PASIITO PHONOLOGY: THE RELATIONSHIP BDTWEEN

SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND WORD ORDER

MUHAMMAD KAMAL KITAI\Regd. No. 2009-UMD811125

SESSTON 2009-2012

Department of EngishFaculty of Arts

University of Azad Jammu and KashmirMuzaffarabad, Pakistan

PASIITO PHONOLOGY: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEENSYLLABLE STRUCTTIRE AND WORD ORDER

MIIIAM}IAD KAT}IAL KHAI\(Regd. No, 2009-UMDB-11125)

A dissertation

submitted in partial fulhllment

of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in

ENGLISH

SESSION 2009-2012

Department of EnglishFaculty of Arts

University of Azad Jammu and KashmirMuzaffarabad, Pakistan

Rv

APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

It is ce(ified thar the thesis entitled ,.pASHTo pHoNol-ocy: THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND WORD ORDER. submitred by !1&

Ntuti,{MMAD KAMAL KHAN, Regisrmtion No. 2009-UMDB-I I t25, in the parrial

fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, at the University of Azad Jammu &

Kashmir, Muzaffarabad has been satisfactory for the rcquirement ofthe degree.

sup.r',iro,, LL-Dr. Nadeem Haider Bukhari

Extemtl Supervisor: t'/4 4"t'f

chaiman: t\=--

Dated:

Dircctor BASR:

ll

DECLARATION

I MUHAMMAD LAMAL KHAN S/o NOORA JAN KIIAN hereby declare that the

dissertation entitled "Pashto Photrologr: The Relationship betweetr Syllable Structure

and Word Order" submitted by me in the partial fulfillment of PhD degee, is my original

work, and has not been submitted in support of any application for anotler degree or

qualificarion at this or any orher universiq or insrirution.

I also understand that if evidence of plagiarism is found in my dissertation at any stage, even

after the award ofdegree, the work may be cancelled and the degree revoked.

MUI]AMMAD KAMAL KHAN

Date:

111

@ *yry*,tt

iv

List of frgures.........Lilt of trbles.. ......, . .

List of abbreviationsAcknowledgenetrts.Abstract.. .. .. . .. ... . .,

Chapter 1: Itrtroduction.,........

lntoduction to Thesis IGoals, Research Questions and Hr?otheses ...........-..........-.......... 2

TheSignificanceofthestudy.................. 6

Methodologies for Phonological Studies.... ............................. 7

1.4.1. ln&oductiontoOptimalityTheoreticFramework...............,.................. 10

WhyanOptimalityTheoreticStudy.......... ..........................-..... 15

1.5.1. OT as Inlerently Typological Framework.. ),6

1.5.2. A Constrailt Based FrameworL.............. .........-.-.. ),6

1.5.3. An ldeal Methodology for lnterface Study. l'1

Ths Focus Language: Pash1o................... 18

1.6.1. Language Farni1y......................... 19

1.6.2. HistoricalBackground................ ....................... 20

1.6.3. The Dialects ofPashto................. 22

ixtxiixiiixiv

1

2425

262',7

29

30

3030

2.1.2.2.

1.6.4. The Geographical Area of Pashto Language...................1.6.5. Speakers of Pashto Language.. .. .. .

1.6.6. Previous Work on the Language... ....1.7. The Organization ofthe Dissertation.. ....... .

1.8. SummaryoftheChapler.......................

Chapter 2r The Study of Typotogr lnd Language Universals

1.6.

2.5.

2.6.2.',l.

2.3.2.4.

Introducrion............Tlpology and the Scope of Tlpological Linguistics..................2.2. L The Role olCross-linguistic Comparison......................2.2.2. The Basis of Linguistic Twology..2.2.3. Typological Study and the Study ofUniversals.-..... -......2.2.4. Unrestricted ard Implicational Universa1s.......................On Word Order f ypology......................The Corelation between Syllable Structre and Word Order. .. ... ... . . .

2.4.1. On Basic Word Order............2.4.2. The Categorization of Syllable Structue........................On Correlatiol between Syllable Structwe and Word Order. . . ... -....2.5.1. Lehmann (lq7l).......................2.5.2. Donegan & Stampe (1q81).........2.5.J. David Gil (1q86) .................2.5.4. The Data from Universal Archives...2.5.5. Evidence lrom WAIS...........2.5.6. Fenk-Oczlon & Eenk (2005)2.5.7. TokizaLi & Kuwana (2012)..........Overviews of tle previous studies............The Case ofPashto and the Viability ofthe Cuirent Study............

323435

363948495l53

5354565658596065

66

I .1.

1.2.

1.3.1.4.

1.5.

6771

72'72

74

74"16

'78

7981

8488

899098100103

106109111

3.1.

2.7.2. The Problem Statement2.7.3. The Viability ofthe Current Research.

2.8. Summary ofthe Chapter

Chapter 3: Syllable Structure itr Pashto

lntoduction...........Pashto Phonemic Inv"o,ory ..... .... ... ........:. .. ..... ... . . . ....-...4.............-.............1.2.1. Consonants...1.2.2. Vowels.......3.2.1. Diphthongs..The Syllable...........Sl llable in Pashto.....Simple S1 Ilables in Pashlo....................Bipanite Consonant Clusters in Pashlo.......3.6.1. Bipartite Consonant Cluste6 at Word-Initial Position......3.6.2. The Summary of Bipartile Consonant Clusters at Word-lnitial Position. . . . . ..3.6.3. Bipartite Co[sonant Clustem at Word-Final Position.... ..3.6.4. The Summalv of Bipaxtite Consonant Clusters at Word-Final Position.. ......3-6.5. Bipartite Consonant Clusterc at Word-Medial Position....3.6.6. The Summary ofBipanite Consonant Clusters at Word-Medial Position......3.6.7. The Surnrnary of Bipartite Consomnt Clusters in Pashto. . . . .

3.6.8. Tripartite Consonant Cluste6 in Pashto.. -..................3.6.9. Interilnconclusion................... 116An OT Aaalysis ofPashto Syllables... ... .. .. . 1l'73.7.1. ONSETandNOCODAinPashtoSyllables.................... ll73.7.2. ComplexOnsetsandCodasinPashtoSyllables..................................,. 1203.7.3. DEP-IOandMAXIOinPashtoSyllabies................-....... 1223.7.4. Summary .... 127Sonority Related Specification ofPashto ...................-...... 128

2.7.1. fhe Case of Pashto....

Introduction and Oveniew...............

3.3.3.4.3.5.3.6.

3.1 .

3.8.

iL1

4.2.4-3.4.4.

3.8.1. Sonority Sequencing Prirciple (SSP)j.8.2. Sonority Scale ........................3.8.3. Sonority Hierarchy of Segments in Pashto..................3.8.4. Theoretic Aralysis ofReverse Sonoriry Clusters in Pashto3.8.5. SurnmaryPashto Syllabifi cation Rules....................The Maximum Syllable Template in PashtoSurnmary and Conclusions....................

Chapter 4: Basic Woid Oider of Pashto

3.9.3.10.3.1 1.

129131

133

137

141

t42146t41

148

Previous Works otr Pashlo Word Order..... 151

The Basic Word Order (BWO)............ ...

Ar Optimality Theoretic Anaiysis of Pashto Word Order4.4.1. Word Order in OT4.4.2. Conshaints on Basic Word Order4.4.!. The Anall sis4.4.4. The Ranking ofConstraints in Pashto... ... ... ... .... . .... ... .

148149

158

160t74

i55156

4.5.4.6.4.',7.

The Pattems of BwO in Pashto 174175t'76

The Typology of BWO in Pashto

Summary and Conclusions.

Chapter 5: The Analysis ofthe Correlation between Syllable Structure and word Order 178

5.1. Iatroduction and Ove*iew.............-.... . . ................. 178

5.2. The Conelation betweer Syllable Structure and Word Order....... .. ...........-................ 179

5.3. The Case ofPashto: APrcof ofNegation.... ..................... 181

5.4. The Gaps in the Corelation................... ... ................... 183

5.4.1. Word Order: A Weak Base............ .................... 184

5.4.2. The Changirg Natue of BWO. .... ........................ 186

5.4.3. One Family Different BWOs........ ........................ 190

5.4.4. Language Evolution and the Corelation... ... .. ......... .. .... '... .... . . ... ..... 191

5.4.5. Languages with no Fixed Syntactic Pattems. .. ... . ............................. 195

5.4.6. NoConelationbetweenBWOandSyllableStructure............................. 196

5.4.7. lntedmConclusion................... ..,.................---. 197

5.5. TheOptimalityTheoreticAnalysisoftheCorrelation...................................... 199

5.6. Conclusion..... .. .. .... .................--..-... 20'7

6.1.6.2.

6.6.6.1.6.8.

Chapter 6: The Comparison between Pashto add f,nglish

Ovewiew and lntroduction .. . ... ...The Comparison of Syllabie Stuctures.....6.2.1. Pashto Syllabic Stuctue............6.2.2. Consonant Clusters in Pashto.......,

6.2.2.1. Two-consonant Clusters (CC)....6.2.2.2. Tlree-consonant Clusterc (CCC)

An OT analysis ofPashto ard English BWOS.........................,o.5.1. fhe Relevam Consuahts .......................o.5.2. Analysis-.....Perceived Similarity betlveer Pashto and English . ... .. ... ... ........Difference between Pashto and EnglishDiscussion . ..... .. ....6.8.1. Summary of the Comparison..... . . . ,

6.8.2. OT Approach to Typological Studies.......................-.Summary and Conclusions .... ..... ... .. . ... .

208

208209210212212214

6.3.

6.2.3. English Syllabic Structule. ... .. ...,.. 2146.2.4. Consonant Clusters in English...... .. .....-............ 215

6.2.4.1. Two-coNonant Clusters (CC)... ............... 216

6.2.4.2. Thee-consonant Clusters (CCC) ............. 211

6.2.4.3. Four-consonantClusters(CCCC)....-..-........ ......... .......... . 218

An OT analysis ofPashto and English Syllable Structures ................................ 218

6.3.1. Relevant Syllabic Constaints...... ....... .. . ............ 219

6.3.2. Analysis...... 220

6.3.3. Strmmary..... ........................ 225

Syntactic Characteristics ofPashto and English....................... 225226230232232233236237

239

244

6.4.

6.5.

6.9.

vii

Chapter 7: Global Aralysis and Conclusions.

7.1.7.2.7.3.

Overview and Findinps248251

253

271

Final Conclusions and lmplications.Directions for Future Research.

BIBLIOGRA.PHY

A"PENDICES.Appendix-AAppendix-BAppendix-CAppendir-D

2',71

273276281

v1[

List of tr'igures

1.1. The GBphic Represertation ofOT

1.2. Indo-EuropeanLanguageFamily

1.3. The Classification ofPashto within Indo-lranian Family of Languages

1.4. The Geographical Area where Pashto is Spoken Natively

3.1. UniversalProsodicllierarchy

3.2. The Stucture ofSyllable

3.3. The Sonority Scale in Pashto

5.1. The Possible Order ofChange in BWO

6.1. The Structure ofM,q-xST in Pashto

ix

List ofTables

1.1. The Five Main Dialects ofPashto

2.1. lmpiications / Correlations Pointed out by Lehmann

2.2. The Comparison of Munda and Mon-Khmer Languages

2.3. Polarizations in Munda vs. Mon-Ktrner

2.4. The Categories of Syllable Structue

2-5. The Conelation of word Order and Syllable Structure

2.6. The Comparison between Munda and Mon-Khmer Languages

2-'7. Universal No: 196 ofUniversal Archives

2-8. U versalNo:207 ofUniversal Archives

1.1. Pashto Consonantal Phonemes

3.2. Pashto Vocalic Phonemes

3.3. Pashto Syllabic Pattems

3.4. Categories ofPashto Syllable Pattems

3.5. The Simple Syllables in Pashto

3.6. Bipartite Initial ClusteN (Plosives + Liquids)

3.'1. Bipartite lnitial Clusters (Plosives + Glides)

3.8. Bipartite Initial Clusters (Fricatives + Liquids)

3.9. Bipartile Initial CIust€N (Fricatives + Plosives)

3.10. Bipanite Initial Clusters (Fricatives + Glides)

3.11. Bipartite Initial Clusters (Fricarives + Fricatives)

3.12. Bipartite Initial Clusters (Fdcatives + Nasals)

3.13. Bipartite Initial Cluste6 (Nasals + Others)

3 - 14. Bipaftite Initial Clusters (Liquids + Others)

3.15. Bipanite Initial Clusters (Glides + Liquids)

3.16. Bipartite Initial Clusters (Affiicates + OtheN)

3.17. Summary of Bipartite Consonatrt Ciustels at Word-lnitial Positioo in Pashto

3. t 8. Bipartite Consonant Cluste6 Ending with Plosives at V/ord-Final Position

3.19. Bipartite Consonant Clusters Endirg with Fdcatives at Word-Final Position

3.20. Bipartite Consonant Clusters Enditrg with Nasals and Affricate al Word-Final Position

3.21. Summary of Bipaxtite Consonant Clusters at Word-Final Position in Pashto

3.22. Bipartite Consonant Clusters at Word-Medial Position

3.23. Summary of Bipaxtite Consonant Clusters at word-Medial Position in Pashto

3.24. The Summary of Bipartite Consonant Cluste6 in Pashto

3.25. Tripartile Consonant Chrsters in Pashto

5.1. Six Types ofDominant BV/O in Languages

5.2. The Change ofBWO in Afto-Asiatic Languages

5.3. Different BWO in the Niger-Kordofanian Macro-Family

6.1. The Case ofONSET in Pashto and English

6.2. The Case ofNoCoDA in Pashto and English

6.3. The Case of *CowlexoNs in Pashto and English

6.4. The Case of * Cowr-rxcoo in Pashto and English

6.5. Comparison between Pashto and English

xl

Abbreviations and Symbols

The following is the list of abbreviations which are used in this dissefiation.

ACC

AI,D(

BWO

C

CC

CCC

CCCC

CI

Dem

DO

DIR

FEM

FUT

FWO

G

IMPF

MASC

MOP

MSD

N

NSP

NEG

NOM

oobj

OBL

OT

PART

PERI'

PL

PP

PRES

Prog

Prt

aRCI

Rel

S

SSP

SG

SPE

SSWL

TRANS

VP

wAls

1P

2P

3P

o

(-)

1,2,3

2p

IO indirect object

IPA Intemational Phonetic

Alphabets

masculine

maximum onset principle

minimal sonority distance

Noua

natual serialization principle

negative

nominative

object

objective

oblique case

Optimality Theory

participle

perfective

pl-ual

past participle

present tense

progressive

particle

question marker

relative clause

relative

subject

sonoritv sequencing principle

singular

Solmd Pattem of English

S).ntactic Stuctures of

world's Languages

tIansitive

vowel

verb phrase

Worid Atlas of Lnguage

Structure

flrst peNon

second peEon

third person

syllable

un$ammatical

firs1, second, third person

second-position

accusative

auriliary

Basic Word Order

consonant

two consonant cluster

tfuee consonant cluster

four consonant clustet

clause

demorlstative

dircct object

direct case

feminine

future

fiee word order

glide

imperfective

xl1

Acknowledgements

A number ofpeople played their roles in the completion ofthis study. Now, this is the time to

recognize their contriblrtion aod extend my sincere gmtitude for their support. First and the

foremost, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my research supervisors Dr. NH Bukhari and Dr.SJ Hannahs who were extremely kind to agree to be my advisers and helping me formr-rlating

this work. Thei invaluable guidance, feedback and, above all, thei robust optimism steered

me to come up with this study.

Special thanks to Prol Dr. Raja Naseem, for his detailed, painstaking and perspicuous

guidelines on methodology and insightful comments that gave me a different pe6pective to

various linguistic issues in the course ofthis study.

This dissetation was completed within two different universities i.e. University of AzadJammu aad Kashmir, A.lK-Pakistan and Newcastle University, United Kingdom. I would liketo thank the faculty members in the School of English La[guage, Literature and Linguistics(Newcastle), especially Dr. Ghada Khitab for being accessible and their very helping to the

students and creating an open atmosphere. Similariy, I would like to thank the facultymembers, staff (Javed, AIi and Manzoor) and the PhD scholars at the Departrnent of EnglishLanguage and Literature (UAJK).

I was very fofiunate to have had the circles of wonderful friends at both places. I mustmention about Qadir, fuaz, Ghani, Umar, Rabia (at UAJK, and), Yousaf, Oudah. Mufleh, Ali,Muhammad, Dr. Faheem4 Jayhook. Temadar, Amer, and Hammood (at Newcastle). Timespent in their company was really fun and research is never tough when one gets friends iikethose of mine. I am much grateful to Dr. Riaz Mangrio for being such a very good friend andfor all the linguistic discussions we had during our stay in Newcastle. Thanks are also due tomy friends Nawaz, Salma Khar! Furrukh and Azhar. Thank you all.

My Special thanks to Higher Education Commission Q{EC) of Pakistan for supporting myresearch hnancially during the course of research work at Newcastle Univemity LrK, thoughIntemational Research Scholar hitiative Plan (IRSIP). I was exfemely fortunate to have had

this suppon, and I do not take it for granted.

My sincere thaal<s are also due to the honorable Vice Chatrcellor, Prof Dr. Jehandar Shahard Registar, Prcf Badshah Hussain, of Shaheed BB University, Sheringal, Dir (Upper). Iam thankirl to them for their tust, support and consideration.

Wofih-mentioning are also my linguistics professors whom I'11 never be able to forget. Theyinclude, Anjum Saleemi, Zafar lqbal, Rao Jalil, Qabil KIan, Sarmad Hussain, Shahbaz Ariland Nazir Malik. Besides the study of linguistics (which included my firct exposure toexperimental phonolory in a course work at FAST, Lahore), their encouragement gave me theimpetus to continue my studies, which ultimately en ched my life by bringing me into contactwith so many like-minded people. My sincere prayers are with them, wherever they are.

Finally, and above all, my profoundest gratitude and love go to my family-my mother and mySAAZ and especially to my siblings, Naveed and Shafqa. We managed to weather the stomtogether, and lothing can make me more gmteflrl than this.

Muhammad Kamal Khan

x l

Abstract

A mtmber of studies on dependencies amoflg differcnt levels of language point out that

Ianguages with SOV word order tend to have simple syllable stucture and vice versa

(Lehmann, 1973; Donegan & Stampe, 1983i Gil, 1986; Plank, 1998; Fenk-Oczlon & Fenk,

2004; Tokizaki. 2011; Tokizaki & Kuwan4 2012 among others). This coBelation between

syllable structEe and word order has been tlpologically demonstrated by checking data ftom

a number of languages and the phenomenon has been described as an implicational universal:

an SOV word order implies a simple syllable structue. By checking data ftom the Pashto

language however, the present study shows that the very phenomenon does not exist in this

Eastem-lrarian language. Thus, the corectness of the implicational universal linking SOV

word order with simple syllable structure needs to be re-examined. The ne}1 question is: Why

does Pashto, being an SOV language. have complex syllable structue? lt is axgued that the

corelatiotr between syllable sfucture and word order does not in reality exist and that the

specific structure of a linguistic level is determined by the permutations of the constmints in

CON. lt is further suggested that Optimality Theory (OT) does provide the theoretical

justifications for unmarked linguistic structures within various t}pes of languages. Various

interesting aspects of Pashto (e.g., reverce sonority clusterc etc.) are also justified

theoretically by using this fiamework of constraint interaction.

For broader theoretical impact and giobal analysis, the study also compares Pashto

(SOV) with English (SVO). This comparison reveals a number of intercsting featues-that

how syntactically distinct languages share a number of phonological characteristics. The

comp.lmtive analysis of consonant clusterc (at both onset aIId coda) between Pashto and

English reveals that the claim in the published iiterature which correlates verb-final sl,ntactic

order with simple syllable structure is not entirely accurate and is certainly wrong for Pashto.

Based on a collection of 5000 real words (collected from 532 native speakers of Pashto Aom

x1v

rural area) from everyday life, the study shows that Pashlo is very dch in terms of bipartite

conconant clusterc. 501 out of 5000 words were containing complex syllable structure (10 %

in content words). This figure shows that wolds containing consonant cluste$ are ftequently

used by Pashto speakers. As an exhaustive study on consonant clusteN of Pashto, the study

futher goes on to highlight the sytlabic templates ofthe language and pinpoints the MAXST

for Pashto. Finally, the phonotactics of Pashto are brcught to light on the basis of

syllabification mles taken from the data. Thus the ftesh data and its novel analysis tbrow a

new light on theorctical and typological assumptioN based oll the implicational corelations

betweel different levels. Finally the present study points out a number of interesting areas of

Pakistani regional languages generally and Eastem-Iranian languages especially, and

recommends flfther detaii investigation on the topics concemed.

xv

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE TIIESIS

The relationship between syllable structure and word order has been one ofthe general issues

in rypological linguistics. Ir a number of studies on language structure (Lehmann 1973, 19'78

Donegao & Stampe 1983,2004i Donegan 1993; Gil 1986; Plank 1998; Tokizaki & Kuwana

2007, 2Ol2), it has been stated that syllable stucture has a strict correlation with the word

order ofa language. However, this correlation is poorly understood which conelates syllable

structue (the phonological component) with word order (the syntactic component) of the

giarffnar. In other words, the exact natue of the relationship between syllable stuctule and

\{ord order has Ilot been weil investigated. The aim of the current thesis is to take a deeper

view of the relationship between syllable stluctule and wotd order and, therefore, between

phonology and st ntax.

Tlpological linguistic theories have much to say about dependencies between

different levels of natural languages. This idea has promoted the holistic approach towards

the study of languages. Linguists (e.g., Gabelentz, 1901; Skaiidka 1966; Greenburg, 1974;

Klimov. 1974; Yartsev4 1979; Seiler, 1990) are of the view that humar language has a

definite tendency as a unit and differcnt leveis of a language are related to each other. Among

these levels, phonology has geat potential of relationship with sy[ta"\ a.nd moryhology

(Tokizaki & Kuwan4 2007. 2012). Linguists have q?oiogically studied the nature of the

relationship among various components oflanguage and have demonstrated by checking data

ftom a number of languages that laflguages with SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) order tend to

have simple syllable structure and vice versa. They have dehned implicational universals on

the basis of their studies providing a good deal for discussion regarding the corelatiofl

between syllable stuctule and word order. In the curreft study, I argue and in subseque[t

chapters show that this phenomenon - and therefore the correlation - does not exist in the

Pashto langl]age. On the basis of my data from Pashto, I claim that the authenticity of such

implicational universals needs to be re-examined. The present study provides a detailed

account of the pho[otactics and syllabification of Pashto. It also describes the nature of the

relationship of syllable smrcture and word order of the language in the light of Optimality

Theory. Finally, the phonological and syntactic features of Pashto are compared with English

and on the basis of this comparison, the conclusion is drawn that syllable stuctule is not

diectly corelated with word order of a language. Section 1,2 covers the pdmary goals,

hlpothesis and the research questions of the study. Section 1.3 describes the significance of

the study while sections 1 .4 and 1.5 provide background to the framework and justihcation of

using Optimality Theory as a methodology in the field of phonology. Section 1.6 is the

detailed introduction and rationale for the selection of the focus language. Finally, the

organization ofthe thesis and the summary ofthe present chapter are given.

1.2. GOAIS, RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND H\?OTHESES

The primary goal of the curent study is to offel a detailed account of the nature of the

rclationship between syllable stucture and word order. As discussed above. Pashto has

unexpected pattems of syllable structue and word order and prcvides evidelrce against the

implicational universals and other previous works of various researchers. Thus the present

thesis is a two-fold study consisting of a phonological and syntactic structudng of the

2

language on one the hand and then the general application of the rules found to the

typological and theoretical linguistics on the other.

Based on the previous studies mentioned in section 1.1, the accepted nature of the

relatioDship between syllable structue and word order can be summadzed as follows:

. There is a correlation between syllable stluctule and word ordet.

. lf the word order of a language is SOv (Subject+ object + Verb), the syllable

structue of that language will be simple i.e., CV (Consonant + Vowel) or CV (C)

(Consonaot + Vowel + Optional Consonant).

. Similarly, if the word order of a language is SvO (Subject + Verb + Object), the

syllable sfucture of that language will be complex e.g., CCCVCCCC (up-to 3

Consonatrts at onset level + Vowel + up-to 4 Consonalts at coda level).

Allhough these statements provide the starting points for an understanding of how

word order is correlated with syllable stuctue, yet the case of Pashto is totally different.

Pashto provides serious counterexamples to the above statements and generalizations.

Although this language has SOV word order, it also has complex s,vllable stluctule (up-to

CCCVCC). So, the following is my key question:

Key Q: What is the nature of the relationship of syllable structure and word order?

This question is aNwered in the light ofthe study of tlle syllable structue and word

order of Pashto language. This language, as meffioned earlier, provides counterexamples to

the generalizations of previous work. Therefore, the phonotactics and syllabification of

Pashto are studied in detail. Further, to provide greater insight of the phenomenon, Pashto is

also compared with English in chapter 6. Based on the above key question, the following five

sub questions are formed:

Q 1 : What are the pattems of syllabification in Pashto langlage?

Q2: What is the basic word order of Pashto?

Q3: What are the similarities and differences between Pashto and English syllable structues?

Q4: What are the similaxities and differences between Pashto and English word order?

Q5 : Is the nature of the syllabic pattem related to the word order of a language?

In order to further analyse the conelation, the current study also compares an SOV

language (i.e. Pashto) with an SVO (i.e. English). Interestingly, both languages, despite their

different word orders, allow complex syllable structures. The complex syllable stluctule of

Pashto is stdkingly similar to that of English. So questions 3 and 4 are focr:sed on these

points. Based on the above queslions, my hypotleses for the cunent study arc the following:

. The syllable structue of SOV languages is not always simple.

. The constraints on syllable stucture are not directly related to the qpology of word

order in a particular language.

These h)?otheses are subsequently investigated through the above questions. I will

investigate them by checking data Aom Pashto and by showing consonart cluste$ at word

boundaries and between words in the subject language. My axguments are based on a number

of phonological and syrtactic pattems of Pashto. Thus the authenticity of the implicational

universals regarding the syllable structue ofSOV ianguages, especially in the case ofPashto,

an Eastem-lranian language, will be analyzed and re-examined. These examples will be

sufficietrt to demonstate the viabilitv ofthe research. From a conceptual and theoretical point

of view, the possible reasons of compiex syllable stmcture in Pashto will also be explored.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Study in geater derail the relationship between syllable stucture and word order,

2. Give a detail account of the phonotactics and syllabification in Pashto and to

figure out the overall syllable structure ofthe language,

3. Explore the possible word order ofPashto language, and

4. Compare the syllabie stucture and word order ofPashto with English.

There are some general objectives ofthe study as well. These are to:

1. Analyze the authenticity of the implicational universals that SOV languages tend to

have simple syllable structure,

2. Discuss the potential explanations for the possibility of complex syllable stucture in

an SOV language like Pashto,

3. Explore the relationship of phonology with synta\ and morphology in the case of

Pashto, and finally,

4. Contdbute to the existirg theories oft)?ological and theoretical linguistics.

The study will rely on the following sources for the data:

. Daryab Pashto dictionary (1994)

. The dictionary ofNine languages by Mengal (2009)

r The early dictionary ofPashto conpiled by Captain Raverty (1859 [2001])

. A collection of 5000 words recorded ftom the 532 native speakers of from rural area

where Yousafzai dialect is spoken natively

. Being native speaker ofthe language, the observation and intuition ofthe researcher.

For the sake of clarity and uniformity. the study willbe detimited to the Yousafzai dialect of

Pashto language.

It is clear from the discussion so fax that the cuoent study is a constraint based study

which will examine different aspects of syllable structure of Pashto language. In the

framework of Optimality Theory, various constraints will be deployed to see the overall

syllable structure of the language.

5

1.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF TIIE STUDY

As discussed earlier, very little work has been done so far in Pashto. Ma[y of its

phonological, morphological and syntactic aspects are yet to be studied. Tlpologically. it is

the most interesting and historically important larguage of the area (Roberts, 2000). Ma[y

unique and intercsting featues ofthe language are yel to be explored. Similarly, the nature of

the relationship of syllable stnrcture with word order of the language is not in harmony with

maiority ofthe languages ofthe world. The detail ofthis discussion is given in chapter 2.

This research will provide basic description of phonological, syntactic and

morphological features of the Pashto language. It may yield new information as no research

has so far been carried out on the rclatioflship or dependencies of these levels in Pashto. As

mentioned earlier, this study will add up to different strands of implicational universals which

have been developed regarding the relatiotrship (or co-variation) of syllable stluctule ard

word order that have implications for theoretical and tlpological linguistics. Moreover, it is

hoped that the iDformation provided by this study ofword order aod syllable structure, while

comparing Pashto and English, will also highlight interesting featues as a contribution to the

fi eld of t)?ological linguistics.

There are some f,rther points which add to the significance of this study. For

example, it will study the phonotactics and syllabification in Pashto language. lt will also

analyze some idios)rrqatic features of Pashto like the reverse order of (or the violabiiity of)

SSP (Sonority Sequencing Principle) in the language (Bell & Saka, 1982; Levi, 2004). It will

also provide information about the nature of possible word order and possible complex

syllable stuctule in Pashto. AnotlEr motivatioa for this project is the relative lack of

precedents. Therc is no work completed in Pashto so far on the topic. So, this will serve as a

milestone in the field of theoretical linguistics and vr'ill also include Pashto and other lndo-

lranian languages to the discussion

the following sections.

The theoretical framework of the study is discussed in

1.4, METIIODOLOGIES FOR PHONOLOGICAL STIJDIES

Bofore moving on to discuss the theoretical framework for the cuEent study, it seems

appropriate to give a bdef account of the methodologies applied in the field of phonology

here. Subsequently, this comparison will also be helpful in justilying my selection of

Optimality Theory (OT) as the ftamework for the present study.

According to the Sound Pattem of English (SPE) (Chomskv & Halle, 1968)'

phooology is consisted of sequentially ordered rules. This idea ultimately led to the strict

application of n.rle-based analysis in phonological enquiry. In the line of Generative

Grammar, rule-based phonology assumes the step by step derivation of rules thus making it

strict derivational in its nature. The brief stucture of rule-based phonology, based on

Chomsky and Hatle (1968), is given below.

ln rule-based theoretic grammar, one needs:

a. A universal/finite set of featues to describe elements;

b. A restricted rule formalism to exprcss generalizations;

c. It says that any phonology is a set of o.dered rules. For example;

Rule:

As inr

l+syll + [+nasal] /_ [+nasau

,tretl -[haet], ,trend,r -[hand]

Rute-based phonology has several problems for phonological analysis. The main problems

zlre:

a. An infinite number of rule q?es are possible:

b. A phonology can contain an unbounded number ofrules;

c. Input restrictions are teated differently.

Secondly, in derivational phonology, the classical formai proposal is that $amrnars subject

ruies to ruie ordering constraints:'Rl is ordered before R2'which regularise the sequence of

application. Then, in principle, a mle may create the conditions for another rule to apply

(called a feeding effect), although a rule may fail to apply when another rule deates the

conditions for its application (a counter feeding effect); one rule may u'ipe out the condition

for another rule before the other can apply (a bleeding effect); or, the rule whose conditions

would be wiped out by another rule may be allowed to apply lust (a counter bleeding effect).

Thus the explanation of the sequence among the rules has been a big issue in phonological

analysis. So. alongside rule ordering, or in place of it. other principles of application have

also been tried which resultaotly emerged OT as theory for phonological analysis.

The idea of phonological conspiracies (the phenomenon that various rules aim at the

representational goal) was also an issue to explain within mle-based phonology. In OT

phonology, constraints on surface foms can easily express such conspiracies. ln other words,

within OT paradigm, those pgonological conspiracies can easily be justified by formin the

specific hierarchy for a language.

Within n-rle-based phonology, constraints were inviolable. With the emergence of OT,

cons&aints are no more inviolable. Based on the nature of the violability of specific

constaints withi languages, low level consfaints can be violated in order to satisfr another

higher level constainl- For example, the NoCoDA constaint is followed within some

languages strictly by allowing only CV syllabification. But other languages may be more

liberal about this constraint thus allowing CVC syllable stucture.

OT as amajor shift in the line of Generative Grammer profoundly changed

phonological enquiry from rule-based to out-put based model. However, it nay be kept in

mind that theories have consequences only to the extent that they are formalised. Al1

phonological theories have a common goal of describing the mture of human somd features

as accurate as possible. The surface level differences just show the interaction of descriptive

mechanisms. Moreover, fomal comparison of the derivational atrd Optimality Theoretic

descriptions of the underlying-to-surface firnction of phonology comparcs alternative

grammar designs. ln a data-cented compadson' these theories may be compared by their

ability to provide a natural analysis of some given data.

There are some common points in OT and derivational theory as well For example,

derivational and optimality-theoretic grammars for phonology are found to have a similar

outiine insofar as they associate surface lepresentatioflal foms with underlying

reprcsentatioml forms. Mainly, what derivational theory and OT do is to provide two

altemative descriptions of the function that maps underlying forms to surface forms. In a

rule-based aoalysis, the rule configuration would be expressed twice - once as contexl ofnrle,

then in a morphophonemic substitution (applied output) rule (as clear from above examples).

In an optimalit-y analysis, however. both processes follow from the single constraint

interacting in different ways within a single hierarchy of conshaints- Derivational phonology

and OT phonology axe comparable on three fronts: rule operations and faitbi.rlness constmint

violations: serial rule intemction and evaluative constraint interaction; derivational sequences

and harmony scales. In each case, the corelation breaks do*n and petinent data emerge. In

optimality theory, a stong theory ofsubstantive universals is attempted:

"U[niversal] Gframmar] provides a set of constraints that are universa.lly present in allgminmars... a grammar is a ranking ofthe corlstlaint set" (Mccarthy & Prince, 1994,

p.336).

Constaints in OT are not mereiy solutions to larguage particuiar problems; they are claims

about UG lunivelsal Grammar] with rich typological consequences.

... Descriptive universals rareiy make good constraints, bul descriptive tendencies oftendo. lndeed. the success of OT in incorpomting phonetic or fimctional genemlizations is

largely a consequence of its ability to give a fully fomal status to the otherwise fuzzynotion of a crosslinguistic tendency. (Mccarthy, 2002, p. 3 9-40)

OT provides a smart inter&tion of recognized constaints for a linguistic stuctwe for

analysis. ln optimality theory, constraints must be well-defined so as to assign a particular

number of violation mark to each candidate, and are violated in just the way pledicted by tlle

theory - minimally, when in conflict with higher-ranked constaints (Prince & SmolenslT'

1994). In some cases there is evidence thal constaint interelationships other than ranking are

needed. Since the core of the theory employs markedness constaints and faithfrlness

constaints (will be shown in section below), any other constaint qpes would require a

careful deferse. Processes arise ftom adherence to markedness constaints at the expense of

faithfiiness to underlying forms. It has been argued that the formal universais of optimality

theory enable a natural analysis of'conspiracies', whereby different processes achieve the

sarne output generalisation. Recent much larger application of OT in phonology has proved

that OT is the best methodology for such analyses. The ne\1 section introduces OT formalism

in detail.

1.4.1. Itrtroduction to Optimality Theoretic Framework

The curent dissertation will employ Optimality Theor,v (OT), the mostly adopted constmint-

based phonological methodology, as the theoretical frarnework for the study. Among

different approaches applied in the field ofphonology, OT is considered the most important

and powerfi.i methodology by most ofthe researcherc (e.g., Kager, 1999; McCarthy 2008).

The constaint based approach of OT has had quite a strong impact on research work in

linguislics. OT is now also applied in the areas other than phonology. Recendy, semantics

and sl.ntax have also been benefited by the constraint-based approach of this theoretical

framework.

10

oT proposes that garnmars arise from the ifieraction of the violabte conllicting

constmints (Pdnce & Smolensky, 1993, 2004) lt formalizes the idea of 'conspiracies" or the

tdggedog of one or mole than one phonological rules by the evidence of a single

phonological structure of a language Under OT, briefly speaking' the phonological

constaints are hierarchically ranked and are violable by the phonetic forms of their

underlying representations. Such constraints are minimally violated by a set of potential

candidates (possible forms of output) and the one which does the least seriorr's violations

wins. This candidate is called the optimal candidate. The violation of the constaints is

defined in terms of their hierarchies e.g., the violation of the higher-ranked constrains is tlle

most sedous one and, therefore, avioded. There are tvr'o types of constraints within this

framework, narnely faithfi-rlness constaints and markedness constaints Faithfirlness

constraints require that the surface form (the output) must be identical to the underlying folm

(input) in some way or the other. W11ile the markedness constraints demand that structue of

the surface folm (outpuo should be well-formed. The interaction of these two 4pes of

constraints decides the winning candidate of the available choices and thus declares the

optimal form for an input.

OT is basically a constraint-based competition mechanism among a number of

possible candidates. According to the basic idea ofoT, the generatiol of utterances involves

two important functions, viz., GEN (or Generator) and EVAL (or Evaluator). GEN generates

a set of unique output candidates for an input. Out ofthese candidates, one is identical to the

input, while the rcst of the candidates are somewhat modified in their stucture. Then EVAL

evaluates the candidates and chooses the optimal one that best satisfies the ser of ralked

constralnts depending on the nature of the violation. lt meam that the constaints in OT are

violable. The most important process is, of couIse, the selection of the optimal candidate as

the outpul fiom a list of the hierarchical choices. This is done by the EVAI. Figlre 1.1

1l

shows the processes of GEN and EVAL and that how they reach the output from the lnput

(Davenport & Hannahs, 2005). This figure is only indicative for the sake of clarity. The

actual tableaux are different ftom this representation.

Cadar. iCadid& lC.8didr: -i

CIldid.G.1..

FieE l.i: ftF Crahi. F*Tr.l.11tdioD otOT

The two t?es of constaints i.e.. markedness and faithfulness constaints discrssed above

function as the part of EVAI. Maxkedness constaints make it sule that the output candidate

is well-formed prohibiting the forms which are difficult to produce or comprehend (Kager,

1999, p. 9). Such constraints make surc the utterance of certain segments ard impose

restrictions on others. The following are examples ofmarkedness consuaints:

(1) Markedness Constraitrts:

a. Syllables must not have codas (NOCODA)

b. Syllables rnust have o$ets (ONSET)

c. Obstruents at coda position must not be voiced (*VDOBS (CODA))

d. Obstruents must be voiced (VDOBS)

ti"p"tlat"Jll.}

at;Ia

to'"p*l

t2

On the other hand, faithfiriness comtraints make sule the similarity of the output to the input.

For example, Kager (1999, p. 10) lists the following faithfulness constraints which are found

in most languages of the world:

(2) Faithfulness Cotrstrsints:

The output must prcsent all segments which are found in the input (DEP-IO)

Elements adjacent in the input must be adjacent in the output (CONTIGUITY)

Itrput segments must have counterparts in the ouput (ItrAXJO)

The specification for the place of articulation of an i[put segment must be preserved

in its ouput correspondent 0DENT-IO (PLACE)

The important point to remember is lhat the hierarchy of both markedness and

faithfirlness corstaints is always language-specific. One constraint which is on top of the

ranking scale in a Ianguage may not be on the same position in another. Irr an analysis,

various markedness and faithfi-rlless constraints do conflict. therefore, the ranking of the

candidates is dependent on the violation pattem of the language. So, the rarking of the

constraints is not universai: it is based on the violating natue of a language. The raaking

hierarchy ofone language may llot be applicable to other larguages. But every language has

its own stdct ranking for its constraints. A wirning catrdidate must be satisfuing a high-

ranking constraint for which that candidate may violate the lower-ranking constraints. In

other words, the optimal candidate is not required to satisfo all constmints. It may violate a

constraint and still is eligible to become the winner for which it must be satisfying the top-

ranking constraint.

I discussed OT framework for the phonological analysis in the above section. The

major portion of the curent study is based on the phonological structure of Pashto language

a.

b.

c.

d.

i3

for which OT is considered the best methodology so far. But the curcnt study, being

q?ological in nature, also includes some portion related to s}"ntax as I am concemed with the

basic word order of Pashto and English too. Therefore, for word order analysis, I will apply

the same methodology. It is also important to mertion that, though initially meant for

phonology, OT is now also benefiting other fields of linguistics as s)'nta\ and moryhology

etc. Work in the field of syntax under OT paradigm started quite late but the appropriateness

of the methodology is proving here as well. Thus OT is gaining gound in both

morphological and syntactical analysis (Archangeli & Langendoen, 1997: Mccarthy,2002i

Priace & Smolensky, 2004).

The organization of syntax in OT is not entirely different from that of phonology.

Accoding to Speas (1997), the particular group ofwords for a sentence constitutes the inpur

and the possible structures for that sentence are the candidates for the output. Now the

prccess from the generation of possible choices fo( sentence to the selection of the optimal

candidate (the mapping &om input to output) is mediated by the same options of GEN and

EVAL. GEN does provide the set of potential candidates to an input and EVAL selects the

winning candidate from those options created by GEN. The following is the general

organization of syntax in OT given by Speas ( 1997, p. 178).

(3) General Organization ofSyntax in OT

INPUT: group ofwords

GEN: creates candidate outputs for the input

EVAL: uses the constraint hierarchy to select the best candidate(s) for a given input from

among the candidates produced by GEN. These constraints are rarked; lower-raaked

constmints mav be violated.

14

This theoretical framework has not yet been used on pashto language. Since OT is the

most innovative methodology in the field of linguistics in general and in phonology in

particular, so, I will be analyzing the data ofpashto within the theoretical framework ofOT. I

will give an account of how consonant cluste$ work at different positioru in the syllable

stluctule of Pashto. Similarly, I will relate the word order of the language with the syllable

structures in order to investigate the h;potheses of the study. In the following sections, I

j ustift the selected liamework for the curent studv.

1.5. WIrY AN OPTIMALITY THEORETIC STUDY

As discussed in the preceding section, OT is colsidered by many to be the best available

methodology in the freld of phonology. This constraint-based ftamework has inlluenced

almost all fields of linguistic research in the last two decades. Thus the suitability of OT as

the best framework quaiifies it as a methodology for tlte curent study. Though the main

justification is, as mentioned above, the lack of any OT work in the language before, yet

there are some other potential rcasons which justiry the selection ofOT as ftamework for the

current study. For exarnple, OT is inherently a typological Aamework. It is a constraint-based

methodology and has provided answers to a number oflong-standing questions in the field of

linguistic research- Like it has renewed the comections between language acquisition and

typology in the field ofphonoiogy and thus it seems to capture some ofthe fi.rndamefltal futh

about human language (McCarthy, 2002. p.237). Moreover, OT is an ideal fiamework as

spanning the traditional linguistic discipline for interface studies. So, the nature ofthe curent

study is also of this type. It involves the relationship between syllable structure and word

order and therefore between phonology and syntax. These points are firther elaborated in the

following section.

15

1.5.1. OT as Inherently Typological Framework

First and the foremost reason for the selection of OT as the research ftamework for the

cunent study is that the nature ofOT is inherently typological. It classifies languages on the

basis of their violation of various constraints. According to Mccarthy (2002, p. 237), OT is

inherently a tlpological ftamework in its nature. This aspect of OT is directly related to the

current study. Here I am concemed with the typological issues. The basic point of the

research is embedded in the classification oflanguages. The idea ofthe curtent study is taken

fiom the previous works which are carried out by the t)?ological and theoretical linguists.

OT examines the resuictions available in the phonological pattems of a particular language

ard analyzes relevant constraints to accowlt for such idios],ncratic features. The main topic

of the study i.e., syllable structure is one of the prominent topics researched in the OT

ftamework today. Several issues of sJllable sfucture have been discovered with appropriate

answers by studlng phonetic and phonological pattems typologically. So, the cunent study.

being q?ological in its scope, will, it is hoped, beneht ftom the methodological force ofOT.

1.5.2. A Coostraiut Based Framework

The second most important reason is that OT is a constrainl-based framework. As discussed

in section 1.4., the constraints of markedness and faithfi.rlness are conllicting and interacting

with each other and finaily the optimal candidate is selected. This nature of OT suits the

curent sfudy the most because a number of violations of phonological constaints are found

in this language. For example, the nature of relationship betwee[ syllable stluctule and wod

o.der in this langlage is very interesting (SOV-word order with complex syllable structwe).

Some pattems are not nomally available and, therefore, are called 'typologically unusual'

16

(Roberts,2000, p. 8). Thus this language violates the universal implications and provides an

interesting data for firrther research in this filed. Then there are other featues which are not

easily found like the rcverse sonority sequence of the language. Pashto violates the rules of

Sonoity Sequencing Principles (SSP) in a rumber of its syllable clusters (Bell & Saka, 1982;

Levi,2004). The following words are some ofthe examples in this regard:

(4)

a.

b.

c.

d.

[wrez]

Iwror]

Iwla:1]

Imer]

day

brother

upright

sun

Such idiosyncratic features of Pashto can be best studied under the framework of OT as it

justifies these featues simply in terms of different constraint-hierarcy. Moreover. OT

provides direct connection between acquisition and t)?ology (Mccarthy, 2002). Under this

charactedstic, one can answer how these exotic pattems are acquircd by the speakers of this

language. Thus the advantage ofOT ftamework is that it provides rhe tools to go beyond the

normal process of rule application or merely describing the process, by connecting specific

phonological phenomena with the underlying tendencies of the phonology of one specific

language as a whole.

1.5.3. An Ideal Methodolog/ for Interf.ce Studies

With the adve[t of OT, the focus of the phonological approaches in relation to other fields of

linguistics, such as morphology and syntax, has realigned in a useful direction. According to

Ramasamy (2010), the flexibility of OT as a theoretical framework ir tackling the interface-

t7

related issues directly and competently has achieved sigtrificant attention i[t the field of

linguistic research. He says 'the approach showed a significaat brealthrough in analyzing the

structural changes at interfaces, as opposed to previous approaches which appeared to have

limited applicability' (p. 5). The markedness constraints ve6us fairhfulness constaints ofOT

conflict with other forces (e.g., ali$rnent constraints) at different intersections and thus

provide enough eyidence for the active role in interaction. With the advaocement of OT,

phonology has given se to a number of apptoaches within it, such as the connections

between larguage acquisition and tlpology within phonology (Mccarthy, 2002. p. 237). The

curlerlt study, ill one sense, is an interface study focusing on the relationship between syllable

structure and word order. Therefore, OT being an ideal fiamework, suits the preseflt study the

best. Now, in order to motivate dre selection ofOT as a methodology, let me comparc it with

other ftameworks.

In this section, the selection of OT has been motivated in the iight of a number of

points. The curent study, being focused on the relationship between syllable structue and

word order (therefore, phonology and synta{) discusses t}le inteface domain. The points

raised in above sections arc evidence of the importance of OT in studying the relationship

issues between phonology and syntax. By the application of OT as methodology, it is hoped

that the same benefits will be achieved for the current study of Pashto syllabie structue and

word order. The language is inroduced below in section 1.6.

1.6. THE FOCUS LANGUAGE: PASTITO

The focus ofthe current thesis is the exploration ofthe relationship between syllable structure

arrd word order of Pashto language. Pashto provides enough data as colrnterexamples to the

18

genemlizations of World Atlas ofLanguage Structure (WALS)I. Details ofsuch examples are

given in chapters 3 and 4. The language family ofPashto is given in the section 1.6.1 below.

1,6.1. Latrguage Family

Pashto belongs to the EastemJranian branch of the Indo-Europeatr family of languages

(Morgenstieme, 1926; Palme, 1987). This group also includes languages Iike Ossete (IJorth

Ossetia, South Ossetia) and Yaghobi (Tajikistan). Eastem Iranian and Westem Iranian

(which includes Persian) are major sub-groups of the Iranian goup of languages. This group

belongs to the lndo-Iranian branch of the Ifldo-Ewopean family of languages. Figure 1.2

shows the family tlee oflranian languages adopted from Tegey and Robson (1996, p. 5).

Celtic Germanic Italic Hellenic(e.g., (e.C., (e.g., (e.g.,Welsh) English, Italian, Greek)

German) French)

Baltic Slavic lndic Iranian(e.g., (e.g., (e.g., (e.g.,Latvian, Russian. Hindi Persian,Lithuanian) Polish) Urdu) Pashto)

Figure 1,2: Indo-European language family

Figure 1.2 shows that lranian languages belong to Indo-Euopean language family

which is distantly relarcd to English and other Euopean languages. IndoJranian langlages

are spoken in a wide area stretching from the portions of Eastem Turkey and Eastem Iraq to

westem lndia (see Crystal, 1987; Pa1,ne. 1987). The other main division of Indo-Iranian, in

addition to Iranian, is the lndo-Aryan ianguages, a group comprised ofmany languages ofthe

Indo-European Language Family

i http://wals.info/ (accessed on Augusr 20, 2011)

19

Indian subcontinent including Sanskit, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Prmjabi, and Shrlhi.

Figure 1.3 shows the ciassification of Pashlo language within Indo-lraniaa family of

languages.

Ir.aiu

,/\

L

I?€rsiin

Figure 13: Tbe Classilicatiotr of Pashto withir Indo-Iranian Family of Languages

Figure 1.3 shows that Pashto is a sister langlage of Yaghobi afld Ossete while the close

cousin language of Persian. ln the following section, I discuss the historical backgrormd of

the langrage.

1.6.2. HistoricalBackgroutrd

The traces of its history are present in the vocabulary of Pashto language. Majority of tlle

tems and expressions can be traced to Pashto roots as being the member of the Eastem

Iranian language group. It has also borowed words fiom other languages which co-existed

within more than two thousand years in the area. The oldest borowed words were taken from

Greek which date back to the Greek occupation of Bactria in the third century B.C. A few

Inio-:rroFG'r

I:r.b-:rad.r

I

:.!t r[- r.drr

/1\l-rgh.bi {}!xr. lrlnto

20

taces of contact with Zoroastia.rN and Buddhists are also found in the vocabulary of the

Pashto language. Within the Islamic period, Pashto also borrowed many words and

expressions from Arabic as well as Persian langxages. On the other hand, due to its close

geographic proximity to the languages of the Indian sub-continent, Pashto has also bonowed

a mrmber of words from Indian languages for centudes.

Pashto is an ancient larguage which is believed to have the history of thousands of

years (Tair, 1989). According to Tegay and Robson (1996). it is the most conservative ofthe

Iranian languages. The earliest witten records of Pashto are believed to have been composed

in the sixteenth centuy which narates the account of Sheikh Mali's conquest ofthe state of

Swat. Subsequently, iII the seventeenth century, Klushhal Khan Khatak, considered as the

national poet of Pashto, urote in Pashto. Shce the last century, there has been a rapid

increase within the writings of Pashto journalism and within other modem geffes. These new

hends forced some innovations of the language ald the creation of many new words and

expressions in it.

Pashto has long been accepted as an important language in Afghanistatr and Pakistan.

In the nineteenth cenh.Ey, classical Pashto was the object of study and research by British

soldiers and administrators in the area. Some of them also compiled ciassical grammars

which are still used. The dictionary compiled by Captain Ravefiy (first compilation in 1859)

is among the histo cal works canied out by Bdtish officeN on the language. In 1936, Pashio

was declared as the national language of Afghanistan by royal decree. Today, Dari and

Pashto, both are officially declared national languages of Afghanistan. lt is aiso taught in

schools, colleges and universities in both Pakistan and Afghanistan. The next se(ion

discusses the various dialects ofPashto langrage.

2t

1.6.3. The Dialects ofPashto

According to the classification of Payne (1987), Pashto is an Eastem Iranian language. It has

many dialects. In one of the first studies on Pashto, Crierson (1921) has lecognized two

dialects of Pashto, namely the North-East dialect and South-West dialect. Penzle (1955) goes

for the division of Pashto language into tbree main dialects, while Mackenzie (1959) talks

about four dialectical areas of the lang.rage. Similarly, Tegey and Robson (1996), in their

Pashto Refercnce Grammar. have divided Pashto into three major dialects. There are some

other *titers like Henderson (1983) and Skjaervo (1989) who insist on four dialectical

varieties of Pashto language. Most recently, Rehman (2009, p. 8) has given five dialects for

Pashto language. The main reason for the differences in opinion regarding the dialects of

Pashto language is that very iittle variation is found among various dialects.

There are a number of distinctions used by researchers for the division of Pashto into

various dialects. One of the rnaifl distinctions mentioned by researchers is the difference

between hatd and soft Pashto. According to this division, the speakem ofthe .&a/d dialect can

be recognized by their pronouncing the letter ir as /x./, while speakers of the "to.,4 Pashto

pronounce this letter as /-/ (Hallberg, 1992, p. 9-10). On the other hand, Griercon writes that

Pashto langlage is alrnost the same over the whole geogmphical arca. But when one goes

from tle arca of one tribe to another, one finds slight differences in their grammar and

pronunciation. Grierson (1921) has given the example of difference in the pronunciation of

the North-East and the South-West. According to him, the speakers ofthe North-East dialect

prcnormce the letter !r as /, aDd ietter 1 as /g/, while those of the South-West pronounce

them as {/ and /g/ respectively (1921, p. 7).

The most recent work on Pashto language by Rehman (2009) has surDinarized the

discussion by previous researchers on the dialects ofPashto. According to him, there are five

22

main dialects within Pashto language. Table 1.1 shows the five

geographical area given by Rehman (2009)-

Tabte 1.1: The Five Main Dialects ofPashto

maln dialects with their

Dialect Areas where spoken

1.

4.

5.

North-Eastem (Yusafzai) Dialect Most pats of KP (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)province of Pakistan e.g., Peshawar, Charsada,Swabi, Dir, Buner, Shaogl4 Swat, Bajaur andsome parts of Hazatu. This dialect is

considered as 'standald' dialect by manylinguists.

2. North-Westem (Centml ) Dialect Waziristan, Karak, Lakki Marwat, and Baonu(Southern part of KP). It is aiso called theWestem dialect

South-Eastem (Quetta) Dialect

South-westem (Kandahari)Dialect

The Middle Tribal Dialect

Balouchistan province of Pakistan e.9., Quett4Pishin. Chaman and Pishin Kakari

ln the main cities of Afghanistan e.g.,Jalalabad. Gardez, cental parts of Kabul andthe entirc province of Kandahar

Hangtq Thal and Parachinar

The main distinction among the five dialects of Pashto is rrainly or the basis of

promrnciation. On the other hand, very little variation on the basis of lexical items. But the

phonological variation of the language does not heavily affect the mutual comprehensibility

of the language among the speakers of different dialects. For example, the second consonant

of Pashto is a rctroflex [fl in the Kaodahari dialect, and a palatal fricative in the Kabuli

dialect. h general, however, a speaker from any dialect of Pashto readily understands

another. The Central and Southem dialects are more divergent than the rest ofthe dialects.

The North Eastem dialect of Pashto which is also called Yousafzai dialect is

considered prestigious (Hallberg, 1992) and therefore standard dialect of the language. The

same Yousafiai dialect is reflected in the spelling system ofthe language. Moreover, Pashto

23

litemtue is also written in the same dialect which includes daily newspapers and dictionaries

etc. In the cffrent thesis, the main data has been taken Aom this very dialect which is at the

sarne time the mother tongue ofthe rcsearcher. The geographical area ofpashto is discussed

below.

1.6.4. The Geographical Area of Pashto Language

It is one ofthe principal languages spoken in pakistan and Afghanistan. It is spoken natively

by over half of the population of Afghanistan. pashto is also the native language of 90 % of

the population of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa prcvince of pakistan. It is also spoken in Baluchistan

and a community of 2.5 million in Karachi as their mother tolgue. In some cities of

Punjablike Aftock, Mianwali and Rawalpindi etc., pashto is spoken among other local

languages. Pashto is also spoken in different parts of Iran, India, UAE, Canada, Australia and

other countries. Figure 1.4 shows the geographical area ofpakista[ and Afghanistan (adopted

from Mcclean, 1990) where Pashto language is spoken natively.

Figure 1.4: The Geographical Area where Pashto is Spoken Natively

21

Figure 1.4 shows the areas of Pakistan, AfgharListan and Iran where this Ianguage is spoken

natively. It is the official language of Afghanistan since 1936 (Rehma[ 2009). Today its

ofiicial starus is shared by Dari. Secdon 1.6.5 provides the details about the speake$ of

Pashto.

1.6.5, Speakers ofPashto Language

According to Rehman (2009, p. 3) Pashto has apprcximately hfty million speakers. It is

spoken in Pakistaq Afghanistan and Iran. After Prmjabi, Pashto is the most widely spoken

native language in Pakistan (Rehman, 2009). Rehman (2003) is of the view that Pashto is

spoken by 15.42 % of the rotal popuiation of Pakistan. Pashto is also spoken by over 50 o%

population of Afghanistan. The idea given by Rehman (2009) about the population of Pashto

speakers is more realistic as it considers Pashto not only the second major language of

Pakistan but also takes into account the mrmber ofPashto speakers in Afghanistan, Iraq India

and other counties of the world. There are some sources which give as half of the figure as

above (e.g., Robson and Tegey,2010, p. 721) but fail to give any solid grounds. So,I simply

corNider it more accurate than others.

Major cities ilr Pakistan where Pashto is spoken as trative language include Peshawar,

Madan. Quett4 Karachi; in Afghanistan. these include Kabul and Kaidahar. Today Pashto

speakers are found in almost every city ofPakistan. It might be due to the migation ofPashto

speakers to these cities for business and other purposes. The recent decades of Afghan

conflict have also brought Pashto speakers to the far-off areas of the world. A huge number

ofthem have also migrated to Austali4 Canadq lndia and United States. As a result of their

ethnocentic social rorms and peculiar iife style, they mostly move in the shape of groups and

take their culture and language with them.

25

1.6,6. Previous Work on the Language

Despite very rich history of its cultue aod folklore, very little work has been done so far in

this langr-rage. Many of its phonological, morphological and syntactic aspects arc yet to be

examined. Many unique and interestitrg features (Morgenstieme, 1926. 1940) ofthe language

are yet to be explored. Tegey and Robson (1996) are of the view that it is the most

conservative language ofthe area as it still contains a number ofarchaic sounds and pattems.

The $ammatical tladition of Pashto is not very long-standing. It is not as standardized

as other languages of the world like English and other European languages (Rehman,2009).

As a result, there is no universally agreed vadety of'standard' raritten or spoken Pashto

among the speakers ofthis language. Some steps for the promotior of Pashto were taken at

govemmental level in the past. For example. the Pashto Academy of the Unive$ity of

Peshawar was established in 1950s in order io promote Pashto. On the same lines, late king of

Afghanistaq King Zahir Shah, established the Pashto Academy in Kabul in 1979. In spite of

all these effots, the grammatical tradition of the larguage is still in infancy and major

phonological, morphological, semantic and slntactic aspects of the language are yet to be

explored.

The initial works in Pashto, carried out mostly by Bdtish officers, were based on

lexicogaphy and the compilatio[ ofvery simple gramma6. In this regard, Raverty (1859),

Khairullah (1905), Grierson (1921), Morgenstieme (1926, 1940), Mackenzie (1959, 1987),

Penzle (1955), Shafeev (1964), Becka (1969), Khatak and Ishaq (1974), Henderson (1983),

Skjaervo (1989), Tegey (1977, 1979) and Momand and Sehai (1994) are woth mentioning.

Some of these works were concemed with the alphabets, basic grarnmar and sormds of the

language. Such gammars and dictionaries were written in order to lirlfill the needs of

teaching and leaming of Pashto languages. Among the recent works! Sociolinguistic Survey

26

ofNorthen Pakistan Volume I Pashto, Waneci. Ormuri, by Hallberg (1992) and.A Refercnce

Gram/nar of Pashto by Tegey and Robson (1996) are the impoftant ones on the grammar of

the language. Therc axe some other studies which were caried out in order to explore the

specific syntactic features of Pashto laoguage. For exampie. Lodme. (1915), in his book

Pashtu part l- syktax ofcolloquial pashtu, discusses the syntax ofthe language. Jan Muhammad

(1993), in his worK Secohd-Position Clitics in pashto, and Roberts (1997, 2000) in Clitics ahd

Agreement disct)ss the syntactic features of pashto language. Most recently, Rehman (2009), in

his PhD dissenation, discusses the slntax of pashto within the minimalist program. These studies

show the tendency of recent trends among the researchers of the pashto towards the modem

gmmftatical ftameworks of pure linguistics.

1.1. THE ORGANIZATION OF TIIE DISSERTATION

The prcsent dissertation has seven chapters altogether. Chapter 2 is the review of the related

liteIature on the topic. This chapter starts from earlier theories. The typological approaches

based on crossJinguistic data will also be discussed. The implicational univerals given bl,

Universal Archives2 and the views of WAIS3 have also been discussed in coDnection to the

corelation between syllable structue and word order. The progression of the background

studies is made chronologically. 11 further goes on to discuss comparatively recent views on

the topic given by linguists. This chapter also highlights the gaps in the appioaches and

implicational univeNals given by various researchers.

Chapier 3 gives a complete description of Pashto phonotactics and syllabification

rules. The relevant phonetic and phonological charactedstics of Pashto vowels and

consorv[rts arc described in this chapter. The chapter starts with brief introduction to the

? http://tyro.uni-konstanz.de/archive/intro/index.pho (accessed on Juiy 20, 2010)

3 htto://wals.info/ (accessed on August 20, 201 1)

27

preyious work in Pashto. Then it goes on to expiore the phonotactic mles of pashto sl,llables

in OT format. Word initial, word medial and word final consonant clusteis will be anallzed

in detail. This portion ofthe thesis will be an overall analysis ofthe language having complex

syllable struchrre at every level.

Chapter 4 assesses the syntactic featuies of pashto langxage by means of basic word

order and other s),ntactic categories ofthe language. This chapter is fully devoted to plove the

SOV structure of the language. Apart ftom the primary word order of the language, other

possible word orders are also discussed there. Case system, simple and complex verbs, clitics

and agreement within the slntactic components of the language will be highlighted in this

pan oflhe rhesis.

Chapter 5 discusses the nature ofthe possible relationship between syllable stucture

and word order within Pashto language. The case of pashto as a prcof of negation to the

implicational uriversals under study has been given. This chapter firther envisages the nature

of the syllable saucture of the language in the light of pashto data. Various gaps in the

subject correlation are analyzed here.

Chapter 6 is devoted to the compadson of Pashto with Engiish in tems of syllabic

complexity and word order possibility. This part of the stud1, will single ou1 the similarities

and differences between the two languages. Being a typological study, the phonological and

s),ntactic features of Pashto language will be compared with English within this chapter. The

basic idea ofthis comparison is that having different word orders, how both of the languages

have complex syllable structues. This paxt of the study wiil enhance the validity of the

research and the inclusion ofthe English language will firrttrer increase the readership of the

study.

Chapter 7, 'The Global Analysis and Conclusion' is the last chapter ofthe study. This

chapter cioses the discussion raised in chapters 3 and 4. This palt tdes to provide the possible

28

reasons for complex syllable stuctule in a natulai language. By testing the natue of pashto

language in this connection. the effect of differences in word order and syllable stmctue are

also concluded. This chapte! also points out further detailed future research in the field.

1.8. SUMMAIIY OF TIIE CHAPTER

The present chapter covers thrce basic points. The introduction section provides the idea of

the curent study and its goals with assumptions and hlpotheses. It also elaborates that how

previous researches have been tr,ving to prove the correlation between syllable stucture and

word order in rypologicai linguistics. The counter features of Pashto language against such

implicational universals have also been introduced. The second issue covered by tlis chapter

is the intoduction to the ftamework of the study. The significance of OT as being the most

important methodology in the field of phonology has also been highlighted within this part.

This chapter argues that OT is the most appropriate framework for the cur€nt study.

Next, this chapter provides the introduction to Pashto. It gives the primary

inJormation of the background of the language and its dialects. Other closely related

informatio4 such as language family. historical backgrormd, geographical axea and

population of the language, has also been discussed. The last segment of the chapter is the

chapter overview of the thesis. Each part of the chapter is self-explanatory and provides the

basic information required. Overall, this chapter illustates the backgrould of the topic and

language and verifies the research intercst and direction ofthe subject.

29

Chapt€r 2

THE STUDY OF TYPOLOGY AND LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS

2.I, INTRODUCTION

In this chapte., I will discuss the background of the conelation of syllable structure and word

order. Keeping in view the typological natue of the current study, the chapter begins by

bdefly introducing gpology. scope and the history of tlpological studies in the field of

Iinguistics. It offers an iltoduction to some basic notions of qpological linguistics and

discusses various types of correlations ard language universals. It also reviews the studies

describing word order as the basis of t]?ological analysis and univercal implications. The

main part of the chapter reviews previous scholarship on the correlations of word order and

syllable structwe by various researchen. Along with the correlations and implicational

rmiversals, the n:rning discussion also provides an analysis of the various aspects of the

subject topic. Finally, the chapter summarizes the previous views of the researchers on the

correlations in hand. By highlighting fie gap in the previous studies on the topic, the chaprer

closes by providing the viability ofthe curent study.

2.2. T\?OLOGY AND TIIE SCOPE OF TYPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS

By rypology, one generally means classification, ta\onomy or the study of R?es. ln

linguistics, it means the classification of structural Rpes across languages. In other words, it

is the study of linguistic pattems by fioss-linguistic compaisons. The term $7polog, was

used in linguistics, for the first time, by von der Gabelentz in 1901 (1972 [1901], p. 481). It is

30

now a subject in linguistics used to study the crossJinguistic pattems of languages (Croft,

1990. p. 1).

The study on the classification of languages fiist emerged in the field of linguistics in

the nineteenth century. Schlegel (1772-1829) was arnong the first linguists who proposed the

classification of laoguages on the basis of morphological characteristics. But typology, as a

full fledge sub-discipline to study cross-linguistic pattems, emerged in 1960s with the study

of Joseph Greenberg's implicational udversals on morphology and word order (Greenberg,

1963, 1966). With the spread of the work of Greenberg, a number of scholars staxted using

typology as an approach irl linguistics to compaxe the structual pattems aooss latrguages.

Tlpology as an approach staxted inlluencing the study of languages in the second half of the

last century and was developed as an effective methodology for crossJinguistic anall,sis like

American structuralism or formalism (Croft, 1990), As an approach, q?ology was close to

functionalism and was referred to as the Greenbergian approach.

The current concept of linguistic typology is somewhat different. It is now taken up as

a straiegy in the field of linguistics (Croft, 1990). This strategy is used as a procedure to

comp,lre and analyze the structures of languages cross-linguistically. Cross-linguistic

comparisons are carried out in order to analyze particular grammatical phenomena across

various languages and language farniiies. T)?oiogicai analysis is done on the basis of the

survey of the stucture of the similar gmmmatical phenomenon across languages. In short,

q?ology is now a stategy which is used for the classification of languages into language

q?es. In the current study, tiis concept oftypology is used.

In t]?ological study of languages. it is assumed that in spite of the outwardly different

structures, languages share a lot of structural similarities. According to Lehmarur (1978),

'languages, in spite of their outward differences, are formed by identical principles, (p. l).

This idea is sr.rpponed for a number of reasons. FLst and foremost is the ability of human

31

beings to master any natural language. A child leams any language which is spoken to him or

her. There are other reasons as well, for example, the possibility of inter-linguistic translation

and the formation of new languages e.g., a pidgin. Similarly, the usage of the highly

abbreviated language by logicians, mathematicians and philosophers is also the example of

some commonness within languages. The identification of common pattems and principles.

and the manifestation of this commonness af,e the subject matter of typological linguistics.

The subject of the typological linguistics is 'what languages of the world are alike' (Shopen,

2007, p. XIV). Within q,pological linguistics, languages are classified on the basis of their

similarities and differences in their structures.

There is an extensive work done in qpological linguistics since the 1960s of the last

centur"v. Among these works, the contributiofl of the Pmgue Schools, WALS and the

Universal Archive of Konstanz University are worth mentioning. The exlensive work of

Russian linguisrs on Ianguage t)?ology in the last decades has also been very popular- From

Russia, the main contribution in this regards is made by St. Petemberg or the Leningrad

School of C'rammatical Typology (Haspelmath et a1., 2001). In the nexl sectioq I shall

discuss the role oI crossJinguistic comparison.

2.2.1. The Role of Cross-linguistic Comparison

The primary characteristic of R'pological study is cross-linguistic compadson. So, the

questiod arises is that what is the role of cross-linguistic comparison. Being pursued

rigorously, tlpological study of languages has contributed a lot to the theory of general

grarnmar and language universals. It has helped in a number of ways to analyze the deep

structure of human language and is concemed with the study of universal grammar.

Therefore, a comment on the rcle ofcross-linguisic comparison is appropriate at this place.

32

Shibatani and Bynon (1995, p. 3) point out that therc are two most prevailing

concems of t_vpological linguists:

1. The q?ological classification ofthe languages ofthe world, and,

2. The identification of the corelative grarffnaticai properties that define linguisric

types.

So, the main role of crossJinguistic comparison is the explanation of intet-linguistic

phetromena in a nurnber of different perspectives. Human languages have more than one

constuctiotr for the representation of one linguistic structure. Cross-linguistic comparison

provides the phenomena to observe any universal characteristic across la[guages. For

example, the distribution of articles in English caa be comparcd with those in French or

Japanese languages. Such analysis will reveal that the concept ofarticles in English is totally

different ftom those in Japanese. Orl the basis of such alalysis, lalguages are classifred for

their representation of articles. One can also make possible generalizadons about possible

structures of languages. Another example is the difference in the word order pattems of

differetrt languages of the world. On the basis of word order pattem analysis, one can classifu

languages, such as SVO (Subject + Verb + Object) or SOV (Subject + Object + Verb).

Cross-linguistic comparison also helps in describing the uriversal aspects of

grammar. With the help of compadson among langlages for a specific grarDmatical

phenomenoD, one can also predict the structure of human language. Cross-linguistic

comparison also helps in understanding the nature of human language and thus contdbutes to

the theoreticai pafi of linguistics as well. It has also provided guidelines to assist the

investigation ofhuman languages on broader level. Now linguists work wilh facts aod figures

and qpological linguistics has given new dimensions to the historical study of languages. In

the following section, I will discuss the basis of linguistic q?ology. In order to understand

the natue of cunent study, one must know what the bases oftypological linguistics are.

2.2.2. The Basis of Linguistic Typologr

As discussed earlier, the qpological study of laoguages is concemed with effofis to

determine the common features of human languages. For such a study, very large size of data

is required. The assembling of materials from many languages of the world to determine the

similarities and differences for analysis is the main chaxactedstic oftypological studies. Such

a study car only be successfrl when it is known that what are the common pattems and

principles of human language. For this purpose, qpologists, lrst of all, identify the commo(I

charactedstics of human languages. ln other words, successfrl gpoiogy requires an exacr

understanding of the nature of language and its common paftems- Litrguistic t?ology is

based on the analysis of such features.

According to Lehmann (1978), among iinguistic components, s),ntactic component is

the most significant component for the basis of linguistic O?ology. So, syntax is used as the

cental component in typological analysis. Such analysis is based on the slmtactic structue

and its basic elements, such as subject, verb and object.

There are many reasons why syntax is takeD up as the basis for linguisic rypology.

Firstly, because slntax rcgulates and makes use of different orders of words within a

senterlce. Such regulating of words is more significant thaa morphological and phonological

characteristics of those words. Secondly, synta"x contributes mainly to the fundamental

meaaings of the sentence. Thirdly, word ordei is the easiest way to obse e the sequence of

units within a sentence (Croft, 1990). Moreover. r,er6 is central in human languages

(LehmaDn, 1978) and the addition of an object to verb decides the word order of a particular

language. According to him, a verb has the ability to form sentence solely and that one cannot

folm any sentence without verb. The simplest se[tence is made of a verb or a verb and an

object. Every language is classified either VO or OV on the basis of the pattem of its verb.

34

Therefore, languages of the world are classified as SOV or SVO according to the pattems of

their verb in the basic synlactic slrucrure.

Thus because of the central role of syntactic component, it is expected to provide

basic cdteria for the typological study of human languages. Many linguists have based their

t?ological implications on syltactic component. Major word orders are coEelated wilh

particular shuctural featues of languages for the classification of languages. Word order is

central to alry correlation as well. The correlation between word order and other features of

gruunmar are assumed on the basis of the syntactic component. Other features and

constructions of a language are examined in relation to its i.rndamental syntactic order.

Before discussing to the subject universal based on word order, one must know the

trcological study and the study of univercals. In the following section, vaxious q?es of

universals and correlations are discussed.

2.2.3. Typological Study atrd the Study of U versals

When languages are classified according to their structural types, the next step is to find

restrictions on certain possible langlage types. According to Croft (1990):

The first step beyond typology is the classification of fte Rpes and towards theexplalation of the cross-linguistic variation that classihcation descdbes is thediscovering ofrestrictions on possible language types (p. 44).

The tnological met}lod applied for the discovery of restrictions or constraints on a t,?ical

language type is the stongly empiricist method of typological linguistics. When one

particular twe of languages is aftested by tlpologists. they next show and anallze the

veification of grammatical features related to their specific type. This attestation and

verification liom the data consisting of a number of languages help them deciding the

possible restrictions on orle particular qpe. For example, if one studies the structure of

35

Relative Clause in different languages. a typologist first will take a large sample of

languages. Then he will see and analyse that what R?es of Relative Clauses ale prcsent or

absent in those languages. If there is any gap, he will look for the explanation of such

constraints as per Greenberg's statement (1966):

'Language universals are by their very natue surmary statements about the

chaEcteristics or tendencies shaxed of all human speakers' (p. XV).

On the basis of such analysis, uffesticted and implicational universals are decided for a

particular $ammatical feature. Since implicational universal is the direct concem of the

study, umestricted and implicational universals are discussed with further explanation in the

next sectiofl

2.2.4. UnrestrictedandlmplicationalUuiversals

WheII a large number of languages are distributed alo[g a sitrgle grarnmatical parameter, such

a grammatical featue is called unrestricted universal as there is no restriction attested to that

pafiicular univercal- II1 other words, all the checked languages have the same gmmmatical

featwe and no restriction is found against such a parameter. AII the attested languages are of

the same parentage or class and all ofthem share the same grammatical feature. For example,

Ianguages were checked and it was found that all languages have oral vowels (Croft, 1990):

Oral Vowels No Oral Vowels

In (5), (X) means that such languages exist and (-) means that no language ofthis q?e exist.

Now this attestation shows that all languages are ofthe same class or type and no other class

(5.)

x

36

or type was attested. Such features are called u est cted universals. Gleenbulg's first

universal on the order of subject and object within a sentence is an exarrple of urEeslricted

universals. Such a parameter actually allows for the logicaily possible other type but only one

q?e is attested. Therefore, unresticted universals require uniformity arnong all lested

languages. They do not need variations as it is explicit ftom our example of oral vowels. In

this unrestricted universal. it is found that oral vowels exist within almost all languages ofthe

world. ln linguistic theories, unrestricted universals require deeper explauations (Croft,

1990). There is relatively very small mrmber of urestdcted universals (Croft, 1990, p. 46).

On the other hand, lmplicational unive6als do not belong to only one t pe of

reprcsentation. There are restrictions on such logically possible one type. It means that

implicational universals limit the linguistic variation and do not eliminate the existence of

other t1aes. For example, there is an implicational univerca.l regarding the order of nouo Q'J)

beforc demonstative (Dem) and relative clause (RCl).

If a language has N before Dem then it has N before R Cl.

(Hawkiru, 1983, p. 84) (Uni. # XI)

In this exarnple of implicational universal, two independent pararneters N Dem order arrd N

RCI order have bee[ conelated with each other. So, implicational ruiversals state a

dependency between two logically independent pzr.uneters.

Implicational universals capture a pattem in language variations and they are not

concemed with the rmiformity of one grammatical or sfuctual pattem (uniformity is the

concem of uffestuicted universals). They are concemed with the dependency or corelation

between two differcnt parameteN and require a large sample to determine the range of

possible variations. They are the paradigmatic examples of typological generalizations.

lmplicational universals attempt to assemble the independent parametem of grarnmar together

37

into an integrated whole. They corelate one paramet c variation with another. These

vaiations are cenftal to Rpological analysis being lowest-level liDk between grarnmatical

parameters.

The discovery of implicational conelations was first made by Trubetzkoy (1958) who

termed it as the t$ology of vowel system. He investigated through his research and

identified the corelation of ireversible solidarity' between two gammatical elements. His

co[elation was:

The presence of a certain phoneme, X implies the presence of another phoneme, Y in

a given phonological system.

Jakobson (1962) later gave the idea of 'Implicational Laws' (lois d' implication) whtch were

used by linguists in order to analyze the corelations between two objects in the study of

q?oiogy. These rules were compicuously applied by Greenberg in his qpological work

regarding the combinatiors of features in the structure of languages. His language universals

are two R?es of cross-linguistic generalizations:

a. Theo.etically possible structues of languages

b. Lnplicational rclations betweefl different features oflatrguage (Greenberg, 1966).

Implicational universals and unrestricted universals both are universals and they are not

language specific. They are, as it is clear ftom their names, intelded to be as a whole for all

languages. An implicational universal is the application ofp.opositional logic to qpological

study of lang]]ages. It means that one has to apply the full process of propositional logic in

the process of defining an implicational unive$al. The curent study is based on the analysis

of implicatioml universals. The topic is chosen Aom the held of implicational universals

based on the corelation between word order and syllable structure- The next section

intoduces the word order qpology aod the contribution of well-known schoiars to the field

ofword order t1pology.

38

2.3. ON WORD ORDER T\?OLOGY

A number of scholars (e.g., von der Gabelentz, 1901; Skalidka, i935; Lehmann' 1973' 19781

Donegan & Stampe, 1983, 2004i Donegan, 1993; Gii, 1986; PlaiL' 1998; Fenk-Oczlon &

Fenk, 2004; Haspilmath, 2005: Tokizaki & Kuwan4 2012 among otiers), have stated,

described or assumed the correlation amo[g differcnt levels of language like s]'ntactic,

morphological or phoflological properties. The most attracted rypological area has been the

opological study on the basis of word order. As discussed in section 2.2.2, the basis of

typological study of languages is the qrtactic component. Within syntactic pattems, word

order is the most easily definable feature. It is related to the speciflc pattem of the basic

syntactic elemetrts in the simple sentence ofa language. This paftem is called word order. For

example, Engiish and a number of languages are temed as SVO (Subject + Verb + Object)

Ianguages as they have this q?ical order of their essential elemenls in a simple se[tence. For

example:

(6) The child l4{ the train.

o

Other word orders can be SOV or VSO etc. This basic word order has fascinated a number of

scholars in the field of typological linguistics so far. They have tried to predict about tie

structue of grammatical constituents of language on the basis of its word order. Thus word

order has been used as a powerful tool to predict a whole set oftlpe-specific characteristics

on the basis of this single property. Therefore, this is the specific domain of word order

typology to forecast about other charactedstics of the language.

l9

word order typology is based on the classification of languages on the basis of their

syntactic pattem ofverb and object in the simple sentences As discussed earlier, rerD has the

central role amoog other elements in the syntactic characterization of a language (e g''

Greenberg, 1963, 1966; Lehmann, 1971, 1978: Vennemarul 1972; Hawkins, 1983)'

Furthermore, the syntactic construction of verb in rcgard to its oriec, is considered the most

fundamental in the s),ntactic classification of laaguages. Such linguists also believe that these

two elements (ve$ and Object) are enough to define ihe basic word order of a language'

Additionally, some linguists also add subject to this list and make it the combinatio[ of three

basic slttactic elemeots, namely subject, verb and object.

word order t$ology, for the first time in the history of q?ological linguistics,

discovered a new venue for research with the work ofGreenberg in 1963. According to him,

the word order of a given language has the potential to predict a lot about the structure of a

given langrage. Once the basic order of the major constituetrts is known, one can predict a

great deal about the teatment of other features iII that language. Fot example, C'reenberg

(1966) implied a number of universals on the basis ofhis data. Some of them are mentioned

below:

When the dominant word order of the language is VSO, the Ianguage has prepositions

(Grcenberg's universal no.3) and the genitive follows the goveming noun (Greenberg's

universal no. 2). Similarly, if the question particles which arc specified in posirion by

reference to a pafiiculax word in the structure do not occur (Greenberg's universal no. 10), the

language will always put interrogative words phrases first in interrogative word questions

(Greenberg's universal no. 12) and that the inflected auxiliary will precede the main verb

(Greenberg's univeNal no. 16). Another universal about such language was that in it.

adjective comes after the noun (Greenberg's universal no. l7). Greenberg predicted about

some specific features of synlax on the basis of word order. But in 1973, Lehmann

40

investigated word order typology with another dimension He concluded both morphological

and phonological implications on the basis of word order qpology Then he further

investigated wotd order R?ology and contdbuted to the R?e characteristics of individual

languages classified in terms of word order in 1978. The Cologne School and the St'

Petersberg / Leningrad School of tlpological linguistics also contributed to the study of

language structures in this regard. They considered word order in typology as the highly

sophisticated ftamework of capturing qoss-linguistic generalizations aboul language q?es. It

was basically Gabelentzian ideal ofbeing able to predict the complete structure of a language

just or the basis of a single or even a handful of qpological propeties (von der Gabelentz in

1901). tt was further developed and prcmoted by the other contributors to come.

Greenberg's word order universals have considerable impact on the tlpological study

of languages. According to him, languages have the following three types of word order,

Verb + Subject + Object (vSO), Subject + Verb + Object (SvO) and Subject = Object +

VeIb (SOV). He collected his sample from 30 languages and on the basis ofhis dat4 he gave

45 universal statements. 25 out of the 45 universals are rclated to word order. Vennemann

(19'12). In order to provide the theoretical peNpective to Greenbergian universals,

refomulated and explained Greenbergian universals. He redehned the basic word order on

the basis oftwo basic verb positions. Thus he collapsed the vSO and SVO into one vO type.

Vennemann (1974) also gave his theoretical notion of Natural Serialization Principle INSP)

to provide the theoretical and historical background to Grcenberg's word oldel tmiversals.

Lehmann (1971, 1973, 1978) also carried out his rcsearch on word order typology and

considered word order as the most potentiai area for qpological work-

Itr his article on stuctual principle oflanguage and its implications, Lehmann (1973)

discussed vadous morphological, syltactic and phonological implications on the basis of

word order pattem. He concluded from his investigation that languages with VO have their

4t

seltence qualifier markers, such as interogative or negative markers' before verbs While in

the case of OV langlages, these sentence markeN are placed after verbs ln the same article'

he has mentioned that VO languages are supposed to be inllectional, while on the other hand'

OV languages have their morphological stucture as agglutinative Lehmann (1973) is ofthe

view that word order gpology is very important for the unde$talding of the linguistic

structues of languages. His overall conclusion shows that word order qpology is very

heipfirl for the fomation of correlations between the order of laaguages and for the

implications for other stuctures of languages. In the following table' I have listed some ofhis

important corelations and implications on the basis ofword order typology:

Table 2,1: Implications / Correlatiotrs Pointed out by Lehmann (19?3)

Structure VO Languages OV Languages

Syntactic

Expected String:

Syntactic quantifiers or markers

are placed before VERBS

Negative Causative + V + O

Syntactic quartifiers or markers

are placed after VERBS

O + V + CausativeNegative

Morphological

Examples:

hflectional Structure

Classical Hebrew, Portuguese,

Squamish

AgglutiDative Structue

Japanese, Turkish. Quechua and

Sanketi

Phonologicai ComplexSyllableStructure

Closed, ends with consonants

Syllable Structue: CCVCC Clustering at both sides

Simple Syllable Structure

Ends in vowels

(c) cv

IIr the above table, it is explicit that Lehmarn was determined to generalize sfucnral

impiications and correlations alfiost for every linguistic level based on the pattem of basic

42

s),ntactic element (word order). He gives a complete list of conftasting syntactic pattems and

chaGcteristic morphological structues which are corelated with the language type. For such

genemlizations, Lehmann (1978) has also t ed to explain the morphological implications on

the basis of a single syntactic rule. He tdes to explofe the phenomenology of language by

looking into sy{rtactic features ofvadous t}?es oflanguages on the basis of thei word orders'

Main rypes of languages discussed by him in this book are SVO (English), SOV (Japanese)

and VSO (Eastern Island). He explored the t)?ological characeristics ofthese languages for

the following nine syntactic pattems with their sub-classes (Lehmann. 1978, p 16):

I. Simple Clauses

II. Nominal Modifiers

lll. Verbal Modifiers

IV. Sefltence Adverbials

V. Compound and Complex Sentences

VI. Marking

VII. Graomatical Processes

VIll. Moryhological Characteristics

IX. Phonological Characteristics

He says that the agglutinative stucture of OV languages is a big source to understand the

mture of such languages. ln the curent thesis, I am concemed with the corelations between

phonological pattems aDd syntactic featues of language. The Syllable structure of Pashto

language is not in accordance with his above mentioned universais. The problem is that

Pashto is SOV but it has a [umber of complex syllable structures. I will take this point with

more detaii in the following section where I will go for the analysis of Lehmann's work on

the correlation between word order and syllable structure.

43

It was not only in the case oflinguists like Greenberg (1963) or Lehmann (1973) bur

there were a number of scholars who also used this single syntactic process (word order) as a

typological or cotelational souce for a number of other featues of language. Some even

went to the lev€l that the features ofword order can even crassify the linguistic characteristics

associated with specific types of ianguages while others went to anallze the linguistic change

and for the diachronic analysis of languages.

Donegan and Stampe (1983) ard subsequently Donegan (1993) also cortdbuted to the

field of word order mology. They caried out their research on Munda and Mon-Khmer

languages and their oppositeness at every iever on the basis of word order. Their analvsis is

shown in Table 2.2 below.

Table 2.2: The Comparison ofMunda and Mon-Khmer Languages by Douegan

atrd StaEpe (1983)

LEI'EL MUNDA MON-KIIMER

Phrase accent: Fa.lling (initial) tusing (hnal)

Word Order: SOV DependarcHead SVO Head-Dependant

(AN, Postpositions) 1NA, Prepositions)

Variable Rigid

Slntax: Case, Verb agreement A""lyttc

Word Canon: Trochaic, Dactylic Iambic. Monosvilabic

Morphology: Agglutinative. Suff1xes, Fusional, prefxing or

Polysynthetic Isoiating

Timing: Isomodc

Syllable canon: (C) V (C)

Isoaccentual

(C)v or (c) (c) v (c) (c)

Consonantism: Stabie,Geminateclusters Shifting,Tonogenetic

Tone / Register:

Voca.lism:

Level tone (Korku only)

Stable. Monophthongal,

Harmonic

Contour tones, Register

Shifting, Diphthongal,

Reductive

It is evident from the table above that they pointed out m,my contrastive chamcteristics of

two differe[t langr]age families on the basis oftheir classifications. They, in other words, re_

afflrmed the already existent notions of gpological studies that languages with SOV (also

called deperdent-head) order are prone to have agglutinative morphological struch[e ard

simple syllable structures, while the SVO (the head-dependent) languages have the

inilectional morphological stluctule and the possibility of complex syllable structule. What

they added was the clear polar oppositeness of both of the Ianguages extended to alnost

every level, ftom s).ntax to morphoiogy and phonology. They included the new aspects of

linguistic levels like tone, register, vocalism, timing and even phrase accenl to the discussion

of Ianguage classification. Their idea of the conelation between word order and syllabie

stluctule will fl[ther be discussed in the fotlowing section for the evaluation of the

hlpotheses of the current stLdy. In subsequent works, Deibyshfue and Pullum (1979) and

Hawkins (1983) also contributed to the field ofword order typology by discussing word order

universals-

Donegan aDd Stampe (2004) more recently calculated the diachronic change within

the same language families. They compared the chaxacteristics of South-Asia[ (Munda)

languages with the South-East Asian (Mon-I(lmer) languages, as both being the branches of

the Austroasiatic language family, for the analysis of their most divergent structural pattems.

Table 2.3 shows the polarization in both the Ianguages discussed by them.

45

Table 23: PolarizatioN irl Murda vs. Mon-Khmer discussed by Dotregan

and Stampe (2004)

MUNDA MON-KHMER

Grarnmar:

Word Otder:

Phrases:

Words:

AffLxation:

Timing

Fusion:

Syllables:

Consonants:

Tonality:

Vowels:

S,ttheric

Head-last: OV, Postpos.

Falling (inirial)

Falling (Trochaic)

Pre / lrtfixing, Suffixing

Isosyllabic / Isomoric

Agglutinative

(c) v (c)

Stable/Assimilative

Level (rare)

Harmonizing/Stable

Anallxic

Head-first: VO, Prepos.

Rising (frnal)

Rising (Iambic / Monosyltabic)

Pre/infixing or Isolating

Isoaccentual

Fusional

(c)v + (c)v(:,^r')(c)

Shift ing/Dissimilative

Contour (Common)

Reducing,Diphthongizing

Do[egan and Stampe (2004) try to explain the sAufiulal opposition of the languages from the

same family providing a focal point related to the hisorical development of languages for

discussion. Thus they take up the issue raised by Grierson (1904, p. 2) in ,Linguistic Survey

of India' that whether such divergent larguages could be historically related to each other.

They raise a nurnber of questions related to diverge[t typologies within language famiiies and

comment that such issues of contrastive featwes pervaded into every level of structue down

to phonetics and prosody are the result ofdrift and shifl among various featues oflanguages.

More recently, Fenk-Oczlon and Fenk (2004) study the crosslinguistic corelations

betweel size of syllables, number of cases and adposition order etc. As OV word order was

already correlated with other linguistic features, like a very small number of phonemes per

46

syllable and agglutinative moryhological larguage stuctue, they analyze these

interdependencies between different levels of language for further explanations. Thus the

already existing correlation between ov order and simple syrable structure is re-investigated

in a new perspective. The1, found that ianguages with OV order have simple syllable

sfuctures and languages with VO armngement have complex syllable structures in contrast.

Moreover, the morphological structure of OV languages is. agai4 found being agglutinative

and associated with postpositions. Thus they also found the other old hlpotheses (Greenberg,

1966) to be conect e.g., those VO languages not only have the tendency for being fusional or

bflectional morphological structue but to have the complex syllable structule as well. They

proved that it is the natual tendency ofhuman language to keep abreast with the optimization

of the interaction between articulatory and cognitive system through natual seif-reguiatory

prccesses. Thns ail languages, irespective of their tlpological character. are bound to

adopting such conshaints. Their expla.nation also proved the idea of .natulal, tendency or

'easy for the human being' scope ofthe language.

Surrming up the points discussed in the cun-ent chapter so far, oDe can colclude that:

. T)?ology is the stategy used for the classihcation of languages into language types,

o Cross-linguistic comparisons provide the universal characteristics ofthe gmmmar of

human languages,

. Truological studies of human languages are mostly based on the st ntactic

component

. The possible restfictions on the verified structue of grammatical featues are

realized through various types ofunive$als

. Umestricted universals show the uniformity among all attested languages, while

implicational universals, being cenral to qpological analysis, capture structual

1'7

variation by stating a dependency between two logically independent parameters,

and,

r Word order plays central role in typologicai study and a number of stuctural

featues are coEelated with the word ordet of languages

In section 2.4, I am going to take up the correlation befween syllable stucture and word

order which is the direct subject ofthe curent study.

2.4. THE CORBELATION BETWEEN SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND

WORD ORDER

In the last section, it is discussed that almost all of the typological studies arc based on the

word order of languages. A number of studies are mentio[ed which have stated the

correlations betlveen syntax and other levels of language. The most possible level for such

studies is the phonological level of language. Within this connection. the correlation between

word order and syllable structure has been the most researched axea bv linguists and

qpologists.

Starting from von der Gabelentz (1901) and going through various stages and levels,

Lehmarm (1973, 1978), Donegan and Stampe (1983, 2004), Donegan (1993), Gil (1986),

Plark (1998). Fenk-Oczlon and Fenk (2004), Haspiimath (2005) and Tokizaki and Kuwana

(2012), among others, describe the conelation bet\,veen word order and syllable structure.

They have tried to show this correlation by a number of studies that languages with SOV

order tend to have simple svllable structrue, while in the case of SVO order. this slIuctule is

the complex one. The Universal Archives of the Unive6itate Constarz and the universals of

WAIS also show the same phenomena. In the current section, I plan to present a detailed

overview ofthese studies. But beforc reviewing the previous work on the corelation between

48

word order and syllable structure. it is appropriate to dehne the basic 'word order' and

'syllable structule' for the scope ofprecise understanding ofthe correlation under discussion.

2.4.1. Ou Basic Word Order

The discussion of basic word order is arr important point in the study of t]?ological

Iinguistics. Lillguists define the Basic V/o!d Order (BWO) or simply the Word Order (WO)

due to the importance of the combination of basic constituents related to syntactic

characterization. II1 simple and straightforward way. by BWO of a larguage means the order

of the most basic syntactic elements within the simple declarative sentence of a language. ln

the curent section, the ideas ofwell-kaown linguists related to the notion and the possibiiity

ofthe t}?es of BWO in languages of the world are reviewed.

As established earlier, linguists (e.g., Greenberg, 1963.'1966; Lehmann, 1971, 1973,

1978: Vennemann, 1972; Hawkins. l98l see section 2.3 for fiuther detail) agree rhat verD has

the central role among othet elements in the syntactic characterization of a language. Then

the syntactic construction ofverb in regard to its objec, is considered the most fundamental in

the syntactic classification of languages. Some linguists believe that these two elements

(Verb and Object) are enough to define the BWO. Bur there are otheN who think that in

connection with these two elements, sllbJecl is also importatrt. Therefore, the BWO of a

language is dehned on the basis ofthe relationship ofthese three fundarnental elements in the

simple sentence of language. Let me show the views of some experts on this poinl

Starting from Greenberg (1966), whose WO univenals have considerable impact on

the r?ological study oflanguages; languages have the following three qpes ofBWO:

(7)

a. Verb+Subject+Objecr (VSO)

19

b. Subject+Verb+Object (SVO)

c. Subject+Object+Verb (SOV)

Hawkins (1983) calls this division of larguage types rhe 'Greerbergian Trichotomy'.

According to this division, these thee tlpes of BWOs are the ftequent orders. He based his

linguistic univemals on the basis of these R!es. Lehmann (1971) mentions two possible

BWOS. the VO (Verb + Object) and OV (Object + Verb). In this connection, he considers the

order of these two fundarnental elements (i.e.. verb in combination with its object). He

divides languages on the basis of these two BWO trcesj VO languages (e.g., English,

European and Semitic languages) and OV larguages (e.g., Japanese. Turkish and Dravidian

languages of India). This division of Lehmam (1971) shows the Spological significance of

verb position in the study of languages. Based on the ideas of Lehmann, Vememann (1972).

in order to provide the theoretical perspective of Greenbergian universals, reformulates the

'Greenbergian Trichotomy' into these two possible order types. He gives his notion on the

basis of two basic verb positions (as discussed above, the VO and OV). Thus collapsing the

VSO and SVO into one VO type, he gives his theoretical notion of Natural Serialization

P nciple (NSP). NSP has contributed a lot in defining the basic languages into two rypes and

providing the logical explanation to BWO chaoge. Even if S is added to V and O, it makes

different combinations of S,V and O, as subsequently, in his book on syntactic qTology,

Lehmarm (1978) mentions highly consistent three prominent types of languages: SOV

(Japanese), VSO (Eastem Island) and SVO (English). He also talks about relatively

inftequent VOS language q?e.

Apart from above discussed types, other logically possible verb positions have also

been discove.ed and studied by linguists. Derbyshire and Pullum (1979) have.eported that

OVS and OSV languages also exist. Hawkim (1983) gives five possible BWO types. He

considered thiee mdn types, SOV (e.g., Japanese), SVO (e.g.. English), VSO (e.g., Welsh)

50

and two relatively rare types (VOS e.g., Malagasay), OVS (e.g., Hixkaryana). Dryer (2005)

in WALS Chaptet 83, divides languages into three possible orde6: VO languages, OV

languages and Ianguages with no dominant order. The third t}?e of language is the one in

which the order of V and O is detemined by glammaticality etc. Morc recently, Brody

(2009) gives six logically possible orders of S, V and O (SVO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS and

vso).

h the light of the above discussion. it seems appropriate to adopt the definition of

Lehmann (1971, 1978) and Vennemann (19'72, 19'71, 1975) etc., by considering the

combination of verb and object as the fundamental order for the subject ianguages. The first

reason, for doing so, is that the pattem of WO of all languages can easily be divided on the

basis of these two basic syntactic elements and it is easy 10 relate all languages to these two

fomations. Secondly, the order of my subject language (i.e., Pashto) which is OV and the

language which I will take for comparison in chapter 6 (i.e., English) has VO order. So, I

have the reprcsentation of both types of languages. Even if subject is included to our basic

s].ntactic elements. the order ofboth the languages will be S+V+O and S+O+V. Finally, the

correlations related to the current study axe related to either VO or OV and it provides enough

viability to my research. The section below, discusses the categodzation ofsyllable structure.

2.4.2. The C^tegorization of Syllable Structure

By syilable sfuctue, in this study as meant by other linguists who worked on the topic, I

mean the possible pattems or categories of syllable struchue found in various types of

latrguages. It is basically related to the complexity or possible consonant clusters within the

syllable structure of a language. According to Maddieson (2005), Ianguages can be divided

51

into tbree categories on the basis of syllable compiexity, nameiy Simple, Moderately

Complex and Complex. Their detail is given in Table 2.4 below:

Table 2.4: The Categories of Syllable Structure by Maddieson (2005)

S. No: Category Structure Examples

1 Simple CV Hawaiian and Mba ianguages (Adamawa-llbangian

Niger- Congo, Democratic Republic ofCongo)

(C)V Fijian,Igbo 0{iger-Congo; Nigeria), and Yareba

(Yareban; Papua New Guinea)

2 Moderately CVC

complex CC:V C:= liquids (r,4) or glides (w/j)

CC:VC C: = w in Darai (Indo-Aryar; Nepal)

3 Complex (CXCXC)V(CXCXC)(C)English

The division of syllable strucnue on the basis of complexit_v has been further modified by

linguists like Plank (2009) and Tokizaki ard Kuwana (2012) etc. According to them, the

above division has problem in deciding the corelation between word order and syllable

stxuctue. Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) suggest that CV(C) should also be considered simple

ruther than moderately complex. They take the example of Japanese which has one variety of

consonants at coda level arld calls it simple syllable structue. ln the case of subject language

Pashto, both these categorizations work. The syllable structue (for examples see Section

2.6.1.) ofPashto is complex under both definitions.

52

2.5. ON CORRELATION BETWEEN SYLLABLE STRUCTI'RE ANI)

WOP.D ORDER

A number of previous works (e.g., Lehmann, 1973, 1978; Donegan & Stampe, 1983,2004;

Donegan, 1993; Gil, 1986; Plank, 1998; Fenk-Oczlon & Fenk, 2004: Haspilmath, 2005;

Tokizaki & Kuwana,2012 among others) show the correlation between word order and

syllable stucture. Plant< (1998) and Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) have prcsented ar

overview of them. They show that languages rvith OV (or SOV more precisely) order tend to

have simple ((C)V) syllable stuctue. In the curent section, I ain going to discuss the major

contribution based on the correlation or corelations between word order and svllable

stuchre which have been given by linguists from time to time.

2.5.1. Lehmann (1973)

Among his other morphological, syntactic and phonological coflelatiom and implications on

the basis of word order, Lehmann (1973) also gives his qpological conclusions about the

conelation of word order arld syllable stucture. I have a brief analysis of his arguments in tie

last section and enlisted a number of important points in Table 2.1. Here at this poinq I take

the cor.elation in hand with fufiher detail.

Lehmann (1973) says that VO languages have compiex syllable stucture, while in

contrast, the languages with OV word order have simple syllable structule. Table 2.2 shows

the syllabic implications ofword order linearity.

53

T.ble 2.5: The Correlatiotr ofWord Order and Syllable Structure adopted

from Lehmann (1973)

VO Languages Ov LaBguages

Have Complex Syllable Structue

Syllables are closed. they end with

consonants

CCCVCCC

Consonants cluste$ possible at both

side ofthe nucleus. beginning.

As can be seen liom the above table Lehmann draws phonological implications for the

syllable structure of a language O?e on the basis of word order. He gives his examples from

Japanese. Turkish, Quechua and Sankeri for OV languages and Classical Hebrew, Portuguese

and Squamish for VO languages.

2.5.2. Donegan and Stampe (1983)

The comparison of Munda and Mon-Klmer languages by Donegan and Stampe (1983, 2004)

and Donegan (1993) also contribute to the discussion of corelation betr,veen word order and

syilable structue. The detail of their analysis is shoun in Table 2.2 in the last section. They

arc of the view that the syliable structure of SOV (Dependent-Head) languages is likely to be

simple i.e., (C)V. In contrast, languages with SVO (Head-Dependent) have complex syllable

structue i.e., (C) (C) V (G) (C). This conclusion reaffirms the aheady discussed and

submiEed result5 oI typologica] linguisrs.

Simple Syllable Structure

Ends in vowels, no consonant cluster

possible at the end

CV

Mostly one coDsotrant comes at the

54

Table 2.6: The Comp.risotr between Mund. andMotr-Khmer L&nguages

ByDonegatr and stampe (1983)

MUNDA MON-KHMER

Word Order: SOV DeDendant-Head SVO Head-Dependant

Syllable canon: (c)v(c) (cxc)v(GXC)

It is illustrated by the table that languages with SOV (also called dependent-head) order have

simple syllable structures and languages with SVO (the head-dependent) maintain the

complex syllable stucture.

The recent analysis of Donegan and Stampe (2004) on the basis oflanguages ftom the

same family, (South-Asian (Munda) Ianguages with the South-East Asian (Mon-Khmer)

languages which belong to the same language family) shows that languages from the same

family can also show divergent features of stuctual pattems. Such a change in the structure

of languages is also the evident of diachronic or historical development of languages

reaffirming the old existing natue of languages as living entities. The discussion of these

branches of the Austroasiatic ianguage family has been shown in the previous section. The

main point rclated to the curent section is the relationship of syllable structue ard word

order. They once again in their 2004 paper maintain that languages with OV word order have

simple syllable structure (C)V or the possibiliry of(C) at coda level. Their results werc based

on the analysis of Austroasiatic languages and thus adding another point to oul subject

corelation. Their comments are not differcnt from previous works discussed so far except for

the point that they arc interested in the overall divergent sauctue of languages form the same

family. Then main focus was on showing that their subject languages were altogether

different despite being liom the same family.

55

2.5.3. David Gil (1986)

Gil (1986) tests the same conelatlon between syllable structure and word order within a data

of 170 sample languages. The data of 170 languages taken from Stanford Phonology

Archives and the UCLA Phonologicat Segment Inventory Database is used to show that the

syllable structue of OV languages is supposed to be simple. On the basis of his dat4 Gil

concludes that the average number of segments in the syllable structure templates was lower

for OV languages: (SOV) 4.04 < (SVO) 4.93. Although the study is based on a very short

data, Gil claims that this tendency is found in SOv Iarguage and suggested further detailed

study with larger data on the topic. However, Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) say that the rcsult

is not very convincing because the difference was less thar 0.9 (0.89). They added the

number of langlages to claim the observation (2.7) and (2.8) to be the universal implications

with enough authe0ticitv.

2.5.4. The Data from Universal Archives

The Universals Archivesa lists 2029 ituplicational universals regarding various smlctures of

languages. These conelations are the inplicational universals wbjch are decided on the basis

of the tlpology and cross-iinguistic vadations of the languages. Univerals related to this

relation axe directly related to our study and are discussed below. These are corelations

number 196 and 207 with comments from Plank. The detail of the universals is given below

as tables 2.7 and 2.8.

a httpii/tvpo.uni-konsranz.delarchivelintro/index.php (accessed on Juiy 20, 2010)

56

T^blet 2.7 . Udiversal number: 196 of Utriversal Archives

Ortg"l: - OV 1".g*g* t*d to have simple syllable structure

St-d-dtrA, IF b"i.," otd* i" OV, THEN syllabie structure is simple (tending

towards CV)

Formula: OV + simple syllable stluctlrle

Comments' Languages with flexive morphology (which tend to be OV) tend to have

the ends of syllables closed, with consonant clusters occurring in this

position as Aeely as in initial position (Lehmam, 1973, p. 61).

This implicational relation is the case in some of the SOV languages of the world. For

example, Turkish (Tukic, Altaic), Japanese (Japanese-Ryulg.uan), Ijo (Niger-Congo), Yareba

(Papua-New Guinea and Wamo (Venezuela). The syllable stucture of these languages is

simpie (CV).Another correlation between syllable structEe and word order is shoran by

Universals Archive as universal number 207 which is discussed beiow in 2.8.

Table:2.8. Universal dumber: 207 of Universal Archives

Original: VO Iarguages tend to have complex syllable structure

Standardized: lF basic order is VO, THEN syllable str'ucture is complex (pennitting

initial and final consonant clu$er).

Iormula: VO +structure complex syllable

Comments:

In the above two universals, it is implied by the experts of language typology that there will

be considerable difference betweer SOV and SVO languages based on their syllable

57

complexity. Both of these rmiversals serve as the basis for further studies on the conelatioN

between syllable stluclurc afld word order (e g., Tokizaki, 2011)'

2.5.5. Evidence from WALS

A trumber ofreseajchers discuss the conelation between the syllable stluctule and SVO order

using the data from WAIS. which includes the data of 2,561 lar€uages They use the

categories of languages according to the defrnition ofsyllabie structures given by Maddieson

(2005) in WALS (chapter l2). Out of them, Plant (1998) and Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012)

concluded that such correlations are certainly possible in which the simple syllable stuctule

of SOV word order can be attested. They conclude ftom their studies tlEt therc exists a

possibility of such correlations because they believe that the tendency of phonoiogy and

morphology is corelated with syntar.

The same conelation is tested by Tokizaki ard Kuwana (2012) by using the data ftom

WALS. They included the data of 359 languages (out of the list of 2561 languages in total)

with both OV and VO orders. Actually, they also used the definition ofMaddieson (2005) for

syllabie structue given in section 4.2.

Tokizaki and Kuwam (2012) are of the view that such catego zation of syllable

complexity into three t)pes (simple, modentely complex and complex) is quite effective in

classiffing languages on the basis ofsyllabic compleity. However, this categorization is not

fine enough to enable the corelation of the subject as also pointed out by Plank (2009).

Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) combined the classification ofMaddieson (2005 chapter 12) for

syllable stucture and the definition of Dryer for word order (2005 chapter 83) and applied

them on the data available with WALS. The reslrlts showed that only 18 out of 171 SOV

58

languages were having simple syllable strucIurc' while

languages were having complex syllable slructule'

Following the remarks of Dryer (2005) that typological work should be based on the

number of genera rather than languages. Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) ultimately divide

Ianguages into their generic grcLrps By genera. they mean the grouping of languages on the

basis of sirnilarity and uncontoversial genetic rciatedness (Dryer, 1992, p 84) According to

them, in order to contol the most sevele genetic bias, q?ologists should count genera Ether

than languages. Thus on the basis of counting the genera irutead of the number of langr'nges'

they prove with the help of data from WAIS that OV languages have more simple consonant

clusteN than those of VO languages. This is further discussed separately at the end of this

section.

2.5.6. Fenk-Oczlon and Fenk (2004)

Recently, Fenk-Oczlon and Fenk (2004) analyse the corelation between syllable structure

and word order. They carry out their research regarding the crosslinguistic correlations

between size of syllables, number of cases and adpositioa order etc. They prove that OV

word order is rightly correlated with other linguistic featues, like a very small number of

phonemes per syllable and agglutinative morphological language saucture. They aaalyse

these interdependencies between different levels of language for fudher explanations. Thus

the already existing corelation between OV order and simple syllable structure was re-

investigated in a new perspective.

Their results show that:

The more syllables per clause, the fewer phonemes per syllable,

The more syllables per word, the fewer phonemes per syllable,

the other 47 out of 165 SVO

a.

b.

59

c. The more syllables per clause' the more syllables per word' and'

d. The more words per clause, the fewer syllables per word

(200s, P.4)

They further state:

(...) OV order is not only associated with less complex syllables' but also with a tendency

io iospositions (e.g. Greenberg 1966 and our sample, where 72 yo of the Postpositional

hnluages showed OV order and 90 % of the prepositional languages VO order') (2005'

p.4).

They calculate ftom their results that languages with OV order have simple syllahle structure

and vice versa. Additionally, the tendency of OV languages being agglutinative and

associated with postpositions is also found corect by them. On the other hand, they also

found the old hlpothesis (Greenberg, 1966) that VO languages not only have the tendelcy

for being fusional or inflectional morphological structure but also the complex syllable

structure.

2.5.7. Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012)

Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) discuss the same conelation with the help of data from wAlS

and universais from Universals Archives. They suggest a number of orieltations for the

reconsideration of syllable structure:

. Geoeraphical gadation of the variety of word final consonants

. The simplification ofsyllabie structure within words and between words

. Head complement orde6

. The gradation ofcoda inventory, and.

. The fine classification ofsyllable complexity.

60

On the basis of their suggestions, Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) analyse the correlation

betweel syllable structure in OV languages and find that OV languages do have simple

syllable stucture (P. 6).

Because t}le thlee way distinction given by Maddieson is unable to prove the

corelation between syllable structue and word order, as suggested by variou-s schola$ as

mentioned above, Tokizaki and Kuwana reconsider the syllable structure They suggest that

syllabic complexity should be decided on the basis of the number of vaxiety of coda

consonants. They follow Hashimoto's (1978) argument that both coda and tone are simpler itr

the OV languages ofNorth Asia (e.g., Manchu) than in the VO languages of South Asia (e g',

Thai, having the most complex syllables in the region).Thus Tokizaki and Kuwana redehned

the complexiry level of syllable structue. The main problem for them is with moderately

complex category of Maddieson's classification of the syllable structure. According to this

new paxameter of syllable structure given by Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012), if the syllabte

stluctule of one language is (C)V(n). it should be considered because it is quit€ close to

simple syllable stucture i.e., (C)v. In this language, only otre variety of consonant at coda

level is possible.

Following the arguments given by Dryer (1992, 2005), Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012)

count the geneE ralher than the languages. They counted the number of segments in a

syllable on the basis of language $ouping and calculated the average value of head-

complement orders. Thus on the basis of results they show that there is a tendency showing

the increase in the value of head-complement with the increase in the number of segnents.

finally, they collclude that there is a fine correlation between syllable structue ard head-

complement order on the basis ofthe structures ofVO/OV.

Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) also hypothesize the same corelation on the basis ofthe

calculation of coda inventory in OV languages. They list a number of languages with

6t

constart ov order and counted the possible coda consonants. These ianguages show that ov

languages have more limited variety of consonants in coda than vO languages For example'

they argue, on the basis of their results, that SOV languages (e g ' Japanese) tend to have

nasals,liquidsandsomevoicelessobsauentsatcoda.ontheothelhand,Voianguagesmay

have a fulI vadety of obstruents and glides at ttris position From this submission' they

suggest that OV languages may have simpler syllables structure'

Tokizaki ard Kuwana (2012) prove their hyPothesis by exploring the nature of syllable

structure with some other phonological characteiistics like epeflthesis and deletion etc They

say that laflguages with SOV order have more phonological changes, such as epentiesis and

deletion. According to them, epenthesis and deletion simptry the smlctule of their syllables

by reducing them. Fot example. consonant clusten are avoided by these processes like'

epenthesis, deietion and coalescence such as the following (Tokizaki & Kuwana, 2012):

1. Epenthesis changes CC cluster into CVC

2. Deletion reduces CC to C

3. Coalescence also shapes CC into C

They give examples from a number of languages, such as Persian, Japanese, Basque, Koreal

and Kannada etc., out of which some are given below:

Epenthesis:

i. Nambiqm:

T.

iii.

Percian:

Basque:

Ifunnada:

Japanese:

Korean:

w'aws "'+v, akalis'alllgatot'

dr o i bi(Rossian) "'+ d oro.ife' droshky'

I i br u(Latn) "') I i b ur u' book'

m a gal (Old) "'+ m a ga I u' daugbter'

dr i n k (Englist,)') d or in ku

(.Enllish) -"'t t q, ks u t hu

62

ln these exarnpies, the coDsonant clusterc are reduced to one cluster by the phonological

process of epenthesis ofvowels.

Deletion / assimilation:

i. Basque: gloria---+loria 'glory,

ii. Basque: ecclesia ---+eliza'ch.Jrch'

The consonants are deleted at word-initial and word-medial positions.

Coalescence:

i. Korean: sty---+ttal ,daughter,

ii. Korean: skur--+kkul,honey,

The process of coalescence in Korea[ language in which the consonant clusters change into

reinforced consonants is also shown

Accoding to Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012), such processes are very rare in the case of

VO languages. VO languages do not simpiif, their consonant clusters with epentheses and

the processes ofdeletion and coalescence. ln their favour, they take the examples of English.

On the basis of these analyses, Tokzaki and Kuwana predict that OV languages have more

simple consonant clusters than VO languages.

Finally, Tokizaki and Kuwara try ro prove OV languages having the simple

consonant clusteN by taking the anaiysis of limited consonant between words level. They

argue that consonant clusteN between as well as within words are simpler witlin OV

languages than VO. They give the example of Korean and Moghol (Mongolic) Ianguages

having a number ofnouns with coda consonarts. Such par:ticles are attached to nouns in order

to show their cases. Their exarnples are given below.

Korean:

a. Nominative: -i/k4

63

Instrume[tal:

Comitative:

Vocative:

Topic:

Every case from the above list has two foms, one starting with a vowel and another with a

consonant. Thus this language avoids consonant ciuster by putting consonalt .rr'ith a noun

ending with a vowel aad adding a vowel starting form to noun ending with a consonant. In

both cases, the syllable template will remain the same (CV.CV). On the basis of this morph_

phonology examination of Korean ianguage, they claim that SOV languages have simple

syllable structue.

From such exarnples. Tokizaki and Kuwana prove that OV latrguages do have simple

syllable structure if one anaiyzes rhe data by considering the geographical gradation of the

variety of word-flnal conson,mts! the tature of the classification of syllable complexity, the

examining the variety of coda inventory and by simpliSing the syllable stucture within

words and between words. Next, they take the explanation of the argument that \Mhy OV

languages have the simple syllable structue and fe\,r'er consonant cluste$ betwee[ words and

within words. They argue that left-branching structue has weaker junctue between its

constituelts than the right-branching languages. This junctlue is as]mmetrical between left

and right branching ofthe stucnue. Taking data from Japanese, Korean. Dutch and German

languages, they argue that this aslmmetry is the result of phonological and morpho_

branching of the structure. F.om these examples of inter-fixation and translating the left /

right branchiq aslrnmetry into prosodic phrases, Tokizaki and Kuwana prove that the

junctue in right braiching (VO) languages is stronger than the left branching (OV)

languages.

b. Accusative: -ul,4ul

-ulo/lo

-bwa/wa

-dya

-urt/nun

c.

d.

f.

64

By applying the aslrmetry found in the prosodic phrases to word order and syllable

structue, they show a marked diffetence in the structue of languages. They say that OV

languages pemit CV as it fits the weaker juncture found in such languages and thus making

no coDsonant clusters. On the other hand, VO is permitted to have complex syllable structure

because the boundaries between words (verbs and nouns) have strong separations. These

tluee points are interesting and provide potential discussion for the analysis of the present

corelation. This discussion with proper evidence fiom the subject language is taken up in

chapter 5.

The finai analysis ofthem is that such points limit consonant clusters in OV languages

at within-words and between-words level- All this is predicted by the notion that left-

branching has weaker junctue than right-branching. In a more recent work, Tokizaki (201l)

has tried to prove that the corelation between word order and phooology in dialects and

mutually related languages.

2.6, O1'f,R\'IEW OT TIIE PREIIOUS STUDIES

I started reviewing the ptevious scholarship on the subject ofthe correlation between syllable

structure and word order from the word order universals of Greenberg (1963, 1966) to the

recent contribution of linguists like Tokizaki (2011). An of them are of the view that the

syllable structue is directly or indiectly related to the word otder of a langr.nge. Most of

them see this codelation as a tiny realization of the huge bulk of the snong relationship or

interface between phonology and syntax (particularly by plank, 1998; Tokizaki & Kuwana.

2012). Surnming up, with respect to the correlation between syllable structue and word

order, the observation found by the studies discussed in the present section, I conclude the

following points:

65

The syllable structure ofa language is determined by its word order

If the word order of a language is SOV, the syllable structue of the language will be

simpte i.e., (C)V

. The same correlation also implies that languages with SVO will have complex

syllable structures i.e. (CXCXC)V(CXCXC)

Thus they observe that such phenomena in the interfaces of language levels may prove the

present research trends as a high time to realize and make the ,Gabelent,s ideal, true. But the

study of gianunar may not be so simple. This point is proved by the violation of the above

concluding points for our subject language. pashto violates both the above conelations and

provides the counter examples and thus in the ianguage oflogic gives the ,proof of negation,

on the topic. In the followitrg sectiol1. I will analyze the case of pashto in this regard. Having

discussed the issue, the feasibility ofrhe curent study will be highlighted.

2.7. THE CASE OF PASHTO AND TIIE VIABILITY OF THE CI]RRENT STUDY

As discussed earlier and realized at every relevant point, I argue that pashlo language violates

the discussed conelations and provides enough data to re-examine the reliability of them.

This language has SOV order but it does have a number ofcomplex syllabic templates. Now

in order to address the exact problem, the case of pashto must be introduced. In this section, I

wiil discuss that how the case ofpashto is different {iom other languages creating a very solid

room for the current study. Let me show the case ofpashto at fust.

66

2,7,1. The Case ofPashto

The basic word order of Pashto language is SOV, as illustrated in the following sections :

(8) ba:t[a kila:b wa:i:

read-do

(9) mor maJu:m xkolklo

Mother baby kiss-did

Mother kissed the baby

(10) gwel peF! aluzewi:

Gwal kite Jly- do

Gwal is flying the kite

Roberts (2000) reports Pashto to be a rigidly head-final language across its lexical categories.

The same is clear fiom the above exanples. He has also discussed the possibility ofthe order

into OSV within some contexl and if prosodic corditions are flrlfrlled. He firrther argues that

the SOV order is rarely changed into OSV but in such cases it is only demanded by the

context and there is a healy pause given after the firct word, i.e., object. Such order is subject

to cliticization ard topicalization. Secondly, this freedom is only possible in the past tense,

and is not possible in other tenses.

From the above examples. Pashto can easily be concluded as SOV language. Now,

according to the implicational universals provided by the studies discussed in the section.

SOV language should have simple syllable structue. Since pashto has SOV word order, it

must be having simple syllable stlucture. But this is not the case. Now let me show the

possible syllable structure ofthe language as proved by its syllabic templates.

r The s€nt€nces within rhis study are taken fiom yousurlai, the srandard diaiect of pashro. It is the natrve dialectof the resea.cher and is considered as the srandard dialect ofthe language (see section 1.6.3 for detait).

Bacha book

Bacha reads a book

67

The syllable structure in pashto language can easiiy be reported as a complex one.

Based on ow defrnitions ofthe thrce categories ofsyllable stuctues in section 2.4.2, orle caD

argue that Pashto syllable structure is complex. pashto is very rich in the syllable structures.

There are various qpes of consonant clusters which cao form the individual words in the

language. According to Tegay and Robson (1996), pashto language is rcma.rkable for the

possibility of different consonant clusreN withir its syllables (a.lso Mo.genstierne, 1926- l94O

among othen). For exampre, Engrish has about thirty five possible combinations of

consonant clusten for two-consonant clusters at orls€t level, while in pashto, this possibility

goes up to one hudred combinations (Tegay & Robson, 1996). They also maintain that the

Pashto syllables may consist ofat least one vowel and may go up to three consonants at onset

and two consonants at coda level. Lei (2004) shows two aspects of pashlo phonology i.e.,

the presence of mary consonant clusters (including reverence so[ority) and the features of

glides (palatal /j/ and labial /w,). She is of the vien. that ..Not only does pashto contain

clusters... but also several reverse sonoritv clusters,, (Levi, 2004, p. 203). Similarly Bell and

Saka (1982) show a number of initial reverse sonoritv clusters in pashlo. The point related to

reverse sonority is taken in detail in section 3.5. Here in this section, I just show the possible

syllabic templates of Pashto which suggest that the syllable structure of the language is not

simple. Tegey and Robson (1996) suggest the possible syllabic pattems for pashto which are

given below as (l 1):

(11)

CV

CCV

CCCV

VC

CVC

CCVC

CCCVC

vcc

CVCC

CCVCC

cccvcc

(Tegey & Robson, 1996. p. 19)

68

To reinforce the idea of Tegay and Robson. exa.mples for all the possible clusters in the form

of words or at word boundaries have been provided in (12). English translation for them has

also been given.

(12)

[o]

[a:o]

[e] as in [o.na:r] pomegmnate

sinah

mango

fue

mare

[am]

Ior]

lasl

Ierl]

laks]

tI"fql

[xa:]

lnel

fta:l

vc

VCC

cv

CVC

lxogl

Id:ml

t4erl

heaven

jealousy

love

okey

no

you

moment

very / more

CVCC

ilu:ndl

69

CCV

CCVC

CCVCC

cccv

CCCVC

[Iend.]

[4and]

Isre]

lr al

[yla:]

Iklak]

lstarl

[gra:n]

tdr:stl

[fna:xfl

ld?$:ndl

[xwle]

[xw-dai]

Ixwre]

mouth

God

eat

baren / impotent

pool

hard

bie

difficult / expensive

rieht

identiry / known

life

red

waist

theft

lndrorl sister-in-iaw

[xkwel] as in fxkwel.ko] kiss

[Jxwen] as in fsxwen.der] bull

CCCVCC

ll*-andl chewing

70

The possible syllable structue of Pashto language as derived fiom the above discussion is the

following:

(c) (c) (c) v (c) (c)

The above words are everyday words and, therefore, are used Aequently by Pashto speakers.

This list also shows ftat a variety of syllable stuctures is possible in Pashto and most of the

consonant sounds axe acceptable at both onset ard coda positions ofthe syllables (Tegey &

Robson (1996). The detailed features of Pashto syllabification and phonotactics of Pashto

phonology are discussed in Chapter 3. I will discuss a number of word-initial, word-medial

and word-final syllables with geater details there. This shows that the syllable stucture of

Pashto, as based on our earlier categorization of syllable stuctule in section 2.2.1, is

complex.

The curent section shows that the word order of Pashto is SOV and now it is clear

that it has complex syllable structure. This phelomenon provides a clear cut contadiction to

the implicational corelation assumed, stated and proved by a number of studies discussed

earlier. In the next section, I take this issue as a problem statement for the curent rcsearch.

2.7.2. The Problem Statement

The case of Pashto in the preceding section Eises the core research question of the curent

study discussed in section 1.2. According to the correlalion, the syllable structure of Pashto

being SOV laoguage must be simple i.e.. (C)V. But the problem is that this is not the case. It,

in spite of simple, has complex syllable structure. Pashto presents a very special case in the

shape of challenging the correlation of syllable sauctue and word order assumed by a

number of researchers mentioned in the current chapter. h order to formally take this

problem, I shall explore the syllable structure of Pashto in the following chapter. Word order

7t

is the focus ofour analysis in Chapter 4. This rature ofPashto seriously questions the validity

of current correlation. The features of Pashto language show that there is something more

involved in defining the reiationship between these two stuctues. A detailed study of Pashto

syllable stuctule and word order will provide more data on the study of implicational

universals and corelations based oII them.

2.7.3. The Viability of the Current Research

It is necessary to state the viability of the curent research in the perspective of the formal

issuejust discussed. Focusing on this problem, the study provides a comprehelsive pictule of

the case of Pashto. Exploring the fonnal issue under study, the thesis exhibits a number of

phonoiogical and syntactic featues of the language within the Optimality framework, with

the intention of making the detailed analysis for a broadcast citcle of readers with a

background in Eastem-lmnian as well as English languages, especially the comparative study

in Chapter 6. Pashto is tvpologically very important language in this respect. So, very

interestitrg for general linguists, in the piesent scenario, the study also serves as an important

docurnent for comparative linguists interested in contrasting related phenomena across

Ianguages (e.g., word order variations and syfiactic structures) or studying the pashto

larguage community, and, ofcourse. for specialists in Pashto language.

2.8. SUMMARY OF THE CIIAPTER

The chapter has briefly reviewed the main field of current study ard the discussion to be

taken with greater depth in the following chapters. Having discussed the short history of

typologicai linguistics and its basic notions, the chapter explains the well-known studies on

72

the basis of word order tpology. Specific explanation ofthe subject corelation, in the light

ofPashto data, is given in detail. In the later part ofthe chapter. the correlation is made under

question with the help of the syllable stucture and word order of pashto. Thus, a staight

forward motivatiol is provided by discussing the problem and by requiring the independent

analysis ofphonotactics ofPashto phonology as a whole. Lastly, the existence ofthe prcblem

suggests the potential viability of the srudy. The lrext chapter anaiyses the syllabification of

Pashto langlage addressing the, so far, unexplained exception of the language to the

conelation under discussion.

73

Chapter 3

SYLLABLE STRUCTURX IN PASIITO

3.1. INTRODUCTION

The current chapter has three mdn aims: a detailed analysis of Pashto syllable structure, the

rcpresentation of Pashto syllabic complexity, and the sonodty related specifications of the

language. It starts by introducing Pashto phonology and goes on to cover various tvpes of

syllabic pattems in the language and develops the discussion on syllabic complexity by

demonstating consonant clusters at word initial. medial and final positions in Pashto. Along

with a description of syllabification rules aad the phonotactics of the language, the chapter

examines the qpology of Pashto syllables. OT as a fiamework will be used to prcvide the

theorctical analysis ofPashto syllabic pattems. The combined inforrnation oftie above points

will pave a befter way to undemtand and acknowledge the capacity of Pashto syllable

structue before moving to the discussion of the word order of the lalguage in the next

chapter. A11 this will ultimately lead to our discussion of the methodology one rcquires to

deduce the nature ofthe implicational conelation discussed in deeper detail in Chapter 2.

3.2. PASIITO PHONENtrC IN'I/ENTORY

Previous studies of Pashto show some differences of opinion regarding the quantity6 and

quality? of the phonemes (e.g., about the presence / absence of consonants like/ts, dz, E, 4 I

6 For exarnple, Penzl (19s5) and Levi (2004) include./ t, 4,/and exclude /i !. j, q/. Tegey and Robson (1996)include /ts, da fl and exclude / S, al.Ijaz (2003) include /! e, u / too.

'74

n, i, q/ and vowels/e:, ^,

E/) in the segmental phonemic inventory of Pashto. Rehman (2009)

details this lack of unified desc ption in the phonetics and phonology of Pashto language.

According to him, the absence of unified phonemic inventory is somehow the result of

dialectical variatiors in the language. Despite these vadations in opinions about segrnents and

in place of articulation, as mentioned in chapter 1, a good thing about the language is that a

speaker from any dialect readily understands the speakers ofother dialects. What follows is a

briefoverview ofthe variations in the previous studies on this issue.

Penzl (1955), Roberts (2000), Levi (2004), show /p, 4 3 / sounds but according to my

dat4 these sor-mds do not exist today, specifically in Yousafzai dialect. Similarly, they do not

show sounds /4, f, q, j, h, (/, which exist in Pashto, especially in a number ofbonowed words

ftom Arabic, Persiaa and Urdu. Penzl (1955) does not even consider the affricates /ts, &, tJ

dg/ as single segmeDts, which are mentioned by Elfenbein (1997) as single segnents.

Likewise, Roberts (2000) does not even include /ts, dz, tl, d3 /in his inventory for study on

Pashto clitics. Bukhari (1960), Ijaz (2003) and Rehman (2009) have based their studies or the

Yousafzai dialect. They have also not shown all the sounds of the language. For example,

Bukhari (1960) does not show /f, q/. Ijaz (2003) does not include /1, q/ and Rehman (2009)

along with both ofthem does not add ,/tr, E, ts, d/, in his studies. It is true that these sounds /f,

q, h, q/ are flot native to the larguage but they are used very ftequently by native speakers of

Pashto today.

The vadation in the descriptions of Pashto phonemes is explicit in the differences

among the scholars discussed above. In some cases, variation is found even within studies by

the same scholars. For example, Tegey ard Robson (1996) (which includes /9/, the velar

nasal) is different ftom Robson and Tegey 2009 (which excludes /4f. In order to solve this

unsettled dispute and to develop consensus among the scholars, the above points suggest for

' For example, IjM (2003) shows ,/t 4 n- s, z/ as atveolar but P€nzl (1955) desoibes /s, / as dental and 4 j/ asalveolar while B€ll and Saka (1982) consid€r /s. z,J,3i all to be alveolar.

75

one unified pho[emic inventory for the language. Since such a task may be out of the scope

of the current study, it is appropriate to mention that such a contdbution might he taken as an

important tutwe study for the phonetics and phonolog of the language. Phonetic study will

solve the dispute of the quality of Pashto sounds and pho[emic research will sett]e down the

quantity issue in this regard8.

In the curent thesis, I try to remain as consistent as possible for the sake of clarity and

uniformity. For this purpose, I propose Pashto segmental phonemic inventory based on the

Yousafzai dialect of Pashto which is sho\rn as 3.1 and 3.2 belou The Yousafzai dialect is

considered the standard dialect of Pashto by a number ofstudiese. This phonemic inventory is

closely related to Tegey and Robson's (1996) for consonants. I11 additiol to some variation in

the place of articulation of some sotmds, my difference with them in consona[ts is in sounds

/?, 3/ (the glottai stop and the voiced post-alveolar fricative) which, being a native speaker of

the Yousafzai dialect, my intuition and the data do not match. Symbols are, of course,

changed as I have applied IPA. For vowels arld diphthongs, my study is based on the same

source (Tegey& Robson, 1996). I have also given a briefview of some other souces as well.

3.2.1. Consonants

Table 3.1 shows the segmental consonants of Pashto. According to this description, &e

language has 30 consonants. They are subdivided into stops, nasals. fricatives, affricates,

liquids and glides. Oral stops and fricatives constitute the major groups of the sounds having

3 Phonetics is th€ study of the human sounds in general and Phonology is the s.udy of sounds of a specificlanguage. I used them both h€re because I mean that phonetically unified inventory wiil solve the disputes iII thepla€e and manner of aniculation of Pashto aforementioned and phonological study will settle down the issu€ ofthe number ofphonemes that how many basic sounds are there in Pashto.

' See PeMl (1955, p. 8), MacKanzie (1959. p.233) and more recent work, HaUberg (1992, p.44) for fmberdetail on the lopic. After Hallberg (1992) no study has raised this point as ir is acceptable to most of the

76

9 sounds each. Majoritv of them are voiceless (lf including /q, f, I h/ single sounds' in

addition to 1 in each pair). Among 4 nasals, /r1 is a peculiar sound Similarly' /ts / among 3

fricatives is also very interesting Pashto sounds The 3 Iiquids are lateral /l/, trill /r/ and flap

/1/, one each. Pashto shares the flap /1/ sound with other languages of the area (e'g , Urdu)'

The remaining are 2 glides /w, j/. In terms ofthe place ofarticulation, Pashto has 4 bilabial, 1

labiodental and 2 dentals which are all common sounds. 4 retroflex sounds are quite

interesting for linguists. According to Tegey and Robson (1996, p. 16), Pashto is the oniy

Iranian language to have these retroflex soundslo. The rest of the solrnds are 6 alveolar, 4

palatal, 5 veiar, I ul'ular, 2 pharyngeal alld I glottal being quite common in South Asian and

Arabic languages.

Pashto retroflex sounds are unfamiliai to non-natives who have no retroflex sounds in

their languages. Accoiding to Rny et al- (1996), retoflex sounds are made by the underside of

the to[gue tip flapping down only once against the alveolar ridge while not completely

blocking the airflow down through the middle. The case of Pashto retroflex sounds is a bit

different except /y' in which mainly the manner of articulation is changed. Pashto /t/ is

somehow similax to Amencan pronunciation of ltdl 1n\Notd hdrdy. These sounds are found in

abundance in Pashto vocabulary. Following is the consonantal phonemic inventory of the

language.

10 Some ljnguists (e.g., Penzl, 1955; Levi,2004) show 6 retroflex sounds in Pashto by adding /S, a to the list.

17

Table 3.1: Pashto Consonantal Phonemes

Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar

dental

Renoflex Palatal velar U\Trlar Pharln- Glottai

geal

Stops

Nasals

Fricatives

Affticates

Liquids

Glides

pb

m

sq!

(hJ

tJ d3

Table 3.1 covers the illustration ofthe place ard the mannem of the consonants of Pashto.

The above inventory is mainly based onTegey and Robson (1996) as discussed earlier. The

vowels ofthe language are discussed in the following section.

3.2.2. Vowets

The case of Pashto vowels, in tems of overall agreement, is not differeot fiom its consonants.

The vocalic segments are mentioned differently in quality as well as quatrtit"v by different

sources. Penzl (1955) and Bell and Saka (1982) mention 7 vowels but with the differerce of

quality in 2 low vowels /a./ and /o./. Tegey and Robson (1996) show 9 vowels. Studies based

on Yousafzai dialect show variation among the scholarsll. The inveltory of Pashto vowels

shown in 3.2 is based on Tegey and Robson (1996).

rr Ijaz (2003) shows 10 vowels and RehmaD (2009) shows l3 vowels.

78

Table 3.2: Pashto Vocalic Phonemes

Front Central Back

There are a number of sorulds in Pashto which demand the inclusion ofl'\, ey' to the inventory

which are missing in Tegey and Robson (1996). The minimd pans in (13) show these sounds

and the difference among their counter parts.

llell (twenty)

[ker] as in [xker](hom)

[ku:ze] (down)

lwalel (why)

u:

u

o

(13) l^l [t^l] (cdpple)

lk\Il (to sow)

le'./ ftu:zel (ewers)

[wale:] (cariage way)

Rehman (2009) and Ijaz (2003) include them in their studies. Since the scope of the curent

study is the complexity of the consonantal clusters in the syllable structure of the language,

the matter related to the qualitv and quantity v/ill not change the data because the curent

study is related to the analysis of consonant clusters only. Therefore, for the sake of

consistercy, I base my study mainly on Tegey and Robson (1996).

3.2.3. Diphthodgs

Tegey and Robson (1996) describe 6 diphthongs in thek Reference Grammar ofPashto. They

do ilot use IPA symbols for the representation of them. Similar to consonants and vowels, I

'79

Low

take their diphthongs as the basis of the cunent study. They show the following slmrbols for

their diphthongs as given in (14).

(14) /ej, ej. aj, aj, uj, a

According to Jones (1964) '(Diphthongs) must necessarily consist of one semi-

vowel'. Based on this principle, their diphthongs might be recognized' as diphthongs but the

issue about the quality and quantity of diphthorys is taken by Ijaz (2003) and Rehman (2009)

in detail within their studies. According to them, there are 4 diphthongs in Pa'shto Rehman

(2009, p. 145) proposes the following diphthongs with their minimal pairs' Engtish

tanslation is my own.

(15)

I ei, I

/ai/

lei.l

llo-/

lbu4ei I (old lady)

lr.woi ] (ox)

[rozei ] (come) 2p

[ziot ] (much)

[b"4o ]

[wo:]

imp frozi]

[zo:t]

(old man)

(cow)

(come) 3p. dec

(caste)

The basic description of phonemes which has just been intoduced in the above sections is

used throughout this study. Having seen the phonemic distribution of Pashto. I will discuss

now how these sound segments arc brought together to form minimal sound blocks, syllables,

and their prosodic features. I staxt from the defrnition of syllable and will move on to

higl ight the natue ofthe study of syllable in OT. The analysis of Pashto syllables mder OT

will enable to extract syllabification rules which will ultimately be used for the representation

of Pashlo svllables.

80

3.3. THE SI'I-LABLE

ThemainfocusofthedisseltationistheexplorationofPashtosyllabiccomplexity.To

demonstate the complex syllable smrctwe ofthe language, one must analyze the natue ofits

syllables first. Syllable is a unit of pronunciation which can easily be described by native

speakers of a laaguage as the concept is more iotuitive than linguistic to native speake$ but

at the sarre time, it is very hard to defrne syllable in terms of what a native speaker and

linguist may think of it. There are two levels of rcpresentation of syllable, phoretic level and

phonological level. Phonetically, it has been claimed that syllables are accompanied by a

chest pulse (which is "an individual bu$t of action by the expiratory muscles'1l2. This idea

has been rcjected by a number of scholarsrr. Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) are of the

view that syllable should be viewed strictly as a phonological unit. Actuall]', all the evidence

mentioned in defining syllable as a true constituent goes in the favour of its phonological

nature. The prersent study is concemed with phonological level ofsyllable.

Blevins (1995, p. 207) mentions four reasons foi syllable to be a true coNtituent of

phonological nature. Firstly, it firnctions as a domain for phonological rules and constaints. It

is a domain which is larger than phonemic segment, smaller than word and contains only one

so[odty peak. It is clear from the assignment of stess in various languages on the basis of

s-vllable. Kenstowicz and Kisseberth (19'79, p.260) give the example of Classical Latin in

which stess is assigned on the basis of the number of syllables in the word and the weight of

the penultimate syllable.

Secondly, some phonological rules may target the margim (edges) of syllables as I

wiil show the case of Pashto syllable cluste6 in this chapter in detail. Another common

'? Devine and Slephens (1994, p. 9-10).t3 e.g., Ladeioged (1967).

81

example which is given by expertsra is the process of aspiration in English as aspiration

targets only initial voiceless slops in syllables Thirdly' syltables are also the target of certain

morphological rules Reduplication and language games are common exalnples' Finally'

native speakers have clear intuitions about syllables in their language The existence of

syllabaries in many languages of the world is the example of this fact Another example is the

observance of poetic meter in the language ofpoetry. Pashto plovides very handy example in

this regard. within Pashto folldore, two-line TAPPAH is composed of 22 syllables' out of

which the hrst line is always consisted of 9 syllables and the second, of 1315 syllables'

The above discussion shows that syilable is very important in phonology of a

language and that it is easier to define the syllable phonologically than phonetically The

Syllabie is the part offixed prosodic hierarchy and the syilable node dominates the onset and

rhlme in Universal Prosodic Hierarchy. Figure 3.1 shows this hierarchy which is based on

Blevins (1995, p. 210).

?tomlogi.rt ?Lra$

:ror.di. Ilord

Soot

SrI.bl.

SYhblc I€flair*

Figure 3.1: Universal Prosodic Hierarchy

'a e.g., Kaln (1980, p. 73).

" Like other genreJ of folklore, mostofthe IAPP,{lls are composed and maintain€d by Pashtun women in the

society. The prosodic analysis is given initially by Mackanzie ( I 958).

Ph:n/\

Itn *-o

/\,/\

::.

ctttnI / \xtix

82

The above hgure shows that syliable is the part ofa fixed prosodic hierarchy Another special

characteristic of syllable is that it is fiequently organized in regard to the sonority of the

segnents within it. This aspect ofPashto is also the paxt of the curent study and will be taken

further in section 3.5.

A syllable compdses of two basic components, onset and rh)T ne The two elements

are obligatory in the syllable, the onset and the fiIst component of the rh1. ne16' lpeak or in

some languages, it can be a syllabic consonant) ln languages like English' nasals and liquids

are also allowed to take the position ofthe nucleus (Davenport & Hannahs' 2005' P' l5) A

syllable ending with a vowel (CV) is considered harmonic universaily and, therefole, some

languages avoid syllables ending with a consonant. Figue 3.2 shows the structure of the

syllable.

Figure 3.2: The Structure of Syllable

Figure 3.2 shows the tkee components of syllable structure which includes obligatory onset

and nucleus and nor-obligatory coda. The hgure is the structure of Pashto word ,&^V

[wooden bed] which has each consonant both at onset and coda. Universally, languages

prefer to staxt with a consoflant as onset but end without coda consonant (Kager, 1999). But

this urliversai syllabic process is challenged by language specific syllabic preferences within

vadous languages. In other words, syllabification is certainly a language specific e[terprise.

16 ttrere are other languages in which the onser in as),llable is also optional. Pashto is one ofthem.

o

,/\o",i il-.k(c) //\

/\]-rdds Co{.

^ O) r(c)

83

oT assumes that syllables are generated by the fiDction GENerator from the base'

According to Prince and Smolensky (2004)' syllables are the part of the base C)T considers

syllables as larger components which are consmrcted out of the process of incorporation of

the segnents into higher ptosodic constituents. Kager (1999, p 91) points out that syllables

are capable of providing proper phonological geneElizations based on phonologicai pattems

and verifying the well-formedness of the sequence of segments He is of the view that

syllable plays an important role in the study of well-formedness of smrctural pattems, the

prosodic nature of a structule aIId the demarcation of the edges of morphemes He also

believes that processes like epenthesis, deletion, ahemation, etc. are tdggered in order to

avoid syllable ill-formedness.

A number of studies assume that syllables are organized in the form of minimal sormd

blocks. Rhl,rne Theory (Selkirk, 1984), Timing Slot Organization and C's and V's theory

@ell & Bybee, 1978; Clements & Keyser, 1983) are some of the examples fom

phonological literature which have showed the sound organization within syllable. The

prcsent study aims to analyze the syllabic structure of Pashto and to identiry the syllabic-

specifrc constraints of it.

3.4. SYLLABLES IN PASHTO

Pashto syllables have beetr the subject only of intoductory level studies so far. Bell and Saka

(1982), Tegay and Robson (1996). Z*nai (2002) and Levi (2004) are a few studies which

have given some importance to the .ole of syllable structure in the phonology of the

language. I recapitulate these studies in the current section. The current study is the orfy

contribulion to the constraint based study of the language associating syllables and sonority

of the language in it.

84

The source of Pashto syllables discussed in this section are already sho*m in Section

1.2. Apafi fiom the thlee dictionaries, the syllable templates mentioned here are taken from

the collection of5o00 real words (collected ftom 532 native speakers of tl1e Yousafzai dialect

ofPashto fiom n-ral area) from everyday life

Pashtoneit]1elallowsnolabandonsmaJginalsegments.lthasbothtypesofsyllables,

open syllables (CV) [C for Consooant and V for Vowel], and closed syllables (CVC) The

language allows nothing other thar vowel as the nuclei of its syttables lt means that Pashto

contains at least a vowel as a peak which is preceded or followed by consonant sounds'

AJthough the lalguage has the CV pattem, it also allows other more complex pattems as

well. The ma.ximum syllabic patterE goes up to CCCVCC as reported by Tegey and Robson

(1996). ln other words, the vowel in Pashto syllable may be preceded by three consonants

and it may be followed by up to two consonants ma,\imum. Because ofthe consonant cluste6

and reverce sonorityl?, Pashto syllables are considered as orre of the most interesting aspects

of the language (Levi, 2004).The organization of sounds within a syllable and the syllabic

templates are given importance by some ofthe previous studies.

Till now, Pashto syllabihcation and syllabic sauctue have not received apFopriate

attention. The litemtue availabie in the field of Pashto phonology is developed on the basis

of syllables bas€d mostly on intuition of the scholars or it is only of intoductory level.

Hence, the core study on syllabification is more or less neglected arld is yet to be under taken.

Onty two important studies, those of Betl ard Saka (1982) and Rehmar (2009) have tried to

explore the articuiatory and acoustic aspects of Pashto phonemes with limited orientation.

The focus ofBell and Saka (1982) is on reverse sonority, while Rehman (2009) is concemed

with the leaming and teaching ofEnglish consonantal phonemes by Ll Pashto speakers. Still

there is an amount of emphasis on the syllabic structure of the language and related issues to

F Reverse sonoriry means ahe violation of SsP_sonority sequencing ptinciple. It is an interesting feaaure ofPashto phonology and is raken in geater d€pth in section 3.8.

85

be taken. In the following paxagaphs, I will tr'v to recapih-rlate (then critically evaluate) t}le

previous studies on Pashto syllabie stucture'

Bell and SaLa (1982) show a number of initial consorant cluste6 in Pashto They

believe that a number of Pashto initial clustels have reverse sonoity hierarchy They

specifically show fwo consonant clusterc ([wr-] and Fl-]) and many other combinations

which violate the sonodty sequencing principle Mainly' they address the violation of

sonority sequencing in the initial ciuste$ of the language' but they also demonstrate that /w/'

the bilabial glide, is actuall.r a glide and not /p/ bilabial fricative as previously reported so by

Shafeev (1964). A detailed reference to Bell and Saka (1982) is made in section 3 5'

Tegey and Robson (1996, p. 19) give some detail about Pashto syllables and syllabic

structures in their reference grammal. They suggest that the language has matimum three

consorlants in the beginning and two at the end of t-lle syllable in root words. By giving the

evidence of a number of consonant clllsters. they also claim that the language is remarkable

for its abundance in two consonant cluste$ at the beginning. They show that it has 12 core

s)llabic pattems sho$'n belo\ as (i i\'

Tabte 3,3: Pashto Syllabic Patterns

CV

CCV

CCCV

vcCVC

CCVC

CCCVC

VCC

CVCC

CCVCC

CCCVCC

According to the above patterns of Tegey and Robson (1996), the maximum syllabic pattem

is CCCVCC but Zaman (2002) believes that maximum syllable structure of Pashto goes up to

CCCVC. It appears to be another veBion of syllable pattems of Pashto, showing 9 syllabic

pattems (V, CV, VC, CVC. CCV, CVCC' CCVC, CCCV, CCCVC) Thus he reduces ttuee

86

types of pattems (i.e., VCC. CCVCa. CCCVCC) from the pattems showed by Tegey ardRobson (1996). The three pattems which are shown by Tegey and Robson (1996) but nor

shown by Zaman (2002) are found in pashto. In pashto words like [eks] (ealousy), [fq]

(love), [Ilm] (knowledge) and [nzq] are found in abundance which are ofVCC patrem.

Similarly, CCVCC is also a very common pattem in the larlguage. For example ,

words like [{resfl (dghr / total), [Ina:x, (identity / known), [d3wend] (life) are used in daily

language. The last pattem (cccvcc) is arso found but in very few words. r w r discuss

them in detail in the section on sllabification rules ofthe language.

Levi (2004) highlights two very important phenomena of the language i.e., the

features of glides (labial glide /w/ and palatal glide /j,f and the presence of mary consonanr

clustels in the laryuage. She is ofthe view that pashto not only contains a number ofclusters

but several ofthem are reverse sonoriry clusters (Levi. 2004, p. 203).

The version of syllabic pattems submitted by Tegey and Robson (1996) is

advantageous for the present study because it represents every possible syllable structue of

the language. In Tabie 3.4, I group all the possible syllabic pattems into three main categodes

on the basis of consonant complexity which I will firrther use for the analysis of consonant

cluste$ in the following sections.

Table 3.41 Categories ofPashto Syllable Patterns

s.

No:

Category Syllabic Patterns

Simple Syllables (v. cv. vc. cvc)Bipartite Consonant Clusterc (ccv. vcc. cvcc. ccvc. ccvcc)Tripartite Consonant

Clusters

(CCCV, CCCVC. CCCVCC)

The above table shows the sylrabic pafiems which are based on the recorded corection of

5000 wods by Pashto native speakem. The recording was anallzed for every possible

syllable pattem. It is clear fiom the above syllabic pattems that the language has a number of

onset and coda clusters. I will show, in following sections, all ofthe above three categories of

consonant clusters alo[g with their sub-patterns of syllable structues in root wotds at

diflerent positions like word-initially, word- medially and word_ frnally.

SIMPLE SYLLABLES IN PASHTO

As per Table 3.,1, the simple sllable pattems are (V. CV. VC. CVCI). Ovemll, there is roproblem with all patterns shoEn in this category in pashto syllables. They carl occur easily

aalu,here in the world languges. For clariry, Table 3.5 shows the examples (with English

translation in round brackets) ofthem bdeflv.

Table 3,5: The Simple Syllables in Pashto

Pattern Examples

vVC

cvCVC

lol (sirrah). [a:o] (yes), [e] as in [o.na:r] (pomegarlate)

[.m] (mango), [or] (hre), lesl (mare)

[xa:] (okey), [ne] (no), [Ial (you)

[xog] (sweet), [$am] (moment), [4er] (very / more).

Since the scope of the curent study is to show complex clusters in the syllables of pashto, I

resrict the analysis of the above simple syllables to the above chart. Howevet. more data

ts cvc pattern is not a simple patr€m h its nue sense as ir violales rhe *Nocoda constraint. It is included in thiscaregory only because in rhis srudy I am concemed with clusrers and within CVC, no ctuster is foud.

88

related to the above pattems are given in the appendices. The possibiiity of the complex

consonant cluste$ is discussed with greater detail in the following sections. Section 3.6

shows the tlvo-conso[ant clusters which are possible in the language.

3.6. BIPARTITE CONSONANT CLUSTERS IN PASHTO

In this section, I will analyse the bipartite consonant clusters at all three positions (i.e., word_

initially, word-medially and word-hnally) in pashto. pashto is remarkable for allowing

various permissible two consonant clusters in the onset of the syllable. According to Tegey

ard Robson (1996) English has around 35 combinations of two consonant clusteN at otrset

level but in Pashto, this mrmber is close to hundred.

Tegey and Robson (1996) give some detail about initial clttste1s it thei Reference

Grammar of Pashto with the following 52 possibilities given below in (16).

(16)

lbrl, k(, lbjl, ldtl, ldwl,ld4l, ldznl. ldzw/,/gr/, lgl, /gw/, tyV, kt/. krt, /rtt, kwt,txp/, /x.ll./,

tlnt/, llw/, /mj/, /mr/, /md, lng/, lnyl, lrln,l, lr.i/, lptl, /prt, /p{, /pj/, ttJ}, ttrt, tsk/, tsx}, tspt, tstt,

/st/,lswl- llW, [p/,lxU,lwU,lw/,1*1. lzg/, t4t, /znn- /21t, /zj/, tzhm], tzhw/

According to them. the following I 7 consonant clusterc givel as ( I 7) are also formd in pashto

but in few wods.

( 17)

lbV, /dj/, /x11, /mU, k j/, lryl,[x/. lJnl,l*1, ltsV, ltswt, tzb/, lzd], /zt/,/z\trl, /xt , lttl.

Thus they submitted the above souad combinations as possible complex consonant clusters in

the language.

89

As discussed earlier, Levi (2004) points out that pashto is remarkable for two very

interesting aspects. First, the presence of consonant ciusters and second the reve$e sonority

clusters. She gives the following possible clusters in pashto. Her point rcgarding revelse

sonority is discussed in detail in section 3.8. ln (18), her proposed g7 clusters are mentioned.

(18)

l\t,/e,tr,hrv,lryl,llwl,funl,tlyl,/ntrt,/m!,/mt/,lmY,llrp/.tny',/rql./sw/,/srl,/s11.lsml,

/sxl, /sp/, /st/, lsIl, lsV, lJwt, [r/, [], tlV, /Jrot,/jrt, [xr, [p/, ttt/, tk], /pw/, /Skt, /xw/, lxrt, tx/,

/xU,lxp/,lzwl,lzl,/an/,/zyt,tzb/,tzdt,tz{,t3w/,tTt,byt-/z!tl, t71b/, t:adl, tyw/, tyt,ty11,

lyl/, /pt/, lp!, /pU, tps/, tp!, tpl/, ttgt/- /rt/, /td,tty, /tst, ttJ/, tt,.,/, /kw/, kr/, k(, W, kgt, kt/,

tg. bU. dw.. dr . df. dz. d:.. g" . gr . gt . ,gz.

Since there are some differences ofphonemes in the data given by Tegey and Robson (1996)

aad by Levis (2004), I will give my own data from yousafzai dialect of pashto language.

Fhst, I will give the detail ofbipartite consonant clusteE possible at all thee positions (wod_

initially, medially and finally) one by one starting fiom word-initial position in the following

section-

3.6.1. Bipartite Consontnt Clusters at Word-Initial position

In the curetu section, I will show the possible clusters with their class combinations which

are possible at word-initial position. By word-initial position, I mean the onset of the root

words (morphologically simple words). Table 3.6 shows the combinations of plosives and

liquids as two consonant clusters word initiallv.

90

Table 3.6: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Plosives + Liquids)

Type Cluster Examples Etrglish Translation

Plosives

+

Liquids

prede

ptek

pla:r

breg

b1a:s

blarba

tror

tr:k

tl:1

{rene

drenka

kreka

ktep

klek

gra:n

gtang

Pr

plpl

br

bX

bl

lrfi(l

-dr

{rkr

k1

kl

gr

cI

Stanger

Moment / Glitter

Father

Spotted / Pie-bald

Heat / Exhalation / Steam

Pregnart

Aunt

Breaking noise

Going

Hearry

Harsh, braying noise

Disgusting

Bang / Slam

Tight

Precious

Bang / Snotty-nosed

Table 3.6 shows the bipatite consonant ciusters at word initial level which have plosive as

the first and liquid as the second consonant of the cluster. There are a number of such

combinations in Pashto. In this tlpe ofcombinadon, some clusters are not possible. They are

given below.

*dt,*dt,*ft, *dl, *gt,*qr,*qt.

Plosive//, in combination with liquid is possible in words like /E/ ltrek] (ruck). But such

words are foreign in origill. So, I do not add such a combination to my list because the focus

ofthe study is to analyse the basic Pashto words.

In Table 3.7, various combinations of plosives with glides aJe shown in the initial

clusteN.

91

Table 3.7: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Plosives + Glides)

Type Cluster Eramples English Translation

Plosives

+

Glides

p.l

bj

dw

-dj

gw

fw

k1d

ci

platz

bja:

dwe

dia:rles

gweta

kwende

qja:me1

Onion

Then / Again

Two

Thirteen

Brown Sugar

Power / Ability

Widow

Day of Judgrnent

Apart fiom the above 8 combinations in this type, other combinations are not possible. The

combination of /qj/ is possible in words borrowed froms Arabic and such words are now in

the daily use of Pashto vocabulary. The next table demonstates the consonant clusters

between fiicatives and glides.

Table3.8: Bipartite Itritial Clusters (Fricatives + Liquids)

Type Cluster Examples English Translation

tr'ricatives

+

Liquids

$r

zl

Jr

Jx

Ixr

xf,

xr

YI

d

sre

zla

-l.e"g

-[rek

!a:n{axre

x1i:s

Yre!

tppyla:

Gold

Heart

Clink / Jingling

Thunder / Swift

A fiog / HealT

Donkey

A large and bulky

A sudden blow

Quick gulp

Theft

9)

Other combinations, such as shou,n beiow are not possible in this tlpe ofcluste$.

+s6+sl,*zr, *xl.

Fricatives /f, h, E/ are not possible in combination with liquids in pashto. Some linguists

(Bukhari, 1960; Levi,2003; Rehman,2009) are of the view that these are not pashto sounds

by the origin. This can be the reason that these phonemes have no combinations with

liquids. Similarly, fricative ,ft./ never takes placa the position of first coDsonant in the onset

cluster in a syllable.

Important to note is the point raised by previous studies (e.g., Bell & Saka, 1982;

Levi,2004 etc.) that such clusters starting with fricatives (3.8 - 3.12) have no epenthetic

vowel in them. Table 3.9 shows the combinations offricatives with plosives.

Table 3.9: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Fricatives + Plosives)

Type Cluster Examples English Translation

Fricatives

+

Plosives

sk

sp

st

Jk

lpxk

xp

zg

zb

zl

skor

spa:i

slon

.fku:n

-lp"g

xka:r

xpei

zgerel

zba:dal

z{akol

Charcoal

Soldier

Wooden piilar

A porcupine

Six

Huoting

Relative

Moan / Sew

To prove

To leam

93

Among fiicatives, I y, h, f, h/ have no combinations with plosives while others have limited

combinations with them. Table 3.10 exhibits the initial clusters of two consonants which are

made of Aicatives and glides.

Table 3.10: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Fricatives + Glides)

Type Cluster Examples English TraNlation

tr'ricatives

+

Glides

sj

zj

zw

xj

Yw

sja:l

swezedal

zja:7

z:wa:n

xjal

l'wa:

Equal

To bum

Much

Young

Care

Side

Cow

The possible consonant clusters found between fricatives and glides are shown in Table 3.10.

Other fiicatives like [-[, h, t, h/ have no matching with glides for onset clusters. Table 3.11

illustrates the pairing of fricatives with fricatives.

Table 3.11: Bipartite Itritial Clusters (Fricatives + Fricatives)

Type Cluster Examples English Translation

Fricatives

+

Fricatives

z\

Jx

sx

zyamel

Jxela:

sxer

To tole@te

Dispute

Father in law

Only the above thrce cluster combinations are possible between fricatives and fricatives at

onset level. The next table explains the arrangement of fricatives with trasals.

94

Table 3.12: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Fricatives + Nasals)

Type Clustei Examples English Translatior!

Fricatives zm

+JmNasals In

zrneka

Jmer

.[ru

Land / Earth

Counting

Greenery

Nasals are not only as the second consonant in the combinations at onset level but they axe

also possible as first consonant of the onset. Nasals are in combination with all other sound

classes except afticates but they are very few in number. Table 3.13 gives an idea about

them with their various combinations.

Table 3.13r Bipartite Initial Clusters (Nasals + Others)

Type Cluster Examples English Tradslation

Nasal + Plosive ng ngor Daushter in law

Nasal t Fricative ny nYare Heafih / Stove

Nasal ml

+mrLiouids'mr

mia

mrosta:

mtawe

Waist

Help

Faded

Nasal mj

+nwGlides

nJ

Month

Clothes

Grand mother

mia: lt

nweri:

nja:

Nasal + Nasal nm IUnesI: Gmnd children

Table 3.13 shows the possibility of nasal sounds with others as hrst consonant at onset level.

Nasal + nasal combinations are in very few words (like in [nmasil Grard chil&en) and

I ner] (sun) but they, tronetheless, are used. Similar to nasal. liquids are also found at both

positions (first or second consonant of the cluster at onsel level). The possibility of syllabic

95

nasal is also evidelt ftom some of the above exarnples which need further detailed work on

the point concemed. Table 3.14 illustrates the possibility of liquids as first consonant of the

onset clu$er with various combinations.

Table 3.14: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Liquids + Others)

Type Cluster f,xamples English TraNlation

Liquid + Fricative

Liquid + Nasal

Liquid + Glide

rylm

lw

ry.u:

lmor

Ir.re lt

Rolls

Sun

Spar

ln the above table, liquid sounds arc the first sound of the onset cluster and the second

combinatory sound is changing. Liquid can also be the second sound to glides in some onset

clusters. Table 3.15 demonstates the matches of such combinations.

Table 3.15: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Glides + Liquids)

Type Cluster Examples f,nglish TraNlation

Gtider

Liquid

wr

wf,

wl

\rIa:rc

\r1el

wluna

Nephew

Carry

Cleaning

It is clear ftom the above table that such combinations are violating the sonorit-v sequencing

principle (SSP). Pashto is remarkable in this sense that it has so atkaction towards the

bipaxtite consonant cluste$ as it even allows the violated SSP clusters. I will discuss this

point in the syllable ofthe language in section 3.8 in greater detaii. lor the time being, one

can just assume that such a possibilit"v is the peculiarity of the language and it does allow

such combinadons which are rare in other languages.

96

Affricates have not been touched on so far in this section oll consonant clusters The

story of Pashto affricates is also very interesting. They were not considered even as the unit

of sound by some of the scholars. Penzl (1955) does not consider them as single segnents'

According to him, they are separate sounds. Even Roberts (2000) does not show them in his

invertory ofPashto. But there are some linguists who say they are. Elfenbein (1997) argues

that Pashto affricates are single segrnents and he proves that they behave as single units h

metathesis. The point is very important here because if I consider them as single segments,

which they are, they form the combinations of clusters as being the part of bipartite clustem

According to Elfenbein (1997), ifthey were not single unit, they would form the only clusters

of four consonants in a syllable. He gives word [tsgnex] (lining) as example in this regard (p.

741).

ln Pashlo syllables, affricates always take the fiISl consonant cluster position in the

clusters at onset level. In Table 3.16, I conhrm the possible clusters with the combination of

affricate ard other sounds.

Table 3.16: Bipartite Initial Clusters (Affricates + Others)

Type Cluster Examples English Tr.nslation

Affricatell,iquid

Affricate + Glides

dsr

dsr

tsw

d3v

tsk

d3renda

d3wan-d

tswa:ries

d3yorel

tska:k

Waler Mill

Life

Fourteen

To prcserve / Keep

Drinking

AffricatefFricative

Affricate + Plosive

It is clear from the above tabie that affricates can take liquid. glide, fricative or plosive as

their parher in the onset clustels. Though such combinations arc not very much in number,

97

but these words are very cornmon in Pashto everyday language The following section

summarises all the possible word-initial clusters in the language'

3.6.2. The Summary of Bipartite Consonant Clusters at Word'Initial Posihon

In section 3.6.1, I have shown a number of onset clusters which are found in the language.

Irom Table 3.6 to 3.16, total 77 combinations are found which take place at the position of

onset in these words. This shows that the language has a very rich structural paftem from

syllable complexity poinl of view. Table 3.17 gives the evidence of all these available

clusters showing first consonart on left columl and second on top row ofthe chart.

98

Table3.17: Summary of Bipartite Consonant Clusters at Word-Initisl Position in

Pashto

p b t d { k q s J I n r t I J ts ds

P

b

t

d

d

k

q

s

J

t

n

r

I

J

ts

d3

99

It is clear from the above table that Pashto is quite dch in consonantal clusters possible at

onset level ol words. The first consonants in such clusters arc mostly plosives, fricatives or

nasals, while affiicates, glides and liquids rarely take this position h case of second

consonant, it is mostly a liquid or glide, while fricatives and nasals hardly come at this

position. Maximum possible clusters are found between plosives and liquids which are16 in

number. Plosives as second consonant in the cluster have pails with flicatives which violate

the standaxd SSP. Such violation by consonant clusteN is discussed later in the cudent

chapter. In the next section, I wiil show the syllable cluste6 at coda position (word finally) of

the syllable in root words ofthe language.

3.6.3, Bipartite Consonatrt Clusters at Word-Final Position

In the last section, I discussed the coosonant clusters which are possible in word-initial

position. Now, I will analyse the bipartite consonant clustels ill wotd-hnal position in Pashto.

In this position, Pashto also has various q?es of possible clusters. Tegey and Robso ( 1996)

show a number of clusters which could possibly take up the position of coda clusters. For

example, they show 30 combinations at word-final position which are given here as (19).

They are ofthe view that word-frnal clusterc ma,..imlrm go up to two consonants (bipartite).

(le)

lldt{/, lnQl, lrQ/, lrgl, 15.1, lsv, lsl!, lxS/, kzl. lfzl, Rsl, lxsl, lmpl, /rtzJ, lndzl, /nj?/, lnkl, /ns/,

lnzl. lql, /tfl, /ry/, /rrr/, /rrl, /rg,l. hsl, lr!. /tzJ, [q - lJ!,

They have missed some of the very common clusteN in the Yousafzai dialect at the end of

the words. for example, h.[/ in words iike tder, (fiifty) and /nr1/ in Llerka:nll (carpenter).

Such clusters are very common at word final positions and are ftequently used- Similarly,

100

their clusters which have (?) mark are not tested in my data They have also sho\^'n / khg and

/x1/ differently but in my dialect, the.! are the sarne clusters Table 3 18 demonstrates the

possible clustem which end with plosives at word-finai position in Pashto'

Table 3.18: Bipartite Consonant ClusteN Ending with Plosives at Word-Final

Position

Typ" Cluster Examples English Translation

Fricatives

+

Plosives

x{

Irfq

Jk

sk

st

bal.xlsal* e ft

llqeJk

hesk

fiesJ,

Pillow

Forty

Love

Tear

Cloth

Rieht

Nasals

+

Plosives

nrl

nd

mp

trk

dzw:nd

4on4

pomp

Benk

Life

Pooi

Punp

Bank

Liquids

+

Plosives

fg

rq

rC

rt

rp

rd

tjerg

erq

d".dpe4

t:m

fa:serd

Chicken

Essence

Pain

Propefy Record Letter

A Radish

Student

The above table shows that a number of word final ciuster combinations are possibie which

end with plosives. Fricatives, nasals and liquids are the possible pairs which are placed near

to peak and thus having no problem from sonority point of view. ln the table below, I will

show word-final clusters which end with fricative sounds.

101

Table 3.19: Bipartite

Position

Consonant Clusters Erding with Fricatives at Word-Final

Type Cluster Examples Engtish Translation

Plosives

+

l'ricatives

bs

ks

bz

ct

hebs

eks

sersebz

n.q,

Humidity

Contary / Reverse

Lush Green

Copy / Drawing

Gl.ide +

Fricatives

Prcmiselorz

Nasals

+

Fricatives

lrilz

ttz

ns

nJ

tQ(nz

munz

hens

benJ

Secrecy

Player

A bird

A beam

Liquids

+

Fricatives

tels

letz

t.rk

erd

Pity

Form

Cleft

Aspect

rz

rk

lxFricatives +

Fricatives

-[axs Person

Fricatives have combinations with plosives, nasals, liquids and even another fiicative as the

pairing consonant for clusteN ending with them.

There arc some other clusters which eDd with sounds like nasal and affricate sounds

but such clusters are very few in the language. Table 3.20 exhibits such examples.

t02

Table 3.20: Bipartite ConsoDant Clusters Etrding with Nasals and Affricete at Word-

Final Position

@ English rranslation

Liquids+ rm

Nasals rtr

fa:rm

qem

Form

Century

Nasals +

Alfricate nd3 torJnd< Citron tlee

This is clear ftom Table 3.20 that nasals and affricates can also lake the position of ending

consonant in clusten at coda level.

3.6.4. The Summary of Bipartite Consonant Clusters at Word-Fitral Position

Section 3.6.3 exhibits a number ofcoda clusters which are found in the language. From tables

3.18 to 3.20, total 33 combinations axe shown with the help ofexamples ftom the language at

coda in these words. It is evident ftom this data that the language has a very dch pattem ftom

syllable complexity at word-final position as well. Table 3.21 sunmarizes all possible

clusters found at word-fina1 position. The left column shows the frst consonant and top row

the second consonant ill the cluster.

103

Table3.21: Summary of Bipartite Consonatrt Clusters at Word-Final Position in

Pashto

p b t d 4 k q s z J x m n r t I ds

p

b

t

d

{

k

q

s

z

J

I

m

n

r

I

I

dg

104

The above table shows that Pashto is not only rich in word-initial consonafial clusters but it

also has a number (33 in total) of possible bipartite consonantal cluste$ at word-final

position. The last consonant in such cases is either a fiicative or plosive (in 30 clusters out of

33) and rarely an affricate or nasal (only 3 out of 33) In case of fiISt consonant' it can be any

sound except glide.

Words having two-consonant clusters at word final position (coda) are very

interesting ftom a morphological point of view For example, the pluralizing process breaks

the clusters of such sounds when they are made plural. I show some examples as (20) in this

regard. Syllable boundaries are also shoq'nle.

(20)

> fto.ran.d3a:nl (citron trees p/r,'40

D [ak.su:.ne] (contary acts pluraf)

> [mu:n.zu:.ne] Gtraye:-s plural)

ir [fen.{a:n] (slerile plural)

Since morphological analysis is not the focus of the current study, I would not go into the

detail ofsuch processes but it is the case that the final clusters are broken as the result ofsuch

morphological operation in the language. The words selected for analysis in this sectio[ are

morphologically simple, so, there clustels are present thele by default and have no concem

with morphological operations.

Having shown bipartirc consonant clusters at both word-initial and word-final

position, I demonstate various possible consonant clusteN at word-medial position in the

following section.

[!o.rend3] (.itontee sihgular)

[eks] (cofiiary act singular)

[mu:nz] (pruye$ingular)

[I.nd (steile singular)

'' h is a very interesting point to look at this phonology-morphology interface. The discussion on morpheme and

syllable boundaries may be very interesting to discuss with regard to Alig nent constraints i. OT (oprimalitvTheory). Here I just poina out these feaiures of Pashto because the scope of the cuiren! study is to look at

consonant clusters and at word ordEr in 1igtr! ofthe subject conelation which is introduced in chapter 2 in depth

105

3.6.5. Bipartite Consonant Clusters at Word-Medirl Position

In the last two sections, the consonant cluste6 are shown at word-initial and word-final

positions which arc in fact onset and coila positions, respectively Now for an apprcpriate

analysis of consonant clusters, I show some consonant ciustels at word_medial level also'

Previously, there has been tro study carried out on Pashto word-medial clusteN The studies

whichhavediscussedword.initialorword-frnalclusterchavesaidnothingaboutword-

medial clusters so far.

Pashto morphological processes normally break most of the clusters at word -medial

level as just discussed . For exarnple, the consonant clusters of wod Llo GndSl (CV CVCC)

(citon tree singulaf) is broken through the process of pluralisation' which becomes

&o.ron.d3a:nl (CV.CVC.CVC) 'citron trees plural' . Mary of such changes take place within

word level. More such examples can be seen from word list given in appendices. DespiE

such breaking of consonant clustels, a great number of clusters are found at word-medial

position. The analysis in the current section boosls up the thesis of the study that consonant

clustem are possible at every level of the Pashto lexicon.

106

Table 3.22: Bipartite Consonant Clusters at Word-Medial Position

Cluster Eramples Pattertr English Translation

zle.swun.ke

mel.xwe.ze

nar.l'\r0t

Ie!.sja:

me!.gwel

me.te.kwer

fin.tia

!en.drosl

pI.,[o.p1a:r3

wer.kp.ra.k1a

m.gel

la:n.z[e

{run{.wale

kam.fme.rc

jeu.fpe.la

slo.te.slo. ma.oa

CCV.CCVC.CV

CVC.CCVC

CVC.CCVC

CVC.CCV

CVC.CCVC

CV.CV.CCVC

cvc.ccv.cvCVC.CCVCC

CV.CV.CCVC

CVC,CCV.CV.CCV

CV,CCVC

CVC.CCV

CCVCC.CV.CV

CVC.CCV.CV

CV.CCV.CV

cvc.cv.ccv.cv.cv

Sympathetic

Grass-like vegetable /

Fenugrcek seed

He-cat (tom)

Distress

Hand's width

Having hard skin or

natue

Greenery

HealthY

Wild cat

Give and Take

Coming (N)

Box for CollYium

Sobemess

MinoritY

Sixty One

Extremely Tied

Iwsj

cw

kw

,i

drpl

k[

Irzt

o{

Jm

lP

st

Table 3.22 exhibits the possible two-consonant clusteis which axe found at word-medial

position in the language. It is clear ftom the combinations thal most of the first consonafi is

either a fricative or plosive (15 out of 16) and the second consonant is either glide or liquid

(12 out of 16). Plosive ard nasal caII take both the positions Another interestitrg thitrg is that

almost all of the word-medially possible clusters are found at the onset position of the

intemal syllable.

One important point which was experienced during such an analysis is that Pashto

root words are mostly having one syllable as shown in the data for word-flnal and word-

107

initial positions. Although words with more than 5 or 6 syllables (e.g., [ber.gpn.di:.ke.del]

CVC.CCVC. CV.CV.CVC) are also found in the language, yet in case of longer words, the

morphological processes aflect the stucture of the word. As already discussed, my focus

throughout this study remained on morphologically simple (root) words and I have given 16

various combinations from within word clusters in the above table. hterestingly, the

morphologically complex words (words with one or more affixes based on gammatical

meanings) also contain many clusters within them. The following examples (21) of

polyrnorphemic words are given for detail.

(2t)

[Il.tla:n.] 'ambassadors' VC.CCVC

[ber.gpn.di:.ke.{el]'toehbrdce' CVC.CCVC.CV.CV.CVC

[be.s1or.go] 'blind/ shameless' CV.CCVC. CV

[be] is actually a negative morpheme in pashto. But words having clusters do not break their

clusters even having [be] added to them. There are some ot]rer examples as well.

(22)

[be.dre.ya]

[be.dja:.na.Ie]

[be.-[me.ra]

'pitiless' CV,CCV. CV

'pitiless' CV.CCV.CV.CV

'countless' CV.CCV. CV

Similar to negative morpheme ftel, there are othe6 like verbal clitics [wo], [wor]and

lra]which do not distub the word-medial consonant clusten of the wods. The followins are

their examples given as (23).

(23)

[wo.pren.dge.del] 'to sneeze' CV.CCVC. CV.CVC

108

[ra.pre.we.9l]

, [ra.pren.{a.wel]

[wer.xwe.re.del]

lwar.pra.nes.tei]

[wer.$ol.] CVC.CCVC

Another intercsting morphologica.l characterisric ofthe language is the adding ofthe suffix

[rja] to make noun fiom any verb. Such words are in abundance in pashto which also contain

consonant clusters (the combination between Plosive + Glide (4/ + tD) within them. Note the

'to lay down' CV.CCV. CV.CVC

'tocollect' CV.CCVC.CV.CVC

'to spread' CVC.CCV. CV.CVC

'tofee' CVC.CCV.CVC.CVC

'to go'

following examples.

(24)

lfin.tiel

[roy.ga]

'greenery'

'heahhiness'

foolishness'fke.me.qel.!e]

Since our concem in the curent study is to analyse the nature of morphologically simple

words, therefore, I do not include these polyrnorphemic words in the study and would not go

into the detail ofany morphological process related to consonant clusters. The only fact to be

pointed out here is the possibility of ciusters at word-medial position which is clear from the

above Table 3.22. The section below summarizes these word-medial clusters in pashto.

3.6.6, The Summary of Bipartite Consotrant Clusters at Word-Medial positiotr

In the last section, tlvo-consonant clusteN axe demonstated in detail. Total 16 combinations

are found in morphologically simple words. It is made evident again through this data that

Pashto has a number ofclusters at every position and has syllable complexity at word_medial

position as well. The following table exhibits all of them in a chart. The left side vertical

109

consonants arc first in the clusters and the top horizontal rcw shows the second co$onant in

the cluster.

Table 3.23t Summary of Bipartite Consonatrt Clusten at Word-Medial position in

Pashto

p I d k J Y m r r I J dg

p

I

d

k

s

J

x

Y

m

n

r

I

J

d5

r10

I

The above chart summarizes the possible clusters at word-medial position in the language. It

is self-explicit liom the chart that most ofthe second corsonants are glides or liquids. ln the

following section, the surDmary ofbipafiite consonant clusters at all thee positions is given.

3.6.7. The Summary of Bipartite Consonatrt Clusters in Pashto

In the last three sub-sections, the bipartite consonart clusters iII the lalguage are shown with

the help of data from Yousafzai dialect. I have analysed various combinations of consonant

clusters possibie at three different positioDs. It is explicit ftom the data that maximum

combinations are possible at word initial (onset) positio[ which are 77 in number. The second

highest possible number is 33 tlpes of bipartile consonant combinations possible at word-

hnal position. The word-medial consonant combinations are only 16 which are minimurn in

this list. Now ifl calculate all of them. the number will go up to 126 two consonant clusterc

in fte language. But there is one problem in such calculations. There is the risk of double

counting ofthe clusters in this way ofcalculations . There are some clusters which are

possible at more than one position. For example, the combination offricative /s/ with plosive

/g is possibte at all tkee positions ofthe word, ([s1] is the only combination which is fouad at

all tbree positions):

(25)

1. Word initial position:

2. Word medial position

lst:nl 'Needle / pillar'

[$p.te.s1o.ma.nal'E:xtremelytied'

'Right / total '

It is cleax ftom the above examples that one combination may take place at more than one

position. While it is only one combination, it may be calculated *uee times. Therefore, in

order to avoid such risk ofdouble counting. I show the chart of bipartite combinations at all

3. Word final position [drasl]

11t

three levels. Table 3.24 exhibits the accumulative chart of all two coDsonant clusters in

Pashto.

Table 3.24: The Summary ofBipartite Consonant Clusters in Pashto

p b t d { k q J Y n r r I j ts d3

p

b

t

d

{

k

q

s

z

J

T

m

n

r

r

I

J

ts

dj

1t2

Table 3.24 emerges all clusters found at tkee positions of words in Pashto and gives an

accumulative pictue of bipartite consonant clusters. It is clear from the table that in reality,

108 various qpes of two consonant clusters are found in the language. Previousiy, this figure

was 126 out of which 16 combinations were repeated once, while one combination was

possible at all thee positions of the word. So, the above pictuie is the real one. The initial

consonant ofthe cluster is ptovided along the left side column and the second along the top

side row of the table.

In case of bipartite consonant cluste$, Pashto is among the richest languages of the

worid (Tegey & Robson, 1996; Levi,2004). Now in the following section, I will discuss the

case ofrripanile clusrers in rhe language.

3.6.8. Tripartite Cotrsonatrt Clusters in Ptshto

The existence of tdpartite clusters in Pashto is reported by a number of studies before.

According to Tegey and Robson (1996, p. 19), the tripartite clusters have three types of

pattems in Pashto (CCCV, CCCVC and CCCVCC). The last one is the maximum syllabic

pattems and it is, at the same time, the rarely found one. Tegey and Robson (1996, p. 23) are

of the view that such combinations are possible only within handf.rl wods in pashto.

According to them, these combinations include /xwl/, /xwdl.lndt/, /skrvl /sxw/,tJxd, and

/xkw/. Elfenbein (1997) and Levi (2004) also talk about words like ltstrnox] (lining) but such

a word witl CCCVC does rot exist in Yousafzai dialect of Pashto today. Another word with

similar sounds can be ltselmex] 'hafing ugly face' exists with CVC.CVC syllabic pattems.

They do not include combination, such as /xwt/ which is found in a number of words in

Pashto. Table 3.25 illustrates the claimed tdpartite consonart combinations.

113

Table 3.25: Tripartite Consonant Clusters in Pashto

Type Cluster Examples English Translation

Fricative + Glide +

Liquid

xwl

xwf,

xwle

xwd:n

Mouth

Softened

Fricative + Glide +

Plosive

xwd xwda:i God

fricative *Fricative t Glide

sxwrnder

lxw:nd

Bull

Chewiog.[xw

J'ricative + Plosive

+ clide

skw

xkfl

skworeto

xkwole

Ember

Beautiful

Nasal + Plosive +

Liquid

ndr ndroi Sister-in-law

The case oftipartite consonant clusters is very interesting itr Pashto for two reasoDs. Firstly,

almost all these three-consonant combinations have at least one glide (in 7 out of 8

combinations) or nasal (iII one combination). Secondly, many of these combinations have

reveNe sonodty sequence (e.9., /xwl/, /xwd/, /ndr,f. Both these reasons slightly doubt the

existeoce of tdpaxtite consonart ciusters in the language. The point of rcveme sonority is

taken up previously b], Bell and Saka (1982) and Levi (2004) and they say that the language

is quite rich in the aspect ofreveme sonodty clustec. Reverse sonority is further discussed in

geater detail in section 3.11 in the following lines. Hete within this seclion, I discuss the

point ofglide / in such combinations.

Previousiy it was made clear by a number of snrdies2o that /w/ is a bilabial glide and

not a /P/ (bilabial fricative) in such combinations which was claimed by Shafeev (1964). Bell

and Saka (1982) expedmentally prcved that it produced no frication and its pattems were like

'zo For example Penzl (195s) and Bell and Saka (1982).

114

sonoIaIIL Levi (2004) says that in Pashto, only sonorant can combine with voiced or voiceless

obstruents. lt is also clear ftom the above clusters that the glide /w/ can occur with both

voiced and voiceless obstruents which in tum must agree in voicing among themselves2l in

shape of clusters. Another point which can be submitted in favour of such tipartile consonant

clusters is the length in the duration of glide. When such combinations (in words like

sxwen{er, -[xwen{, skwercto, xkwele) were analyzed though PR 4.-4T, the duation of the

glide was arourd 180 ms. Since the average duration of schwa /e/ is around 60-70 ms22, the

duration of the glide suggests that it is conlirmedly a glide /w/ thus approving the tripartite

clusters ofthe latrguage wilh experimental satisfaction.

Another point to observe about these tiipartite clusters is the presence of nasal /n/ in

one out of eight clustem of tdpartite combinations. In some areas of Pashto, this word,

/ndror/(sister-inJaw) has two differcnt pronunciations given here as (26):

(26)

1. /ndror/

2. llt dror/

Yet it is true that it is mainly pronounced as /ndror/ in Yousafzai dialect. Once the so-called

reveNe sonodty clusters are accepted in the language, such combinations have no problem in

existing.

It is very Aue that tripartite consonaflt clusteN axe quite few as compared to bipatite

clusters which I discussed in the last sections. In the case ofbipartite clusrerc, the laoguage is

so fertile but in the case of tripartite consonant clusters, it is rlot so fertile. This is often the

case with language having complex cluste$ because the tripartite clusters and above are the

rarely available entity in terms of clustels. The complex the clusters go, the less they are

?t See /sx , {x and /skw/ combinations in above examples ofthree consonant clusters.

?'z the length of dumtion of schwa varies Aom hnguage to language. For example, it is around 60-70 ms inEnglish. lrs length 50 ms (FougeroD, Gendrct & Bu*i, 2007).

115

found. Impotuntly, such syllabic-shaped words are in abundance in the language and are

ftequently used by the speakers. 15 % of the 5000 content words collected have complex

syllabic pattems and are in fiequent use of the speakers. These three consonant clusters axe

fowrd at word initial posidon only and they axe not formd at other positions like word-

medially or word-fi nally.

3.6.9. InterimConctusion

In the last section, an extensive illustation is given on the syllable structure ofPashto. It has

been established that the language has 108 possible bipartite consonant clustels which are

possible at every position ofthe word. While 8 tripartite consonant clusters are also exhibited

with the help ofdata from the language. Wlnt I have found so far is that the syllable structure

of the language is undoubtedly complex providing enough data for our hlpothesis of the

study regarding the complexitv ofthe syllable structue of t}le focus language.

Now, in order to theoretically justiry the possibility of such consonant clusters and to

answer a number of questions related to the sonority related specification of the lalguage, I

analyze the syllabie structue of Pashto in OT Aamework in the following section. I have

shown in the last section that there are a number of syllabic clusteG which violate the usual

pattem of clusters. I have also pointed out at more than one position that the language has

some sonodty violating clusteis. Therefore, it is appropriate to address this aspect of the

language before moving into the detail of the syllabification rules. The next section deals

uirh such characteristics ollhe language.

116

3.7. AN OT ANALYSIS OF PASHTO SYLLABLES

As introduced iII sectio[ 1.4, OT is an ideal fiamework for the curent study because it

provides the best possible constraint-based anaiysis lor syllable structure. An OT

methodology assumes that syllables are not the pat of algorithmic structure building (Prince

&Smolensky, 2004); rather they axe the part of the base, the point which is justified by the

fuchness of the Base (ROB). OT assumes that syllables are generated by the component

GENerator which is constructed as a process of integrating the segments illto higher prosodic

blocks. I have also established in section 3.3 that the flmctional benefits of syllables are well

known in the study of phonological feahres. Spencer (2002) mentions ways irt which

syilables play an important role in the organization of phonological processes of a language.

Kager (1999) obseres that syllables provide proper phonological gereralizations for the

verification of well-fomedness ofthe sequence ofthe segments in a lalguage.

I have discussed so far in section 3.6 that Pashto syllables colstantly challenge the

universally preferred syllable pattem because of its specific syllable preferences. For

example, a number of Pashto syllables arc complex and the onset cluster goes up to CCC-

arld the coda up to -CC. It is also shown in the same section that the language has onset as

well as onset-less syllables. In the current section, I am going to provide a theoretical

justification for such a tendency in the language under OT Aamework

3,7.1. ONSET and NocoDA in Pashto Svllables

Besrde the nucleus, onsets alrd codas are both very important in syllable structure. In this

secdor! the constraints related to onset and coda and their rankings in Pashto are discussed in

detail. According to R?ological studies on syllable smlctue (e.g., Jakobson, 1962;

tt7

Greenberg, 1972; Ito, 1986; Blevins, 1995), the presence of an onset in a syllable is an

umarked situation. Kager (1999) is of the view that no language can entirely exclude onset

even if some of its syllables lack onsets. This idea is expressed in the structual well-

formedness constraint ONSET.

(27)

ONSET*[o v S.vllables must have an onset (lto, 1989; Prilce & Smolensky, 1993)

This is a powerful constmint and by itself; it can generate all ill-fomred syllable structules

regardless of their context. It requires that all syllables within a language must begin with an

onset but not with a vowel (nucleus). Syllables like CV and CVC satisfy this constraint, but

syllables like V or VC do not. Pashto is not an ONSET dominant languageas it allows many

V and VC or even VCC smrctues also at word initial place. The following examples are

given in this regard:

(28)

Satisft ine the constraitrt

fxa:l CV'okey'

lml CV 'no'

[ra:.za:] CV.CV 'come'

Violatins the constraint

[a.ba.si:n] V.CV.CVC 'the Indus River'

Ulbarl VC.CVC'Sunday'

[a:w] VC 'yes'

So, it is clear from the above examples that the constaint is not orr top ofthe hierarchy ofthe

constraints in the language. Pashto, ur ike Arabic, is Dot very strict about onser in ever)

syllable and both t]!es of syllabies are evident liom the above examples. As a result, it is

required that the constaint changeits position to avoid tlle malfunction. This shows that the

ranking ofthis constaint is motivated by some additional constaints.

Onsets axe of two qpes, simple and complex. Simple onsets have one consonant,

while complex onsets have morc than one. ONSET itself does not say an),thing about the

118

quantity of consonant at this position. In Pashto, mixed t}?es of onsets are possible and the

maximum mrmber ofconsonants in an onset is thee. Tables 3.6 to 3.16 show vadous types of

o[set combinations possible in the two-consonant clusters in the language. Similarly, Table

3.25 shows the three-coosonant clusters at dris position in the language. Let me show the

position ofNoCoDA constraint in the language.

(2e)

NoCoDA*Cl o Syllables are open (Kage\ 1999, p. 94)

The Coda is a very controversial component in the structure of syllable. The presence of

consonants at coda level is considered marked universally. When there are two syllables

creating an intervocalic consonant (CVCV), languages prefer to syllabifu them according to

tmiversally expected syllabification trend (CV.CV). This pdnciple is called MOP (Ma,timum

Onset Principle). Pashto likewise prefers onset syllabification to coda syllabification but at

the same time, it also allows syllable pattems which end with consotrants.

Most languages, (e.g., Boumaa Fijian (Kager. 1999)). prefer to avoid syllables ending

with codas because they are treated as marked cases. As I have shown, Pashto also has

syllables with codas, so, it is important for the constmint to be ranked in order to avoid an

ungrammatical outcome. Preference between syllables with coda and without coda is not

fixed. If it is required by well-formedness of the saucture, the coda is provided; otherwise, it

maintains NoCoDA. The following examples show the violation ofthe constraint in Pashto.

(30)

[Ji:n] CVC 'blue'

[sel] CVC 'visit'

[ya:x] CVC 'tooth'

So, the ranking ofthe constraint in Pashto can be read as:

119

(31)

NOCODA)) CODA (the coda is not allowed)

In the above litres, I have shown that the language does not give top priority to

structural well-folmedfless constraints, such as oNSET and NoCoDA. At this stage, the

question arises that why the language allows the syllables of irhperfect' tPes, such as CVC,

V, VC, etc. OT has a very simple aoswer to this question. It says that in such a situation, the

language simply gives priodty to the faithfulness constaints. Faithfulness constraints may

prevent the segmental changes which are necessary iI1 order to create perfect syllable

structure (Kager, 1999, p. 97). In other words, the faithfulness forces the markedness

vioiation.

There a.re other phonological phenomena in Pashto which axe relevant here e.g.,

complex cluste6 at both edges of the syllable. The language not only allows the 'imperfect'

types of syllables mentioned above but it also pemits consonant clusters at both edges of the

syllable- This pattem is examined in the following section.

3.7.2, Complei Onsets and Codas ir Pashto Syllables

According to syllable qpology, Ianguages differ in tems of the complexity of syllable

margins. Complex onset and complex coda are indeed marked cases and, therefore, avoided

by some languages. But there are some larguages which prefer both ofthem in a limited way.

Pashto is a type of language which allows up to three consonalts at onset position ard two at

coda, as seen in Section 3.6 respectively. This is evident thai the language is violating the

conshai[ts of * CoMPLExoNS and * CoMPLEfoD. Before giving example from the

latrguage in this regard, let me defrre both constraints here.

(:32)

120

*coMPLEfNS* [oCC Onsets are simple (Kager, 1999, p. 97)

This constaint is based on the idea that onset of a syllable is simple and cluster in onset is

something marked. This constraint requ es onsets to be simple and *CoMPLEPNS (No

Complex Onset) would pudsh a candidate with a complex onset. It belongs to the category of

well-formedness constairts. In Pashto, the constaint *COMPLEPNS is dominated by other

faithfulness constaints and, therefore, complex clusters in the onset are possible as shown

below in (33).

(33)

ftrr:xl CCVC 'bitter'

lsxerl CCVC 'father-in-law'

[brex.nal CCVC.CV 'lustre'

[fxwen{ CCCVCC 'Chewing'

The above examples show that Pashto does not give preference to the constraint

*COMPLEfNS. This markedness constraint is dominated by faithfulness constraints

because Pashto not or y allows two-consonarlt clusteN but also thrce-consona[t clusters in

the onset. Tables in Section 3.6 show a number of two aad thtee consonant cluste$ in the

language.

Like onsets, there are some clusters possible in the coda position as well. Let me

discuss the position ofcoda in this regard.

(34)

+ cot\DLEfoDxCClo Codas are simple (Kager, 1999,p.97)

t21

Complex codas in syllables also have universally marked positions. Like oNets, codas are

also complex in Pashto. Therefore, I can say that the constraint in *COMPLE>foD is also

dominated by other faithfulaess constaints in the language. Pashto allows the possibility of

complex clusters in this position. Note the following exampies in (35):

(35)

[benf] CVCC

Iurs]

lurzl

CVCC

CVCC

'beam'

'pity'

'form'

It is clear ftom the discussion so far that the failhfulness coastraints dominate the markedtress

constaints in Pashto. The faithfirhess constraints may prevent the segmental changes which

are recessary in order to create pefect syllable structure in the latguage (Kager, 1,999, p. 97).

DEP-IO and MAX-IO are the correspondence (faithfulness) constaints over ONSET and

NoCoDA (the well-formedness constraints) and now also over *CoMPLExoNs and

*CONPLEfoD. Now before drawing a tableaq it is appropriate to discuss these faithfrhess

constrai[ts.

3.7.3. DEP-IO lnd MAX-IO in Plshto Syllables

Corespo[dence constaints DEPIO and Mex-lO are the faithfrifless constaints dominating

the markedness constraints in Pashto.

(36)

DEPIOOutput segnents must have input corespondents ('No epenthesis' Kager, 1999, p. 101)

DEPIO is basically an 'anti-epenthesis' constraint which is ranked high in Pashto, which

does not allow any epenthesis into onset or coda cluste6. As a result. trot only are clusters

122

found but no additionai segment is added to the stucture. Mccaxthy and Pdnce (1995) argue

that this Dependency-Io constraint says that output segments should corespond to the ilput

segments and, therefore, nothing additional should be inserted to the output. This constaint

govems the faithfirlness between input and the output in the syllables of Pashto.

On the other haod, MA-X-IO is an anti-deletion constraint which states that the segnents

which are present in the input should be preserved in the output. So, no deletion of the

segments is allowed in the output. This constmint punishes any deletion of segments which is

the part of input. The following is the constraint.

(3',7)

MAx-lOInput segments must have output corespondents ('No deletion' Kager, 1999, p. 102)

Similax to DEP-IO, MAXIO is also a faithfirlness constraint which makes sule that the irput

is identical to output. ln Pashto syllables, epenthesis of a segment is prohibited by DEP-IO,

while the deletion of a segment is restricted by the constraint MAX-IO. All this shows that

these corespo[dence constrailts in the language are dominant over these particular well-

fomedness conshaints. The tableau below shows this tendency.

138 ! Itri:xl

In the above tableau, it is shown that the language gives pdority to faitlfulness constaints

DEP-IO, MAX-IO over markedness constxaints. such as *CONfLExoNs and NoCooe.

Caldidate (a) has coDsonant cluster at the onset, while candidate (b) has no cluster because

123

Input: I ld:x / DEP-IO \4Ax-lO *COMPLEX"''" NOCODA

a. Gtri:x ib. re.ri:a

c. li:x

one segment is added (the epenthesisede). Candidate (c) has no cluster because one segme[t

ftom the input is &opped. So, all the candidates have the vioiation ofat least one constraint'

The optimal output (a) violates the lowest rarking markedness constraints *COMPLEXoNS

and NoCoDA which are not f,uther ranked because tley arc equally ranked in the hierarchy

of the language. The violation of these two constraints is the Ieast expensive in the laaguage.

The second candidate violates the faithfirlness corctraint DEP-IO, which is ranked above

*CoMPLEfNS and NoCoDA, and therefore, its violation is fatal and hence ruled out.

Similarly, the third candidate violates another faithfillness constaint MA-xlO by deleting one

segment in the input. This violation is again fatal because it is also ranked above both

*coMPLExoNs and NocoDA.

This ranking of the co$traints allows complex onsets in the language along with

codas. This listing can generate the factorial typology given in (39):

(3e)

DEplo, vlAxlo )) xCoMPLExoNs, NocoDA.

"Codas and complex onsets arc allowed"

Codas are not the essential part ofthe syllables but still languages allow them and even those

Iike Pashto allow clusters at coda position as well. Section 3.6.4 shows 33 combinations of

coda clusters possible in Pashto. The following tableau shows the position of constraint

rclated to coda cluster in the language.

t21

140, Idrlstl

Tableau (40) shows that faithirlness constaints DEPJO, MAXIO dominate both the

markedress constaints, such as *CoMPLExoNs and *CotrPLExcoD. Candidate 1a) has

consonart clustq at the onset as well as coda position, while candidate (b) has no coda

cluster because one segment is deleted. Candidate (c), agaio, has no coda clustet because one

vowel is added which creates arother syllable in the word. So, all the candidates have

vioiation ofsome constraints. The optimal output (a) violates the lowest ranking markedness

constraints *COMPLEXoNS and +COMPLEXCoD which are equally lowest ranking

co.straints related to the syllable structue of the language. The violation of these two

constraints is the least expensive in the language. The second and third candidates violate the

faithfuiness constaints M,txJo and DEplo which are ranked above *CoMPLElfNs and

*COMPLEfoD. Since the violation of both of them is fatal, therefore, they are mled out. I

can now add *COMPLEXCoD to replace NoCoDA from our ranking ofthe constaints in the

factorial q?ology ofthe syllable stluctule ofthe larguage:

(41)

DEp-to, MAx-Io )) +coMpLEfNs, *cotrfl-EfoD .

"Both complex oDsets and codas axe aliowed"

t25

Now in order to simplify our rankiag of the constraints' I include both DEPIO and Mex-lO

within one collective constlaiflt with the name of FAITH. (42) shows both these constaints

collectively within FAITH.

(42)

DEPIO and MAX-IO are faithfi.rlness (FAlrH) constaints (Kager, 1999).

DEP-IO

tr,AITH

I[A-x-IO

Simiiarly, I aiso include both

with the name of *CLUSTER.

(43)

*COMPLE*.*S, *CoNPLExco' within one single constaint

'TCLUSTER No complex syllable codas ard onsets.

*COMPLEXONS

"CLUSTER

*COMPLEXCOD

Now in order to include the words

following tableau is given.

of three consonant cluste$ at onset and two at cod4 the

(44) [Jxwen{]

Input: / -[xwand-/

*CLUSTER

*coMPLExcoD

c.,fI. xa.wa.ni: $

FAITH

DEPJO N{-dx-IO *COMPLEX"'"

a. 6-[xwend

b. Jen

126

Tableau (44) shows that faithfulness constraints are stdctly dominart in Pashto +CLUSTER

coostraints (+CoMPLEfNS atrd *COMPLEXCoo) are not that important in this raDking and'

iherefore, they are easiiy violated by syllables in Pashto. The mutual ranking between DEPIO

aod MAXJO, and befieen +COMPLEXoNS and +CoMPLEfoD is inelevant herebecause in

this study I am only concemed with the possibility of the consonant clusters in the language'

In three consotrant clusters, such as above, another constaint is quite relevant which is

related to the sonority among the segments in Pashto syllables and is taken into detail in a

following section. The following lines provide the summary ofthe OT analysis carried out in

the curent section.

3-7.,1- Summarv

In order to provide theoretical justification for complex clustem in Pashto, I applied the

theoretical fiamework of OT in the last section. To avoid the unnecessary discussion on other

issues, I focused exclusively on consonant clusters in the syllable stuctuIe of the language. I

have shown with the help of tableaux that the faithfirlaess constraints (DEP-IO and MAX-IO)

are dominant in the laflguage. Other constaints, such as ONSET, NoCoDA, +COMPLEXo*S

and *CoMPLExcoD are easily violated in the syllable structue ofthe language. The final

factorial tlpology ofthe syllable stucture ofPashto is the following:

(45) F{rH (DEplo, MA-\-IO) )) *CLUSTER (*COMPLEf"S, *CONPLEXCoD).

"Both complex oDsets and codas are allowed in Pashto syllables".

121

(46) shows the hierarchy of these constBints in the language' This hierarchy covers all the

syllabic templates ofPashto showB in Section 3 4:

(46)

*CLUSTER (*COMPLEfNS, +CONPLEXCOD )

The basic setting of Pashto syllabifrcation system has been described so far. However, this

analysis does not elaborate the morphological or s)'nlactic intensiry ofsyllable alteration- The

main focus of the curent study is to analyse the complex syllable structure of the ianguage.

So, I have restricted the alaiysis to the required level of the study. The next section covels

one ofthe important phenomena teiated to consonant clusters, their sonority specification.

3.8. SONORITY RELATED SPECIFICATION OF PASHTO

The current section describes one of the most intercsting aspects of Pashto phonology The

sonority related specifications of the Ianguage have fascinated a mlmber of scholars in the

past. Bell and Saka (1982) were the lrst to study sonoritv related idiosyncrasies of the

language. They describe that the Ianguage has two very peculiar reverse sonority clusteN

(i.e.. [wr-] and [w1-]) at word-initiat position. According to Levi (2004), the language not

only has consonant clusters "....but also several revelse sonority clusters" (p.203). The

previous studies have only analysed the initial reverse sonoritv clusters ofthe language so far.

ln this section, I present the reverse sonority clusterc at all positions based on the data

presented in Section 3.6. But befo.e laking in detail the sonority rclated specifications of the

language, theoretical background is necessary.

FArrH (DEP-lo, MAx-lo)

tI

128

3.8.1. Sonority Sequetrcing Principle (SSP)

As eaxly as Sievers (1881), linguists identified the phenomenon of sonority decreasing when

moving away from syllable nucleus cross-linguistically, which is qpically termed as sonority

sequencing principle (SSP). According to this principle, the sonorily of the syllable must

incrcase in the onset towards the peak and decrease towards the coda' It says:

Betwee[ any member X of a syllable and the syllable peak P, only sounds of higher

sonoriqv rank than X arc permitted (Clements, 1990; Dost, 2004).

SSP is a presumed cross-linguistic uoiversal, which govems the permissible sequences of

consonant clusters within syllables. For example, in a regular syllable pattern (CV), a

consonant forms the onset and is followed by a vowel, which is higher than the oNet in terms

of sonority (the peak-of the sonodty). Then in some other cases, it may be followed by

another consonant lower than the vowel at nucleus (peak) and forms the coda of the syllable

(CVC). IrI general. sonority sequencing principle is something related to the existence of

consonalt clusters under specific order in a positiofl (onset or coda) in the syllable. There are

some languages which do not allo* the coda in a syllable, while the onset is a universal

occrurence. SSP is relevant to languages like Pashto, which not only allows coda but also

pemits clusters of consonants at both edges ofthe syllable.

Following SSP, in the case of clustets at onset position, the first consonant must not

be higher in sonority to the second consonant and so on. Rather, it must have lower sonoriry

vaiue than the following coosonant. Likewise, the lmal consonant at coda cluster position

must have lowff sonority in comparison with the previous one. This rising and falling of

sonority is ftnked on a sonority scale. The sonority hierarchy of Jesperson (1904) gives the

basic information regarding the sonodty ranking of onset and coda. ft poilts out the harmonic

contact between the peripheral compone[ts of the syllable. His hierarchy claims that the

129

segments with higher sonority values toward peak and that of iower values towards coda

would folm a better combination at syllable margins because tlis mutual sonority

arrangement makes an easy articulation. Example (47) below shows the pattems of such

harmonic combinations at coda and onset levels:

(47) a. ODset:

t>s>d>z>n>l>r>w

b. Coda:

w>r>1>n>z>d>s>t (Based on Jesperson, 1904)

The above pattems show that the sonority value in consonants is highest in glides and lowest

to the voiceless stops. as shown in (48):

(48)

Glides )rhotics) laterals ) nasais ) voiced fricatives ) voiced stops ) voiceless fricatives )

voiceless stops (abbreviated as: w) r) 1) n ) z ) d) s )t)

Although this sonoriry hierarchy is basic in its scope, it has inlluenced most of the follow-up

theories (e.g., Clements, 1990; Dost,2004) related to sonority sequencing of consonantal

clusters at the syllable level. The influence of such sonority sequeocing has affected the

phonological resolutions in the literaalle. Such theories have ad&essed a number of

complexities of phonological gaps and their relevance to the sonority-hierarchy. Since I am

concemed here with the SSP and its hierarchy, it is approp ate to meltion the so[ority scale

and discuss the clusters ofPashto in tlle light ofthat scale.

130

3.8.2. SonorityScale23

Before discussing the aliowed consonant clusteN in Pashto, I will discuss the scale of

sonority in a geater detail. Though there has been some conroversy related to the particular

detail of the formuiation of the sonority scale, the basic idea related to sonority scale is

uncontove$ial. For example, very little agreement is found on the point of the relative

sonority of laterals aDd rhotics, and the voiced and voiceless segme[ts. Similarly, Clements

(1990) is of the view that all vowels have t}le same sonority, while Kenstowicz (1994) and

Crosswhite (1999) state that they differ in terms of sonodty. Apart from such relative issues,

most ofthe researchers agee on something like (49):

(49) Vowels ) glides ) liquids ) rasals >obstruents

(Bell & Hooper, 1978: Clements, 19901 SmoleffLT, 1995)

Clements (1990) axgues that this single sonority scale portrays the sonority distinctions

avaiiabie in all langJages and that iI does not requirc any further divisions on any bases. The

discussion on the controversial part of SSP is neither relevant nor possible in the scope of

curent study. Therefore, I follow the most agreed view of the phenomenon.

The sequence ofthe rising and falling sonority is maxked on a sonority scale, which is

a measurabie index. Within this index, the plosives are the least sonorcus segments and the

vowels are the most sonorous ones. Plosives are taken together with fiicatives within one

category i.e., obstruents. Affer obstuents, the sonority dses through nasals, liquids then

glides and finally vowels. The following sonority scale, based on Buquest and Palme (1991),

is fr.fther modified for the purpose of curreflt study. It shows the sonority hierarchy of

segments in Pashto. This is the five point sonority scale and shows that vowels arc the most

'z3 Sononq scales have been discussed by a nurDber of scholars in geaier delails in literatue otr phonology. See

Sievers. 1881; Jesperson, 19041 Hooper, 1976; Han-kamer and Aissen, 197,1; Murray and VEnnemann, l98J;Clements. 1990a. Clements 1990a offers an excellen! overview ofthem.

l3l

sonorcus and obstruents are the Ieast sonorous in the language, while glides, liquids and

nasals are ranked in the order ofmost to least sonorous in the middle'

Figure 3.3: The Sonority Scale in Pashto

. Most SoEolous !bwels All vo*ds

GIides

llapstillsLater3ls

NEsaIs

Glides

Liquids

Nasal!

Obsmrents

. Least SoEotoits

Fdcatives.A.f&icdes?losir,es

The above scale is importantas most of the combinations follow it. However, Pashto gives

Ieasl importance to the constraint of sonority sequence and even does not maintain minimal

sonoril,v distance (MSD). This is discussed in the following section in detail. ln short, the

following two points (a and b) precisely show the basic crux of SSP.

Every syllable peak must be the peak of sonority in the syllable

A syllable must not contain morc thall one sonorify peak in it

a.

b.

132

j

4

3

Both of the above points collectively mean that segments progrcssively decrease in sonority

ftom the peak to the margins in tems of the segrnents. Now having the above scale, I analyze

the consonant clusteN of Pashto in tems of sonority.

3.8.3. Sonority Hierarchy of Sepeots in Pashto

SSP is a strong cross-linguistic tendency reiied on by many theories of syllable structwe. As

discussed earlier under this theory, a syllable has exactly one sonority peak and sonority

decreases through segments to the maxgins of syllable. Some of the early works on Pashto

clusters show that Pashto vioiates this principle in some of its syllable pattems (Bell &Sak4

1982: Levi, 2004). With a! overview ofthe past works, I will discuss the topic itr the light of

my curent data ftom the Yousafzai dialect. III the end, I will demonstrate theoretical

justification for such a behavior by the language.

One ofthe eariy works on Pashto phonetics. a study by Bell and Saka (1982), shows a

number of consonant clustem. The authors opine that some of the Pashto initial clusters have

reverse sonority sequence. Apart from the ciusters, they reinforce the idea of Perzl (1955)

that /w/, the bilabial glide, is actually a glide and not /B/ bilabial fricative, which was

previously reported by Shafeev (1964). On the basis ofsegment / as glide, they confrm the

idea of reverse sonority in the initial clusteB. They acoustically examined the naflfe of two

very different reveme sonority clusters [wr-] and [wl-] and show that the output segment of

such clusters is glide, thus providing enough evidence for the existence of reverse sonority

sequence in the language. They compare such clusterc with prevocalic [wV-] and then with

some unstessed short vowel [u-] and find that the glides, in reverse sono ty clusteN, have

133

the same spectral shape as in singleton onsets. They also proved the ptesence of glides by

comparing it with short vowels and through stretching2a

Apart from Bell ard Saka (1982), Levi (2004) also discusses the possibility ofreverse

sonority. She based her data on Penzie (1955). According to her:

Not only does Pashto contaitr a wide variety ofnormal clusters, but also many reversesonority clusters (Levi,2004, p. 202).

She gives the following 23 bipaxtite consonant cluste$ being reversed ill sonority in her

thesis (2004, p. 204):

(50)

[wr, q, wl, ry, lm, ly, nE, n?: ny, sp. st, sL sk, -[p, -[t, Jk, Ek, xp, zb, zd, zdo 71b, 71d]

She states that Pashto allows reverse sonodty in such clusters which is a very interesting

phonological characteristic ofthe language. Keeping in view the af,gument made by Levi

(2004), I show similar clusten from my data. As many segmetrts25 of the current study are

different from Levi's, I also present the violation of sonorit-v. Most ofthe consonant cluste$

show the phenomenon of SSP. The combinations in (51) show that the initial bipartite

coNonant clusterc observe SSP:

(51)

1. Plosives + liquids (detail given in Table 3.6)

2. Plosives + glides (detail given in Table 3.7)

3. Fricatives + liquids (detail given in Table 3.8)

4. Fricatives + glides (detail given in Table 3.10)

5. Fricative + nasals (detail given in Table 3.12)

6. Nasals + liquids (detail given in Table 3.13)

7. Nasals + glides5 (detail given in Table 3.13)

'?r It is a method used to increase the overall duBtion of an urierance (I-evi, 2004.).x I do not includ€ ,?, S, 3 / which are ircluded by her.

t34

8. Liquids + glides

9. Afhicates + liquids

10. Affricates + glides

I 1. Affricates + fiicatives

(detail given in Table 3.14)

(detail given in Table 3.16)

(detail given in Table 3.16)

(detail given in Table 3.16)

However, at the same time, some of the combinations may violale as reverce cluste$ are

found in the data. Combinations in (52) show the bipartite consonant clusters which violate

the standard universal of SSP in Pashto.

(s2)

1. Fricatives + plosives (detail given in Table 3.9) [sk. sp, s1, Jk,lp, xk. xp,zg, zb, z$]

2. Fricatives + fricatives (detail given in Table 3.11) [zy,rx, sx]

3. Nasals + plosives (detail given in Table 3.13) [ng]

4. Nasals + fricatives (detailgiven in Table 3.13) [nV]

5. Nasals + nasals (detail given in Table 3.13) tnrll

6. Liquids + fricatives (detail given in Table 3.14) tryl

7. Liquids + nasals (detail given in Table 3.14) [im]

8. Glides + liquids (detail given in Table 3.15) [rt, q, wl]

9. Affricares + plosives (detail given in Table 3.16) [tsk]

This is clear that there are 22 qpes of consonzult combinations which yiolate the cross-

linguistic phenomenon of sonority sequencing in Pashto. Some combinations are simple

violations ofthe SSP (e.g.. No: 2 fricatives+ fricatives or No: 5 nasals + nasals) through equal

sonority: the SSP demands that every following segment must be rising in sonority towards

peak. This te[dency is violated by such combinations. Bu at the sarne time, there are

combi[ations which are severely reverse in nature (e.g., No: 3 nasals + plosives or No: g

135

glides r liquids etc.). Haviry seen the reve^e sonority at initial consonant clusters. I w r

show the position offrnal and medial clusters not discussed by atry researcher before.

Combinations in (52) also show that the language does not strictly follow the MSD

(Minimal Sonority Distance). Some languages maintain MSD between two segments m a

saict manner26. Some combinations of the same segmentq such as fricatives + fricatives or

fricatives + plosives have the sarne value 1 (given in Figwe 3.3) as shorvn in sonodty scale.

So MSD is 0 in such clusters and in reveme sonority sequences, it is in minus. Under SSp, the

coda is required to be more sonomnt than the onset. Howevet I have just shown the falling

sequence of the sonority in coda c1uste6. The data sho\irl in Tables 3.lg to 3.20 are

simplified in the followirg lines. rt is evident that word-final crusters show the SSp. But in

few combinations- it is also viotared (e.g.. plosives + fticatives l-bs, _ks, _bz, _qfl and

fricatives + fricatives [-xs]). Out ofthese five combinations, two words are originally pashto

(faksl contrary and. |tebsl hunidity). The olher 3 combinations are not from words of pashto

origin (fsersebz] lush green,ltaqfl copy,lJaxs) person are Urdu by origin). Bvtthese words

are comrnonly used today. I can thus conclude that coda clusteB exhibit SSp but not strictly.

Similarly, medial clusters also firlly show SSP, which is clear from Table 3.22 in the above

section. Now. I tum to tdpartite consonant clusters.

Tabie 3.25 shows that some ofthe tripartite initial consonant clusters do not abide by

the phenomenon ofSSP. These violating combinations are given below.

(s3) 1.

2.

3.

Isxw-]

llxw-l

lskw-l

'?6 Spturish is a classic extunple of such languages which follows srict MSD. This value is 2 h Sp.nish (Harris,1983).

136

a. [xkw-]

5. [ndr-]

These combi[ations show that some of the tripartire conso[a.nt clusters also violate the

sonority hierarchy of segnents which is expected because of so many reverce clusters in

bipartite initial clusters itr the laryuage. These clusters ate from originally pashto words

because they share this phenomenon with two_consonant clusteN in the language. The

theoretical justificatio[ of such a pattem under OT theory will be presented in the following

section.

3.8.4. Theoretical Aralysis of Reverse Sooority Clusters itr pashto

As discussed in section 3.7, OT is a linguistic framework which observes the continuous

interaction between conllicting markedness and faithfulness const aints within a language. It

is also discussed that CV is the most common and universai syllable sfuctue. Nonetheiess, a

language may also vioiate this pattem due to pammetdc variations based on the hierarchy of

universal components. So. there are languages which have (C)V(C) pattern. In such a

Ianguage, the faithfulness constrai[ts dominate the matkedness conshaints. in the case that

underlying material surfaces in coda position. Similarly, there are languages which not only

allow onsets but also allow clustem at onset and coda positions. Like English, pashto belongs

to the latter class.

It was established above that Pashto consonant clusteN violate sonority sequencing in

a number of consonant combinations. For theoretical _justification, let me show the constraint

first.

(s4)

SoN.SEQ

137

Complex onsets rise in sonodty and complex codas fall in sonority (Kager, 1999, p.

267).

Kager (1999) shows it as a prosodic markedness constraint. It is a restriction on languages

that words should not end with segrnents of rising sonority. Inputs which end with segnents

of rising sonority are repaired in a nurnber of ways. The most common is the process of

epenthesis (addition ofa vowel). Pashto is very strict against such addition and gives pdority

to the antlepenthesis constaint, DEplO. Another way of sonority repat is the deletion ofthe

segment. Such a deletion is punished by the constrairt of MAX-IO which is another high

ralking constraint in Pashto. No epenthesis and no deletion take place. As a result, the

reverse sonority clusters are allowed in the language. Tableau (55) shows this interaction of

three candidates for the input.

(5s) [w1el]

Faithfuhess constraints DEP-IO, MA-X-IO take dominance over maikedoess constraints SoN -

SEQ. Candidate (a) has consonalt cluster of reverse sonority at the onset, while candidate (b)

has Ilo cluster because one segment is added (the epenthetic e) and resultantly, two sllables

are found. No cluster in candidate (c) is there because one segment ftom the input is dropped.

So, the optimai output (a) violates the lowest mnking markedness coistaints SoN-SEe- The

violation ofconstaint SoN-SEe is least expensive in this inteEction process.

138

It is clear from the above tableau that the avoidance of epenthetic vowels and deletion

of consonants take priority over avoidance of syllabic ill-formedness. In terms of constraint

ranking, it is:

(s6)

DEP-IO, IVLAXJO )) SON -SEQ

The case is the same with three consonant clustem in the onset position of Pashto syllables.

(44) shows the tabieau for tl[ee consonant clusters. [n sectio! 3.7, I have discussed in detail

the violatioo of complex onset in the larguage. Herc I include *COMPLEXoNS and its

equally ranked constraint SoN-SEQ to the cover constraint +CLUSTER.

(57) Lfx\aendl

Tableau (57) shows, again, that the faithfuhess constraints take top position in the hierarchy.

*CLUSTER constraints (*COMPLEXoNS and SoN-SEQ) are least important in this ranking

and are violated by the syllables shown- The mumal ranJ<ing betweeo *COMPLEXoNS and

SoN-SEQ, and between DEP-IO and MAXIO is irelevant in this context, but the constraint

ranhing given in (46) is relevant here too. Candidate (a) has both a ciuster ard reverse

sonority in the onset. Candidate (b) has no onset cluster ard therefore no reverse sonority in

the onset because three s€gmelts from the input are dropped. Candidate (c) has epenthetic

vowels and creates two more syllables in the word. So, the optimal output (a) violates the

*CLUSTER

139

lnput: / Jxwanp

FAITH

DEPIO I Ax-lO *COMPLEX"^" I SON-SEQ

a.aJxwond

b. .fan{

c..fLxe.wan{ **!

lowest nnking markedness constaints *CLUSTER constaints (*COMPLEXoNS and Sot-

SEQ). Their violation is least expensive in this interaction.

Reverse sonority is not only formd in onset clusters bul also in some of the coda

clustem as well. lo coda position, some of the consonants do not exhibit the SSP, as sho\an

below:

(58) [ak,

In (57), lust like (58), the faitMulness constmints are dominant over well-fomedness

*CLUSTER constraints (*COMPLEXoNS and SoN-SEe). Candidate (a) has coda cluster with

reverse sonority. Candidate (b) has neither coda cluster nor reverse sonority in it. Candidate

(c) has epenthetic vowel, thus adds one more syllable. This hierarchy of the coNtraints

allows not only complex codas but the violation of SSP also. Al1 the tableaux discussed in

this section generate the following factorial tlpology:

(5e)

DEp-lO, MAxJo )) soN-SEe, *COMpLExoNs, *COMpLExcoD .

"Complex onsets and codas are allowed with reverse sonority"

In Pashto, the 'anti-epenthesis' constaint DEP-IO dominates SoN-SEq because no epenthesis

takes place. Similarly, the choice of (consonant) deletion also dominates SON-SEe. The

violation of SSP is also recorded in other languages. For example, Malayalam shows the

140

Input: /oks/FAITH *CLUSTER

DEPIO I MAX-IO *COMPLEX."" SoN-SEe

a.eeks

b. ekI

c. ok.i:s +t

violation of sonoriry sequelcing (Mohanan, 1989). The language violates the SSP in its onset

ciusters. The summary ofthe current section is given in the section below.

3.8.5, Summarv

I have troted multiple violations of SSP in both bipartite and tripartite consonant clusteN in

Pashto. The language not only allows complex clusterc but also violates the sonority

sequencing principle. Faithfulness constraints are ranked higher and the markgdless

constaints are less importalt. Similarly, SSP is not only violated in initial clusters but also in

some of the coda clusters. Abandoning the SSP (as a markedness constaint) and creating

complex onsets and codas which violate it are frequent in Pashto consoflant clustem at word

initial and Iinal edges. Altlough the SSP is a robust qoss-linguistic property widely

respected by most of the languages, it is nonetheless a language specific parametric choice

which can be violated iike other constaints. Pashto allows clusters at both edges of a word,

onset and coda, and both q?es, observing and violating SSP.

I can conirm, now, that the marimum syllable cluster of the language goes up to

(CCC), three consonants at onset and (Cc),two consonants at coda. This confirmation is

helpflrl for deciding other pattems ofthe syllable structure- Now it is imperative to Aame out

the syllabification rules of the language with the help of the syllable discussed in the above

sections. Once syllabification rules are framed, syllable constaints will be easily noted down.

Syllable constraints enable one to decide about the .epresentadon of the syllable stluctule in

terms oftheoretical representation. The next section discusses the syllabification rules.

141

3.9. PASHTO SYI,LABIFICATION RIJLES

Syllabification plays a significart role in the phonology of a language. The rules of pashto

syllabification have not yet rcceived proper attention. Not only the phonetic study but also the

representative work in phonology is developed on the basis of so-called intuitive native

speaker knowledge. The main work on Pashto has been more or less neglected. The lrst and

the oi y worlq so far, on Pashto syllable structure is a short article by Zaman (2002) which

addresses the issues at the surface levei. One catr only find very little amourt of emphasis on

the syllabification rules based on the synchronic evidence. The article is just a bdef

discussion with fairiy narorv scope of investigation. Apait from Zaman (2002), Tegey and

Robson (1996) also point out a few syllable constraints which are discussed in this section.

The data shown in section 3.6 and anlrhere else in the current study was taken ftom the

Pashto dictionaries and my collection of 5000 words. This provides enough information

rega.rding the syllabification rules of the language. Thetefore, I just try to pinpoitrt pashto

syllabification mles which are based on the phonotactic rules mahly found in my data.

Moreover, previous studies are also referred to where required. These rules cover the points

aelated to consonaDt clusterc only:

r Based on the anaiysis of data in the current study, it is argued that syllabic consonants

are not allowed in Pashto. This constraint is shown as (60).

(60)

Syllabic Consona[t Constaint

* V [+ consonantal'l No syllabic consonant al]owed.

It means that nothing otler than vowel can bear the feature of syllabic [+sy11] i.e., the

ability to be the peak ofa syllable.

t42

. Pashto syllables allow codas which is a significant structual Foperty of the language.

All consonants and consonant sequences form the part of onset in the syllabic templates

ofthe language. Detail ofpossible clusters is given in 6-3.

. The most preferred syllable pattem in Pashto is CV which is described as unmarked

syllabic pattem by Jakobson (1972). This pattem is not only the basic one but also the

most natural syllable pattem in Pashto.

. Any unitary v+V sequence (i.e., the tlue diphthong) never consists of a firct member

which is higher than the second ard is inte.pretable as being [-syll].

. Normally, a semi vowel (/j, w/ or /i, u/) can occur as the second member ofa diphlhong.

Very rarely can another vowel become the second member of it.

. Glides can also occur as word-initial consonants.

. The wod-initial consonalt clusters become the onset of the following syllable. For

example, in words like [aneka] (earth / land) and [fmer] (counting) the clustem of /zml

and fnr-l are the onsets to the peak in their respective syliables.

. Similarly, the word-final consonant clusters become the coda of the preceding syllable.

For example, in words like [lprs] (pity) and [lprz] (fom), the clusterc of lrcl arrld /rz.l arc

the codas to the peak in their respective syllables.

. The langlage follows some of the rules related 10 syllable str-ucture. It follows the

principle of maximum onset (MOP)27.

. It is also clear from the data that in case of bipartite consonant clusters at word-initial

level, th€ language shows some acceptance to so[ority sequencing principle (SSP):8. But

multipie violations of SSP are also recorded al word initial onsets (also reported by Bell

'1r MOP (mnimum onset pdnciple) means that onset oftbe syllable must be maximized by puning theconsona in it whenever it is possible.

" SSP (sonority sequencing principle) means thar sonority of the syllable must increase in the onset towards tbepeak and decrease towards the coda. It ls discussed in detail in section 3.8.

143

& Sakq 1982; Levi, 2004; Rehnan, 2009). The curent study also coDilmed to SSP

violation in the onset and finds some violations in the coda clusters as well.

. In majority ofthe cases of word-fural position, SSP is observed.

. At word-medial position, some violations ofSSP are also found.

. It is clear ftom the tables on bipartite consonant clustels that the second consonant in

such a combination must be a glide.

. Maximum cluster at onset goes up to thjee consonants and at coda up to two conso[ants

(CCCVCC), as reported by Tegey and Robson (1996).

. In all tfuee consonant syllables one out of thee is a /d glide. There is only one word

[n&or] (sister-in-law) in which this ,/d glide is not found and that has /n-l as the ifst

sound in it.

. Based on the obse ations from the data, the following 12 syllabic pattems can be

established as the canonical syllable pattems in Pashto in terms of conso[ant complexity

an'anged in descending order of ftequency (also reported by Tegey & Robsoq 1996):

V. CV, VC, CVC, VCC. CCV, CVCC, CCVC, CCVCC, CCCV. CCCVC, CCCVCC.

The last three pattems (i.e., CCCV, CCCVC, CCCVCC) are not very frequent.

. These fwelve possible shapes range from a single vowel (V e.g., [o] rirlafr) to maximum

three consonants in the onset ard two in the coda (CCCVCC e.g., lJxwan$l chewing)

(also reported by Tegey & Robson, 1996).

. With rcspect to the syllabification of medial consonants, single intervocalic consonant

always syllabifies with the following vowel both word intemally and across a wotd

boudary.

. Thus a vaiety of possible syllable stlucture is possible and most consonant sounds are

allowed at onset position.

144

Therc is one crucial fact about Pashto syllabification that intervocalic singleton are

always syllabihed in the onset together with the followirg vowel-

*Ceminate is ranked higher in the language. Therefore, real geminate representation is

not available to surface folm in the language.

The Pashto syllable prefers aa obstruent to be the first consona[t and an approximant as

the second consonzlnt in a two consonanl cluster but othe6 axe also possible on this

position. The data show that h sonority observing bipartite consonant clusters, the first

consonant is an obstment. This rule has only 4 exceptions in which the sound could be /r,

l, m, nl. Similarly, the second conso[ant in such clusters is an approximant with only 3

exceptions / m, n or y /. (5 I ) shows the detail of such combinations.

In reverse sonority cluste6, any segrent can take the position of fimt consooant in a

two-consonant cluster (obstruent + nasals + Iiquids + glides). The second consonaff is an

obstruent ill such clusters with the exception of nasals and liquid. Ir1 case of nasal or

Iiquid, the first consonant must be either a nasal or a glide. See (52) for detail.

ln two consonant SSP clusters, the consonant towards peak is always nasal or liquid. The

second consonant must be an obstruent in such arangement. There is only one exception

to this mle in which the second consonant is nasai. Br-rt in this case. the coDsonanl

adjacent to peak must be a liquid which is higher than nasal in sonority.

In coda clusters ofviolating SSP, both consonants must be obstruent.

Single vowel syllables can also start words. For example, la.nail 'pomegrahate' or

favr.lal. d]' ofs pr i n g'.

Phoneme ,4:./ can only come at the start of a syllable e.g., fhalwa] .rrreels ' or [wa-hal] 'ro

,eall The same \Mas also reported b), Tegey and Robsotr (1996).

Glide /w/ can also take the position of the fiIst consonant in an onset cluster which

violates the SSP in such combinations. See (52) for detail.

1,15

Previously Tegey and Robson (1996, p. 19) rcported that sormds /4/ and /g/ can only

occw at the end ofthe syllables as in ffku:d 'porcupine' or in [eg] 'beer' but the cunent

study does not attest such constraints in the language. Both these phonemes can be found

at the start ofthe syllables as in word like [gi:re] 'beard' or [re.4a:] 'light'.

In the above rules, the focus of the analysis is the consonant clusteN in Pashto.

Thereforg, the study is restricted to them and the rules related to vowels are not discussed

in detail simply for the rcason that such analysis would just be out of the focus of it. In

respect of the consonant clusteN, the following section describes the maximum syllable

template.

3.T0. THE MAXIMUM SYLLABLE TEMPLATE IN PASHTO

Tltough the examination of data presented in section 3.6 and the subsequent discussion on

consonant clusters, I find that maximum word initial consonant cluster in Pashto consists of

thrce consonants (CCCr. In the word final position, it goes up to 1wo CCC). These

combinations indicate that the maximrlm syllable template is CCCVCC.

(61)

Maximum Syllabic Template (MAXST) in Pashto: CCCVCC

The manimum syllable coNists of three consonant in the onset and two in the coda. The

onset atrd coda both may violate the SSP. Given the MAXST ofthe language, I will conclude

the chapter in the next section.

146

3.T1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The current chapter started from the discussion of Pashto phonemes, based on previous

literature, which was followed by a detaiied analysis of syllable structure. I discussed

consonant clusteN in both bipaxtite ard tripartite consonant clusters in the language. From

this discussion, I conclude that some 108 combinations oftwo-consonant clusters at all three

positions ofthe words are found. Maximum clusters were found at initial position. They are

followed by finai position and minimum clusters are found in word medial position. Similarly

8 types of various combinations are found in tripartite clusteN in pashto which are all at

initial position.

The conclusion, fiom the discussion on consonant clusters is that pashto not only

pemits vadous q?es of complex consonant clusters but it aiso tolerates a number of sonority

violating combinations. The following sections provide the theoretical justifications for such

complex cluste$ allowing even reverse sonodty under OT framework. It is found here that

Pashto gives priority to faithfulness constraints (such as DEP-IO, MAX-IO etc.) over well-

formedness conshaints (such as *COMPLE*NS and *COtrfLEXcoD etc.). Complex

syllable structue and the violation of SSP are justifiable in such a hierarchy of constraints.

Based on the data, the syllabification rules are given at the end.

Related to the representarion of Pashto syllabic complexiry, it is established ftom the

data that the maximurn range of syllabic template (N4AXST) goes up to CCCVCC. This

syllable saucture provides very interesting point for the discussion on our main subject ofthe

thesis i.e., the corelation between syllable stucture and word order. The word order of the

language is the ropic ofthe next chapler.

14'7

Chapter 4

BASIC WORD ORDER OT' PASHTO

4.1. INTRODUCTION AND OVER\.IEW

In the previous chapter, I have established with the help of my data the marimum syllable

template (\4AXST) for Pashto. The tr4q"rST makes possible predictions about the consonant

clusters at Pashto word edges. The present chapter describes the basic word order ofPashto.

The mdn focus of the chapter is to illustrate the word order pattgms of the language in the

light of the theoretical assumptions of OT (Grimshaw & Samek-Lodovici, 1998i Cost4

1997c, 1998,2001). It also discusses the constraints used in determining tlp word order

pattem and their ranking hiemrchy for Pashto. In order to determine the basic word order, the

initial focus is on the structure of simple sentences in the language.

The chapter starts by introducing the main contributions of the position of verb in

establishing dre word order of a language. It provides an overview ofpast schoiarship on the

topic of sytrta\ in Pashto and highlights important contributions in this regard. Then it goes

on to analyze the basic word order of Pashto using the OT framework as a methodology. ln

Chapter 5, I will apply the findings of the present chapter in o.der to test the validity of the

implicational correlation under discussion, that is, the corelation befiveen word order and

syllable complexity.

It should be kept in mind that this chapter is by no meaas a complete analysis of

Pashto s),nta\. It only coveN the portion ofbasic word order which is relevant to the subject

148

correlation. The main goal is to provide a better understanding of basic word order patterns of

the larguage in light ofthe implicational conelation and highlight more crucial aspects ofit.

4.2. TIIE BASIC WORD ORDER (BWO)

Chapter two covers the most basic discussion related to basic word order (BWO) in

latrguages. Just a short recap is givel here. BWO is, in simpie words, the order of basic

constituents in a simple sentence. It means the arangement of the most basic s),ntactic

elements \irithin a simple declarative sentence (having single verb) in a language. According

to some linguists (among others, see Li, 1976i Dik, i978; Costq 2001), the BWO means the

order which is taken by sentences in out-of-the-blue contexts or within a specific contextual

seatences in which the question "what happened?" is answered. In such an armngement, the

role fulace) ofverb is really important and on the basis ofits position, BWO is determined.

Linguists (e.g., Greenberg, 1963, 1966t Lehmann, 1971, 1978; Venaemann, 1972;

Hawkns, 1983) agieed upon the point that it is the verb which has the most basic role among

the syntactic elements. Its relationship with its objecl is considered as the most fundamental

thing in the syntactic classification of a language. Lehmann (1971) talks about the following

tlvo BWOS:

(:62)

a. VO (Ve6 + Object) Examples: Englis[ European and Semitic languages

b. OV (Object + Verb) Examples: Japanese, Turkish and Dravidian langr.rages oflndia

But there are some linguists who opine that there is another important element in the

syntactic constituents, 'r},e subject. Such linguists thiDk that these three constituents together

defrne the BWO of a language. So, if I put all these three elements together, the following

149

two most fiequent orders are found within languages of the world (Gell-Mann & Ruhlen'

201l).TIaditional Rpology mainly treats these two patterns ofbasic word orders (ibid). They

are given as in (63).

Linguists like Derbyshire and Pullen (1979), Hawkins (1983), Brody (2009) and Cell-Mann

and Rul en (2011) give six iogically possible orders of these three elements in different

language families. (64) lists all ofthese logically possible BWOs in the following lines.

(63)

d. Subject + Verb + Object

e. Subject + Object + Verb

(64)

a. Subject+VeIb+Object

b. Subject+ Object+Verb

c. Verb+Subject+ Object

d. Verb+Object+ Subject

e. Object+Verb + Subject

f. Object+Subject+Ve$

Example: English

Exarnple: Japanese

(svo)

(sov)

(svo)

(sov)

(vso)

(vos)

(ovs)

(osv)

As far as the frequency of these orders is concemed, the firct two. as discussed earlier, axe

very cornmon which are followed by the third one (VSO). The remaining three orders are rare

but since they are iogically possible, therefore, they are given here. The cunent study is

related to two types ofBWOs i.e., SOV and SVO which are given in (62). This categorization

suits the study because the languages (Pashto and English) included in the study instantiate

these word orde6.

150

The variations in the BwOs of languages are the reflection of the fact that languages

vary at surface level. BWO actually shows the discourse-configurational chamcter of a

Ianguage. It shows the language specific tendency and, therefore, BWO is considered very

important by latrguage experts. In typological linguistics. many things are related and decided

on the basis of it. ln chapter 2, I have discussed at a greater length that BWO is the main

source oflanguage classification. The implicational corelation which I have taken within this

study is also based on the word order of languages. Chapter 3 shows that Pashto has complex

clusters h its syllable structule. Now, according to our implicational urLiversal, it is predicted

to have SVO word pattertr. But the data in the current study show something different. It

shows that the BWO of Pashto is contrary to the expectations of the implicational universal.

What the data shows is the subject matter ofthe next sectio4.

4.3. PREVIOUS WORKS ON PASIITO WOR) ORDER

The syntax of Pashto has fascinated a mrmber of scholaN in the past. The curent sectio[

gives an ovewiew ofthe past works, specifically on the BWO ofPashto. A number of studies

have been carried out nnging from a simple reference gr.unmar on the language (e.g., Tegey

& Robson, 1996) to a specialized analysis of Pashto slartactic patterns (e.g., Roberts, 2000 on

Pashto clitics). Here I will discuss the important works on Pashto grammar in general and its

word order in particular.

Penzl (1955) has written a short grammar of Pashto. It covers the basic bJormation

rclated to the slntactic and phonological features of the language. Though mainly exploring

phonologicai aspects ofthe language, it also cove6 the s),ntactic detail of Pashto. In addition,

it discusses various grammatical prcperties ofthe language. like case-marking and the system

of gender-assignrnent, etc. Shafeev (1964) is another work which is among the first work

151

completed otr Pashto synta\. It discusses various grammatical properties ofthe langrage like

the order of syntactic elements in sentences. This study is the souce for a number of e[tries

for the data of WALS. It discusses various orders in the larguage. For example, the order of

genitive and louns, the order of subject and verb with object, the order between numeral or

relative clause and noun etc. Shafeev (1964) concludes ftom his examples that Pashto is an

SOV language by its natue of the order of syntactic constituents.

Tegey and Robson (1996) assign chapter 11 of their reference grammar to the

sentence stluctue of Pashto. They describe the structue of simple sentences in this chapter

and discuss various condilions related to them. They highlight the stuctule of the syntaclic

elements like noun phrases, pronouns, adjectives and prepositional phrases along with their

modifien in the language- As the part of verb phases, they talk about negative and positive

verb phrases. verb particles and clitics. They also give a sunmary of agreement rules in the

discussion on Pashto ergative constuction and the presentation of some unusual

constructions.

According to tlem, the basic word order of Pashto is SOV. In order to show this order

of the syntactic elements, they give a number of examples. Some of them are given in the

following section.

(65) (PresentProgressive)

a. asad li:k

o

legi.

is sending 3P

b.

Asad letter

Asad is sending a letter.

pla:r me

S

jaw loe ba:y

o

axli:.

152

Father my

My:father is buyihg a big orchard.

a big orchard is buying 3P

(66) (Intenogative)

!a tse ka:r

SO

you what work

kawe

do 2PQ

Whatwork do you do? (Tegey& Robson, 1996, p. 165)

They argue on the basis of their anatysis that in Pashto, contrary to EnglislL all modifiers

precede the verb in a sentence (p. 166). They give exampies like the following in the favour

oftheir claim.

(67)

de aman korene pe ka:bol ke wosegi.

S modifier v

Of Aman family in Kabulin lives 3P

Aman's family lives in Kabul (p. 166)

They also discuss the possibiiity of the deletion of subject and object in the kind of sentences

like imperatives or weak pronouns (the person and number ofthe pronouns) and submit that

the structure ofstatements and questions is the same in Pashto. AIl this discussion leads to the

conclusion that Pashto is an SOV language and its verb occurs at the end of the sentence as

the last element to occur. Next, I discuss the work ofRoberts (2000) on Pashto syntax.

Roberts (2000) completes his work mainly on Pashto clitics. He also discusses the

word order in the start ofhis dissertation. According to Roberts (2000), the basic word order

of the language is SOV. He claims that 'Pashto is fairly rigidly head-fiial language' (p. I l).

He also gives some examples to prove his claim. Some ofhis examples are given below.

153

(68)

a. sugwol newi"flakei

write do

S

SurGvel

kita:b

o

book

Sur Gwel wrote a book' (Kandahar)

b.

Dog cat

The dog hurt the cat.

xu:gkp.

hurt did

(Roberts,2000, p. 11)

Roberts (2000) mentions other possible panems of the sentences (OSV) and declares them

not only unnatual but also subject to a healA pause (topicalization) after the direct object and

a specific context. OSV is possible with the help of cliticisation but only in the past. For the

present and other tenses, only SOV order works which is the basic word order of the

Ianguage. Like Babrakzai (1999, p. 14) and Tegey and Robson (1996). Robens, also confirms

that verbs always occr[ at the end of the sentences. Apart ftom sentences, he also analyses

the lexical categories like noun phrase and finds that these are also head-final.

WALS2e maintains a large database on structural propeties gathercd though

desniptive matedals of world languages. It curently holds 76492 data points for 2678

languages of the world. On the order of veft and object, it provides the data of 1519

langlages. Reported on the slntactic slructure of Pashto, WALS provides more than 144

entries. The sy[tactic properties of the language are based on mainly the work of Shafeev

(1964). The main points related to BWO ofPashto are summarized below.

(69)

Order ofsubject, object and verb:

spi piJo

o

} htrp:l,wals infol (accessed on August 20, 2011)

154

sov

Order of subject and ve$:

Order ofobject and verb:

SV

OV

There is another website based on the data of syntactic structure of languages with the name

of Syfltactic Structures of the Wolld's Languages (hereafter SSVL)3o It is a searchable

database which a.llows researchen to discover the syntactic and othel properties of languages

and that how these properties work across languages. For Pashto, the property of subject +

Object + Verb has the value of"yes" because this order is used in a neutal context The data

is added by Roberts whose work has jr-rst been discussed' The clause which is used for this

propety is an active declarative clause. It r€ports on Pashto to be an SOV language as well'

Most of the above mentioned works are based on different vadeties of Pashto like

Kandahari and Kabuli dialects of the language. This discussion shows that Pashto belongs to

the SOV group of languages. On the point of word order, there is no variation arnong lie

dialects of Pashto. It is sarne in all varieties of the language. ln the following lines, I am

going to provide my own data from Yousafzai dialect which provides detail on the RWO of

rbe language.

4.4. AN OPTIMALITY TIIEORETIC ANALYSIS OF PASHTO WORD ORDER

The above discussion has made it clear that the word order of Pashto is SOv. Due to the

vadation of postulating norms rcgarding the word order of a language, it is difficult for one to

devise the only one possible word order. In reality, one can only speak of the word order

which is stongly dominating and has maximum tendencies observable in the language use by

its native speakers. Therefore, what is described in this thesis regarding the basic word order

of Pashto is primadly the native speaker's intuition and past schoia$hip is given in evidence

'0 hnp: sswr.rarl,p.a\sound.reL/brow'e lansuaeer Pasnlo raccel'ed on Sep 20. 20ll)

155

of the phenomenon. The sentences are used which \ryere recorded from [ative speakers in

different contexts. Mainly two principles were applied for getting the BWO pattems. As

discussed in section 4.2, I have given two maitr principles for deciding the BWO pattern'

These are:

(70) a- Senteflces in out-of-the-blue contexts

b. Specific contextual se[tences answering the question "what happened?"

Sentences based on the above criteda are explored in the curent chapter. Before going into

the detailed analysis of the BWO of Pashto, it is appropriate to intoduce the functions and

mechanisms ofOT ftamework which are applied for the analysis ofword order in this study'

4-4.1. Word Order itr OT

I have discussed in chapter 1 thal the orgarization of word older (synta-{) in OT is not

different ftom that of phonology. OT as a theory of language variation has been increasingly

applied in the field of synta,< in the recent times (e.g.,Gdmshaw&Samek-Lodovici, 1998;

Costa 1997c, 1998,2001i Bresnan, 2000; Choi. l999;Grimshaw, 2001; Sells' 2001 among

others) and it is shown that word order variations are not optional but they are the result of

various functional specifications in the illput. The application of OT in this chapter has two

maio advantages. Fi6tly, it provides a possible architectural explanalion for the tlpe of

Pashto BWO by ranking the set of concemed constraints of OT fiamework in synlax'

Secondly, OT aoswers a number of important questions related to the analysis of

implicational universals on the subject (i.e., the relationship between word order and syllable

sauctue) by using the f,rndings of the ctment chapter. Moreover' according to OT, the

individual variation of languages is actually the sample of the typological space of possible

grammals. Therefote, I fiIst give a bdef intoduction to the architectue of OT in syntax'

156

Herc. I restrict the application of OT just to detemioe the word order in the language'

Irrelevaut detail is avoided just in order to simply save time and space This is followed by

presefltation of the BWO found in Pashto wit]r other vadations and justified unde! the

theoretic framework of grammar in OT. Finally, the conclusion of t]Ie chapter is given with

the findings about the language.

According to the corrunonly held view of OT (Pdnce & Smolersky' 1993)' the

grammars of individual languages consist of a categorically set mnking of constraints which

dominate one anothe! and this hierarchy of constaints is based on the language specific

tendencies. According to Grimshaw (1997) the primary idea of OT Iies in the following

points givetr as (71):

(:.7 r)

l. Constiaints are unive$al2. Constaints can be violated

Grarnmars are mnkings of constaints. The optimal form is grammatical; all non-

optimal candidates are ungammatical. O 373)

This shows that in a specific language, one constEint is given prioriq. whiie the same

constaint may be easily violated in another language. Related to syntactic order, OT suggests

thatin the input, the particular group of words for a sentence provide for their possible

structures as outpul candidates. The GENerator provides a handful nr]mber of potential

candidates to an input which are then evaluated by EVAI. The winning candidate is chosen

by the EVAluation procedure (Speas, 199'7 , p. 178).

The ordering of the syntactic elements which target a specific position in a clause has

been modeled by a number of studies in syntax recently. The positioning of elemelts, such as

subjects, verbs. adverbs, topics and operatoB have been successfully represented by

extending the mechanism of General Alignment (Mccarthy & Pdnce, 1993) to the domain of

s).nta\ (e.g-, Sells, 1999, 2001; Modmoto, 2002).The main idea of Generalized Aiignmetrt is

157

appiied to t-he placement of s]T rtactic elements within a clause For example' the idea is based

on rcstricting the alignmeot to a specific edge of the clause within the constnint-based' out-

put odented model of gammar. within head-initial (VO) languages' the stuctural position of

the elements (object and focus, etc ) is after their head and they follow i]rc head While in

head-final languages (OV), the oth$ syntactic elements precede thek head and the head

occusattheendoftheclause.Thesepositiomaxebasedonthehie'archyofconslraints

amoog the syntactic elements within a language'

Bearing in mind the above points, the OT ftarnework is used in the current section to

analyze the word order ofthe focus language. However, the point must be kept in mind that

the current study is concerned only with ihe primary word order of Pashto or that portion of

the syntactic pattems which are related to the subject matter of the correlation ulder

discussion.

4.4.2. Cotrstraints otr Basic Word Order

In order to determine the BWO of Pashto under OT. I have adopted the constaints which are

related to clause strucnue ard are proposed by Grimshaw (2001) and others as mentioned at

relevant place. As discussed earlier in the start of the crlrrent section, I am only concemed

with BWO. It meaDs that I would only include the sentences which are of simple main

clauses and of declarative natue and have all the basic three elemenls (Subject+ Verb +

Object). Therefore, I only include the specific OT constraints which are relevant in such an

analysis for deriving the typology of BWO in Pashto. The point is also made explicit that for

the cunent pupose, the sentences included axe declaratives. AII the possible pattems of such

se ences are covered within this discussion. The interaction of the following coistraints is

158

analyzed in order to theoretically justify the SOV order of Pashto by deciding about the

hielarchy among these constaints:

('12) Constraints on clause stuctue:

a. Ho'Rr: The head is rightmost in its Fojections (Grimshaw' 1997)'

b. Ho-Lr: The head is leftmost in its projections (Gdmshaw' 1997)'

c. SuBI-Lr: A subject aligns 1e11in the clause (Modmoto' 2001)

d. SO: Subject prcceeds object (Choi, 1999)'

e. STAY:Trace is not allowed (Economy ofMovement) (Grimshaw' 1997)'

Before explodng the BWO of Pashto, the above mentioned constaints are introduced in a bit

more detail. These constraints illustate some of the fundarnental variations in OT- HD'Rr and

HD.LTareincotinuouscompetitionwitheachothel.Tworankingsalepossiblebetween

them.If}ID.RToutranksHD'LT,theheadofaprcjection(e.g.'VwithinaVP)isinthe

rightmost position (at the end of the projection)' Or if t}Ie case is revelsed' tben it is in the

leimost position (at the start of the projection) Sust Lt is relevant for the placement of a

subject within a clause lt punishes the position of a subject on other than the Ieft position of

the clause. It is relevaot here because I have included the eiement of subject withitr the basic

three q'ntactic eleme[ts.

The cotrstaint SO makes possible for the subject to prccede object lt is included here

in this list of consuaints because the interaction between subject ard object is also important

in the study of the BWO pattem. Finally, STAY is added to the current list lt is a constaint

of minimal Eojection. It is violated when aIIy of the s]'ntactic elements is moved from one

position to another. STAY is relevant to tlte vP-intemal subject hwothesis highlighted by a

number of scholals (Zagon4 1982; Kitagawa, 1986; Koopman & Sportiche' 1991; McNally'

159

1992; BwtoD & Grimshaw, 1992). According to this hlpothesis. the subject always

originates within the VP. Then in both the declarative and interogative sentences, it is raised

from Spec-VP to Spec-IP. In such cases, the consraint STAY is violated.

Now, to illustate how these constraints interact with one anothet in the hierarchic

gammar ofPashto, Iet me consider the interaction ofabove mentioned constaints in the nexl

section.

4.4.3. The Analvsis

The discussion in section 4.3 shows that Pashto exemplifies the SOV structure as its BWO.

Now before the OT analysis, I give examples from Yousafzai dialect which are then flfther

analysed ill the light of OT. The current work is based on yousafzaidialectj thereforc, I add

sentences which are rccorded ftom the speakers ofthe same variety. It makes the claim more

patent in its ratule. Now as discussed in (70) b. I give the firct answer to ,,what happened?,, in

the following exampie.

(73)

a. maJu:m pelet ma:Ikto

ovChildOASC SG) plate break-did(PAST PERF)M3SG

The child broke the plate.

Verb in Pashto is always a1 the final position. Even sentences with complements also have

S(ubject) preceedirg V(erb). Consider the following example (73-b):

b. breg st)re stomana rar,e

CV

co me - did (P AST P alt ) M 3 SGBrag \)ery tired

160

Brag came very tired.

Example 73 (c-e) show the present progressive form:

c. pla:r sred nbi:

SOV

Father(MASC SG) grass cut(Present Prog.)M3SG

The father is cutting the grass.

d. zwana:n xka:r la rowa:n di:

sovYoung men (MASC PL) huktihgfor goihg are(Pres. Prog.)M3PL

The young men are going for hunting.

e. wm:m spe lobawi:

SOV

Nephew (MASC SG) dog pldy-do(Pres. Prog.)M3SG

The nephew is playing with the dog.

Let show some other examples of simple declarative seltences.

(74) ba:tla ki:!a:b wa:i

sovBacha book rcad-do(fk4NS)IMPERF3SG

Bacha reads a book

(75) mor maJu:m xkol k1o

SOVMother baby ksedid (PAST PERF)M3SG

Mother kissed the baby

t61

(76) gwel polo! eluzawi:

sovGwal kite Jly- do (IMNS)IMPERF 3SG

Gwal is flying the kite

Robets (2000) also discusses the possibility ofthe order into OSV within some cortext and

if prosodic conditions are fulfilled. Sometimes the SOV ortler is changed into OSV but in

such cases it is only demanded by the co[text and there is a heavy pause given after the first

word, i.e., object. Such ordfl is subject to cliticization and topicalization. Secondly, this

fieedom is only possible in past tense and is not possible in present tense. The following

examples will clari! the possible OSV order:

(77)

kila:b, ba:tJa waele-de

Book Bacha read- PAST PERF

Bacha read the book.

Topicalization and heav_v pause shown here by the comma is mandatory. Otherwise, the

meaning will be changed.

(78)

ki:!a:b ba:tJa yee waee

Book Bacha3SG read-PRES IMPD 3-SG

Bacha reads the book.

Example (78) shows that the clitic yee co-refers to the left-dislocated nominal ,tilar. From

the above examples, I can co clude that Pashto language has SOV word order as its basic

order.

162

ln all the above examples, the idea of Pashro being SOv language is made explicit and re-

confirmed. These sentences show SOv as the canonical word order of the language. Now

before exploring some oth possible pattems of words within clauses in Pashto, I will

analyse the above structure within OT theoretic ftamework. For this purpose, I illustrate the

following tableau which shows how the conshaints discussed in 4.4.2 interact with each

other.

(79) lnafu:n palet a:! kfo) 'The child broke the Dlale'.

The above tableau illustates the basic rules of OT. Each of the cardidates including the

optimal one violates some of the coistaints. The optimal one which is marked with the

pointing finger also vioiates two of the constrailts STAY and Ho-Lr and is still the ideal one.

The other candidates violate other constraints which are higher raDked than STAY and Ho Lr.

The tableau aiso shows the highest ranking of the constraint HD Rr. Any cardidate which

violates this constraint will have the fatal knock out. Some other rankings are also very

crucial here. SuBr-Lr domirates STAY, otherwise, it would not be possible for the subject 10

be on the lefonost position of the clause. The constraint SO is also very impofiant which

makes it possible for the subject to precede object. In a declarative sentence like the above,

the constraint SO is always satisfied.

lpalelmafu:m ma:1kyo/

a. ma:l kfo mofu:m palet

b.d' alu:m palet ma:lkfo

c. pelet mo:I kp molu:m

163

Ho-Rr SO Sue: Lr STAY Ho'Lr

*t

*t &

So, in all these three possibilities (candidate 4 b and c), candidate b is the best ore.

Though it violates STAY and HD-Lr constaints but it is still the optimal as it satisfies the top

mnking consb:aints as HlRr, SO and SuBr-Lr. The violation of STAY has the beneiit of

allowing Suer Lr to be satisfied. As discussed earlier, under the VP-intemal subject

hlpothesis, the subject is raised from the Spec-VP position to SpeclP position in a

declaralive sentence, satisrying SuBr Lr but violating STAY. These three elemelts (subject,

object and verb) are analyzed in the above mentioned candidates and their possible three

pattems are given (SOV, VSO and OVS), out ofwhich SOV is taken as the optimal one.

The tableau (79) also shows that constraint HD-Rr is the most important constnint and

that it is on the top ofthis hierarchy of syntactic constaints in Pashto. In the following lines, I

will represent an analysis of some relevant sentences to confrm the top position of this

constaint. Note the following example.

(80)

Child mother to plate gite-do (Past Perfl

The child gave the plate to the mother.

The word order is considered a bit flexible in ditransitive sentences by Roberts (2000) in

sentences like the above. For such sentences, the following six q?es ofordering (given as 81)

are possible.

(81)

maJu:m mor Ia pelet

SIODO

war L1o

DO polel I,' war k1o

IO fiot yr I/ war k1o

DO pelel Z war k1o

t64

b.

S mafu:m

S maJu:m

IO oj,or la

lO mot La

DO pelel

Smafu:m

d.

e.

lO mot p.

DO pelel

DO p.lel

DO pelet

10 mor la

S maJu:m

S maJu:m

S mafu:m

tr/ war k1o

I/ war k1o

IO mot p, i/ war k1o

All the above six options are possible for the sentence showrl The only simiiarity among all

ofthem is the occurring ofthe verb on the final position. This is evident from these examples

that the constraint HD Rr is on the top position of the hiemrchy of these constraints. Apart

from this verb final position withh such examples, there are some conditions which make

possible for the above choices. Firstly, this is only possible within ditransitive verbs.

Secondly, the grammaticai function of the arguments is clear from the context. Thirdly, the

relevant case marking is also very impoitant as the particle [ta] along with the IO shows the

positioo of IO whercver it is. Therefore. on the basis of sr.rch conditions, one cannot declare

this relaxation as a canonically possible one. The canonical order is the one which is shown

as candidate b in tableau (79) and (81-a) above (SOV). Roberts (2000) also talks about such

possibility of relaxation of word order in sentences like the above. To such comments, I

would say that it is only possible due to the p.esence of case markitg on IO [ta] and stong

contextual pragmatically possible context. On one hand, the case marking shows the position

ofIO and on the other, the position ofDO is cleat from the context that it is the object which

is handed over.

Another point arises fiom the above discussion about the mutual ranking of

coNtraints SO and Susrl-r. The analysis of sentences in (81) a-fchalletges the necessity of

their munral ranking in the hieErchy ofthese syntactic constaints in Pashto. The relaxation

ofthe pattem of subject arld object (as rcflected in these examples) doubts the mutual ranking

of SO and Sl,e.r-Lr. So, the question arises whether one really needs their mutual ranking in

the hierarchy or they are equally ranked? There is a simple answer to this question: yes! Their

165

mutual mnking is needed as this relaxation is possible in the past tense. ln other tenses, this

reia,\ation is not possible. Note the following examples given by Roberts (2000, p.l2).

(82)

a: spi prfo xu:g k;a

sovdog(OBL MASC) cat(DIR FEM)hurr do(PAST PERF)-F3SG

'The dog hurt the cat'.

b: piJo spi xu:g k1a

ocvCat(DlR FEM) dog(OBL MASC) hurt do(PAST PERF)-F3SG

'The dog hurt the cat'.

He says that both the above orders (82a and b) are possible in past tense. My analysis is that

this possibility is based on two things: first, the case marking betrveen the noun [spi] and verb

[k1a] and second, the contextual meaning of the sentence. Both these points make the

meaning ofthe sentence possible. From these two positioos, it is clear that the doer of action

is a male (dog) asits gender is reflected ir the name of the subject [spi]. Similarly, the case

marking on verb [k1a] shows the female gender of the object (patient) [pijo]. Now if the

action was rcversed, then the following would have been the sentences.

(83)

a: spe pdo xu:g klo

SOV

dog(DIR MASC) cat(OBL FEMhurt do(PAST PEW)-M3SG

'The cat hult the dog'.

166

It is clear from (83) a and b that in such sentences, the case marking is important and the

order of subject and object is not really important. The difference between (g2) and (g3) is

only that of the case marking (noun [spi>>spe] and verb [kJa>kgo]3r. But as Robets (2000)

himselfpointed out that such a possibility is not available in present tense. The same sente[ce

does not have this OSV order in present tense. Note the example given by the same source.

(84)

b: piJo spe

OS

ca(OBL FEM) dog(DIR M4SC)

'The cat hurt the dog'.

xu:g klo

hurr do(PAST PEM)-M3SG

xu:sawi:

rr Siace I am not concemed wirh such semanii€ interpretation or cliticizarion ofthe language in the currentstudy, thereforE I jusr resrrid my analysis to ba5ic word order patlem of pashto. For pashto clitics Roberts(2000) and Rehman (2012) provide very inieiesring and detaii insighr.

pfo

o

spe

S

dog(DIR) cat(DIR) hurt (|MNS)-LMpF3SG

'The dog is hurting the cat'.

Ir the present fom. dlis sentence only has this (SOV) order and cannot be given the OSV

order. With OSV pattem, the meanings are totally changed. If done so, the sentence would

become: *'The cat is hurting the dog'. The reason is that both these words fspe and pi"lo] take

the same case marking in present tense [wi:]. Let me shou.the same in sentence in a tableau.

t67

/pilo spe xu:gawi:l

pift spe xu:gawi:

b. xu:gawi: spe p{o

c. tu:ga\ri: pilo spe

(.85) lspe pilo ra..garirl'The dog huts the cat'

Tableau (85) now clarihes the whole situation. It illustates that not only SO but SIIBJ-LT is

also Deeded. Analyse candidate-a [pi-[o spe xu:gawi:] (in fact OSV pattem) which means that

'the cat is hurting the dog'. Now it is totally contrary to the input because it fatally violates

the constraints SO and SUBJ-LT. Both of these constainls are ranked at a higher positiotr.

So they are higher than STAY and HD-LT. This candidate does not violate STAY but it

camot be the optimal one because it violates the other higher constraints. This candidate is

the representation of OSV order and it is clear from the violations coinmitted by such a

pattem that it is unacceptable and meanings are totally changed in such a sentence.

Candidate-b is unnatural as it also violates the top rao-king conshaint Ho-Rr which is a

fatal violation. There is another crucial point within this cardidate. It makes the ranking of

candidate Suar-Lr very clear. Although this candidate satisfies the constraint of SO yet it does

not satis& SuBr-Lr which is also fatal. So, it is clear that both ofthe con$aiflts (SO and SUBI-

Lr) aie treeded to be on higher position within dre hierarchy. Though this candidate satisfies

both ofthe lower ranking constaints STAY ard Ho'Lr but it could not be the optimal one as

it does not satisfy the other important constraints. Candidate-b is the .eprcsentation of VSO

order and it is cleax ftom its violations that it is also unacceptable in Pashto.

168

HD-RT SO SUBJ-LT STAY HD-LT

*,

d.,r spe pifu xu:gawi: ttt a ,a

Now tuming to candidate-c, it violates all the fatal constraints and, therefore, is the

most uDnatural one. Though it satisfies STAY and Ho-Lr but these are low level constaints

and are not important in the hierarchy of coNtraints. This candidate is actually the

.epresentation of (VOS) pattem and it shows that there is no place of such a pattem. The

optimal candidate is the candidate-d with pointing finger which violates two of the

constaints STAY and Ho-Lr. But it is the optimal one because it satishes the high ranking

conshaints like Ho-Rr, SO and Suer-Lr. The violation of constraint Ho Lr makes ir possible

for constaint HD Rr to be on top position and SO makes it possible for subject to prccede

object and constraint SueL-Lr places subject on leftmost position ofthe projection. Similarly,

the violation of STAY benefits the leftmost position of Sre.r,Lr. This candidate is the

representatioD ofSOV pattem which firlly fits the hierarchy ofconstraiflts in Pashto.

In tableaux (79) and (85), the optima.l candidates for present and past tenses are

discussed. Both these tableaux show that SOV is the canonical word order of the sentences.

As far as future is concemed in Pashto tenses, it is realised by putting second position clitic

[ba] (Robens, 2000, p. 42) to the subject itr a senteoce. Look at the following example.

(86) lna{u:na:n ba ki:labuna wa:il'The children will read the books'.

/ ki : tabuna mafu : ma: n ba wa: il

a. wa:i malu:ma:n ba ki:labuna

b. ki:labuna ma[u: ma: n ba fia: i

d. emafu:ma:n ba ki:labunawa:i

169

Here within the above tableau, again, the role of conshaint HD-Rr is crucial in deciding the

optimal among the candidates. Candidate (a) satisfies one of the high ranking consfaints

(SO), but violates two of the main constraints (Ho-Rr and SuBj-Lr), so, it is excluded.

Similarly, candidate (b) also satisfies one of the high ranking constaints but still it is

excluded as at the same time it fatally violates two of the main constaints. Now only

caodidates (c) and (d) remain: the latter performs better at keeping the head ofthe projection

at right edge ofthe clause by satisfying Ho-Rr. In candidate (c), the head is in the center and

Ho-Rr ard HpLr both arc violated. Since the constraint Ho-Lr is low in the hierarchy, its

violation is not fatal. But in order to be the optimal one, the highest constaint of Ho'Rr is

requircd to be satisfied which is done by candidate (d) and, therefore, is chosen the winner. In

candidate (d), the head is positioned at the right edge of clause, hence, this candidate is t}re

glammatical one. Note also that the optimal candidate (d) incu6 two violations of constaints

STAY and HD-Lr, but these are irrelevant since they are ranked below in the ranking.

The above tableau illust.ates the futule tense ofPashto. Interestingly, the crucial role

is played by the clitic [ba]. Roberts (2000) calls it a second place clitic in Pashto as it is

placed second to noun in the sentence. The mnking of the syntactic constraints remains the

same. It meaos that the ranking hierarchy oftableau.r (79) and (85) does not chalge here and

all three tenses can be best explained under the same hierarchy ofthe constaints.

It is also clear from the above ana.lysis that the futule tense is ma.ked with the help of

split ergativity and that the position of word order remains the same in this tense. The same

idea is given by Roberts (2000). He says that future teme is created with the help of split

agleement of the compound verb is Pashto. According to him, the two paits of compound

verbs may agree with different syntactic constituents in s€ntences of fuhrre tense. This

a$eement is mainly between second piace future clitic [ba] and past perfective auxiliary verb

1',70

in the sentence. He has given various examples in the evidence of his suggestion. These are

important here because they maintain the same SOV order, therefore, are given in the

following lines.

The future tense in Pashto (Spiit Agreement;32

(87)

a. sangi:n ba kelke ma:la kn:

Sangin (MASC) FW window(FEMSG) broken(FEM SG) do(PAST PERF)^,IASC3SG

'Sangin will break the window'

b. sangi:n ba kalke ma:le kn:

Sangin (lrL4SC) FUT window(FEM PL) broken(FEM PL.1 do(PAST PERF)LUSC3SG

'Sangin will break the windows'

c. sangi:n ba war ma:l kp:

Sangin (ILASC) FUT door(lMSCSG) boken(M{SC SG) do(PAST PERF)|LASC3SG

'Sangin will break the door'

d. sangi:n ba waru:na ma:I kn:

Sangin (MASC) FW doors@l,4SC PL) broken(l,IASC PL.1 do(PAST PERF)MASC3SG

'Sangin will break the doors'

e. la:so ba waruna ma:l klei

2P FW doors (MASC PL) broken(M{SC PL) do(PAST PERF)LI-ASC2PL

'You (PL) will break the doors'

(Roberts, 2000, p. 43)

These five examples given by him are very interesting here in the current discussion. Roberts

used these examples for showing the split agreement which is clear ftom them. The subject iE

r1Since the cunent sludy only covers rhe word oraler paftems ofPashlo. and it is not concemed wilh the natueofclitics. Iherefore, I only discuss things which are related to word order.

t'7t

(88)

kalke ba

all the above sentences agrees with the auxiliary, while the object agrees with the main verb.

To me. these examples are interesting because all of them show the SOV word order pattem

and no other pattem is garnmatically correct herc in the futule tense. Or[y pragnatically

variant order can be applied here within these sentences which will show the emphatic stess.

Note the following example.

sangi:n ma:Ia kU:

window (FEMSG)FUT Sangin(MASCl broken(FEM SG) do(PAST P ERF) MASC 3 SG

OSY'. 'Sangin will brcak the window '

Sentence in (88) shows that emphatic stress is on 'Sangin'. There are many reasons why this

order (OSV) in such a contexl has the pmgmatic meaning Firctly, ftal is a modal verb and in

such a sentence, it shows that only'sangin' has the ability to break the window. Secondly,

the meaning of such sentence can be changed ifboth roles of subject and object are played by

animate thirgs, then the meanings are totally changed. So. otre can say that the canonical

order is only the SOV in future as well. Since the curent study only cove6 the word order

pattem. I am not cotrcerned with the study of cliticisation in Pashto. They are dealt in depth

by the same source. The above analysis of future tense rcconfims the canonical SOV pattem

for the language. An additional tableau is unnecessary here because the hiemrchy of

coNtraints decided within last three tableaux suits this type of sentences equally well.

It is evident ftom both these tableau\ that the constraints STAY ard Ho-Lr are equally

ranked in the hierarchy ofconstraints. They are positioned as the lowest constraints in the list'

Same is the case with SO and Suel Lr. They also have the similar position in the hierarchy of

the constaints. But they are among the high mnking constaints ofBWO in Pashto. Now the

only thing rcmaining to be explained is tie equal position ofthese constraints which is shown

in the following tableau.

1',z2

(89) lmende malu:ma:n sambalawi.l 'The mothers are taking cate ofthe children'.

The above tableau shows that the top ranking head conshaint is HD'Rr which makes

possible for the verb to be on the rightmost edge of the clause. It ensurcs the optimal

candidate (i.e., d) to be head-flnal. When this constaint is violated, the meanings are lost,

especially sentences like the above one. This constaint is on top in the hierarchy. The

ranking of both SO and Sw:'Lr are equal and crucial as well. Similariy. the ranking of both

the lower ranking constraints are equal and both ate violable because their violabilityjustifies

the satisfaction of the top ranking constaiflts. In other words, the satisfaction of constaints

Ho-Rr, SO and Suw-Lr are based on the violation of STAY arld HD Lr. Revising the ranking,

the other word pafterns, such as SVO or VOS can be given. So, the present ranldng is crucial

here. The head frnal structue in languages like Pashto is dedved by ranking of HD-Rr on top

of the hierarchy. This cotrstmint exhibits an interesting intemction with other constraints like

SO and Sl,tsrlr in the hieBrchy particulariy with those on head positioning (STAY and Ho-

Lr)

Now. on the basis of the above analysis, the ranking of these constraints is given in

the followiag section.

173

4.4.4. The Ranking of Constraints in Pashto

As a theoretical justification of the Bwo of Pashto, only one unified hierarchy of syntactic

constrarnts under OT is needed that can explain all $ammatically corect pattems of

slntactic elemeots for all tenses and contexts. The hierarchy shown below best suits this

objective for the cLtrent analysis. Focusing on the constrai[ts related to BWO in Pashto just

discussed in the above analysis. the hnal hierarchy ofthese constraints is considered in (90).

(90) The ranking of constraints related to BWO in Pashto:

flo-Rr >>SO, Surr'Lr>>STAY, Ho-Lr

This ranking shows that HD-Rr (the .ight positioning of the head) is on the top of the

hierarchy. SO and SuBr-Lr are equally crucial, recall the sentences discussed in the past tense

in the analysis portion. The remaining two constaints are STAY and Ho-Lr and both are

Fesumably low-ranked constaints. Keeping in mind the above ranking, I shall luralize the

discussion on the pattem of BWO in Pashto in the next section.

4.5. THE PATTERNS OF BWO IN PASIITO

On the basis of the optimality theoretic analysis in the above discussion, the pattem of BWO

in Pashto can be explained. OT is very well suited to explain and justifu every aspect of

BWO pattem in Pashto. Exarnples given in the analysis section of the study conlirm the

previous studies by linguists like Roberts (2000) and Tegey and Robson (1996) that the

canonical word order of Pashto is SOV. Roberts (2000) reports Pashto to be a'dgidly head-

final' Ianguage across its lerical categories. Here one can strongly concw with him because

t'7 4

thesameisclearftomtheaboveexamples.Overall,IarguethatSOv(Subjed+Object+

Verb) is the ooly order which is available in unmarked and syntactically simple sentences in

all three tenses of the language- The detailed discussion on the basis ofthe OT analysis in the

above lines proves SOV to be the unmarked BWO ofPashto language'

The above discussion also shows the power of oT as being the theory of grammar

which covers the interesting aspects of the Ianguage as discussed in last two chapters and

now discussion on Bwo within the current chaptel. It shows that the data ofa language may

be accounted for simply by evaluadng the constraint hierarchy ofthe set of a small number of

constraints and the behavior of interaction in a specific language like Pashto'

There are some languages which allow some word orders other than the canonical

ones in some contexts. Pashto is not among such languages because it is fairly rigidly sov'

Only in senteoces of diatransitive verbs, Pashto allows OSV but in such cases' some other

conditions are also to be fi:lfilled by the contexts l have discussed this point in detail in

section 4.3 ftom which I concluded that the canonical ordel of Pashto is SOV because all

tenses ofthe la[guage are possible within this order only Finally, I am in a position to decide

the tlpology of BWO in Pashto. It is discussed in the following sectiorl.

4.6. THE TYPOLOGY OF BWO IN PASHTO

I proposed in (72) that the BWO variation of Pashto and its application to all tenses of the

language may be captured by assuming the constraints givetr in (91)'

(e 1)

a. Ho-Rr

d. so

b. Ilo-Lr

e. STAY

c. Suer Lr

175

I considered these constaints and their interaction in a number of sentences of pmgmatically

neutral and descdptively simple mture. I showed on the basis of our OT amlysis of BWO of

Pashto to be SOV. Then I proposed the ranking which is also specified in (92).

(92) ItD-Rr )) SO, SuBr'Lr)> STAY,IlD-Lr

This Bnking characterizes the behavior of Pashto regarding its BwO. It determines the

following points:

Subject moves to Spec IP which is the leftmost position ofthe projection.

Objects always follow their subjects.

3. The rop ranking of Ho-Rr reflects the rigid behavior of the language of the head

finality position in a clause.

Points 1 and 2 are based on the behavior of arguments in the Pashto clause. AII these points

suggest the classification of Pashto as an SOV (Subject + Object + Verb) language. Witiin

this class, many other major languages like Japanese, Dutch and Urdu, etc. are classified. The

following section summaizes and concludes the crment chapter.

4.7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In the current chapter, I aaalyzed the BWO ofPashto in the light of previous scholarship For

this purpose, I kept my focus on thrce basic syntactic elements (S+O+V) of Pashto. Further,

the Optima.lity Theoretic analysis ofthe BwO of the larguage supports the previous findings

ofvarious researchers like Roberts (2000) and Tegey and Robson (1996) that the language is

fairly rigidly head-final in its syntactic Opology. Having discussed the other possible pattems

ofthe word order pattem in the language, I finally give the typology ofthe BWO ofPashto as

1.

2.

t76

ar SOv-order and in the light of this hiemrchy, pashto exemplifies a language to be strictlyan SOV laoguage.

This conclusion has broader implicarions for a general theory of rypologicallinguistics which is based on the corelation between word order and syllable structule.According to &e theory of implicational universals and rccord ftom WAIS discussed insection 2, SOV language should have simple syllable stucfue. Since pashto has SOV word

order, it must have simple syllable structure. But this is not the case. The next chapter

discusses the possible rerationship between syuabre stucture and word order in broader

prospective.

The curent chapter provides additional evidence to the discussion on our subject ofimplicational correlations. This analysis observes that the BWO of pashto language is not

compatible with the implicational universal discussed in the curent study. This chapter

provides a counter exampie to the generalization of the so_called implicational universal.

Thus it seriously challeqes the validity of the said universal. It observes that such universals

may not necessarily be in accordance with the data fould in languages like pashto. This topic

is taken in greater detail in the next chapter.

177

Chapter 5

TIIE ANALYSN OF THE CORRELATION BETWEEN SYLLABLE

STRUCTURE AND WORD ORDER

INTRODUCTION AND OVER}'IEW

The present chapter examines the corelation between syllable structure and word order. In

chapter 3, I showed that the Maximum Syllable Template (MA_XST) of pashto is CCCVCC

and our analysis in chapter 4 showed that the language exemplifies the SOV class of wod

order. These two tendencies of Pashto seriously challenge the validity of the implicational

correiation which says that the syllable structure ofan SOV language tends to be a simple one

(i.e., CV). So, within this chapter ofthe study, I examine the application of this conelation to

Pashto and ty to figule out the theoretical perspective under the paradigrn of OT.

The chapter starts by recapping the important points of the corelation between

syllable sfucture and word order suggested by a number of scholars. Then ir goes on to

expiore the said conelation in the light of the data found in pashto. A detailed analysis

demonstmtes that there exist a number of problems with the subject co[e]ation and

impiicational uoiversals based on it. The focus in this paft is to figule out issues related to the

subject conelation. Finally, the OT perspective of tJpologicat study is discussed in gieater

detail to cover the theoretic cotrfibution of the study. The chaptq ends by pinpointing the

need for adding languages itr addition to Pashto to such an analysis to increase the validity of

the study. Thus, t}Ie concluding rcmarks set the ground for the comparison of pashto and

English in chapter 6. I recap the corelation first.

1',78

5.2. TIIE CORRELATION BETWEEN SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND

WORDORDER

Chapter 2 shows a number of fields which have clear cut scope for studies based on cross-

Iinguistic comparisons. A number of important worls have also been discussed there as a

backgound to the curent study on typological li[guistics. There I have discussed in greater

detail the studies which suggest that there is a correlation between syllable sh:ucture and word

order or vice versa. Here in this section, I just give a recap ofthe important points suggested

by such snrdies.

T)?ological studies have tried to explore the subject corelation between syllable

structure and word order. The important ones me discussed here. Started by von der

Gabelentz, 1901 and subsequently explored by Lehmann, 1973, 1978; Donegan and Stampe,

1983, 2004; Donegan, 1993; cil, 1986; Plank, 1998j Fenk-Oczlon and FeDk, 2005;

Haspelmath. 2005; Tokizaki and Kuwana.2012 maintain that there is a stdct corelation

between syllable sfuctule and word order. They ciaim that the syllable structue of an SOV

language always tends to be simple (e.g., CV). The same idea is given by the implicational

universals ofthe Uriversitate CoDstanz and the universals of WALS. The detail is presented

in chapter 2, while only main points are provided here.

Lehmam (1973) gives his concluding remaxks ftom the study of languages, such as

Japanese. Tukish, Quechua. Salked (OV languages) and Classical Hebrew, portuguese and

Squamish (fo. VO languages) that OV word order t ?e langlages have simple (e.g., CV)

stlucture of syllables. On the other hand, VO languages have complex syllables (e.g.,

CCCVCCC). Other important studies on this correlation include Doregan and Stampe (1983,

2004) and Donegan (1993).They also explore the corelation between word order and syllable

structure. They conclude fiom the data of Munda and Mon-Khmi languages that the

179

conelatiol does exist. They maintain that the syllable stxuctue of Depeldent-Head (SOV)

ianguages is supposedly (C) V while in contrast, Head-Dependent (SVO) ianguages have

complex syllable structue (i.e., (C) (C) V (C) (C). Gil (1986) also investigates rhe subject

correlation within the data of 170 languages ald concludes that the syllable structure of OV

languages tends to be simple.

There are two implicational universals ofthe Universals Archives33 which are directly

related to our subject correlation. Universal 196 says that 'OV languages tend to have simple

syllable stucture'. While, in contast, unive$al 207 suggests that 'VO languages tend to have

complex syllable saucture'. The same unive$als have also been discussed by Tokizaki and

Kuwana (2012) as an evidence for their data. From the data of WALS, Maddieson (2005),

Plaok (1998) and Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) conducted their research and suggested tiat

the correlation does exist in which the simple syllable stluctule can be attested within SOV

laaguages.

Similarly, Fenk-Oczion ard Fenk (2005) analyze the very correlation with the help of

their own data and conclude on the basis of their findings that OV word order is rightly

conelated with simple syllable structure. Recently, Tokizaki and Kuwana (2012) complete

their study orl the topic. They add data from a mrmber of sources like WALS and Universa]

Archives. They use some other tecl[iques like geographical gmdation and the gradation of

consonant found in coda. and conclude that this correlation betwee[ syllable structure and

word order is quite rightly motivated on the basis of their analysis.

To conclude the above discussed points by linguists mentioned, I conclude the main

crux within (93) that according to this implicational correlation34:

(e3)

a. A language with SOV word order has simple syllable structure, and,

rr hnp:,'/tvpo.uni-konstapz.de/archive/intro/index.php (accessed on July 20, 2010)

34 Chapter 2 provides detailed introduction to such studies.

180

b. A language with SVO word order has complex syllable structure.

I have aiso given the classificarion of syllable stucture in section 2.4.2. According to this

classihcation, a simple stucture ofa syllable is supposed to be (C V) and complex structure

is the possibility ofthe presence ofmore than one C on one or both edges ofthe syllable.

Now if I relate tlis co.relation with the natr.[e of Basic Word Order (BWO) and

syllable stucture of Pashto, I showed that Pashto violates this correlation significandy and

provides enough eviderce against it. Let me show the case ofPashto fiIst.

5.3. TIIE CASE OF PASHTO: A PROOF OF NEGATION

Our data in the last two chaplers show that Pashto allows complex syllable structue and its

BWO is SOV. This means that the language is not only aa SOV language but it allows

consonant clusters at both edges of the syllables. Section 3.6.7 provides the summary of the

bipartite consonant clusters which shows that thete are 108 consonant clusters which carr take

place on word-initial, medial and final positions in Pashto. The tripartite clustem arc apart

from this calculation and the nature of the language exhibits that it does oot only allow a

number of consonant cluste$ but also the SSP-violating clustem at both onset and coda

positions. In addition, the MAXST given as (60) in that chapter shows that the language

allows marimum thee coosonarts at onset level and two at coda and the MdxST of the

language is given as CCCVCC. I applied OT as a methodology for the analysis of Pashto

syllable sructue and have found that the theoretic approach of OT as a method of analysis

provides a theoretical justification for the existence of such SSP- (Sonority Sequencing

Pdnciple)-violating cluste6.

As far as the BWO of the language is concemed. I have adalyzed it in chaptet 4 and

argued that tlrc language is 'faitly rigidly head-hnaf in its clauses of simple and declamtive

181

natue and this is the canonical BWO which is workable in all tenses of the language. On the

analysis of BWO in Pashto, I also applied the same theoretic approach (i.e., OT) which shows

that the slntactic coNtraints hierarchy gives top piefercnce to the constaint HD Rr and thus

makes it possible for the sentences to be of SOV order. The typology of Pashto exemplifies

the SOV class oflanguages.

Nov, when both the syllabic (phonological) and word order (syrtactic) charactedstics

of the language are clarified by fie analysis in the last two chapters, I showed that Pashto

violates the corelation robustly. Although it has SOV order, yet it does not have simple

syllable stlucture. Similarly, it has complex syllable structue but, at the same time, it does

not have the SVO order. It is evident in the light of Pashto data that this language does not

observe this correlation. So, this point gives rise to a number ofquestions as:

(e4)

a. Why does it fail to observe the expected corelation?

b. ls there any correlation between Pashto syllable structure and word order?

The point behind questions in (94) is the core question within the current study. Pashto

phonological and syrrtactic chamcteristics negate any ofsuch relationship and clearly say that

there is no correlation or relationship between these two linguistic structures, at least not of

the q?e one would expect Aom the previous literature. Pashto maintains its stance and

exiibits a tendency which is against every aspect ofthis co[e]atioE. So, the next point arises

is that of where is the problem? Is therc any quandary or weakness with the language or any

gap with the conelation? So, this violation of correlation demands a thorough investigation

and a[alysis of the correlatiotr and challenges its validiry to serve as a basis for implicational

univercals.

182

An answer to the questions like above is that Pashto linguistic pattems ofsyllable and

word order are as normal as any other linguisric tendency within languages. The mdn

problem lies within the correlation and the implicational universals which are based on this

corelation. Such gaps and shortcomings are discussed below in section 5.4. Pashto appears to

be a language which violates the said correlation atrd p.ovides 'the prcof of negation' to the

subject corelation. But even if it is a single language, it has given the idea that such a

correlation has not enough force to be observed by all languages. In such a perspective, OT

very stroogly provides the theoretical justifications to the nature of Pashto syilable structure

and BWO because OT as descdbed by McCarthy (2002) is twological ir natt(e and can give

answerc to a number of such questions. Before discussing the application of OT, let me show

what weaknesses in the subject correlation are there. Below I discuss the gaps and

shortcomings in this correlation which is not observed by languages like Pashto.

5.4. TIIE GAPS IN THE CORRELATION

Having made it clear drat the coEelation between syllable structure aird word order does not

appear to be valid in the case of Pashto, it is appropriate to take the correlation with fi.tther

detail here. Pashto serves arl ideal status to challenge the subject corelation and to make

room for other languages of its class which are not yet documented by researchers. In the

following lines, I discuss the gaps in the correlation which can be poirfed out on the basis of

its violation.

183

5,4.1. Word Order: A Weak Base

The flrst important point which is also the source of some subsequent issues is the weak base

of word order for such conelations. This meais that the term of BWO is itselfquite tricLf in

its approach. If the classical idea of BWO is considered co ect which I have applied in the

curent thesis (answering 'what happened? or simple declarative sentence having one verb),

then, the question adses is about the rest of the language? And even ifone mified definition

of BWO is agreed upon, then other problems arise. The most important one is that what is the

base word order? It is a debatable issue ilr syIltax. Kayne (1994) says that the base word order

is universally SVO and the rest of the ordem are derived ftom this one base form. On the

other hand, there are linguists like Gell-Mam and Ruhlen (2011) who think that SOV is the

base order and that the rcst of the orders are derived ftom it. So, something which is itself

debatable may not serve ideally as a basis for such a coreiational phenomenon.

There are six logically possible patterns for the ordering of subject+ object + verb as

discussed earlier. On the other hald, only three possible syllable stuctEes (simple,

moderately complex and complex) are possible. Now the cont butols mention two word

orders SOV and SVO and their two syllable pattems (simple and complex). But they do not

say anlthing about the rest of the pattems of BWO and syllable structule. According to

WAIS, Chapter 81 on order of subject, object and verb submitted by Dryerls, there are six

panems logically possible for BWO. The data entered for this input value was consisting of

1377 languages. Out of them, the allocation of language q?es based on their BWO is given

in the following table.

35 Accessed on Oct 15.2011

184

Table 5.1 : Six Types of Domioatrt BWO in Larguages

Basic Word Order No. ofLanguages

Subj ect+Obj ect+Verb:

Subj ect+Ve6+Obj ect:

Verb+Subject+Obj ect:

Verb+Object+Subj ect:

Obj ect+Verb+Subj ect:

Obj sct+Subject+verb:

(sov)

(svo)

(vso)

(vos)

(ovs)

(osv)

565

488

95

25

11

4

189

t377

Languages lacking dominant word order

Total:

So, it is clear from the above table that the contdbutors suggest the syllable stuctule for the

fiIst two trces of ianguages but they are silent about the rest of the four types. Additionally,

there are languages lacking any dominant order. So, it is a weak base for the correlation and

its applicatioo for the correlation is not patent. Even if languages are divided on the basis of

the ideas of Vennemam (1972), there are some probiems with it. For example, his Naiurai

Serialization Principle INSP) approves only two types ofBWOs (i.e., VO and OV). In such a

division, the inclusion of SVO, VSO, VOS into VO ard that of SOV, OSV and OVS into OV

will again raise the problem of validity of such a corelation. It is impossible to prove it in the

fom of Pashto as it turDs to be an OV language with complex syllable structue. This topic is

the subject of the next chapter. where Pashto and English are compared with each other in

order to 6rrthe! discuss the validity of the corelation. The other point which is noticeable in

such a division of BWO of languages is the inc|-rsion of languages of ftee word order which

have no dominant BWOS. Dryer (2005) shows that there are 189 languages of ro domitlant

woid order (ftee word order) out of total 1 3 77 tested languages on word order, This shows

that a total of 13.73 percent of languages would have no place in such a collelation. Another

185

weakness rclated to such arl implicatioml corelation is the changing nature of BWO which is

discussed in the following section.

5.4.2. The Changing Narure of BWO

In ma[y languages and language families of the wor]d, the changing natue of BWO is

rcported. Such a change seriously challenges the validity of a correlation which is based on

BWO because this is not necessarily the case thar with the change of BWO ever]1hing will be

changed. Especially, the changing of syllable structure of a language is not reported so far in

the literature. Syllable structure is directly the representation of the pronunciation of a

larguage; it is not necessarily correlated with the change of BWO.

There are many languages which allow var.ious tlJ,es of BWO at the same time and

with the passage of time, they change their BWO. Another rr?e of change in BWO takes

place with the passage of time and the pattern of BWO in the mother language is changed ia

the daughter languages. Gell-Mann and Ruuen (201 1) show a number of languages within

the same language family in which the BWO changes with the passage of time. The

fotlowing table exhibits the detail of such a phenomenon found by the same source.

186

Table 5.2: The Change ofBWO in Afro-Asiatic Languages

Lrugrag" o" Lorgr,ng" F".ily- Basic Word OrderAfo-Asiatic:

Omotic:

Erythraic:

Cushitic:

Chado-Afto-Asiatic:

Chadic:

North-A &o-Asiatic

Arcient Eg)?tian

Semito-Berber

Semitic

Berber

SOV

sovSOV

sov

svoSVO

vsovsovsovsovso

It is clear ftom the above table that within this one language family, all three major BWOS

axe well attested. The original order in the mothet language was SOV which changed with the

passage of time and as more and more languages were evolved liom the same family, they

took various orde6 as their BWOS. Gell-Mann and Ruhlen (2011) discuss this calculation in

order to show the process€s of different tlpes like evolution. diffirsion and reversion of word

orders in the origin of languages. They try to prove that the base word order for languages

was originally the SOV which has been further evolved, diflirsed ard reversed within

different language families. Here my point is that when such processes are involved within

the BWO of languages, it may seriously affect the correlation of word order with syllable

structue because syllable stucture may not necessarily chaage with it.

The examples ofthe change of BWO in litenture axe foudd. VennemaDr (1973, p. 40)

talks about the possible word ordff change in languages. According to him, this changing

18',7

process follows ar exact order. For example, an SOV language can only change to SVO.

Similarly, this SVO order either changes to a VSO paftern or becomes a Free Word Order

(FWO) language. A VSO language may also revert back to SVO. He maintains that an FWO

language could finally become an SOV again with the passage of time. None of these

researchers talk about the chaage ofsyllable structue and logically this is not possible for the

syllable stucture to change exactly along with word oder in tems ofpattem, space and time.

So, this is another big issue with this word order as being the basis of the said corelation.

Figure 5.1 shows the changing process proposed by Vememann (Gell-Mann & Ruhlen,

20ll, p. 2).

VSO --------------------*FWO

svo sov

Figure 5.1: The Possible Order ofChange iD BWO

This figure shows the circle of the changing of BWO within languages. Vennemann (1973)

does not mention any rcason for such a change but the suggestion seems to be true because

Table 5.1 shows the maximum number of languages with this rype of order. It shows that a

total number of 565 languages out of 1377 (.41%) are SOV. Similarly, Givon (1977) talks

about the diffrsion of language orders and maintains that as a result of this process, BWO of

languages changes to SOV. Discussing the same point, Hards and Campbell (1995) conclude

that most ofthe languages own SOV order which is the rcsult oftheir contact with other SOV

188

Ianguages. An ilteresting h]?othesis is given by Gell-Mann and Ruhlel (2011) who maintain

from their observations that SOV was the order of initial big language from which other

languages evolved with the passage of time. Even if the other version of the theory of BWO

(Kayne, 1994) is accepted (that other word orders evolved ftom SVO), the change of BWO is

witnessed. So, in both cases, the order is subject to change but there is no evidence in the

literatue of a concomitant change in syllable stuct[e.

The exarnple of English is also very intercsting in this regard. Fries (1940, p. 199-

208) and Lehmann (1978) report that English had the characteristics of SOV languages in

earlier periods. They suggest from their analysis of old litemture in English (e.g., Beowulf.l

that genitives used to precede nouns in 90 % of the language of that time which is a stong

SOV pattern. They maintain thal this order gradually changed with the passage of time. More

interestingly, this dircction ofthe s),ntactic change concedes to the order of charge sLrggested

by Vennemann (1973) shown in figure 5.1.

Keeping in mind the above discussion on BWO change, I just want to maifltain that

the va.lidity of such a corelation between syllable structure and word order is seriously under

questiorl. W}len it is not sule that a newiy evolved language would take the BWO of the

mother language, how can it be guaraateed that the syllable structure will automatically be

the same or even different? So, it is hard to believe tie validity of a robust implicational

corelatio[ of syllable structure wilh word order. There is oo evidence found in literature

which shows that the syllable smrcture ofa language also changes exactly with the ratio and

pattem of its word order. AJIy languages with any word otder pattem have any t]?e of

syllable stuctures.

lt is pertinent to note here that syllable structue also changes fiom mother to daughter

laaguages. This point is filrther elaborated in section 5.4.4 where exanples ofCV pattems are

given Aom pidgin and creole languages. Before taking this point irto detail analysis, I show

189

that. apart fiom changing natue ofthe BWO, there are cases in which one language family

has. interestingly, various BWOs in the daughter languages. This point is mised in the next

section.

5.4. 3. One Family Different BWOs

There axe cases in the history oflanguages which show that one family oflanguages has more

than one type of BWO. The example of Niger-Kordofanian is quite interesting in this case.

The following table shows the case of the Niger-Kordofanian macro language family which

is further divided into minor families and has various qpes of BWOS. The calculations show

the same point (Gell-Mann & Ruhlen. 2011).

Table 53: Different BWO in the Niger-Kordofanian Macro-Family

Language or Sub Family Basic Word Order

sov svo vsoNiger-Kordofanian

Kordofanian

Niger-Congo

Mande

Niger-Congo Proper

Atlantic

Kru

Dogon

Gur

Adamawa

Ubangian

South Central

Broad Bantu

Bantu

39 279 1

4 t5 1

3s 2.64 0

220013 264 0

0 t6 0

13010082200 16 0

021 0

25200 16 0

I 118 0

190

The above lable shows that a large number of languages with different BWOS are found

within a single language family. So, one cannot exactly count on a pattem which is very

variable within a single family. Same is the case with Eastem-Iranian language family.

Pashto and Persian are both cousin languages and both have their BWO as SOV but there is a

significant difference within their syllable stuctures. pashto has complex syllable structure

(Bell and Saka, 1982; Levi, 2004), while persian has a simple one. So, there is a prcblem

with this correlatioq it is tue in the case of persian but it is violated in the case of pashto

The problem lies within the basis of the correlation which has BWO as the deciding pattem.

And this BWO is something which is highly changeable across languages. Here arises the

question of the natue of phonological and lexica.l featues (struchral pattems) in a new

language. This point is taken in section 5.4.4 in detail.

5.4.4. Language Evolution atrd the Correlation

In the last thrce subsectiors, a nunber ofpoints related to the changing nature of BWO are

discussed. All of them have common gtounds that show the same phenomenon. so, it is

appropriate to logically discuss the process of new language formation i.e., pidginization or

creolization and the change of BWO. Within the process of pidginization, a new language is

evolved, and according to linguists the grammatical syslem (which includes BWO) is

supposedly taken ftom the super stlatum language.

The topic of language change and creolization has been discussed by a number of

scholars within the fields of general and historical linguistics. The stucture ofa super statum

is subject to change within a creole. But there is no consensus foutrd among the grammarians

about the nature of change which takes place within creole languages. The natue of the

mechanism of word order change in the process of creolization is a debatable issue. Thev

191

debate on the point thal whether the featues of substrate or super stratum language are morc

likely to be dominant io the structue ofthe new ianguage i.e., a creole. What is agreed by all

of them is that drastic changes take place in the process of the formation of new languages

like pidgins and creoles. Meillet (1912) and Schuchardt l(1842-1927) in Alvar 19671 report

that the nature of language change in creoles is mixed. They invalidate the genetic model of

languages which say that creoles are the daughter langlages of their super statum languages.

They say that there is no direct relation between a creole and its supe! stratum larguage. On

the other hand, there are linguists who say that $ammar of a new language (creole) is based

on the super statum and its phonology is based on the substrate language. Wardhaugh (2002,

p. 60) calls it the re-expansio[ ofsyntat iII the process ofcreolization. These points show that

there is a greater chance for languages to change their word order in the process of new

ianguage formation. The data in Table 5.2 also show that a grcater number of languages

change their word order in the process of new language formation. But even if one admits

that they do not change their BWO and maintain the characteristics of the parent language.

there is a clear cut chance to change the syllable structEe ofthe rlew language which tends to

be simple in a new language.

The process of pidghization or crcolaization always gives rise to the formation of

simple syllable structure (i.e., CV) and the breaking of consonant clusters (Romaine, 1988). It

is mentioned by a number of scholars that there is a general tendency in pidgin and creole

languages not to have consonart clusters. It can be seen in Tok Pisin, West Afiican Pidgin

and Jamaican Creole. Note the following exanples which are given by Romaine (1994, p.

588) in order to show how the clusteN are broken up.

(e5)

1. Tok Pisin /gara:r/ for English wod'$ound'

2. West African Pidgin /sakan/ for English word 'skin'

t92

3. Jamaican Ceole /taka,/ for English word 'talk'

The process of epenthesis is visible here which shows the tendency of the languages to avoid

complex consonant clusters. In creoles, consonalt clusterc are found bul in a very later stage

when the languages have grom up stonger towards the side of super stratum languages. To

show how these creole languages exhibit their tendency torvards maintaining the open

syllables, Romaine (1988) has given a word list for an English wotd wonh. Her analysis

shows that how these languages avoid the consonant clusters. The following is the list given

by her.

(:96)

Word List for English word WORM given by Romaine (1988):

l. Krio worom

2. Sranan woron

3 . Saramaccan

4. Carneroons

5. Guyana

6. Jamaican

7. Gullah

worn

worom

Buum

The avoidance of the consonant cluster of /ftm/ in the above word list shows that there is a

clear cut tendency among the newly formed languages like creoles and pidgins which do IIot

toleEte clusters and ultimately maintain no consonant cluster.

lt shows that there is no chance for a new language to maintain the same syllable smrctre of

ihe parent or super stratum language. Similarly, in the Table 5.3 above it is shown that the

BWO is not cleaxly followed. All this shows that there is no possibility of the correlation

between syllable sfuctuIe and word order in newly folm languages. The syllable stuctule of

193

a pidgin language is expecled to be simple one but no specific word order is predictable for it.

Commonly they take simple syllable stluctule with any form of BWO.

Since langxages are considered as living entities and they never complete their

process of formation, diffusion and evolution. These are in progress every time in the history

of a language. The example of classical languages like Arabic is also important which is now

rare in its classical form. Similar is the case with Latin which has given dse to many

languages like French and ltalian etc. but itseif is no morc utrder use. So, no time Iiame can

be givefl about any language as when to be flourishing and when to adopt the position of a

fi.rll fledge language. It is a continuum which is in progress and continues till a language

completely dies.

Another question which is related to the discussion of flew larguage fomation is

then: how many languages form through the process of pidginization and creolaization and

how many of them directly evolve. To answer this question, one has to have a deep

diachronic analysis of a language. This can give the reason for having complex clustem fot

being in contact with other languages of the same nature. Therc is valid point in this idea

because many words are borrowed by languages from one another. In the case of Pashto, it is

among the oldest surviving languages of South Asia and has the history of some 3000 years

(Raverty, 1859). The abundance of consonant clusters shows that it is not the rcsult of such a

contact. But if it is the case of borrowing ofwords having complex clusters, then there is no

place for such a corelation. Resultantly, it would have been the point of borrowing (of

consonant clusters) and adopting (ofword order).

The example of ianguages given by Lebmann (1973) shows tlat Mon-Khmir (SVO

with complex syllable structure) and Munda (SOV with simple syllable stuctue) are &om

the same language family. But they have adopted different syllable structures and BWOS. He

suggests on the basis ofhis anaiysis of these two languages that word order is correlated with

194

syllable stluctule. I say that this conelation does not exist in reality and cannot be suggested

on the basis of data ftom one language family. The case of Eastem-hanian family is

important here. Our subject language Pashto is an SOV language having complex syllable

stuchue, while its cousin language Persian has the same BWO and its syllable structue is

simple. Similarly, the case of English (SVO) and Pashto (SOV) can also be submitted as

evidence against this correlation. Both of them have complex syllable stuctures but different

BWOS. Natuaily, such a generalization needs larger set of data. They are compared in detail

in the next chapter in which Pashto as the 'proof of negation' against the correlation is

discussed- Another challenging point is the existence of no fixed syntactic patterns within

languages. It is taken in the next section.

5.4.5, Languages with tro Fixed Syntactic Pattertrs

Table 5.1 has shoun that there are a large number of languaees in the data of WALS which

have free word order. This numbet is 189 out of 1377 total languages. Another point given by

VennemaDn (1973) maintains that &ee word order is very natural and it is the part of the

changing order which takes place with the passage of time. So, in comectiot to the subject

conelation, this point of FWO in ltuUuages must also be answered. Ifthe points oflhe above

two sowces are valid, then there is no place for the correlation between two totally different

language structlues, those ofphonology and s).ntax.

lt is a very shong point agairct the correlation of syllable structue and word order

and the implicational universals which are based on this conelation. It says indirectly that

FWO is as much possible as any other BV/O- One can implicate that syllabie structure is not

bound in the correlation under discussion. It can also take place as freely as possible. The

case of Spanish is very important in this regard. Two different BWOs are reported for this

195

ianguage. Ordonez and Trevino (1995) and ZliizaIrela (1995) report it as VSO, while

according to Hemanz and Brucart (1987), it has SVO order. This point of difference is due to

the fleible mture of BWO in languages (like Sparfsh etc.) which have discrepancies among

its speakers between SVO and VSO wod pattems. In the last few sections, I discussed the

inabiiity of BWO as a criterion for such a conelation and the impossibility of it as a basis for

implicational universals of such types. The next section highlights the positions of BwO and

syllable structure as independent domain of linguistic investigation.

5.4,6. No Correlation befween BWO and Syll.ble Structure

The analysis of the corelation between word order and syllable structure in this chapter

suggests that logically such a correlation is not applicable within the study of the linguistic

stuctwes- From such an exarnination, I can assert that BWO and syllable stuctue, and

therefore, the ryarta.\ and phonology are both differcnt levels of lilguistic analysis. They exist

within their circle of influence creating and forming interfaces just like morphology and

phonology but they are not corIeiated. The categories of these levels can be used for the

classification of languages and larg.rage families itrdependent of their mutua.l compatibility

or corelation. For example, languages can be classified according to either thet s),ntactic

structure (such as SOV or SVO, etc.) or their phonological characteristics (such as havilg

simple or complex syllables). The important thing is that syllable structue cannot be

conelated with word order of a language family or even an individual language. The data

from Pashto clearly supports this argument and suggests that any type of syllable structue for

an SOV language is possible. And similarly, a language with any word order pattem rnay

have complex syllable structure.

196

Now before moving to prcvide any theoretical justification to this 'Proof of Negation'

against such a correlation between word order and syllable structue, I give the interim

conclusion, so far, for the present chapter.

5.4.7. InterimConclusion

Sections 5.1 to 5.4 intoduce and analyze the correlation between syllable stuctule and word

order in the light of the data from Pashto as primary souce and previous researches as

supporting data. I conclude these points in the following section.

. A number of previous studies suggest that the correlation between syllable structure

and the implicational universals based on such a phenomenon says that the syllable

saucture ofan SOV language tends to be simple (e.g., CV).

. Similaxly, the syllable stucture of languages with SVO word order tends to be

complex one (e.g., CCCVCC).

. Pashto clearly negates such a correlation. The language is SOV, but contary to the

said correlation, it has complex syllabie structure. Thus our data ftom Pashto robustly

refute such a correlation and provide enough evidence against it.

This conclusion mises a number of poilts which doubt the logical existence of such a

corelation based on a weak source iike BWO. Further, it shows that the implicational

universals based on the same corelation ate quite questionable. Though syllable stucture

is a comparatively stable entity, but the problems with BWO make it unreliable. The mdn

problems with such a correlation are the following:

r BWO is a \reak basis for this corelation and fo. the implicational universals

constucted on it. There are six logically possible pattems for BWO but the said

correiation is only concemed with two Xpes ofthem (i.e., SVO and SOV).

1.9',7

Both BWO and syllable structtue have a changing mtue. Recent literature reports a

number of changes io the BWO and syllable patterns of languages and language

families. The last sections have discussed that not or[y BWO is changeable but also

the syllable structue. Especially, pidgins and creoles prefer to brcak consonanl

clusters by default.

This change in BWO at times follows a fixed pattem but the same pattem is not

reported in case of syllable structwe.

There are language families which have various BWOs within the same family and

even continuous change is witnessed in the BwO oflanguages.

In the case of pidginization and creolization, simple syllable structure is most

expectedly formed but the BWO is not predictable in such a process of language

formation.

. There are a number of languages which arc reported to have no fixed BWO pattem.

Such languages are not covered in this conelation.

These conclusive remarks show that the logical existence of such a coneiation is quite

queslionable which is correlated on a weak basis like BWO. Syllable structure is

comparatively importatrt and stable entity but the problems with BWO make it doubtful.

Tlpological corelations are very hard to be based on the correlation of different leveis. In

other words, phonological and sy[Itactic properties are different linguistic structures. They

cannot be conelated to each ot}Ier in the sense reported by our subject corelation. They have

their separate hierarchy of constraints independent of the inlluence of each otier. It is

concluded oD the basis of the gaps pointed out by the above discussed issues and proved by

the data ftom Pashto that such a corelation is not logically possible.

198

This irttedm conclusion draws a number of questions related to the 'Proof of Negation'

against the said correlation. The main question is given as (97):

(:97)

Why is such a correlation between syllable structue and word order not possible?

(97) leads to a number ofrelated sub-questions given as (98):

(e8)

i) How can one theoretically explain the variation in syllable structure and basic word order?

ii) Why does a language choose one out of various pattems of BWO?

iii) Is it optional for a language to adopt one specific word order?

These questions are addressed in the next section which also covem the OT perspecrive on

typological studies. Further suggestions are also given for cross-iinguistic studies using OT as

the methodology for dealing with such linguistic variatioN. It sugsests a very solid approach

to such q?ological studies and has very interesting solution within this cons&aint-based

paradign.

THE OPTIN1ALITY THEORETIC ANALYSIS OT THE CORRELATION

The power of OT as a theory of language vaxiation provides theoretical explalatioo to

questions given as 97 and 98. As discussed in detail in Chapter 1, and motivation in selecting

OT as the methodology for the current study, OT provides support for the investigation of

vadation in linguistic stmctues. Before giving the Optimality Theoretic analysis of the

subject corelatio[ and tying to answer questions given above, I briefly recap the main

approach of OT as a theory of variation among languages. This apprcach flts as a

199

methodology to solve a Ilumber of important issues regarding the subject conelation. Then I

will look into the OT perspective on tvpological studies at the end.

The OT idea of grammars as an intemction among the violable conshaints suggests that

constaints are universai while the ranking of them is the only difference among languages

(Prince & Smolensla , 1993 . 2004). OT further maintains that the raDking of constraints does

change the grammar ofa specific language. For example, in Chapter 3 and 4, the hierarchy of

wiversal constaints for Pashto syllable structue ard word order was explored, respectively.

The effects of different ranking of urrivelsal constraints for syllable structlre, such as

faithirlness constaints (such as DEp-lO, MAx-lO, etc.) and markedness constaints (like

SoN-SEe, *CoMPLExoNs, *CoMPLEfoD and NoCoDA. etc.) were explored and it was

concluded that Pashto mnks high the faithirlness comtraints, while the markedness

conshaints are easily violated in the hierarchy because of their low importance. Resultantly,

Pashto not only allows complex consonant clusters but also permits the reverse sonority

clusters at both edges. The data presented in Chapter 3 show such analysis of constaints for

Pashto syllable structue ard exhibit the extent of Pashto complex syllable structure.

Similarly, the analysis of Pashto word order in ChaFer 4 suggesrs that Pashto is rigidly head

final language and exemplifies a strict SOV tlpe. I based this classification on the basis of the

permutation of important s]'ntactic constrailts for word order like Ho-Rr, SO, SUBJ-Lr,

STAY, HD-Lr etc. in the hierarchy of Pashto. All this shows that language univeNals are heid

by all languages and the permutations of these constaints cover the complete range of

permitted vadations in the grammars of languages.

Keeping in mind the above discussed approach of OT, I take the pending questions

given as (96) and (97) in the last section. Focusing on these questions, an OT analysis ofthe

conelation betwee[ syllable stucture and word order which is provided. I take the sub-

questions fiIst.

200

i). How can one theoreticaliy explain the variation in syllable structure and basic word order?

OT, beiag tlpological methodology on language variation, provides an answer to ths question

above. The possible answer is lhat the yariation in any linguistic sttucture is due to the

diJferences in the constaint hierulcl1y of languages ;for that specirtc sfiltcture. For example,

six logically possible word order pattems are available in languages. Section 4.2 shows these

variations in detail. Now it is up to the constraint hierarchy of the syotactic stucture of a

language to adopt one specific order out of them. Costa (2001) suggests that the observed

variation in BWO is due to the effects of constraints which are not active nomally. This

variation in the constraint hierarchy is the result of various fiDctional specifications in the

input of a langrrage. The seiection arnong the constraints available in a language hienrchy is

previously suggested as'The Emergence of the Unmarked'36 by Mccarthy and Pdnce (1994)

and McCarthy (2008). For example, the syllable stluctule of Pashto is complex (It allows

morc than I consonant at both edges), while the case of Japanese is different which does not

allow consonant clusters and syllables found in it are normally simple ones (lt does not allow

any consonart clusters). The lrnpofiant point to be noted is that both the laoguages are SOV

but their syllable strucues are different.

In case of syntactic structwe, Pashto is SOV. This exemplihcation is cleat from the

analysis in Chapter 4. On the other hand, English is an SVO language. Note the word order

for the following sentence which is given in bodr languages separately.

(:99)

a). ba:tja jao ki:tra:b li:ki (Pashto)

" 'the rmergence of th€ Unmarked' (TETU.) is a key point in OT. According to it, ..preferen€e for someuniversally unnarked sfucrure, such as syllables with onsets. call emerge llnder th€ right circumstances even ifthe language as a whole pemits the coresponding marked sfucrure" (Mccarthy,2008, p. 24-25).

201

Bacha a book

Bacha urites a book

write-do (ILANS) IMPEM 3SG

b). He wntes a book

o

(English)

He writes a book

It is clear from the examples a and b in (98) that English is an SVO and Pashto ar SOV

language. OT justifies this difference of syntactic order as the pemutations of universal

constraints. Since Pashto is a head-final language, it keeps the head ofthe IP at the end ofthe

sentence while English is head initial and, therefore, V comes beforc O. So, one can

theoretically explain that this is the variation in the hierarchy of the constaints for stuctues

Iike syllable or word order. OT offers theoretic explanation to this variation as the ararging

and re-ananging of the universal constaints in the hierarchy of different grarnmars. The

above exampies provide solid reasoning fo. the pemutation of the relevant constiai[ts in the

example languages. Now take our remaining two questions which are inter-related.

ii). Why does a specific language choose one out ofvadous pattems of BWO? and,

iii). Is it optional for a language to adopt one specific word order?

Previous studies on OT synta\ (e.g.. Grimshaw & Samek-Lodovici (1998), Samek-Lodovici

(1996), Choi (1996), Costa (1997c, 1998, 2001) etc.) suggest that the variation in BWO is

based on various functional specifications of a language and that it is rlot optional or

randomly taken. A language chooses one particular word order stuctue out of various

available pattems. This formalism is already discussed as the permutation of the constraint

hierarchy in the discussion on the first question. It has been discussed that this selection is not

optiooal to a language; rather it is based on the fuIrctional specifications of a language. In

202

section 4.4.1, It is discussed rmder the heading of'word order in OT'. It was suggested that

OT has its own idea about BWO pattem. The permutation of CON is t]Ie same point as

suggesred by li-nguisrs lor OT phonologl.

As discussed above, the selection ofone specific word order pattern is not optional for

a language. Rather it is the result of the functional specifications of different 8?es within a

language. For the same reason, the hierarchy of constraints is different in various languages.

The hierarchy of various syntactic cotrstaints in Pashto as discussed in Chapter 4 determines

the SOV order of the language. So, it can be concluded that the selection of a specihc word

order is not optional to a language. Moreover, the selection of one specific pattem as the

BWO for a language, one may have to refei to the philosophical orientation behind such a

selection by the speakers of a language. Such a point would ultimately lead to include the

long existing debate in linguistics, namely the Linguistic Relativitv Hlpothesis suggested by

Sapir and Wltorf (in Columas, 1999) early in the lasi century. The idea that world view is

conditioned b], the grammar of a language was lust initiated by German linguist Wilhelm

Von Humboldt and was further refined by American linguists Sapir and his student Whorf (in

Columas, 1999). They concluded from their research that languages are the co[ceptual filters

for thei speakers (Columas, 1999). Trudgill (1987) also contributed to the soft velsion ofthe

h)?othesis that languages are inlluenced by the sociai and physical environment of tie

society. Whatever may be the reason for language variatiots, OT quite strongly explains the

differences in the linguistic structures. OT mechanism says that it is the hierarchy of

constaints selected by the grammar of a language which is based on the functional

inclination of that specific language.

Ifuving discussed the sub-questions, the main question is addressed herc. It is given

below.

(97) Why is such a correlation between syllable structure and word order not possible?

OT suggests that all the available options for a linguistic structure axe covered within the

pemutations of CON (Mccarthy, 2008). CON is universal, while the constxaint hierarchy is

language specific. Now, if a deeper analysis of the constaints discovered for syllable

stucture and word order pattertr is given, one cal easily judge that syllable structure and

word order are both sepamte domains of constaint hierarchies. For syllable stucture, the

constraints like DEP-IO, MAxlO, NoCoDA and *CLUSTER etc. have been given. Similarly,

the constaints of syntactic patteming (BWO) of a language (e.g., HD-RT, HD-LT SO and

STAY etc.) are also defined in Chapter 4.

This listing ofdre syllabic and word arrangemetrt shows that both levels would choose

their speicific hie.archicy for constraints within a laaguage. Therefore, our OT analysis does

not support such a corelation. The foilowing example clarihes the issue.

Language A has a specific constraint (say constraint z) at the top of the hierarchy of

its syntactic structue and another (constraint y) topmost on the hieratchy of syllable

structure. This may not necessadly be the case with language B because it is not bormd to

take the same hierarchies for both the phonological and slntactic structues. When it is said

that SOV pattem is corelated with simple syllable stuctule-it is implied that the hieraxchical

structure of sytrtactic coIlstrains detemines the phonological constrairts for a language which

is not tue. In other words, I submit that the rartkillg of one structure (say syllable stuctue)

may not be correlated with another (word order). And that this absence of correlation is

predicted by the theory.

The justification agaiDst such a corelation is given by the idea that syllable structure

(i.e., phonology) and word order (i.e., slntax) are both differcnt domains of linguistic

investigation. The possible hierarchical structure of one domain may not emerge in anothet.

In this scenario, it is a strong point that one stuctural domain is not corelated with another

unrelated one. And that the effects of different re-mnking of a constraint may rlot lecessadly

204

influeace the rankhg of aflother structlue. OT countenances this qpological approach and it

conflrms most strongly the idea of firnctional inclination of a language efibited in the

hierarchy of it. The same idea is exhibited in our data ftom Pashto The main problem lies

within the approach towards the q?ological studies. The previous studies which advocated

such a correiation between syllable stuctule and word order were based otr the holistic

approach of language typology.

Our analysis in the cuEent chapter shows that the Gabeleltzian ideal-that is to

constuct the whole structue of a language on the basis of a silgle linguistic property- is

quite impossible to attain. There are a lot of prcblems related to such atr approach arrd it is

very difficult to classifu the whole language on tie basis of such a single tendency. Secondly,

there are certain domains of grammar and these gmmmatical properties are the objects and

may serve as the taxgets of classification and chamcterization of languages but they cannot

serve as signals to the hidden bulk of language as the result of correlations between two

un-related linguistic stuctures. S).ntactic process may not necessarily be the connection of

phonological process as a joint. The validity of such a corelation may not be given any

impofiance in the typological study oflanguages. OT, thus, exhibits itself as the most suitable

contemporary method for q?ological investigation in linguistics. OT paradigm has changed

the approach of q?ological studies and has shown that the most stongly acceptable

justification for the vadation in grammars is the different ranking of the related constraints.

Having pointed out a number ofproblems in the subject correlation, it is now required

to resolve such issues and shortcomings which have been found irt the crment chapter ard

concluded in the above points. Linguistic tmology is of course one of the very important

studies in linguistics. As discussed in Chapter 1, there are a mrmber ofbenefits of typological

studies and cross-linguistic compadsons. OT provides such an ideal formalism for

t ?ological investigation *hich covers the basic objectives of cross-linguistic studies. There

205

are two goals behind such an approach; to ascertain the whole nnge of vaiations for one

specific structure, and, to understand tlte characteristics of the members of each typological

group. These objectives are easily achievable under the paradigm of OT. OT maifltains that

all constraints are the part of universal grammar and, therefore. available in the grammar and

are common to all laryuages. Further, every larguage has its own q?ical ranking for these

constraints. Therc is a stong reason to consider that this suggestion is true because the same

is the case with our subject corelation.

The above discussion provides enough evidence for such a stand in the above lines. It

is also shown ftom the data that the constraint of SSP which is not obeyed in Pashto is

followed in other languages. This shows that the very coNtraint is not active in the case of

Pashto and is a lalguage specific constraint. oT aiso gives a diachronic explanation to the

change in the constraint hierarchy of language for a specific iinguistic stuctue. Section 5.4

shows various aspects of change in the BWO of languages that can be explained in the

mechanism of OT. lt says that the re-arlanging of the constraint sequence is the main factor

ofbringing change in the hierarchy ofa linguistic sfuctule.

The aoalysis of the (absence o0 correlation in this chapter has a support fiom the

notion of laquage type given by OT mechanism. This leads to the view that language R?es

are abstact objects than how they were assumed to be in the past. This revolutionizing ofthe

rypological studies may ultimately lead to a point where no place for Greenbergian

trichotomy of VSO/SVO/SOV is found. Language classification within OT paradigm is

considered as a family of variant subtlpes. These subtypes obey certain linguistic regularities

and each of them shares at least one of the typological indicators with every other sub type.

These va.riations may be witnessed firoughout their gmmmars in very radical ways. If one is

to define the firll picture of a possible human language, one must survey the complete range

of variation pattems for a specific language sfucture across lalguages. Then one can also

206

observe the principled limitations on every variation. Such regularities and their explanations

of attested and non-attested variants can give the full picture of possible human language.

Needless to say, OT as constraint-based methodology justifies the change in gmmmars of

languages as the pemutations in the mechanism of constraint. OT suggests comparative

typology based on the variation in the mnking of constraints.

5.6. CONCLUSION

The examination of the puported corelation between syllable structure and word order in

this chapter shows that this corelatio[ does not exist. The Rpological features of Pashto are

very interesting which make it distinct from other languages ofthe region. Roberts (2000, p.

8) calls Pashto 'qpologicauy unusual' because of its second place clitics. It does provide

enough evidence against the subject correlation. I disagree with previous works of Lehmann

(1973, 1978)i Donegan and Stampe (1983,2004); Donegan (1993)i cil (1986), Plank (1998)

that the syllable structue ofan SOV language tends to be simple one. ln shon, it is clear ftom

the foregoing discussion that syllable and word orders are separate domains of investigation

and thel are not correlated.

The chapter also attempted to formalize OT methodology as arl ideal framework for

cross-linguistic studies. OT as a theory of language variation and constaint interaction

exhibits that the minimum differences between languages ate due to the minimum re-ranking

of the relevant constaints. The power of the constaint-based network is applied i.rrther in

the next chapter in comparing Pashto (SOV language) with English (SVO), both of which

have complex syllable structures. This comparison will show that how important is the OT

mechanism for the explanation of such a typological relationship.

207

Chapter 6

TIIE COMPARISON BETWEEN PASHTO AND ENGLISH

6.I. O\/ERI'IEW AND INTRODUCTION

The Pashto data in Chapter 3 and 4 provide robust evidence against the so_called corelation

between syllable structure and word order. Similarly, the arElysis of the same conelation in

the light of the data from various language families in the preceding chapter supports our

conclusio[ that syllable sauctue ofan SOV language may not necessarily be the simple one.

Thus it suggests explicitly that simple syllable structure is not correiated with SOV word

order. As a theoretica.l justification for this poitt provided by OT, it is suggested at the end of

the last chapter that these two separate linguistic domains have tleir own hierarchy for active

domain-specific constraints which determine the rclevant structue within a specific

language. The curEnt chapter contilues the same discussion that linguistic stuctues arc

determined by the permutation of active constmints for a particular structule by comparing

Pashto ard English. Inespective of their distinct word orders (SOV and SVO respectively),

these languages have similar syllable structures (complex syllables). Accordingly, they

provide very interesting compaxison in support of our suggestions regarding qpological

studies.

The present chapter compares the characteristics of pashto and English focusing on

the features that are relevant to tlle curcnt study. The phonological and syntactic pattems of

both langlages are descdbed co[centrating on the correlation berween syllable structure and

word order. This chapter also examines the useflrlness ofOT as the constaint-based network

to be used for q?ological studies in the tight of the evidence fiom subject languages. In

208

support of OT as an ideal fiamework for cross-linguistic studies, analysis of the relevant

sfuctues of the languages is presented. Syllable stmcture, syllabic templates and the

stlategies of syllabification in subject languages are presented. This is followed by the

description of the basic word order of Pashto and English. The chapter also summarises the

comparison of the relevant features of the two laflguages3?. Finally, it supports and suggests

recommendations for q?ological study under OT paradigm.

6.2. TTIE COMPARISON OT SYI,LABLE STRUCTURES

This section describes the characteristics ofPashto and English phonology which axe relevant

to the curcnt study. This section is mair y concemed with the description of syllable

structwe in tems of consonant clusters as complete phonological examination is not the

scope ofthe crment study. So, this comparison is to investigate the consonant clusters ard it

does not cover the vowel systems ofthese languages.

The comparison here presents the similarities in the syllable stucture ofthe languages

under study. Since data fmm Pashto has seriously challenged the validity of the subject

correlation in the previous parts of the study" here, I am to test my hlpothesis by comparing

these two languages. The main objective of this comparison is to veri& the point that the

correlation between syllable structue and word order does not exist, particularly in case of

Pashto. I wouid also challenge the nature of the implicational universals which are based on

the corelation which claims that the syllable stucture ofan SOV larguage tends to be simple

(open, ending with vowel, (C)V).

The tr[AxST of Pashto (CCCVCC) in Chapter 3 exhibits the characteristic of Pashto

and shows a large number ofbipartite consonant clusters at all positions ofwords. So, among

r? It should bome in mind that the comparison in this chaprer is not exiaustive in terms ofphonological andsy actic chamcteristics. It is only the comparison of s!,llabic and word order panems of Pashto and Englishwhich are direcily related to the study.

209

otheN, one step of the objectives is to compare Pashto syllable saufiule with that of English

which is considered highly corsistent SVO language (LehmanL 1978, among others) The

results of this comparative investigation are not only reievant to the cufent study but are also

useful for syllable theory, q'pological linguistics and appiied linguistics.

Section 3.3 defines syllable as the possible smallest unit ofspeech (Ladefoged, 2001)'

According to Blevins (1995), it is a phonological unit which organizes segmental melodies in

terms of sonority. As a structua.l propertv, a syllable has at least the nucleus (which is a

vowel in most languages) while, consonants are optional. More than one conson'mt at one

edge of the syllable is called consonant cluster. According to Jones (1976), a consonant

cluster is the sequence of consonants that appear in a syllable without a vowel between them

and which can be studied in terms of graphemes, phones and phonemes. So' by consonant

cluster, the blend of consonants with no intervening vowels in between them is meant and

which occur h a single syllable. Based on the natue of the consonant(s), section 2.3 gives

thee possible structwes for syllable categorization (i.e., simple, modemte atrd

complex).Consonant clusters or sequences which are found in a single syllable are called

intra-syllabic clusers, while the consonant clusters which belong to two different syllables in

a word are called inter-syllabic. The current study is concemed with intra-syllabic consonant

clusters which are found at word-initial (onset) and word-frnal (coda) positions. Word-medial

clusteN are not taken into account as they axe mostly the repetition of the same combinations

found in these two positions. First, I take the case ofPashto.

6.2.1. Pashto Syllabic Structure

Pashto syllables range ftom a single vowel to (v, e.g., ao 'yes') to the maximum of three

consonants in the onset and tlvo in the coda positions (CCCVCC, e.9., Llxwqn^dl 'chew')

210

There is the possibility of a total of twelve syllabic pattems in this language. Section 3.3

shows all ofthem with detailed discussion and examples. Since I have discussed in detail the

syllable structure and consoffrnt clusteis there in Chapter 3, therefore, I will only recap the

important points here.

Pashto syllable contains at least one vowel as peak in the nucleus which may be preceded

or followed by consonant sounds. In Pashto, the nucleus is always filled by a vowel because the

language does not have any svllabic consonant_ The nucleic vowel may be preceded by three and

followed by two consonants to the ma-ximum. The maximum syllabic template MAXST is as

figure 6.1 below:

C

Id

Ic

ItI

lC

Ix

c

IJ

lI I

a

Figure 6.1;

[fxtraa{ 'chewiag'

The Structure ofI,L{{ST itr Pashto

Figure 6.1 shows the maximum syllabic template in Pashto. It is clear fiom the MAXST that the

possibiliry ofconsonant cluster at onset level is up to three (labeled as pre-initial, initial and post-

initial, respectively,) while this goes up to two at coda (pre-final and final). This division of

syllable is based on the idea given by Roach (2002). Thus, a vadetv of possible syllable

stuctues is available in Pashto and most of the consonant sounds are allowed at oDset

position. The crucial point about Pashto syllabification and as discussed below, the main

2tt

characteristic that distinguishes it ftom English is the abundance ofreverse sonority clusters. The

sono tv sequence principle (SSP) is generally satisfied in Pashto bur there are also some

combinations in which this rule is violated. This point is discussed and theoretically justified in

Chapter 3. Similarly, the rule ofMOP (Maximum Onset P nciple) is also satisfied in pashto.

Consonant clusterc are possible at all three positions (word initial, medial and final

positions) but maximum consonant combinations as clusters are possible at word initial

position. There is no restriction for onset consonants and a large number of consonants are

possible at coda level also. A number of 108 combinations of coNonant clusters are possible

in the base word forms in Pashto38. The next section explores the consonant clustem in

Pashto.

6.2,2. Consonant Clusters in Pashto

Chapter 3 gives a ciear cut pictue of Pashto consonant clusteN. The first part of the chapter

is dedicated to the analysis of the permissible strings in Pashto, the second halfis allocated to

the OT analysis of syllabic structure of the language. The maximal size of onset is CCC.

Ma\imum combinations are possible at the initial position of Pashlo words (syllables), while

othem are also possible at word-mediai and fural positions. Here I briefly summarize the main

characteristics and the statistics of the consooant clusters in Pashto. The short break up of

these clusters is given below.

6.2.2.1. Two-consonant Clusters (CC)

Pashto syllables arc quite rich itr tenDs of two-consonant cluste$. Maximum combinations

are possible at onset level of syllables. As stated earlier, the language has abundance in terms

33 For detail ofthese clusiers see ChaFer i Sections 3.5 and 3.6.

2.12

of the bipartite consonant cluste$. lt is remarkable for the initial permissible consoMnt

combinations. Pashto not only allows a large number of two-consonant cluste6 but it also

permits clusters of reve6e sonority. The positions, combinations and number ofthese clustels

are given as (100) below.

(100):

Position: word-initial

Combid.tiotrs: pr, p1, pl. br' b1, bl,1r, E 1t, {r, dr, kr' tq, kl' gr' Ct' pj' bj'

d*, E, C*,I*, L*, qj, sr,21ft.fu!, xr, x1, 1'r,11' yl, sk, sp, sL.Jk, -[p'

xk, xp, zg, zb, zd, sj, sw, zj, zw, xj, xw, yn, zX, Jx, sx,zm, fm, -fn, ng,

ny, ml, mr, mt mj, trw, nj, nm, ry, Im, lw, wr' w1,wl, d3r, d3w, tsw,

d3y, tsk.

'77Total:

Apaxt jlom word-initial position, a number of two-consonant clustels are possible at tlle

word-final (coda) position. Such clusters are 33 in number and their detail is given below'

( 101):

Position: word-lLnal

Combinations: xL -i! -l-q, Jk, sk. s1, n{, n(, mp, nk, rg, rk, r-d, 4, rp, 1{, bs, ks, bz, qf,

Total:

wz, mz, nz, ns, nJ, rs, rz, rk, 1x, xs, rm, m, nd3.

33

Among these two q?es of consonant cluste6, there are several combinations which violate

the sonority sequence. I have highlighted them in section 3.8.3. Such 22 combinations of

reverce sonority are wimessed among all the two-consonant cluste6. The behaviour of

reveNe sonority has also been examined by a [Lrnber of studies in the past (e.g., Levi, 2004;

Bell &Saka, 1982; among others). This point is taken as very interesting of Pashto

phoirology. The next sectior coverc tipartite consonant clusters in Pashlo.

213

6.2.2.2. Three-consonantClusters(CCC)

Apart from the two-consonant clusters, Pashto syllables have the possibility of thee

consonant clusterc as well. These three-consonant clusters are found at onset level only which

also include the revene sonority combinations. They are shown as (102). (For detail, see

Appendix C)

( 102):

Position:

Combinations:

word-initial

rwl. xw1 xwf. sx*.-[xw. skw. xku. ndr.

Totd: 8

The above break down of Pashto clusters exhibits that a number of consonant clusterc arc

possible in an SOV language like Pashto as well. Pashto is especially rich in the case of initial

consonant clusters. I calculated a total of 77+33+16= 126 bi-consonant clusteN in all three

positions. It was also pointed out in Chapter 3 that there arc some of the initial consonant

combinations which are repeated in final position of the word. There kecalculated those

combinations and coicluded that the bi-consonant combinations ale 108 in Pashto. AAer

excluding the repeated cluste6, Pashto stiil enjoys a richness of consonant clusteN. This

clearly shows that the correlation between syllable sfucture and word order is not absolute.

The Iarge number of consonant clustels at both edges of Pashto negates this correlation

rcbustly. Let me now take the case ofEnglish in the next section

6.2.3. English Sylhbic Structure

The English phonologicai inventory has a mode@te numbel of voweland consonant

phonemes. Twenty four are consonants, while twenty vowels are identified as phonemes. In

214

English, there are some corconant sounds which may function as nucleus in a syllable. These

sounds arc called syllabic consonarts when they do so (e.g., [1, r, n. m]). For exarnples, in

words like 'botde' (where ,4,/ is syllabic) or 'student' (where schwa is optional), the last

syllables have no vowel but the function is done by consonants. From syllabification point of

view, most of the previous studies assume that English does satisry the MOP and SSP

(Giegerich, 1992; Duanmu, 2009 among others).Since much has been done on the field of

syllable in English, the data presented here is based on other well-known studies, such as

Jones (1976), Giegerich (1992), Roach (2002), Duanmu (2009).

A minimal syllable in English is also a vowel (e.g., I [ai]). Like Pashto, any English

vowel can begin a syllable (word) which may be preceded by one, two or in some words by

tfuee coruonants. Similarly, a word can end with a vowel or il may be followed by one, two,

thee or in very few words by four consonants. English syllables have a vaxiety of possible

range of stuctues. From a single vowel (as in word a or I 'V') to open and closed by several

coNonants (as in spdnts 'CCCVCCC') syllabic pattems are available. The ma.\irnal syllabic

template (tr4AxST) of English is CCCVCCCC. The detail of consonant clusters is given in the

following section.

6.2.4. Consonatrt Clusters in English

In English, just like Pashto, conson mt clusteN axe possible at all three positioN (initial,

mediai and hnal) of a word. So, both onset a.rtd coda are possible in English The possibility

of consonants in onset (word-initial consonant cluster) is up to three (Roach,2002, p. 7l)

while a vowel can also begin a syllable. ln majority of the cases, tie first consonantal sound

is /s/, while the second is an approximant /1, w. r. j/ (Duanmu, 2009, p. 1 60). In coda position,

this possibitity goes up to 4 consonants. Note the following examples:

215

(103)

CC word initial: shrine, snake, sphere etc-

CCC word initial: spring, strong, screw etc.

CC word final: deptl, books, graphs etc.

CCCword final: films, holds, links etc.

CCCC word final: prompts, sidhs, texts etc.

Apart ftom initial and frnal clusters, English also has some word-medial consonant clusters as

well. Both intra-syllabic and inter-syllabic clusters arc possible at word-medial position

Word-medial intra-syllabic clusterc are found in word like 'extra' [eksEa] and inter-syllabic

clusters in words like 'description' tdiskripin]. Since the current study, as mentioned before,

is concemed with intra-syilabic word-initial and final consonant cluste6, I tr'ill not mention

inter-syllabic clusters here. The brcakup ofthe possible consonant ciusters is given below.

6.2.4.1. Tso-coDsodaot Clusters (CC)

( 1 04) shows the possible combinations of two-consonant clusters in English.

( 104):

Position: word-initial

Coolbinations: pr, pi, pj, pw, pl ps, p.[, br, bl. bj, tr, tw, tj, dr, dj, dq k, kl, kw, kj,

km, kn, kv, gr, gl, gw, nj, mj, mw, fl, fr, f, vj, rt,6r,0w,0j, s, sp, sk,

sl, sw, sn, sm, sf, sj, sr, sv, zl, -ft, Jm, -fn, "[p, Jw, hj.

Total: 55

Bipartite corsonant combinations possible at word final position are also 55. They are given

below.

216

(105)

Positiotr: word-fiml

Combinations: p0, pt, ps, bd, bz, t0, ts, dz, k0, k, ks, gd gz, mp, mf, mt, md, mz, n0,

nt, nd, ns, nz, nf, n-[, p0, 4t, 4d, 52, gk, 5g, iB, ft, fs, vd, vz, 0s. dd, 62.

sp, st, sk, zd,Jt,Id,lp, tf, ie, lt, Id,ls, Iz, tk, Jt, Jd.

Total: 55

As mentioned earlier, English also allows three and four-consonant clusters. Below is the

case of three-consonant clustem.

6.2.4.2, Three{onsonantClusters(CCC)

The possibility ofthee-corsonant clusten in word-initial position is quite limired. Nine qpes

ofsuch combinations are available in English. All ofthem start with /s/ given as under:

(106)

Position: word-initial

Combinations: skw, skj, sk, skl, stj, str, spj, spr, spl.

Total: 9

At word-final positiorL tripa.tite coDsonant clusters are many. They can go up to 40 and their

detail is given below.

(107)

Positiotr: word-final

Combinations: pgs, pts, pst, tos, tst. k0s, kts, kst, mps, mft- Infs, mts, mst, nts, rdz, nlft,

njd, !ts, !st, fos, fol, fts, srs, lrnd, lmz, lpt, lps, lbd, lbz, Ift, lvd, los,

lnd, lnz, ldz, Ut, ljd, ljt, lks, lkt.

Total: 40

2t7

As discussed, there are some four consonant clusters in English which are given below.

6.2.4.3. Four-consotrantClusters(CCCC)

English also has some four-consonant clusters which occur at word_final (coda) position. At

word final position (coda), the syllable can end with maximum four consonants (Roach,

2002- p.73). Slrch clusters are not aliowed at word-initial position. The number of such

cluster combinations is seven. Detail is beiow:

(108)

Positiotr:

Combitratiors:

Total:

word-fural

ks0s, ksts, mpts, ntst, 1f0s, ltst, lkts.

7

The above survey olr English consonant clusters shows that English is quite ch in the case of

both the bipartite and tripartite consonant clusters. Additionally, combinations in (108) show

that English tends to obey SSP as all of the hnal consonants are voiceless. As far as the

categorization ofthe syllables for both the latguages is concemed, it can be claimed at this

point that Pashto ald English both have complex syllabie stuctures. The nerl s€ction

presents a bdefOT analysis of them.

6.3. AN OT ANAIYSIS OF PASHTO AND ENGLISH SI'I,LABLE STRUCTURES

At every relevant point throughout this thesis, I have been highlighting the power ofOT as an

ideal framework for qpological srudies. As introduced in Chapter 1 and subsequetrtly applied

in Chapter 3, OT exhibited a theoretically justified analysis for syllable structue. Section 3.7

provides a detailed arralysis of Pashto syllable structure. The OT approach towards syllable

218

st uctue is given there. Here I give aa examination for the comparison of the relevart

features. OT assumes that there are a number of universally prefered syllabic pattems

available for languages. Such universal patterns are reflected by specific constraints which

may be violated variously among languages. I first mention the important constmints below.

6. 3.1. Relevant Syllabic Cotrstr.ints

The constraints shown as (109) and (l l0) are relevant for the on-going comparison of the

Pashto and English consonant cluste6. These constaints are based on ItO (19g9), prince arld

Smolenslf ( lq93) and Kager ( lgqq).

(109) MarkednessConstraints

a. ONSET Syllables must have an onset.

b. NoCooa Syllables are open.

c. *CornpLExoNS Onsets are simple.

d. *CorurLexcoD Codas are simple.

(l l0) Faithfultress Cotrstraitrts

e. DEPIO Output segments must have input corespondents.

'No epenthesis'

f. MA-x-lO Input segments must have output conespondents.

'No deletion'

Based otr the above two q?es of conshaints, the analysis of Pashto and English syllable

structure is given below.

219

6. 3.2. Analysis

Starting ftom constraint (109-a), (ONSET), I showed that both Pashto and English have onset

in their syllables. Both languages have CV and CVC types of syllable structures So, such

templates satisry this powerful constraint. But on the other hand, there are syllables like V or

VC and VCC etc., which do not satisfy this constaint. See the lollowing examples.

Tabl€:6.1: The Case of ONSEr in Pashto and English

Pashto Erylish

ar:

lxal CV 'okey'

[ra:.zal CV.CV 'come'

[seu] CV 'so'

fuleil CCV 'play'

* +iEN;a.2i

[am] VC 'mango'

[a.ba.si:n] V.CV.CVC'the Indusfuver'

[rz] VC 'is'

[^n.lark] VC.CVC'unlike'

Table 6.1 shows that the constraitrt is not on top of the hierarchy of the constraints in both

Pashto ard English. Both t-vpes of syllables are possibie which may or may not violate the

constaint. Ne$. I take the status ofNoCoDA constmint in the languages.

220

Table: 6.2: The Case ofNoCoDA in Pashto and English

English

&a:l CV 'you'

[pla] CCV 'stick'

lwil CV 'we'

[fau] CV 'show'

.E; m:nl CvC

i HE . . ..^^a,9d

'green'

'contrary'

lnekst] CVCCC 'next'

Lwerstl CVCC 'waist'

Consonants at coda level arc considered to be marked universally. lntervocalic consonants

(CVCV) in languages are preferred to be syllabified in onset positioo. Such a process is

called MOP (Ma,ximum Onset P nciple). Similarly, Pashto and English both prefer onset to

codabut they also allow syllable pattems which end with coda consonalts. Table 6.2 exhibits

the same trcflds ofthe languages. lt is clear fiom these examples that this constaint is ranked

low and has rto impact in the hierarchy of both languages. Next is the tum of constraint

* colpr-ExoNs.

T.ble: 6.3: The Case of *CoturloxoNsin Pashto and English

Pashto English

t^ 'i --Q

lna:rl CVC 'hungry'

[ra:z] CVC 'secret'

[s^m] CVC 'some'

[em] CVC 'shame'

22t

i r'rth -9. ;

ftri:xl CCVC 'bitter'

[sxer] CCVC'father-inlaw'

ltri:l CCV 'tree'

[strert] CCCVC'straight'

It is clear from the above table that Pashto and Engiish both do not rank constaint

*CorueLsxots high. lt means that this ma.rkedfless constaint is dominated by faithfirlness

constraints because these languages not only allow two-consonant cluste$ but also the tkee-

consonant clusteN in the onset (even four in case of English coda). The above discussion of

the consonant combinations in section 6.2 has more examples as witness against this

constraint. Same is the case .1 dth the next constaint which is +CoNclsxcoD.

Table: 6.4: The Case of *COi[PLExcoDin Pashto and English

Pashto English

nh E .e.

a

[sa:n] CVC 'whet'

[ba:y] CVC 'garden'

[fon] CVC 'phone'

[ferd] CVC 'shade'

* +'F[beqll CVCC 'beam'

[erz] CVCC 'form'

[rest] CVCC 'rest'

[ond] VCC 'and'

As discussed earlier, codas are not allowed and complex codas in syllables too have

universally marked positions among languages. But like Pashto, English codas are also

complex. Therefore, I can say that the constraint *CoMpLExcoD is also dominated by other

laithfulness consnaints in borh languages.

222

It is sho&'n in the above examples that the constaints discussed so far are not the

dominant ones as their violations are possible in English and pashto equally. It is also clear

ftom the discussion that the faithfulness constaints are more important than the maxkedness

constraints. In other words, DEP-IO and Mn-x-IO arc dominant over ONSET, NoCoDA

xCot"cLExoNsand *CouplexcoD. Now I take these faithfirlness constraints.

I have already concluded from my analysis in the last chapter that co[espondence

constaints DEPIO and N4AXJO are dominating over the markedness constraints in pashto.

Here it is clear no\l that in English, same is the case. First, I take the example of pashto

though tableau 111.

(1r1) [d3wend] 'life'

Tableau (111) shows that DEP-IO and N4dx-lo (faithtrrlness constaints)

dominatexCowr-exoNs and *ColrplrxcoD (markedness constraints). Caodidate (a) has no

cluster at onset position but it is not allowed as it does Ilot satisfy the top ralking constraint

Der-IO. Similarly, cardidate (c) fatally violates MA-xlO as it deletes one segrnent from the

input. So, candidate (b) is the winning candidate. Although it violates both *Col,rpLexoNs and

223

DEP-lO l\(dx-lO *CoI''tpux"^- +colpLrxcoD

a.d3ewen{

b. cd3wend

c. d3wen

*Cowr,ExcoD but it is still the optimal one as it satisfies the high-ranking DErJO and Mlr-

IO. Now I take the example ofEnglish which is given as tableau (112).

(112) [prompt]

Tableau (112) shows that, similar to Pashto, English syllabic coratraint hiemrchy dominates

faithlulness conshaints DEpJO, l4q-r-lO over *ColpLsxoNs and *Cor..,rpI.sxcoD. Candidate

(a) has no consonant clusigr at the onset as /e/ is added in order to saris4, *Col'IPr-exoNs. But

it is not the optimal one as it violates more powerful constaint ofDEp-lO. Candidate (b) has

neither onset nor coda cluster because segments are deleted and constraint Mdxlo is

violated. Candidate (c), on the other hand, has onset as well as coda clusters bul it is still the

optimal one as it ft fills the top ranking faithfulness constraints. The optimal output (c)

violates the lowest ranling markedness constraints which are equally lowest ralking

constaints relative to the syllable structure of fie language. The violation of these two

constaints is the least expensive in the language. Candidates (a) and (b) violate the

faithfiilness constraints Me-rlO and DeplO which are rarked on top and, therefore, they are

ruled out.

It is clear ftom the above points that faithfirlness constraints MA-\-IO and DeplO are

dominant over the others. Since I am not further concemed with the mutual lanking of MAx-

IO and DEplo or *Cor"clexoNs and*ColttlrxcoD, therefore, I delimit my analysis to the

224

DEP-IO I MAX-IO *Cot'tplrx""' + coltpLpxcoD

a. perompt

b. rom

c.e prcmpt

points explored so far. Finally, I can now consider the hierarchy of the constaints for their

syllable stluctule in Pashto and English. It is given as (113).

(113)

M,{x-lo, DEplo)) * ColeLtxott, *ColtpLtx"o'.

"Both complex onsets and codas axe allowed".

6.3.3. Summary

The OT analysis in the last section provides enough evidence in favour ofour hlPothesis that

both Pashto and English have complex syllable sfuctues. Such sequences are fufiher

justified theoretically as they are allowed by the constraint hierarchy of their relevant

constaints. Though it was, as pointed out in the beginning, a brief anaiysis of the consonant

cluste$ of the languages exhibits the point of similadty between these two langlrages. This

does not mean that the ianguages are identical in every aspect of consonaflt clusters. There

are a number of differences as well. For exarnples, English allows foul-consonant clusters

which Pashto does not. Similarly, English permits three-consonant clusterc at both edges

which is not permissible in Pashto. on the other hand, Pashto does ailow a large number of

reverse sonodty clusters which axe not allowed by English. Since the focus of the current

study is the conso[ant sequences, other points are laid open for futule studies. The next

sectiotr takes the comparison ofthe word ordet ofthe languages.

6.4, SYNTACTIC CTIARACTERISTICS OF PASHTO AND ENGLISH

I have discussed above the syllable structures of both languages. The OT analysis further

suggests that this q?e of formation is the result of the pemutation of the rclevant constaints

225

inCoN'Nowinthissectioo'lcompalethewordoldersofbothPashtoandEnglish.Likemy

analysis ofsyllable structue in the above section here too I am concemed with main features

ofword order as f,[ther explanation is simply out ofthe scope ofthe current study'

6.4,1. Pashto Word Order

In Chapter 4, I have discussed in detail that Pashto is a charactedstic SOV language because

it is the only stucture which fits all thrce tenses of the language' This section gives a

t pological sketch ofthe syntactic stucture ofmodem standaxd Pashto i.e.,Yousafzai dialect

(Hallberg, 1992). Discussion of these features is necessarily brief and to the point as I am

going to discuss the most relevant featues of Pashto word order. There are many important

s],ntactic featues which this study simply gives a passing-mention or simply excludes as the

matter of irelevarce. As discussed in Chapter 4. this study is or y concemed with features

which arc important in the study of word order correlation.

As per the basic word order ofthe language in simple sentences, Pashto is a verb-final

language. Word order in the sentence is relatively free as long as the ve$-finality condition is

fulfilled. Section 4.4.3 provides enough material in this regard. Note the following example

'lan intoduced Paxi to Speen' in Pashto can have the following variations:

(1 14)

d3a:n spi:nP pari milao k1a

Jan Speen lca Pari introd,uce Past Dat

d3a:n peri spi:n la milao k1a

pori dga:[ spi:n !a milao k1a

pori spi:n1a d3a:n milao L1a

b.

d.

22.6

d3a:n peri milao k1a

peri dga:n milao k1a

In the above sentences, the only common thing is the verb final position. Otherwise, the rest

of the sentences differ in word order pattems. As discussed in section 4.4, this freedom is

only because of the postpositional pa icles le and kfa which represert tIe accusative and

dative case marking, These sentences are idetrtical in terms of logical content but are distinct

in discourse presupposition in a very subtle way. In the same section, I have also pointed thal

this freedom is only in specific tense and context. Similarly, the subject-initial pattem is also

the most common among the permissible word orders of the language in all tenses. SOV is

the most frequent and most possible pattem in Pashto. It is the most dominant order which is

almost always obeyed in declarative sentences with nominal object and subject. Pashto, as a

constant SOV language, shows all the feah[es that Greenberg (1963) attributes to SOV

laoguages. One of these characteristics relates to adpositions. Greenberg's language

Universal 4 suggests that languages with normal SOV pattem are postpositional. Pashto has a

number of postpositional adpositions. The representative samples of some adpositions are

given which are classified according to their fimctions. Quantifier-like particles are given

below.

(115)

a. spi:n @ qab

Speen also genius

Speen, too, is a genius.

b. spi:n jawa:ze ra:ylo

Speen only came

e. sDi:n ta

f. sDi:n ta

de

is

227

Only Speen came.

There are some other particles, such as noun-coordinating particles, case-marking paxticles

and sentence-final particles which show the same behaviour of the language Some examples

are given below.

(1 16) Noun-coorditrating Particles

a. spi:n qg d3a:n ra:ylo

'Speen ard Jan came.'

b. spi:n 4q d3a:n {9 raylo

'Speen and Jan (and others) came.'

c. spi:n jg d3a:n !4 ra:zi:

'Speen or Jan will come'.

( 1 i 7) Case.marking Particles

a. spi:n ao ba:t-[a de ba moter @ pexawer 4a mordan !4 zi:

Speen and Bacha (and others) will motor by Pashawar fiom Mardan up-to go.

'Speen and Bacha (and others) will go by car ftom Pashawar to Mardan.

(1 I 8) Setrtence-fural Particles:

a. Ia -da klab wele d9

You this book read is (Q).

'Did you read this book?'

Note that Pashto uses the sentence-final question particles which are the chaxactedstics of

pospositiolal languages- Also note another example ofthe qpe.

(l1e)

a. rsla:maba:( Ie d3a:n lele d9

228

lslamabad to Jan went

'To Islamabad- Jan went'.

b. seudi: qg xel ra:yele &

Saudia from letter came

A lefter came from Saudia.

The above examples also show that ihese pafiicles are postpositions rather than suffixes. A11

ofthem highlight that Pashto is a strictly verb-final language.

In Pashto, the interogative sentences are formed by using the question paticles !A or

\e at sentence-final position regardless of a yes-or-no and other interrogative sentences. Note

the examples.

(120)

a. xa:n m:Ye !q

Khan come Q

'Did Khan come?'

b. xa:n ka:r xla:s k1o\g

Khanwork frnish did Q

'Did KIan finish his work?'

From the above examples, I re-conffm the suggestions aheady made by a number of studies

and theoretically justified by our OT analysis in Chapter 3 that Pashto is a characteristic SOV

language. To continue my comparison, now I flrl:n to the word order ofEnglish.

229

6.4.2. English Word Order

English is among the highly consistent SVO languages. lt exemplifies the characteristics of

SVO languages such as the grammatical processes used to highlight the elements of

sentences. Other SVO features include the heary use of auxiliades as substitutes in negative

and intenogative sentences, high usage of clefting and passives and the presence of

prepositions, etc. (Lehmann, 1978). Whar follows is a brief examination ofthe chamcteristic

typological pattems ofEnglish which are directly relevant to the comparison of the language

with Pashto and rcquired for the on-going discussion on the subject co[elation. So, needless

to say that I am mainly concemed with basic word order structure ofE[glish.

In English, as discussed earlier, the simple unmarked clauses agree with SVO pattem

and require the three constituents of subject, verb and object. Note the foilowing example

given by Lehmann (1978).

( 121)

Alice folded her hands.

He says that none of the three constituents is omissible from (121). Similarly, the order of

them is also very important as English does not permit any order other than the SVO in

unmarked sentences occurring as a single utterance. So, all the sentences in (122) arc

impermissible in ar isolated context:

(t22)

a- * Folded Alice her hands.

b. * Folded her Alice hands.

c. *Folded her hands Alice.

d. * Her hands folded Alice.

e. * Alice her hands folded.

230

The above mandatory syntactic patlem requires the classification of English as an SVO

language. So, the basic pattem ofmodem English is quite consistent.

In sentence (122), the agent ofthe action is also the subject and it occupies the initial

positiotr of the saucture. Similally, the positions of object and verb also have their exact

positions for related gammatical, logical or psychological functions. Theoreticatly, all

sentences ofan SVO language should have this canonical pauem. Lehmann (1978) shows a

number of features related with Svo langlages. The abtmdance of pronours which are used

for placing subjects at their specific positions is one of them. Another characteristic is the

common featue of passivization in English. AII these pattems show the constant O?e of the

language. According to the same souce, passivization allows an SV sequence when the agent

is uaknown and rurimportant. There is greater possibilitv ol such examples in English. Some

are given below.

(123)

William the Conqueror. whose cause was favoured by the Pope, was soon submitted to by the

English (Lehmann, 1978, p. 208).

He is ofthe view that avoidance ofmentioning an agent may lead to emphasize on the verbal

phrase as in the above setrtence, the action is highlighted more than the agent. Secondly, the

passivization (or even deletion, another characteristic featue of SVO languages) provides the

foregrounding for the predicate, whether its object or its verb, or both.

There are some morphological features which arc associated with specific types.

Affixation is one of them. Lehmann (1978) finds that in VO languages, prefrxes are more

common, while OV languages have suffrxes. In the case ofEnglish, I have both types of the

affixation. As far as the inllections are concemed, previous studies (e.g. Greenberg, 1966)

show that such affrxes in VO languages are preposed and in OV, they are positioned as

postposed.

231

6.5. AN OT ANALYSIS OF PASHTO AND ENGLISH BWOS

Chapter 4 analyzes the BwO of Pashto in depth. Here I provide an OT analysis ofthe BWOs

of both Pashto and English. The main aim of this comparison is to show the different word

orders ofthe languages. The point to provide is how syntactically distinct languages can have

identical syllable sfucture. This point ultimately leads to highlight the power of OT to justi&

such linguistic structues within languages. It will finally conclude that OT is the ideal

framework for crosslinguistic studies. Needless to say that the present analysis is to the point

ard stictly relevant to basic word order of Pashto and English.lt is also pertinent to say that

the sentences for both languages have been taken ftom everyday language. For Pashto, the

recording of native speakers was analyzed. while for English, as mentioned before, the

sentences were taken fiom real-life context. The reievant syntactic coDstraints are intoduced

first.

6.5.1. The Relevaot Constraints3e

A detailed OT analysis ofPashto sentence structure is given in Chapter 4. Similarly, English

word ordff is also a frequently explored area within this framework (Grimshaw & Samek-

Lodovici, 1995, 1998i Costa, 1997" 1998.2001 among others). This section is dedicated to

the comparison ofPashto and English- therefote, I use the same constraints which I applied to

Pashto BWO analysis earlier vr'ithin this thesis. The relevant live constaints are given here

briefly. They are all previously intoduced constraints and are based on Grimshaw (1997),

Choi (1999) and Morimoto (2001).

( 124)

} Chapter 4 is dedicated to detaited discussion on various possibiliry of Pashro word order. It also provides in-depth insight on previous works and intoduction of OT as a ftamework for s).ntactic analysis- To avoid the,epetition ofthe points, the analysis provided here is ,ecessarily brief.

232

a- IID'Lr:

b. HD-Rr:

c. SuBr-Lr:

d. So:

e. STAY:

The head is lefhnost in its projections.

The head is rightmost in its prcjections.

A subject aligns left in the clause.

Subject precedes object.

Trace is not allowed (Economy of Movement).

6.5.2. Analvsis

Having introduced t}le relevant constraints, let me consider how these conshaints interact

with each other in the hierarchy. I begin by explodng the word order of Pashto observed

previously in Chapter 4. I consider the following tableau here as the final eyidence for Pashto

being SOV Rpe laryuage.

(125) ldza:n pelelga:n xortsewi:] 'Jan kites Pl sell JP.' 'Jan sells kres'

Tableau (125) shows that the top ralking head constraint is Ho-Rr. This constraint makes

possible for the head (verb) verb to be on the rightmost edge ofthe sentence. Candidate (d) is

optimal due to this constaint. If this constraint is violated, the meanings are changed,

especiallyin sentences as given in 36. Constraint HD-Rr is on top in the hierarchy- TIe mutual

233

/pele{ga:n d3a:n xortsowi:/ TID-RT SO SUBJ-LT STAY IID-LT

a. xertsewi: d3a:n pel.lga:n

b. p.lelga:D d3ain xertservi:

c.dga:n xortsewi: pale4ga:n

d.e d3a:n pelalga:n xortsawi:

ranking ofboth SO and Suer-Lr are equal and both are cn.rcially important as well. Likewise,

the ranking of both the lower nnking constaints are equally violable as their violability

makes possible the satisfaction of the top ranking constaints. Thus, the satisfaction of top-

ran-ldng conshaintsHD-Rr, SO and SusJ-Lr is based on the violation oflow ranking STAY and

HD-Lr. When I revise the ianking, word pattern will be SVO or VOS. Therefore, the presetrt

ranking is crucial. This t)?e of structure in head-hnal languages like Pashto is possible due to

the top ranking of Ho-Rr in tlle hierarchy. Ho-Rr performs an interesting interaction with other

constaints like Suer-Lr and SO itr the hierarch),, especially with those on head positioning

(Ho-Lr and STAY).

It is cleax from the above analysis why sentences b-d (in 126) are not identical in

conveying the same meaning.

(t26) a. [dza:n palalga:n xertsewi:]

b. *xertsewi: dga:n pelolga:n

c. *pelelga:n d3a:n xertsewi:

d. *pelaoga:n xertsewi: d3a:n

'Jan sells kites'.

'sells Jan kites'.

'kites Jan sells'.

'kites sells Jan'.

The following ranking for Pashto BWO is evident from the analysis above.

(127)

Ho-Rr > SO, Surr-Lr > STAY, Ho-Lr

This shows that SOV (Subject + Object + Verb) is the only order which is available in

unmarked and syntactically simple sentences in Pashto. Let me now show the case of

English.

234

Section 6.4.2 gives a mrmber of sentences for English word order pattem. I consider the

same constaints and their intemction in sentence (l2l) of pmgmatically neutral and

descriptively simple nature 'Alice foided her hands'.

(128) [Alice folded her hands]

Tabieau (128) demonstates the top ranking constmint HD-LT. This makes possible for the

verb to be on the left side of its projection and ensures the optimal candidate (i.e., c) to be

head-initial. Violation of fiis constraint results in the loss of meaning which is evident in

candidates other than the optimal one in the above tableau. So. it is on top in the hierarchy.

The ranking of SO and Swl-Lr are equally crucial here. The two low-ranking constaints are

also equal ard both are violable. Their violabilitv justifies the satisfaction of the top ranking

corctraints (i.e., HD-LT). Revising the ranking of HD-LT with HD-RT gives the pattems

such as SOV. It is clear fiom the above analysis that setrtences a, b, and d are not possible in

pragrnatically natural context. Similarly, it is also cleax that rlone of the tbree constituents is

omissible ftom the sentence. Additionally, theh order is also crucial as English does not

permit any order other thatr the SVO.

The above mandatory syntactic pattem requires the classification of English as an

SVO language because this order is quite consistent in modem English. I suggest the

following ranking given in (129) on the basis ofmy analysis above.

/ Alice folded her hands/

a AIice her hands fblded

b. her hands Alice folded

c. eAlice folded her hands

d. folded her hands Alice

235

Ho- Lr SO Suer-Lr STAY Ho-Rr

xx ta

(129) HD-LD> SO, SuBr-Lr t) STAY,IID'Rr

This ranking of Erglish BWO characterizes the behavior. lt demonstates the following

points:

(130)

4. Subject moves to Spec lP which is the ieftmost position ofthe projection.

5. Objects always follow their subjects.

6. The top ranking of HD-Lr reflects the head-initial position in a clause.

These points suggest the classification of English as an SVO (Subject + Verb + Object)

language. In following sections, I summarize the perceived similarities and differences

between Pashto and English.

6.6. PERCEIVED SIMILARITY BTTWEf,N PASHTO AND ENGLISH

This section summarizes the perceived similaxity between the syllable structures of the two

languages. This similarity is measured in terms of the nature and statistics of possible

consotrant cluste$ found in these languages.

o Pashto and English both allow consonant clusters in onset position in all t1pes of

words (function and content words).

o They also allow consonant combinations at coda level in all types of words.

o Such consonantal clusters are possible at all three positions (word-initial, medial and

final positions).

o The category of syllable stuctlrle as per our categorization in section 2-3 in both

lurgtages is complex. Such words are frequently used in everyday language.

2.36

o Both languages have syllables rangiflg from a single segment (a vowel) to maximum

of thrce consonants in one stdng. This is the similar point, though English firther

allows four-coDsonants in some words.

The above points show that most of the features of the syllable structures of Pashto and

English are similar, though some differences are also found, for example:

o English additionally allows up to four consonants at coda position; while in Pashto,

this limit is up to two.

o Pashto pemits larger number of word-initial clusters (77) than those in English (55).

o Pashto has a lot of SSP violating combinations as well.

Despite these minor differences, the syllable structures of both the subject larguages can be

summed r.rp as similar ones. According to the categorization of Dyer (2005), they can be

classified as complex syllable structures. The theorctical justification of these similarities is

given under OT analysis in the next section.

6.7. DIFFf,RENCE BETWEEN PASHTO AND ENGLISE

The last section highlights a number of similar points in tems of the syllable structue of the

languages. Now, having gone thrcugh the s).ntactic ordeN of both Pashto and English, I can

surnmarize different features fouad in the following lines.

o The main difference between Pashto and English is in the word order. Pashto is SOV,

while English is SVO.

o Pashto is mahly post-positionai, while Engiish is pre-positional.

o Pashro is dependent-head, while English is head-dependent.

As witnessed fiom the above two sections, I conclude that Pashto and English are

phonoiogically similar (in l€rms of complex syllable structure) but they are s].ntactically

23'7

different (in tems of BWO). This is a clear cut negation ofthe so-called corlelalion between

syllable stluctule and word order. The point is further discussed in the section below.

6.8. DISCUSSION

One of the main objectives of the thesis is to evaiuate the validity of the corelation between

syllable structure and word order. This correlation has been shown to be invalid in the case of

Pashto and the comparison within this chapter has also validated the h)?othesis that the

syllable structure ofan SOV language may not always be the simple one. This was explained

by comparing Pashto and Engiish in the curent chapter. The assrunptions underlying the

theoretic explanatioD are supported irl this chapter. Especially the result of Syllable structues

shown demonstrated that it is only the matter of re-ranking the syllable constraints in the

hierarchy of languages. These outcomes also support the suggestions given in the previous

chapter about the irelevant influence of the word order on the syllable suuctwe of a

language.

Importantly, this distinction between word orden does not affect the syllable structue

of a language. The crucial point in such an explanation is that syllable slructures are

organized in terms of the hierarchy of relevant constaints within a system which is acquired

by native speakers in shaping their Ll phonology. I also suggest, on the basis ofthe treatrnent

demonstated above, that the pattems ofa specific language are controlled by the hierarchy of

the coirstraints available for that specific structure. These constmints are the regulations of

basic pattems of a specific structue, while the hierarchy of them regulates the harmony of

expression (agreement in general seme). Thus one can conclude that the basic pattems of any

language are accordingly determined by the constaints available for them. These constaints

238

may be changing ftom simple to powerful and vice versa as per the natue of the hi€rarchy of

the language for specific morphoiogical, phonologica.l or syntactic stuctures.

ln the case of Pashto and English. the previous typological Fedictions were based ol

very limited data and scope. The concept of all constraints for a specific pattem in OT

mentioned above is based on the point that in order to analyse a correlation, I must have all

possible pattems for a sauctule. The subject conelation lacks the inclusion ofall possibilities

for SOV languages. If SVO q?e includes the possibilitv of complex syllable stucture as a

straight forward sequence in their structure, so do other types like SOV. All this simply

means that there is something morc relevalt thafl simply the word order. Within the next

section, I summarize the main points of Pashto and English comparison related to the so-

called correlation.

6.8.1. Summary ofthe Comparison

The comparison in the clrrrent chapter indicates the strong parallelism in the syllable structure

of the closed ald open syllables in both languages. Table 6.7 summarises the comparison of

the important points related to the correlation.

239

Tabl€ 6.5: Comparisotr between Pashto and English

Pattern Pashto English

Syllable Category

Two-consonant clusteN

Word-idtial

Word-final

Thlee-consonart cluste$

Four-consonant clustem

ReveNe sonority clusters

MAxST

Word class mainly

contaidng complex syllables

Complex

Both closed and open

(CXCXC)V(CXC)

Complex

Both closed and open

(CXCXCXC)V(CXCXC)

'7'l

8

55

55

49

1

CCCCVCCC

Found

CCCVCC

Content Words Content Words

Word Order sov

Verb-final

Dependent-Head

Both Post-positional

and Pre-positional

svo

Verb-initial

Head-Dependent

Pre-positional

Table 6,5 shows that the relevant features of both Pashto and English illustate very important

similar points with respect to the consonant clusters and syllable stuctures. Wlereas both

languages have a large number of clear consonantal combinations, Pashto does have

syllabification with consonant clusters with reverse sonority cluste6. A preliminary

240

contrastive analysis based on the consonant combinations of Pashto and English indicates that

the two languages have comparable clusters with respect to the corelation. On the other

hand, serious diversity is forurd in terms oftheir word orders. [t highlights the staightforwad

possibility of cot p/e, syllable structure for SOV t ?e languages. Importantly, the usage of

words having complex syllables is also very liequent in Pashto. The ratio of the fiequency of

words having complex syllable was calculated for Pashto. 5000 words collected from Pashto

speakers living in rural area showed the frequency of 10 70 in content words. The similar

point for both languages is that in both languages, such words are frequently used irl everyday

language and fial the) are content words.

The claimed corelation also neglects the diveme pattems as the result of change.

When change occurs, small segments of structures start taking place and after a long time, it

is visible. For example, the change in the voicing of/V in some areas of American English is

confined to word-medial sounds as in 'Minnesota' and when it is followed by an unstressed

vowel-contrast with 'deter'- but not if the unstessed syllable ends in /r/- contrast 'button'

with 'butter'. This phonological change has been in ptogrcss for at least a century (LehmanrL

1878). Changes in other stluctules, such as syntactic, morphological and semantic rnay

require even Ionger periodsao. Such changes are adopted by a speech community very slowly.

So, when thqse changes are consideted, it is clear that ianguages are never static or

completely regular or symmetical. This lack of s)T nmetry in one level or stlucture cannot be

corelated with other structures. OT ha5 logic for such a change - it is the re-aEangement of

the constraint hierarchy. On fte basis oflhe comparison of Pashto and English in the current

chapter, it is argued that this can also be understood and supported by the analysis of the

Ianguage of a new leamer in terms ofthe grammatical differences between his or her native

and target languages. In the next section, I give the OT approach for q?ological studies.

€ The same souice has given the example ofregularization of verbs like dive-dove into dive"dived which has

been going on for the last mille.nium to highlight the slow process ofmorphological changes.

24t

6.8.2. OT Approach to Typological Studies

While explaining the goals ofrypological study, LehmaDn (1978. p. 345) states:

"(...R?ological study....) is based on the view that linguistics is an empirical science.Theory is formulated in accordance with the data of langlrages. and tested by meansof such data. In carrying out investigations, observation and description are certainlydirecied by one's theory, (which....) provides ',discovery proceduresl,. But the strengtirof a theory lies in explanatio[s it affords, or in uldeNtanding it contributes.,,

Keeping in mind these objectives, OT as a iiamework of conshaint hierarchy provides

enough space to achieve such goals in order to carry out a crossJinguistic investigation. The

term explanation has also changed its meaning in the freld of linguistics since nineteenth

century. Earlier it was supposed to be the determination of an earlier fom. Attempts werc

made to explain the factor behind a specific form (e.g., ilregular verb like sing-sang-sung).

Such explanations were aied to be given in the light ofthe diacbronic study ofthe respective

language. But therc were a number of limitations in this way of explanation as the languages

with non-documented history were not in a position to explain such forms. Thus the

expianatory aspect of historical linguistics was seriously under question. This term of

explanation, more rccently. was revolutionized by tansformational grammar by Chomsky

(1964). His goal is to explain the phenomena of larguage in teatment of linguistic structurc

by human mind. In his own words:

(.,...such an explanation would-.) rest on the assumption that the concepts ofgrammatical structure and 'significant generalization' made explicit in this theoryconstitute the set oftools used by the leamer in constucting atr intemal rcpresenlationof his language (i.e., a generative giantrnar), on the basis ofpresented linguistic data"(Chomsky, 1964, p. 928).

Based on the psychological explanation of language as phenomenor! this approach proved

very interesting in the beginning. One major contdbution of tansformalional grarnmar was

242

the discovery of the validity of abstact underlying linguistic structure. The notion of these

structures ultimately led to the discovery of universal rules in linguistics. Later on, due to

some non-satisfring explamtion by tuansfomational gmmmar, linguists started trying other

approaches.

The tlpological approach also emerged initially as a theory for explaining and

predicting the nature of human language. Such study is the search of unmarked pattems of

language which car easily be found tbrcugh the ftarnework of OT. OT is gpological in its

nature and it suggests that for a specific pattem. one must know all the reievant constraints.

Once determined, one caD check from the data the wrmarked sfucturc of a pattem. My

suggesdons at the end of previous chapter submit a number of recommendatioru. Some

principles are also formulated here for q?ological investigatio[ of languages.

Now, it is evident from the data of Pashto and English prcsented in this chapter that

such a conelation is merely an attempt to visit the utopia of Gabelentz. This is beyond

possibility to correlate the syntactic structule (word order) wirh phonological (syllable

pattem). Chapters 3 to 5 have illustated with the help of data and its analysis the 'proofof

negation' to such a correlation. The crment chapter shows another aspect of tryological study

by comparing Pashto with Engiish aad thus provides enough space for suggesting and

formulating methodologies for cross-linguistic investigation.

Language theory must include all principles i terrns of univemal constaints for a

specific structure. The hierarchy may also be decessarily explained. OT should be applied in

accordance with otlter principles laid down by typological approach. The principles

mentioned above can explain the recoglition of an unmarked pattem for a given structure.

This correlation has not yet been adequately investigated. Current study has pointed to a

number ofproblems which have been overlooked by the previous studies on this correlation.

243

The conclusion derived from such an OT typological study clafifies the chaoge and reasons

for a specified (e.g., syntactic or phonological) category.

6.9, SIIMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The comparison of Pashto and English in the current chapter illustntes how specific

constaints govem language strucnue. Since the compa.risoD deais primarily with the

con'elation between syllable structue and word ordet, the conclusions may suggest that any

i[dividual level of structue may not rigidly be confined to one single set ofpattem. It is now

clear fiom the on-going discussion that cozple, syllable structure is not oriy characteistic of

VO rype of languages. Other language tlpes such as OV (i.e., pashto) can have such syllable

stucture. Similarly, it is also evident that simple syllable structure is rlot only the

characteristic ofOV larlguale:. Complex syllable structure can also be had by OV languages.

The interrelationship between these two constuctions is not seen logically as stated

by the so-called correlation. It is also observed that the selection of a framework for

D,pological studies is especially important wherl the relationships betwee[ two different

levels are examined. Additionally, while using frameworks like OT, linguists must know all

the rclated coNtraints which are active within a specific pattem of a language. The language

should first be well-documented or examined for documentation. Such an approach may lead

towards improved undeGtanding and history of a language.

As the mdn goal of linguistics is to explaill the phenomenon of language, this aim is

carried out by twological studies. To describe the theory of language (grammar) with

'predictive capabiliry' is the ultimate objective which can be taken within the sphere ofcross-

linguistic studies. The power of OT, as reviewed above. has shown the ability to prcdict the

explanation of the phenomenon of language. The frarnework of OT can make possible tie

contribution of tvpological study to achieve the aims oflinguistics. It is true that matry ofthestructural characteristics of laaguages have been determined by linguists in the past, yet

change leads to inconsistencies in structue. The possibility of change is avallable to the

pattems of specific structures. whether OV or VO or any other language class as shown in

chapter 5 in detail. I suggest that a deeper level of knowledge of constraints for a specific

linguistic structule is essential for analysis, descriptio[ and understanding of language

stuch[es. Thus the OT Aamework best explores the flrndamentals of trcologicai study of

languages, whether it is synchronic or diachronic, theoretical or ptactical.

215

Chapter 7

GLOBAL ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS

7.I. O}'ERWEW AND FINDINGS

At the begiming of the cunent study in section 1.2, the following main research questions

were mised:

Q 1 : What are the pattems of syllabification in pashto language?

Q2: Wllat is rhe basic word order ofpashto?

Q3: \tr7hat are the similarities and differences between pashto and English syllable

structures?

Q4: What are the similarities and differences between pashto and English word order?

Q5: Is the nature ofthe syllabic pattern related to the word order ofa language?

To answer these questions, the present chapter provides a detailed evaluation of the

theoretical findings through previous chapters and claims against the conelation between

syllable structue and word order. The main insights of the preceding chaptets wete the

following:

a. The analysis of the combinations of the various tlT)es of consonant clusteN in

Chapter 3 has enabled me to decide the Maximum Syllabic Template (M,{XST)

for Pashto. It was defined as: '.The maximum pashto syllable consists of three

consonants in the onset and two coNorEnts in the coda. The onset and the coda

both may violate the Sonority Sequencing principle (SSp),'.

216

b.

d.

The second main finding of this dissertation in Chapter 4 is the rigid ve$-finality

(Sov) of Pashto and its theoretical justification under the paradigm of OT.

on the basis of these findings, in Chapter 5, I proposed that the conelation

between syllable stnrcture and word order (as suggested by Lehmann, 1973,19781

Donegan and Stampe, 1983, 2004i Doregan, 1993; Gil, 1986; Plank, 1998;

Tokizaki,2011; Tokizaki & Kuwana,2012) does not exist, at least in the case of

Pashto. knportantly, the usage of words having complex syllables is also very

ftequent in both languages. The ratio of the frequency of words having complex

syllable was calculated out of 5000 words collected by the researcher. Pashto data

showed frequent use of such content words in everyday language (10 % see

appendex D for detail). So, it is argued that the nature ofthe pattern ofthe syllable

stuctwe is not correlated with word order.

This dissertation also compaxes the syllable structure and basic word order of

Pashto with English. This comparison was summarised in Table 6.7 which shows

that despite similar complex syllable pattems. they differ in terms of their word

orders. The discussion was carried out by reviewing the claimed corelation in the

light ofthe hlpotheses outlined in the first chapter. The findings that Pashto (77)

is richer than English (55) in terms oftwo-consonant clustets iI,I the onset position,

aodthe liequent combinations of three consonant clusters by English (40) in the

coda indicate that the rnain feature in the categorization ofthe syilable structure is

the hierarchic schemata of the constrairlts given by OT. Importantly, the word

order pattem appears to be not correlated and indifferent to the syllabic structuIe.

More interestingly, the comparison between Pashto and English does not confirm

to the expectations predicted by the so-called correlation according to which, the

syllable structue should be the simpler one.

247

e. Finally, this comparison of the two languages reveals some important facts The

first is the similarity in the stucture of syllable pattems. This similarity includes

only the categorization given by Dryer (2005) which says that such pattems are

called complex. However, such impofiant aspects were also there as English

allows maximum four ard Pashto three conso[ants at the edge of the syllable.

While the second importart finding is the difference fotmd in terms of the word

orders of the languages.

In the light of the above hndings, I highlight the final conclusions and their implicatioru in

the [ext section.

1.2. FINAL CONCLUSIONS AN'D IMPLICATIONS

The curent study makes a number of primary conaibutions to the field of rypological

linguistics. The fiIst concems the importance of examining the active constaints for the

consonant clusteN for the classification of language. The main findings of the study provide

very interesting starting points for funher detailed futule work on the points reiated.

Importantly, the Pashto-English comparison (both syllabic and sy(Itacric) and the optimality

theoretic teatrnent yield a number ofrelevant points for future studies. As the findings of the

study run counter to the earlier suggestions made by the studies mentioned, it is impofiant to

carry out firther work of the same naturc on other language families. However, it may be

necessary to iflvestigate a large number of language farnilies to better assess the effects of the

word order change in terms ofthe syllable stuctue.

Further, the stong similaxity found in tems of consona t cluste$ irl Chapter 6 by

comparing Pashto with English, it was found that simple syllable structure is not con'elated

with SOV word order. The possibility of complex syllable slructure withi[ a language of

218

anybasic word order pattem is also predicted by the current study. As the theoretical

jusrification, it was suggested that the complex syllabie stluctule is the resutt of specific

hiemrchy of syllabic constraints in CON by a language. V/ith the help of data from Pashto

and English, it was concluded that complex syllable structure within a language may

ultirnately be attributed to the satisfaction of top level constraitt FAITH. FArrH. as introduced

in section 3.8, requires that the output candidale does not alter the syllabification ofthe input

form (observing both MA-xlO and DEPIO). The comparison of Pashto and English and the

ultimate similadty found in the case of complex syllable structure in Chapter 6 showed that

this constraint was also reievant in the case of English. In shod, the avoida.nce of a MAXST

violation in Pashto does not allow any syllable having more than three conson€nt cluster in

the onset and two itr the coda. Similarly, the assumption of the high-mnking FArrH also

provides the mechanism to explain the unique q?e of Pashto syllabihcation of reverse

sonority that has been very problemalic for previous theories. Thus both ofthe h)?otheses are

lound confrmed. These were the following:

. The syllable stuctule of SOV languages is not always simple.

. The constaiflts on syllable structure are not directly related to the typology of word

order in a particular language.

The investigation in the course of this study suggests that both of the thesis statements are

positive in the case of Pashto. In other words. the nature of syllable stuctEes in terms of

their consonant clusters is not directly conelated with basic wod order ofa language.

The dala and comparison betu,een Pashto and English in this study have consequences

for the notion ofhuman language itself. I am led to the view that language tjpes are not based

on the basis of the classification of one sfucture (e.g., SOV tlpe). One can perhaps regard a

q?€ as a family of vadant subq?es which obey and share at least one tlpological

categorization with other types. ln this co[cem, one can conclude that the Greenbergian

249

SVO/SOV,^r'SO trichotomy is no more logical in nature. In other words, it is fully possible'

thanks to q?ological nature of OT that one can predict aad justify an SOV language with

complex syllable structue. As OT provides the possibilities of variations auoss languages

and the 'possible human language' can be explained in terms of a specific structue only

when the range of varying pattems across languages are surveyed. For such an approach, one

must search for the regularities underiying and explamtiom for the attested and non-attested

variants for those structure. The case of Pashto is perhaps the non-attested case which can

now, after the curent study, be put into the attested forms in order to have clearer insight of

the syllabic structwe ofthe SOV languages.

More importantly, the present study has also shown the evidence that syllable

structure is a different domain of linguistic investigation and cannot be conelated with the

word order pattems. Having examined the conelation between syllable structure and word

order in terms of its possibility in Pashto and having compared it with English, one can

predict t}Iat the simple syllable stucture is not corelated with SOV. A number of analyses

were conducted to investigate the position of the correlation. Fisdy, the data ftom Pashto

syllable structue and word order was analysed to determine the possibility of complex

structue within SOV language and was found as expected. In the case ofPashto, it was found

highly significandy unrelated for an SOV to have simple syllable stuctue. Secondly, the

comparison of the syllable structule in Chapter 6 shows that despite dreh identical syllabic

structure, the two lalguages differed significantly in terms oftheir s)-ntactic structures (word

order). Thus, both languages have complex structues for their syllables. Pashto two-

consolant combinations with equally good scores syllabiry in a more English-like way.

Finally, Pashto also shows a number of reverse sonority clusters in bisyllabic combinations

and the phenomenon was theoretically justified under OT paradigm.

250

To sum up, the analysis of the results comparing both syntaclic and phonological

structures provides negative evidence against the correlation between word order and syllable

structue. This hightights the global implication of the study which challenges robustly the

validity of a number of studies shown already at different places in this thesis. The subject

analysis has shown that phonological structue (syllabification pattems) can not necessarily

be corelated to syntactic sm.rctue (word order). This is explained by showing data from two

languages. This point has very plausible conclusion that the interaction of active collstraints

within a particular linguistic structule plays a greater.ole in the categorization ofits pattem.

Therefore, one may expect to find more evidence of this phenomenon in the study of other

languages as a larger sample. The possible directions related to the study are given in the

following section.

7.3. DIRXCTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

This study has been devoted to the investigation of the conelation of syllable structure and

wo.d order. ln order to provide answe$ to the questions discussed at the start ofthis chapter,

a nunber of new issues have been highlighted that deserve further detailed investigation in

futue. The curent section concludes this work by outlining the most important directions for

future investigation.

I have claimed that the complex syllable structure is very much possible if the language

keeps the Farrn (DEpIO and \4AXIO) constaint on its hierarchy. By doing so, a language

may even allow the codas and onsets having reverse sonority combinatioN in its syllables. I

hope that these claims will be vetted by scholars in the not-so-distant futule. In the meantime,

I suggest some of the interesting topics related to the field. These are, ofcowse, not the only

unanswered questions in the dissertation as many are given in the footnotes in the text.

251

With respect to the similarity of syllable structure and different word orders of Pashto

and Englis[ there are a nurnber of questions. For instance, how much these similar

sfuctures of segmental ciusters prove helpful for Pashto learners ofEnglish to acquire

these pattems and do they achieve the same level of productivity as native speakers.

This can be carried out, for instance, by means of an investigation with a larger

sample with a range ofproficiency levels. Comparing the knowledge and productivity

ofthe consonant clusters may allow a better understanding ofthe role and the process

of acquisition of phonotactics as well. Such areas can be conducted in temrs of the

second language acquisition research.

The OT perspective used in the study has made it possible to analyse the

syllabification of Pashto, especially the SSP violated clusters in the language. I

believe that this methodology may further be applied in the investigation of sonority

repair stategies ftom the morphological point of view, and it may have mmificarions

for the syrchronic analyses of the syllable stuctule of other languages spoken in the

area.

Finally, the study of other interesting typological aspects of Pashto phonotactic

constraiflts may be based on the articulatory markedness or sonority sequencing

preferences of Pashto (e.g., the conshaint on stop+stop or fricative+stop onset

sequences). Such consfaints yield very interesting discussion on Pashto and further

work needs to be carried out to determi[e if such factors have any role in phonology.

252

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270

APPENDICES

Appendir A

GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND CONSTRAINTS

The following concepts afld constraints are used in the current study. lhough their

explanation is give[ where it is required within its relevant place in the tex1, a complete

glossary is given here.

ONSET *[" V Syllables must have an onset

NOCODA *Cl o Syllables are open

*COMPLEXoNS *[oCC Onsets are simple

i'COMPLEXCoD *CClo Codas are simple

DEP-IO Output segments must have input correspondents (No epenthesis)

MAX-IO l[put segrDents must have output corespondents (No deletion)

*CLUSTER No complex syllable codas and onsets

FAITH Faithfrhess consraints (DEP-IO and MAXIO)

SON -SEQ Complex onsets rise in so[ority and complex codas fall in sonority

Syllabic Consonant Conslraint * V [+ coosonantal] No syllabic consonant allowed

I4{XST Maximum Syllabic Template in pashto (i.e. CCCVCC). MAXST

coNists of three consonants in the onset and two consonants in the

coda. Both o[set and coda may violate the SSp.

HD-RT The head is rightmost in its projections

HD-LT The head is leftnost in its prcjections

SUBJ-LT A subject aligns left in the clause

SO Subject p.ecedes object

27t

STAY

SSP

Trace is not allowed (Economy ofMovemelt)

Sonority Sequencing principle: Between any memberof a syllable and

the syllable peak, only sounds ofhighersonority raDk are permitted.

The specific order ofthiee basic syntactic elements

(Subj ecrObj ect-Verb)

Optimality Theory: The framework of constraints interaction

sov

OT

GEN (or Generator) The fi.mction of OT which generates a set of unique output candidates

for an input. Our ofthese candidates, one is identical to the input while

the rest ofthe candidates ale somewhat modified in their sructure.

EVAI (or Evaluato.) It is another function ofOT. It evaluates the candidates and chooses

the optimal one that best satisfies the set ofspecially ranked constaints

depending on the nature ofthe violation.

Markedness Conshaints Matkedness Constraints make it sure that the output candidate

is well-formed prohibiting the forms which are difficult to produce or

comprehend. Such constraints make sure the utterance of certain

segments and impose restrictions orr others. NOCODA and ONSET

are the examples of markedness constaints.

FaithilnessConstaints Faithirlnessconstaintsmake sule the similarity of the output

and MAXIO are faithtulnessto the itrput. For example, DEP-IO

constaints.

2',72

Appendix B

PASHTO EDGE PHONOTACTICS

The following data is used in the study to deteImine the edge phonotactics of the language.

The sounds given here are just the sample representation of the phonological features of

Pashto. For exhaustive exploration dictionaries and digital resources may be used.

WORD-IMTIAI,

Bipartite

Plosives + Liquids

#pr lft #pt #br #br #bl #Ir#lr #Il ## #qr #k #kr #kl#gr #g1

Plosives + Glides

#pj #bj #d* #dj #gw #$" #L-w

#qi

Fricatives + Liquids

#sr #"t #i #Jt #l #y;t #xt

#yr #n #yl

Fricatives t Plosives

#sk #sp #sI #k #Jp #xk

#xp

#zg #zb #zdl

Fricatives + Glides

#sj #sw #zj #zw #xj #xw fi-

273

F catives + Fdcatives

Fricatives + Nasals

Nasal + Plosive

Nasal + Fricative

Nasal + Liquids

Nasal + Glides

Nasal + Nasal

Liquid + Fricative

Liquid + Nasal

Liquid + Glide

Glide + Liquid

AJhicate + Liquid

A-ffiicate + Glides

Afticate + Fricative

Affricate + Plosive

Tripartite

Fricative + Glide + Liquid

Fdcalive + Glide + Plosive

#d3w #ts*

#d:v

#tsk

#xw1

#xwd

#4#n\t

#ng

#nY

#ml

#mj

#nm

#ry

#lirr

#sx

#Jn

#Jx

#,[m

#-t

#rj

#mr

#wl#t!t

#d3r

2'74

lhwl

Fricative +Fdcative + Glide

Fricative + Plosive + Glide

Nasal+PlosiverLiquid

#sxw #Jxw

#skw lkkw

#ndr

WORD-FINAL

Bipartite

Fdcatives + Plosives

xI# "ft# Jc# k# sld s#

Nasals + Plosives nd# nd# mp# nk#

Liquids + Plosives

r# ry# rd# r^# ry# Ld#

Plosives + Fricatives bs# ks# bZ# qt#

Glide + Fricatives wz#

Nasals + Fricatives mz# nz# ns# n-1"#

Liquids + Fdcatives rs# rz# rk# ;x#

Fricatives + Fricatives xs#

Liquids + Nasals rm# m#

Nasals + Aff.icate nd3#

2',7 5

Appeadir C

PASHTO CONSONANT CLUSTERS

The following list is used in the study to highlight the consonantal clusters of the language.

AIl ofthem infened and all representative examples containing clusters have been taken liom

the following sources r-urless otherwise noted.

. Daryab Pashto dictionary by Momind & Sehrai ( 1 994)

. The dictiohary of Nine languages by Mengat (2009)

. A dictionary of the Pukhto, Pushto or Language ofthe Afghan compiled by Captain

Raverty (first published 1860, republished 2001).

. A collectio[ of 5000 words recorded from the native speakers of the language (See

Appendix D for detail)

. Being native speaker ofthe language, the observation arld intuition ofthe researcher.

However, this appendix carmot be considered exhaustive. Note that analyzitrg the da1a, the

pronunciation ofthe words have been adapted to the phonemic i[ventory given in section 3.2.

IrI addition to the native speaker's intuition about the cluste$ (or reverse sonority sequencing

principle where applied) softwarc like PRAAT has also been used.

WORD-INITIAL

Bipartite (CC)

Type Cluster Examples English Translation

PlosiYes

+

Liquids

pr

pr

pt

br

bg

Drade

prak

pla:r

brag

b1a:s

Stranger

Moment / Glitter

Father

sponed / Pie-bald

Heat / Exhalation / Steam

2',76

bI

lrtlrl

.dr

{rkr

kg

kl

gr

blarba

lrorfok

Ilol

drana

{renta

kreka

ktep

klek

gla:n

gteng

Pregnant

Aunt

Brcaking noise

Going

Heary

Hamh, braying noise

Disgusting

Bang / Slam

Ticht

Precious

Bang / Snotty-nosed

Plosives

+

Glides

pj

bj

{wgj

gw

tw

L:w

ci

pJa.z

bja:

dja:rlos

gwala

Iwa:n

kwende

qja:mel

Onion

Then / Again

Two

Thirteen

Brown Sugar

Power / Ability

Widow

Day of Judgment

Fricrtives

+

Liquids

sr

zt

Jr

ftIxr

xf,

Yr

$yl

sra

zte

Jreng

-t-pk

!a:nde

xre

x0:s

yrrl

Yfap

yla:

Gold

Heaxt

Clink / Jingling

Thunder / Swift

A fiog / Heavy

Donkey

A large and bulky

A sudden blow

Quick gulp

Theft

Fricrtives

+

Plosives

sk

sp

s1

Jk

skor

spa:i

slen

Jku:q

Charcoal

Soldier

Wooden pillar

A porcupine

277

Ipxk

xp

zg

zb

7.1

"[peg

xka:r

xpel

zgerel

zba:dal

z{akol

Six

Hunting

Relative

Moan / Seq,

To prove

To leam

Fricatives

+

Glides

sJ

sw

zi

znf

xj

sjal

swazedel

zja+

zwa:n

xja:l

xwa:

lnva:

Equal

To bum

Much

Yotmg

Care

Side

Cowyw

Fricatives

+

Fricatives

zY

fxsx

zyamel

.[xe1a:

sxer

To tolerate

Dispute

Father in law

Fricatives

+

Nrsals

zfr

Jm

Jtr

zmoka

-[mer

Jna

Land / Earth

Cormting

Greenery

Nasal + Plosive ng ngor Daughter in 1aw

Nasal + Fricative nY nYere Hearth / Stove

Nasal

+

Liquids

mla

[uesta:

mtawe

Waist

Help

Faded

ml

mr

mI

Nasal

+

Glides

mJ

nw

mia: ft

nwori:

nja:

Month

Clothes

Grand mothernj

Nasal + N.sal nmSsr: Grand children

Liquid + Fricative

Liquid + Nasal

Liquid + Glide

rylm

ryett:

Irner

lwe ft

Rolls

Sun

Span

Glide+

lw

278

\!TA:IO Nephew

Liquid wI

wl

wlel

wluna

Cary

CleaningAffricate + Liquid

Afrricate + Glides

Afrricatel-Fricative

Affricate + Ptosive

d3r

d3w

tsw

dntsk

d3renda

d3wen{

tswa:rlos

d3yonl

tska:k

Water Mill

Life

Fourteen

To preserve / Keep

Drinking

Tripartite (CCC)

Fricative + Glide +

Liquid

xwl

xwr

xwle

xwd:rr

Mouth

Softened

FricatiYe + Glide +

Plosive

xwd xw(a:i God

Fricative + Fricative +

clide

sxwan-der

Jxwen{

Bdt

ChewingJxw

Fricative + Plosive +

Glide

skw skwerate

xkwele

Ember

Beautiful

Nasal+Plosive+Liquid trdr ndror S ister-in-1aw

WORD-FINAL

Bipartite (CC)

Fricatives

+

Plosives

xl

TL

Jq

ask

sI

ba:loxl

salwe-ll

I.l"q

3Jk

hosk

#asl

Pillow

Forty

Love

TeaJ

Cloth

zught

Nasals nd

279

d5wenQ

+

Plosives

n4

mp

trk

4en4

pemp

benk

Pool

Pump

BankLiquids

+

Plosiyes

rq

rC

rlrp

rc

tferg

5rq

d:rd

D5rt

tam

-la:ged

Chicken

Essence

Pain

Property Record Letter

A Radish

Student

Plosives

+

Fricatives

bs

ks

bz

s.t

habs

eks

sersabz

neq.[

Humidity

Contrary / Reverse

Lush Green

Copy / Drawing

GIide+

Fric-ativeslewz Promise

Nasals

+

Fricatives

axz

nz

DS

nJ

feinz

Murz

hens

benf

Secrecy

Prayer

A bnd

A beam

Liquids

+

Fricatives

Pit)

Form

C1eft

Aspect

rz

rk

rx

!!tzterk

arx

Fricatiyes+ Fricatives -faxs

Liquids+

Nasals

fa:rm

q.m

Form

Certury

nn

m

Nasals +

Affricate nd3

280

lorend3 Citron tree

Appendix D

PASIITO WORDS CONTAINING CONSONANT CLUSTERS

The researcher collected 5000 different words ftom S32 native speakers of pashto from his

native town where Yousafzai dialect is spoken. Out ofthe collection, the foilowing list shows

the words that have consonant clustets at any position. The main pu4rose ofthe collection of

these words was to show the real words which are frequently used by native speakers in their

daily life. Their syllable boudaries and English translation are also given.

Pashto Words Syllabification English Tianslation

aznexx

empl,rkeke

ndror

xpa

e{erlaxpa

eriafz

^lFnrl

^zme4,uhan{

u:pd

^Jkesl

aqelmend

bazob,u{

badraru

bal^xI

barnben{

burDarast

blarb

VC.CVCC

VC.CCV.CV.CV

CCCVC

CCV

VCC

VCC.CCV

VCC

VCC

VC.VCC

vc.cvccVC.CVCC

vccvccVCC

v.cvc.cvcc

CV.CV.CVCC

CV.CVCC

CV.CVCC

CVC.CVCC

CVC.CV.CVCC

CCVCC

Test

Tip-cat

Sister-inlaw

Foot

Wide open

First visit to in-laws ailer engagement

Side

The earth, request

Building

Test

Castor oil tree

Long

Tear

Origion

Wise

AIm omament

A cucurnber

Pillow

Bnhman

Idol worshipper

Preg[ant

281

barb^sl

borben{

burdS

ber^da.[1

br,ty

bplgedal

blo:rb

blgwsaw^l

bod3ri

bi.rrt.>

bjo:s1e

bjelow,ll

brag

bren{u:

bren{

beryend

breyge{ol

bramlah

brexla

brexawal

bret

b1a:s

bt^slen

brLm{

blarb

blewsedel

b.md3

band

baa(ub.rs1

ben!

brhr-[1

bagenrt

beq.

beters

be-dosl

be-drey

benLnrt

CVC.CVCC

cvc.cvccCVCC

CVC.CVCC

ccvcCCVC.CV.CVC

CCVCC

CCVC.CV.CVC

cv.ccvCCVC.CV

ccvc.cvCCV.CV.CVC

ccvcCCVC.CV

CCVCC

CVC.CVCC

CCVC.CV.CVC

CCVC.CVC

CCVC.CV

CCV.CV.CVC

CCVC

CCVC

CCVC.CVC

CV.CVCC

CCVCC

CCVC.CV.CVC

CVCC

cvccCVC.CV.CVCC

CVCC

CV.CVCC

CV.CVCC

CVCC

CV.CVCC

CV,CVCC

CV.CCVC

cv.cvcc

Goods

Naked

Tower

Patience

Fold

Hurruning

Pregnant

Rub, scufl scrape

Mortar, grout

Far away

Rope

To separate

Spoted

A river in buner

To challenge

Cut wood

Being folded

Seizing of a village

Luster

To illuminate

Mustache

Vapour

QuiltHiCh

Pregnant

To distress / afflict

Chesnut tree

Fastening / ban

Settlement

Hemp

Paradise

AflvForest

Fearless

Helpless

Pitiless

Shameless

ber^n4

bja

bja:ban

biania

bexrole

bi.enn

bjel

benl

bza

plo!ped3en{gelo

pr tJ

oradze

prekowal

prexew$d

prol

pleke-da.1

pLm

pjo:gne

pertJan!

Detans

paleng

pepn]t

ouft

ouftair

pajm

pagan4

pond3

pan4

p3nd

posl

poha:n{

pahm

oedaiext

pedj.n^dgali

pevr'asl

cv.cvccCCV

CCV.CVC

CCVC.CV

CV,CCV.CV

CV.CVCC

CCVC

cvccCCV

CCVC

cv.cvcc.cv.cvCCVC

CCV.CV

CCV.CV.CVC

CCV.CVC.CVC

CCVC

CCV.CV.CVC

CCVC

ccvc.cvCVC.CVCC

CV.CVCC

CV.CVCC

CV.CVCC

CVCC

CVCC.CVC

CVCC

CV.CVCC

CVCC

CVCC

CVCC

CVCC

CV.CVCC

CVCC

CV.CV.CVCC

CV,CVCC.CV.CV

CV.CVCC

Clolorless

Agaio

Desert / heath

Back again

Unreasonabale

One q?e ofgass

Separate

Timber beam

Goat

Leopard

Familarity

Saucer

Stranger, alien, foreigner

Cut, bob, crcp, pollad, prune,

Give up, abandon, leave

Lying, lying down

To shine

Wide

Webbed part ofthe bedstead at ofle end

Ladder

Moth

Bed

Lower part of a spinning wheele

Back

Supporter

Wool

The I 1th month of indiatr calendax

Five

Load

Advice

Poppy head

Scholar / professor

Sense

BiItT

Acquaintance

Fit / connected

pewend

pen^dtja

ponc.

pj:az

pla

plai

plarmale

plale

plarganoi

plaae{el

plenawal

plorel

pranaslel

prebande

Drst

Drata

nr:de

pregQena

prend3ekol

pmfft

Dmt

prexwel

prexo(al

pregd.l

prewan

prewana

prcwalel

Drewata

prewoslal

preweDzal

prcjasla

prop

mang

psan

psarle

$Iw

CV.CVCC

CVCC.CCV

CVCC

CCVC

CCV

CCVC

CCVC.CV.CV

CCV.CV

CCVC.CV.CV

CCV,CV.CVC

CCV.CV.CVC

ccv.cvcccv.cvc.cvcCCV.CVC.CV

CCVC

CCV.CV

CCV,CV

CCVC.CV.CV

CCVCC.CV.CVC

CCVCC

CCVC

CCV,CCVC

CCV.CV.CVC

ccvc.cvcCCV.CVC

CCV.CV.CV

CCV.CV.CVC

CCV.CV.CV

CCV.CVC.CVC

CCV.CVC,CVC

CCV.CVC.CV

CCV.CVC

CCVCC

CCVC

ccv.cv

CCVC

Joint

Artfulness

Fat

Onion

Stubborr, sticky

Father

Orphan

Rice stmw

Pratemal relative

To grow wide

To render broad

To sell

To open

On

Absurd

Idol

Strange

Leaving

To sneeze

Sour milk

Lying

To discontinue

To discoatinue

Abandon

The after birth placenta

In abundance

To fall

Failing

To throw

To wash with

Push

Wild cat

Tiger

A sharpening stone tool

Spring

284

Sour

ImIr^x

Se!gew^l

Il^ltior^

ta\1

h"at

trak

-trok

Fap

ga.x

wta.rs

$rJ!erkanl

Ie*tJsme

Ieorand3

Irok

Irendjobi:ngenquke

hand (

$en-kotse

tIan

Fo!gawol

$e!getgor

Fuke

Se

tre

lri:xgi:xe

F:wtrek

trao

IIapawel

t:ft

CCVC

CCVC

CCVC.CV.CVC

CCVC

CCV.CV

CVCC

CCVC

ccvcCCVC

CCVC

CCVC

CVCC

CVCC

CVCC

CVC.CVCC

CVCC

CVCC.CV

CV.CVCC

CCVC

CCVCC.CV.CVC

CCVCC.CV.CV

CCVCC

CCVCC.CV.CV

CCVC

CCVC.CV.CVC

CCVC.CVC

ccvcCCV.CV

ccvccv

CCVC

CCV.CV

CCVC

CCVC

CCVC

CCV.CV,CVC

CVCC

Bitter

ArmpitPlay upon musical instnments

To go

Darkness, dark

Throne

whip

Crack

Stroke

Jurnp

Amrpit

Mannaers

Fear

Sour

Carpenter

Leaving / crack

A dark light in the moming before dawn

Cirron

Stroke / wooden scale

Manna

Twi$ed silk

Delicate

Sling

String of a musical instrumellt

To play a musical instrument

A net used for carrying grass

Aunt

A kind ofsorrel

Patemal uncle

From

Bitter

Gall bladder

Sour

Knock / pat

To jump

To agitate

Flat vessal

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To fly fiom

To depart

Departue

A vessal with a long narrow neck

Tight / confined

Helplessness

A roar oflionPower

Food

Dry

Partridge gait

Basket

Darkness

Inflated

Fixed period

Bang

Fat

Musical sound

Imitadon

Lock

Watermill

Maiz

Life

Marriage guest

Fixed / tight

Miller

Watermill

Measure of land

Even

A stinging

Soon

Thing

Battle

Wheel

286

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Dry fruit

Time between sunrise and meridien

Wing

To creep

Flap

Apparent

Drink

To drirkTo cause to drink

To pintch / squeeze

Crawl / creep

Forty

Shake

Side

Fourteen

An auger

Repentant

Mouth

God

Pretty, beautiful

Mange

Taste, flavour

Relative, own

To owl. possess, win. to be relative

A duty coloued bird

Sputum, pt egr, gob

She-ass

stubbte

Shave

Ham, back part of the thigh

Drenched, wet, well beaten

Finished, completed, ended, free

Poor, skint, pe[udous, indigent

Poveffy, constuctioi, indigence

Gloat over, enjoy revenge, malicious acts

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Request, appeal, begging, entreaty, solicitation

Mother-in_law

Niece, daughter of the sister

Spread, scatter, disperse, extend. stewCreek, brook, rill, steam, rivelet

To eat

Cooked

Shove, move, stir, push

Slide sths

Beauty

Foot

Hunt

Obvious, open, clear, vivid

Lower, down

Hom

To kiss

Piece, a bit of sth,

To spread

To slip

Honou, rcspect, rcverence

Heavy, boasting

Beatirg, mping, taping, throbing, wallop

Beating oI hean erc. rhrobing. shuddering

To make heary, take seriously

Delay, short while, mine

Heara

Diarrhea

Both

Thirteen

Thirteenth

Thirty

Pond. puddle

Scoot, to make nrn away

Come

288

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borrowed

To lue

Truth

To roll

Disease, pain

Diseased (female), patient, illRouen, staie, decomposed

Brightness, ink. Light

Niece, daugter ofthe brother

Before, ahead

Blind

Saint

Remind others the good one has done to them

Rub, tead

Leam

Heart

Slmpathadc

To run

Panoply

To make run

Patience, endulance, tolerance

Bear, endue, tolemte

Lion

Earth

Suspended, hanging

Noise

Sor1

Plenty, geat in number

lncrease

Injustice, cruelty, excess

Loss

Yallow, pa.le

Hepatitis

Wetness. moisture, gloomy

289

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Gold

Herpes, shingles, a skin disease

Wood coal, charcoal

Hard

Sun-up, sunrise, first blush ofthe day

To drink

Pinching

Forty

Glue, sticking subsance used tojoin paper

Vehicle, conveyance

Buny, assign, hand over

Spring

Open, bloom, dehisce

Full of lice

Light, mean

Dry, trot oily

Moon

Dog

Nostril

w1lite

Peel, pare

Your, yours

Praise

Eyeball

Eye

Eyes

Tired

Difficult, tough

Heave being exhasted, moaning,

Needle

Star

Regetful. repentant

Retumed, retaliated,

Dirty

Alms after death

A plant like ginger with bad smell

things

290

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sporal

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Calf

Ember

Glue, a sticking substace used to paste things

Angry esp for taking reve[ge

Bum

To rebuke

Student

Si'1een

Six

Fence, pale, hedge,

Shephared

Nieht

Sixfy

Wedge,dowel, chunk of wood to join orstreIIgthen

Madicagodenti colata" a plant used as a greens

Whistle

Heath

Clash, combat, ftay, conJlic! nonsense

Chewing

Jinjle

Paten, a tray for keeping breads

Porcupine, hedge-hog

Sluggish, lazy, idle

Tear, wear out

Count

Green

Became (feminine)

Nicht

Chewing

Heavy load

Twofold

Round

Whole, round

Together

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Gash, slasb, scratch

Meat plen broad

Sound of falling things

Flame

Sobbing, stopping ofbreath while weeping

A plant (dodonoea burman niana)

Swallow, the sound of swallowing

Roaring of animals, sounds of spriaging water

Tether

Lubdcate, aooint, to oil

Theft

Udder / teat

Wheedle

Ball, any round thing

Assernbly, gathering

Cow

Cowshed, stable, cattle pen

Goiter

Favodte, best

Oily

To oil

Ghee

Cowpat. dung excreted by cow or baffalo

Eax, plectum

Millet. plants $ow]l for theii seeds

Meat

Uproar, tumoil, commotion, noise

Better

Wallnut

Yoke, hamed animals to plough

Fighting cock

Fraud, pride

Drivel. blatherskite,

Cartilage

Crunch

292

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Abhorence, dislike, abomination

Hard, tough

Widower

Broken, not smooth

Crrapes

Berberis lycium

Engagement,wedding

To cripple

Costly, expensive

Joint between fingers

Responsible, guilty, liable

Neckline

A place to keep pitcher on usually made of wood

Comb

\l ell protected heap of chips to keep fiom rain

Separation, end war

Finger, deception

Rocky area

A very loud sound

Short, short in length

Long, tall

Lengthen

Long, geat

Hunger

Read

To milk

Wet, drcnched

Death

Small sized bur aged, the grain that do notdissolve

Help, take side

Twist, twitch

Withered, dry

Dead (female), all dead people or things

293

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Back

Lying

A grass

Middle

Middle

A small extemeiy poisonous snake

Bug

Hand excluding wrist, the hand's wedth

Prayer

Root. base, bottom, origin

Month

Hospitality

Arbitrator, mediator

Sitting

Illness

Sister-in-law

Lucky

Tom, male cat

Daughter-in-law

Attach, cling

Tussel, hght, hinderence, hurdle

To attach, cling

Wrap

Curry

Celeblate

Elrter

Srm

Cotumix, quail, bobwhite, patridge

Grandson

Incomp leteness

Unity

Purchased

Fried, roasted

Lost

First

294

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Thigh

Time

Nephew, son of the brother

Out of order, naughty

Frcm a distatrce

OPen to

Go to

fuce

Day

After

Rotten

Giving

Give and take

Plea

S ister-inJaw, wife of tie brother

Brother

EYebtow

Gum

Niece, daughte! of the brother

Before, in Past

Carry

Small, Younger

Watermelon

Twenty oIIeCV.CVCC

29s