits is in progress. Samples were obtained from pits excavated in shallow (<5 m deep) dolines at elevations ranging from 100 to 415 m OD. Pits were excavated to bedrock and grain size analysis was performed on samples taken at intervals of 5 cm from selected pits. The sediments are predominantly (60-70%) silts, with the remainder largely composed of clays (5-20%) and very fine sands (5-20%). Clasts were absent except near the base of one pit, and in this case the clasts consisted of angular small pieces of limestone (b axes <5 cm). The loess is structureless and is generally yellowish brown (10YR5/4, 6/4) or brownish yellow (10YR6/6). Samples for OSL dating were collected by inserting light-tight plastic tubes horizontally into the walls of the pits at depths of between 20 and 110 cm; for each sample the ~4-11 µm fraction was prepared and measured in the Oxford Luminescence Dating laboratories following single aliquot regenerative protocols. Ages are quartz-derived. Methods followed are described in Wilson et al. (2008), Telfer et al. (2009) and Vincent et al. (2011).

A potential problem with OSL dates is that of partial bleaching of the samples owing to inadequate exposure to daylight (i.e. the incomplete resetting of the luminescence signal) during the last cycle of sediment mobilization. Our methodology indicates that partial bleaching is unlikely to be a problem. Furthermore, most of the ages we have obtained are from samples that are parts of dated profiles and in each case the ages are stratigraphically sensible. In short, there is no compelling evidence to indicate that the samples are partially bleached.

Pre-LGM loess

From the lower part of a pit excavated in a doline at Dowkabottom (SD 594 690; 365 m asl; Fig. 1) we obtained OSL ages of 27.2±2.6 ka BP and 27.8±2.6

ka BP (Fig. 2; Telfer et al., 2009). These ages are statistically inseparable and pre-date the regional advance of LGM ice. Although farther east in the Yorkshire Dales it has been postulated that the interfluves between valley glaciers may not have been glaciated during the LGM (Baker et al., 1996) the presence of tills at 500 m altitude at Parson’s Pulpit (~3 km west of Dowkabottom) and the erratics at Norber at ~300 m (~15 km to the west) (Arthurton et al., 1988) suggest it is unlikely that Dowkabottom escaped being over run by ice. Dowkabottom is at the end of a blind valley below the modelled level of the LGM ice sheet surface (Fretwell et al., 2008, Evans et al., 2009; Clark et al., 2011) and the preservation of pre-LGM silts here is attributed to this location being preferentially protected from glacial scour. Till occurs only as a ‘patchy veneer’ over much of the upland region in the western Dales (Arthurton et al., 1988) and it seems that the depositional and erosional

146

Fig. 2. The loess profile at Dowkabottom with Munsell soil colours, grain size data, and positions and ages of samples that pre-date the LGM.

effects of glaciation on the uplands in this area have been spatially highly variable and that the bases of some dolines lying below the surfaces of the glaciokarstic limestone pavements were protected from scour.

The dates from Dowkabottom suggest that the LGM ice sheet advance across northern England may have occurred later than generally postulated to-date, at around 27 ka BP. Other ages currently published for the Yorkshire Dales are all speleothem accumulation records, and either pre-date these ages significantly, such as ages around 36 ka BP reported for Lancaster Hole and Stump Cross Caverns by Baker et al. (1996), or are very imprecise, such as the date of 26±6 ka BP reported from White Scar Cave by Atkinson et al. (1986).

The dates from Dowkabottom are themselves no more than maximum ages for ice sheet cover, but they appear to suggest a later advance of the LGM ice sheet across northern England than some previous estimates, and they offer

147

improvements over many published dates due to their greater precision and the site’s location away from the margins of the ice sheet.

These dates also provide evidence for a pre-Late Devensian age for the large dolines on the Yorkshire Dales karst (Goldie and Marker, 2001). There are hundreds of dolines in this area and it is likely that there are older loess deposits than we have found. At present we do not know if the silt deposits are reworked from earlier Devensian sediments or are primary loesses derived from glaciofluvial sediments deposited in front of the advancing LGM glaciers.

Lateglacial loess

At New Close (SD 911 645; 365 m asl), near Malham, and Warton Crag (SD

494 726; 103 m asl), on the edge of Morecambe Bay (Fig. 1), two ages with

overlapping uncertainties (16.5±1.7 ka BP and 19.3±2.6 ka BP, respectively) provide a minimum age limit for deglaciation in these areas of NW England (Telfer et al., 2009). It is reasonable to infer that the wastage of the LGM ice would have generated considerable amounts of loess, and we consider it likely that the silts at these locations represent primary air fall loesses associated with this event.

These dates are towards the earlier end of the range of estimates of the timing of the wastage of the LGM ice sheet, but fall broadly within conventional interpretations of deglacial history. The ages provide better precision than many of the published dates from this region, such as the speleothem accumulation dates from White Scar and Stump Cross reported by Sutcliffe et al. (1985) and Atkinson et al. (1986), and are broadly coherent with other recently acquired cosmogenic isotope surface exposure dates from Norber (see Wilson et al. this volume; Vincent et al., 2010). The relatively early ages we have produced may reflect the fact that aeolian sediment accumulation is a relatively rapid response to deglaciation compared to others, e.g. soil development or speleothem growth.

Together, the OSL ages from Dowkabottom, New Close and Warton Crag, and the cosmogenic isotope exposure ages from Norber provide the tightest constraints yet published for the presence of the last ice sheet in this area of NW England.

Several other of our OSL dates fall within the later part of the Lateglacial period. Five ages overlap (within uncertainties) with the Lateglacial (Windermere) Interstadial (14.7-12.9 ka BP) and/or Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond) Stadial (12.9-11.7 ka BP). It is not known if these loess deposits resulted from primary air-fall deposition or colluvial reworking. The marked deterioration in climate at the transition from the interstadial to the stadial may have favoured both mechanisms of sediment transport and deposition.

Holocene loessic colluviation

Twelve of our samples have returned ages that fall within or overlap with (within uncertainties) the early to mid-Holocene period (11.7-6.0 ka BP),

148

supporting our initial dating work for three samples of the loess (Wilson et al., 2008), and refuting the hypothesis that these sediments are primary air fall loesses of deglacial/Lateglacial age. We now consider that much of the ‘loess’ is loess-derived colluvium that has been reworked from adjacent areas of limestone pavement and concentrated in dolines. The presence of abundant exposed rundkarren on pavements, which require a soil cover for their development (Sweeting, 1972a; Ford and Williams, 2007), supports the idea of localised soil erosion.

Nine of these 15 OSL ages are coincident (within uncertainties) with the hypothesised climatic deterioration at 8.5-8.0 ka BP (with a further two lying just outside this period) and eight ages overlap with the 8.2 ka BP event (Fig. 3;

Vincent et al., 2011). These samples were obtained from six sites across the region and from an elevation range of ~310 m and this is taken to imply a region-wide cause for loess reworking in the Mesolithic period rather than being an artefact of our sampling strategy.

Fig. 3. Ranked age plot of OSL dates for 15 silt samples of early to mid-Holocene age (within age uncertainties) from northwest England. The grey column indicates the climatic deterioration reported for the North Atlantic region from 8.5 to 8.0 ka, and at its most intense during the 8.2 ka event. Samples coincident with the 8.5-8.0 ka interval are shown with black mid-points.

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Loess reworking probably resulted from overland flow, although aeolian transport and subsoil piping, associated with developing rundkarren, cannot be excluded. However, their relative contributions cannot be quantified. Precedents for loess reworking include loess-rich alluvial sediments in the Weald (Burrin, 1981) and the Thames valley (Gibbard et al., 1987), colluvial loess associated with snow patches on Farleton Fell (Vincent and Lee, 1982) and OSL-dated mid-Holocene colluviated loessic sediments from Europe (Lang, 1994, 2003; Kadereit et al., 2002).

Wilson et al. (2008) and Vincent et al. (2011) considered human activities and climate shifts as the most likely mechanisms that triggered loess reworking. The archaeological evidence for the Late Mesolithic in NW England is widespread but mostly limited to scatters of worked pieces of flint and chert (eg. Williams

et al., 1987), and there has been considerable debate about the impact these peoples had on the landscape (eg. Edwards et al., 2007). In NW England there is no substantive archaeological or palynological evidence for Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers having had a major impact on the landscape and it is considered highly unlikely that they triggered loess colluviation.

The evidence for climatic change at 8.2 ka BP is a much more compelling trigger for loess reworking. At Hawes Water, north Lancashire (8 m asl; Fig.

1), the inferred mean July temperature was reduced by ~1.5ºC (Marshall et al., 2007) and translates into a mean annual air temperature (MAAT) reduction in excess of 2ºC at sea level and significantly colder winters. Applying an environmental lapse rate of 0.65ºC/100 m reduces the 8.2 ka BP MAAT at our sites to ~2.6-4.6ºC below the modern sea level value. A shift to wetter conditions at this time is also apparent from ombrotrophic bogs and alluvial sediments in parts of Great Britain and Ireland. We infer that this temperature reduction and wet shift resulted in greater amounts of winter snow accumulation, a longer lasting snowpack, and increases in the magnitude and frequency of frost-related processes and meltwater flooding in NW England.

From 1950 to 1975 the average number of days with snow cover (defined as >50% of visible ground covered by snow at 0900 hours) recorded at the meteorological station at Malham Tarn (382 m asl; Fig. 1) was 40 days, and this

was estimated to rise to 82 days on ground at ~650 m asl on Fountain Fell, 5 km northwest of Malham Tarn (Manley, 1979). Over the same period the MAAT for Fountains Fell summit was measured as ~4.6ºC compared with 6.4ºC at Malham Tarn, showing that a fall in MAAT of ~1.8ºC doubled the number of days each year with snow cover. Applying similar reasoning to the falls in MAAT suggested for our sites during the 8.2 ka BP event (~2.6-4.6ºC below modern values) results in a possible two- to four-fold increase in the average number of days each year with snow cover, so that areas with a similar altitude to Malham Tarn could have had snow cover for >160 days a year.

Such conditions are likely to have seriously impacted on vegetation and soils. The overall impact of deep, long-lasting snow cover is to increase the mortality

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of trees and extend the area of woodland clearings, and to supply substantial amounts of meltwater during the thaw. At our sites exposure of the subjacent loess would, at different times, have rendered it susceptible to frost heave by needle ice and overland flow by meltwater. Loess generally has an open structure with little shear strength, and when loaded and wetted collapses easily and flows. The vulnerability of British loess deposits to disruption and erosion by water has previously been highlighted by Catt (2001).

Examples of sediment redistribution by snowpatch meltwater in Great Britain have been documented by Tufnell (1971) in the northern Pennines, by Vincent and Lee (1981) on the loess of Farleton Fell, near Morecambe Bay, and by Ballantyne (1985) on An Teallach in the Scottish Highlands. In southern England several cases of recent loess colluviation as a result of overland flow, rilling and gullying have been documented by Boardman (1990). Elsewhere, increases in colluviation attributed to the 8.2 ka BP event have been recorded in Wyoming (Hanson et al., 2004), Finland (Ojala and Alenius, 2005) and central Europe (Dreibrodt et al., 2008), and catchment-scale erosion has been detected through analyses of varved lake sediments in Fennoscandia (Zillén and Snowball, 2009). It is therefore reasonable to suggest that the climate changes brought on by the 8.2 ka BP event were more than capable of causing the localised reworking of loess deposits on the limestone of NW England.

Concluding remarks Our OSL dating programme has demonstrated that the loess of NW England is not necessarily sediment with a single cycle depositional history. Rather it is a complex material that was deposited at different times by different processes. In some of our pits the loess ranges in age from Lateglacial to late in the Holocene but there is no visible stratigraphy (e.g. unconformities) to differentiate the different age units. One apparent anomaly is that we have not observed any buried organic-rich soil horizons in the pits. Such horizons might be expected, particularly within the Holocene parts of the profiles. Furness and King (1972) recorded a weakly developed buried soil on Farleton Fell, about 200 m from our site, indicating that buried soils do exist locally. The lack of buried soils may be because the organic soil horizons were themselves disturbed and eroded before loessic colluviation occurred. If that was the case, it implies that soils on loess in the dolines were in some way subjected to partial erosion of the profiles prior to colluviation from surrounding higher terrain.

Although the loess and loessic colluvia of the karst of NW England are a shallow and patchy veneer in contrast to more well-known loess accumulations of Asia, continental Europe or North America, their intimate linkages to the dynamics of the British-Irish Ice Sheet and subsequent environmental changes means that they maintain an importance disproportionate to their size.

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