120
81,9(56,'$'$87Ð120$'(/(67$'2'(0e;,&2 ,167,78721$&,21$/'(,19(67,*$&,21(618&/($5(6 )$&8/7$''(48Ì0,&$ 2%7(1&,Ð1'(6,67(0$608/7,&$3$'($/7$'85(=$ 325$%/$&,Ð1/É6(5 7(6,6 48(3$5$2%7(1(5(/*5$'2'( 0$(675Ì$(1&,(1&,$'(0$7(5,$/(6 35(6(17$ ,QGLUD6DFKHQND0HMtD7RUUHV 'LUHFWRUGH7HVLV'U/XLV(VFREDU$ODUFyQ 72/8&$0e;,&2$%5,/'(

obtención de sistemas multicapa de alta dureza

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

�������������������81,9(56,'$'�$87Ð120$�'(/�(67$'2�'(�0e;,&2��������������,167,7872�1$&,21$/�'(�,19(67,*$&,21(6�18&/($5(6��

�)$&8/7$'�'(�48Ì0,&$�

2%7(1&,Ð1�'(�6,67(0$6�08/7,&$3$�'(�$/7$�'85(=$�325�$%/$&,Ð1�/É6(5�

�7(6,6�

48(�3$5$�2%7(1(5�(/�*5$'2�'(�0$(675Ì$�(1�&,(1&,$�'(�0$7(5,$/(6�

�35(6(17$�

,QGLUD�6DFKHQND�0HMtD�7RUUHV��

'LUHFWRU�GH�7HVLV��'U��/XLV�(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ����

72/8&$��0e;,&2��������������$%5,/�'(�������

Ì1',&(�*(1(5$/���&$3Ì78/2����,QWURGXFFLyQ ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������$QWHFHGHQWHV ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������(VWUXFWXUD�GH�OD�WHVLV������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��

�&$3Ì78/2����3HOtFXODV�'HOJDGDV ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������$VSHFWRV�JHQHUDOHV�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������0XOWLFDSDV���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������7pFQLFDV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������$QWHFHGHQWHV�GH�OD�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������)tVLFD�GH�OD�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������,QWHUDFFLyQ�OiVHU�EODQFR� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������([SDQVLyQ�GH�ODV�HVSHFLHV�DEODFLRQDGDV�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������,QWHUDFFLyQ�HVSHFLHV�HQHUJpWLFDV���VXVWUDWR ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1XFOHDFLyQ�\�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������

�����&DUDFWHUtVWLFDV�JHQHUDOHV�GH�OD�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������&$3Ì78/2����0DWHULDOHV�GH�HVWXGLR �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1LWUXUR�GH�7LWDQLR��7L1������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������&DUERQR�$PRUIR��D�&� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������1LWUXUR�GH�&DUERQR��&1[� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������

�&$3Ì78/2����0pWRGR�H[SHULPHQWDO����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������6LVWHPD�GH�$EODFLyQ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������3URFHGLPLHQWR�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV �������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���

�����7pFQLFDV�'H�&DUDFWHUL]DFLyQ�'H�/DV�3HOtFXODV�'HOJDGDV������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������'LIUDFFLyQ�GH�5D\RV�; ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ ����������(VSHFWURVFRSLD�5DPDQ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������0LFURVFRStD�(OHFWUyQLFD�GH�%DUULGR��0(%�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������(VSHFWURPHWUtD�3RU�'LVSHUVLyQ�'H�(QHUJtD��('6�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3HUILORPHWUtD ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���

�������(QVD\R�GH�0LFURGXUH]D ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1DQRLQGHQWDFLyQ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������

����&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�& ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�&1[�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L�7L1�D�& ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L�7L1�&1[������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���

�&$3Ì78/2����5HVXOWDGRV�\�GLVFXVLRQHV����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3HOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�1LWUXUR�GH�7LWDQLR��7L1� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3HOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�&DUERQR�DPRUIR��D�&������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������3HOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�1LWUXUR�GH�&DUERQR��&1[��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������0XOWLSDFDV�GH�7L�7L1�D�& ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������0XOWLFDSDV�GH��7L�7L1�&1[����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����

�&21&/86,21(6����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �����

������

�����

5HVXPHQ���

(Q�HVWH�WUDEDMR�GH�WHVLV�VH�HVWXGLD�OD�VtQWHVLV�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�QLWUXUR�GH�WLWDQLR��7L1���QLWUXUR�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR��&1[���FDUERQR�DPRUIR��D�&��\�PXOWLFDSDV�GH�7L�7L1�&1[�\�7L�7L1�D�&�PHGLDQWH�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�FRQ�HO�REMHWLYR�GH�REWHQHU�SHOtFXODV�GH�DOWD�GXUH]D��DVt�FRPR�SURGXFLU� UHFXEULPLHQWRV�PXOWLFDSD�FRQ�SURSLHGDGHV�VXSHULRUHV�D�ODV� FDSDV� LQGLYLGXDOHV�� 6H� LQYHVWLJy� HO� HIHFWR� TXH� WLHQH� OD� IOXHQFLD� OiVHU� XVDGD� SDUD�DEODFLRQDU� ORV� EODQFRV� HQ� OD� HVWUXFWXUD� \� SURSLHGDGHV� PHFiQLFDV� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV�GHSRVLWDGDV� GH� 7L1�� 6H� HQFRQWUy� TXH� OD� GXUH]D� VH� LQFUHPHQWD� GH� PDQHUD�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� OLQHDO�FRQ�HO� LQFUHPHQWR�GH� OD� IOXHQFLD�KDVWD� ���-�FP���6H�REWXYLHURQ�SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� D�&� FRQ� GXUH]DV� GHO� RUGHQ� GH� ��� *3D�� DVt� PLVPR� VH� REWXYLHURQ�SHOtFXODV�GH�&1[�FRQ�DOWD�GXUH]D�������*3D����6H�DQDOL]y�OD�GXUH]D�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHSRVLWDGDV�\�VH�UHODFLRQy�FRQ�VX�PLFURHVWUXFWXUD�\�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�GHSyVLWR��6H�FRQFOX\y�TXH�ORV�VLVWHPDV�7L�7L1�&1[�\�7L�7L1�D�&�SUHVHQWDURQ�PD\RU�GXUH]D�TXH�OD�GH�VXV�FRPSRQHQWHV�LQGLYLGXDOHV���

1

&$3Ì78/2����,QWURGXFFLyQ�������$QWHFHGHQWHV��'HVGH� OD� DSDULFLyQ� GHO� KRPEUH� VREUH� OD� 7LHUUD� VH� GLR� OD� HWHUQD� OXFKD� GH� pVWH� SRU� REWHQHU� XQD�PHMRU�PDQHUD�GH�YLYLU��([SORWDU�ORV�UHFXUVRV�QDWXUDOHV�\�WUDQVIRUPDUORV�D�VX�PHMRU�FRQYHQLHQFLD�IXH�XQR�GH�VXV�SULPHURV�UHWRV�\�FRQWLQ~D�VLHQGR�XQD�GH�VXV�SULQFLSDOHV�SUHRFXSDFLRQHV��3URGXFWRV�HYLGHQWHV�GHO�LQJHQLR�GHO�KRPEUH�VRQ�ORV�TXH�FRQRFHPRV�EDMR�HO�QRPEUH�GH��PDWHULDOHV���'LYHUVRV�WLSRV�GH�PDWHULDOHV�KDQ�VLGR�HVWXGLDGRV�D� OR� ODUJR� GH� OD� KLVWRULD�� 'HQWUR�GH� OD� E~VTXHGD�GH�QXHYRV�PDWHULDOHV�SDUD�XWLOL]DUVH�FRPR�UHFXEULPLHQWRV��XQD�GH�ODV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�PDV�GHVHDGD�HV�OD�GXUH]D��VLHQGR�ORV�SULPHURV�LQWHQWRV�KHFKRV�SRU�HO�KRPEUH�SDUD�REWHQHU�PDWHULDOHV�GH�PD\RU�GXUH]D�UHPRQWDGRV�D�OD�HGDG�GH�EURQFH��OD�ILQDOLGDG�IXH�OD�IDEULFDFLyQ�GH�SXQWDV�GH�ODQ]D��GDJDV��HVSDGDV�\�KDFKDV�TXH�SUREDEOHPHQWH�VH�XWLOL]DEDQ�D�OD�YH]�FRPR�DUPDV� \�R� FRPR� KHUUDPLHQWDV�� (Q� WLHPSRV� PiV� UHFLHQWHV�� XQD� JUDQ� FDQWLGDG� GH� HVWXGLRV� KDQ� VLGR�UHDOL]DGRV�HQ�GLYHUVRV�ODERUDWRULRV�DOUHGHGRU�GHO�PXQGR�FRQ�OD�LQWHQFLyQ�GH�REWHQHU�PDWHULDOHV�FDGD�YH]�PiV�GXURV��(QWUH�ODV�QXHYDV�WHQGHQFLDV�WHFQROyJLFDV�SDUD�HO�HQGXUHFLPLHQWR�GH�ORV�PDWHULDOHV�VH�HQFXHQWUD�HO�XVR�GH�UHFXEULPLHQWRV� GXURV� \� VXSHUGXURV∗�� (Q� OD� ILJXUD� ���� VH� PXHVWUDQ� ODV� GXUH]DV� WtSLFDV� GH� DOJXQRV�PDWHULDOHV� GXURV� \� VXSHUGXURV�� (Q� OD� DFWXDOLGDG�� ORV� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� GXURV� VRQ� DPSOLDPHQWH� XWLOL]DGRV�SDUD� SURWHJHU� GLIHUHQWHV� VXVWUDWRV� FRQWUD� HO� GHVJDVWH� \� OD� FRUURVLyQ� HQ� FRQGLFLRQHV� H[WUHPDV� GH�RSHUDFLyQ��FRPR�DPELHQWHV�FRUURVLYRV�\�R�WHPSHUDWXUDV�HOHYDGDV��� OR�TXH�KD�SHUPLWLGR�TXH�PDWHULDOHV�FRQYHQFLRQDOHV� FRPR� HO� DFHUR� SXHGDQ� VHU� XWLOL]DGRV� GH� PDQHUD� PiV� HILFLHQWH� >�@�� (Q� SDUWLFXODU�� OD�DSOLFDFLyQ�GH�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GXURV�VREUH�KHUUDPLHQWDV�GH�FRUWH�SHUPLWH�REWHQHU�YDULRV�EHQHILFLRV��VH�UHGXFH�OD�IULFFLyQ��VH�UHGXFH�HO�GHVJDVWH��VH�REWLHQH�PD\RU�UHVLVWHQFLD�D�OD�FRUURVLyQ��OR�TXH�VH�UHIOHMD�HQ�TXH�DXPHQWD�HO�WLHPSR�GH�YLGD�~WLO�GH�ODV�KHUUDPLHQWDV�GH�FRUWH�>�@���

∗ /RV�PDWHULDOHV�GXURV�VRQ�DTXHOORV�FRQ�GXUH]DV�PHQRUHV�D����*3D�\�ORV�VXSHUGXURV�PD\RU�TXH����*3D

2

�)LJXUD������'XUH]D�9LFNHUV�GH�XQD�VHOHFFLyQ�GH�PDWHULDOHV�GXURV�\�VXSHUGXURV�>�@��

�$GHPiV�GH�VX�XWLOL]DFLyQ�SDUD�VXSHUILFLHV�PDV�GXUDV�GH�PDWHULDOHV�GLYHUVRV��ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�KDQ�VLGR�HPSOHDGRV� SDUD� ILQHV� GHFRUDWLYRV�� FRPR�PDWHULDOHV� LQWHOLJHQWHV�� SDUD� JHQHUDU� HQHUJtD�� UHFXEULPLHQWRV�DQWLUUHIOHMDQWHV�� HQ� OD�PLQLDWXUL]DFLyQ� GH� FLUFXLWRV� LQWHJUDGRV�� FRPR� VHQVRUHV� GH� JDV�� GH� KXPHGDG�� GH�KXPR�\�FRPR�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�ELRFRPSDWLEOHV�SRU�PHQFLRQDU�DOJXQRV�>����@��$�SHVDU�GHO�p[LWR�TXH�KDQ�WHQLGR�ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GXURV�HQ�GLYHUVDV�iUHDV�GH�OD�FLHQFLD�\�OD�WHFQRORJtD��HV�LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH�ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�IRUPDGRV�SRU�XQD�VROD�FDSD�GHO�PLVPR�PDWHULDO�SUHVHQWDQ�DOJXQDV� GHVYHQWDMDV�� OD� PiV� LPSRUWDQWH� \� TXH� OLPLWD� GH� PDQHUD� VLJQLILFDWLYD� VX� IRUPDFLyQ� \� VX� EXHQ�IXQFLRQDPLHQWR� HV� OD� SUHVHQFLD� GH� HVIXHU]RV� LQWUtQVHFRV� TXH� SXHGH� OOHYDU� D� OD� IDOOD� PHFiQLFD� GHO�UHFXEULPLHQWR��(V�LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH�HQ�JHQHUDO�ORV�HVIXHU]RV�LQWUtQVHFRV�VRQ�GHVDUUROODGRV�GXUDQWH�HO� FUHFLPLHQWR� GHO�PDWHULDO� HQ� IRUPD� GH� SHOtFXOD� GHOJDGD�� OLPLWDQGR� HQ� DOJXQRV� FDVRV� OD� IRUPDFLyQ� GH�SHOtFXODV�FRQ�HVSHVRUHV�PD\RUHV�TXH�DOJXQDV�FHQWHQDV�GH�QDQyPHWUR�\D�TXH�OD�DFXPXODFLyQ�GH�HVIXHU]RV�HQ�XQ�GHWHUPLQDGR�HVSHVRU�VH�OLEHUD�PHGLDQWH�GLYHUVRV�PHFDQLVPRV�GH�IDOOD��TXH�OOHYDQ�D�VX�GHODPLQDFLyQ�GHO�VXVWUDWR��(VWRV�HVIXHU]RV�LQWHUQRV�VH�ORJUDQ�UHGXFLU�DO�FRORFDU�XQD�FDSD�LQWHUPHGLD�HQWUH�HO�VXVWUDWR�\� OD�SHOtFXOD��TXH�DGLFLRQDOPHQWH�WDPELpQ�SXHGH�PHMRUDU� OD�DGKHVLyQ��/R�DQWHULRU�KD� OOHYDGR�DO�HVWXGLR�\�IRUPDFLyQ� GH� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� GH� WLSR� PXOWLFDSD�� TXH� FRQVLVWHQ� GH� GRV� R� PiV� FDSDV� GH� PDWHULDOHV�

3

GLIHUHQWHV� DOWHUQDGDV� JHQHUDOPHQWH� GH� PDQHUD� SHULyGLFD�� (V� LPSRUWDQWH� VHxDODU� TXH� XQR� GH� ORV�SURSyVLWRV�GH�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�PXOWLFDSD�IRUPDGR�SRU��GLIHUHQWHV�FRPSRQHQWHV�HV�FRPELQDU�ODV�PHMRUHV�SURSLHGDGHV� GH� FDGD� XQR� GH� ORV� PDWHULDOHV� XWLOL]DGRV� SDUD� SURGXFLU� XQ� UHFXEULPLHQWR� SURWHFWRU� FRQ�SURSLHGDGHV� VXSHULRUHV�� DVt� FRPR� FUHDU� QXHYDV� SURSLHGDGHV� GHO� VLVWHPD� PXOWLFDSD� JHQHUDGDV� SRU� OD�FRPELQDFLyQ� DGHFXDGD� GH� GLIHUHQWHV� PDWHULDOHV� >�@�� (O� LQFUHPHQWR� HQ� OD� GXUH]D� GH� HVWH� WLSR� GH�UHFXEULPLHQWRV� SXHGH� VHU� HQ� DOJXQRV� FDVRV� PiV� DOWR� TXH� HO� GH� ORV� PDWHULDOHV� GH� ORV� FRPSRQHQWHV�LQGLYLGXDOHV��6H� KD� LQWHQWDGR� H[SOLFDU� OD� UD]yQ� GHO� LQFUHPHQWR� GH� OD� GXUH]D� HQ� ORV� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� HQ� IRUPD� GH�PXOWLFDSDV�SHUR�WRGDYtD�KD\�PXFKR�WUDEDMR�SRU�KDFHU�WDQWR�HQ�HO�PHMRUDPLHQWR�PLVPR�GH�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�GH�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV�DVt�FRPR�HQ�HQWHQGHU�OD�IRUPD�FRPR�VH�ORJUD�pVWH��6H�VDEH�TXH�HQ�OD�SHTXHxD�HVFDOD�GH�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV�OD�LQWHUDFFLyQ�GH�OD�LQWHUIDVH�VH�YXHOYH�XQ�IDFWRU�LPSRUWDQWH�\�HO�PDWHULDO�VH�FRPSRUWD�GH�PDQHUD�PX\�GLIHUHQWH�D�VXV�FRQWUDSDUWHV�HQ�YROXPHQ�R�PRQRFDSD �FRQ�HVSHVRU�PD\RU��/DV� LQWHUIDFHV�LPSLGHQ�HO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�GH�ODV�GLVORFDFLRQHV�TXH�VRQ�ODV�TXH�SHUPLWHQ�OD�GHIRUPDFLyQ�GH�ORV�PDWHULDOHV��DGHPiV� EORTXHDQ� OD� SURSDJDFLyQ� GH� PLFURJULHWDV� TXH� VRQ� ODV� UHVSRQVDEOHV� GH� OD� IUDFWXUD� GH� ORV�FHUiPLFRV��6L�VH�FRPSDUDQ�FRQ�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�PRQRFDSD��ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�PXOWLFDSD�WLHQHQ�PHQRU�JUDGR� GH� SRURVLGDG� TXH� DWUDYLHVH� HO� UHFXEULPLHQWR� FRPSOHWR�� OR� FXDO� HYLWD� FDPLQRV� SRU� GRQGH� SXHGDQ�OOHJDU�FRPSXHVWRV�TXtPLFRV�FRUURVLYRV�GHVGH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�DO�VXVWUDWR�SRU� OR�TXH�WDPELpQ�VH�PHMRUD�VX�UHVLVWHQFLD�D�OD�FRUURVLyQ�>�@���'H� OR�DQWHULRU�VH�GHVSUHQGH�TXH� OD� LQYHVWLJDFLyQ�HQ� OD� IRUPDFLyQ�GH�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GXURV�\�GH�QXHYRV�FRPSXHVWRV� EDVDGRV� HQ� HO� GHSyVLWR� GH� VLVWHPDV� PXOWLFDSD�� HV� XQ� WHPD� GH� DFWXDOLGDG� DVt� FRPR� XQ�SUREOHPD� FLHQWtILFR� FRQ� DSOLFDFLRQHV� WHFQROyJLFDV� LQPHGLDWDV�� VX� HVWXGLR� KD� VLGR� PRWLYDGR� GHELGR� DO�PHMRUDPLHQWR� TXH� VH� SRGUtD� REWHQHU� HQ� FXDQWR� D� OD� GXUH]D� \� D� ODV� SURSLHGDGHV� WULEROyJLFDV� HQ� OD�IRUPDFLyQ� GH� HVWRV� PDWHULDOHV�� OR� FXDO� HV� IXQGDPHQWDO� SDUD� HO� GHVDUUROOR� GH� QXHYRV� SURGXFWRV��SDUWLFXODUPHQWH�HQ�HO� iUHD�GH�GHVDUUROOR� GH�PDWHULDOHV�FRQ�PHQRU� IULFFLyQ�� DOWD� GXUH]D�� UHVLVWHQFLD�DO�GHVJDVWH��D� OD� IUDFWXUD�\�EXHQD�DGKHUHQFLD��VH�HVSHUD�TXH� ORV�QXHYRV�PDWHULDOHV� MXHJXHQ�XQ�SDSHO�PX\� **

(O�WpUPLQR�PRQRFDSD�VH�XWLOL]D�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�SDUD�UHIHULUQRV�D�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�TXH�FRQVWDQ�GH�XQ�VROR�PDWHULDO�\�QR�D�XQ�DUUHJOR�ELGLPHQVLRQDO�GH�iWRPRV

4

LPSRUWDQWH� HQ� HO� IXWXUR� >�@�� SRU� OR� TXH� HO� HVWXGLR� GHWDOODGR� GH� VX� VtQWHVLV�� VX�PLFUR�HVWUXFWXUD� \� VXV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�HV�IXQGDPHQWDO���/D�DEODFLyQ� OiVHU�R�3/'��GHO� LQJOpV��3XOVHG�/DVHU�'HSRVLWLRQ���VH�XWLOL]y�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�FRPR�WpFQLFD�GH�SUHSDUDFLyQ� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GHELGR� D� VX� VLPSOLFLGDG� H[SHULPHQWDO�� D� OD� SRVLELOLGDG� GH� GHSRVLWDU�SHOtFXODV�FULVWDOLQDV�D�WHPSHUDWXUDV�EDMDV��PHQRV�GH�����&��>����@��\D�TXH�PpWRGRV�WDOHV�FRPR�'HSyVLWR�4XtPLFR�GH�9DSRU��(YDSRUDFLyQ�UHDFWLYD�\�3XOYHUL]DFLyQ�&DWyGLFD�>�@�UHTXLHUHQ�GH�HOHYDGDV�WHPSHUDWXUDV�GH�VXVWUDWRV��WtSLFDPHQWH�HQWUH�����&�\������&��SDUD�DOFDQ]DU�EXHQD�DGKHVLyQ�HQ�pVWRV�\�DOWD�GXUH]D�>����@���(O�SUHVHQWH� WUDEDMR�VH�GLULJLy�D� OD�VtQWHVLV�\�FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ�GH�FDSDV�GH�7L1��D�&�\�&1[��DVt�FRPR�D� OD�REWHQFLyQ�GH�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSD�WDOHV�FRPR��7L�7L1�&1[��7L�7L1�D�&�GHSRVLWDGDV�VREUH�DFHUR�$,6,������\�VLOLFLR���������(VWUXFWXUD�GH�OD�WHVLV��/D� WHVLV�HVWi�GLYLGLGD�HQ���FDStWXORV��HQ�HO�FDStWXOR� ���VH�SUHVHQWDQ� ORV�DQWHFHGHQWHV�JHQHUDOHV�TXH�KDQ�PRWLYDGR�HVWH�WUDEDMR�\�ORV�REMHWLYRV�GHO�PLVPR��(Q� HO� FDStWXOR� ��� VH� GHVFULEHQ� � ODV� JHQHUDOLGDGHV� VREUH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� \� PXOWLFDSDV� DVt� FRPR�DOJXQDV�SURSLHGDGHV�UHODFLRQDGDV�FRQ�HOODV��VH�GHVFULEHQ�ODV�WpFQLFDV�TXH�VRQ�XWLOL]DGDV�SDUD�OD�REWHQFLyQ�GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� \� HQ� SDUWLFXODU� VH� GLVFXWH� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� DEODFLyQ� OiVHU�� VXV� DQWHFHGHQWHV�� ODV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�JHQHUDOHV�GH�OD�WpFQLFD�DVt�FRPR�ORV�SURFHVRV�ItVLFRV�LQYROXFUDGRV�HQ�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��(Q�HO�FDStWXOR���VH�DERUGDQ� ODV�SULQFLSDOHV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�GH� ORV�PDWHULDOHV�REWHQLGRV�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR��7L1��D�&�\�&1[�GHVGH�HO�SXQWR�GH�YLVWD�GH�VXV�SURSLHGDGHV�\�GH�VXV�SRVLEOHV�DSOLFDFLRQHV��(Q�HO�FDStWXOR���VH�GHVFULEH�OD�IRUPD�GH�UHDOL]DU�ORV�H[SHULPHQWRV�\�ODV�WpFQLFDV�GH�FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ��ODV�FXDOHV� VRQ�� GLIUDFFLyQ� GH� UD\RV� [�� HVSHFWURVFRSLD� 5DPDQ�� HVSHFWURVFRSLD� SRU� GLVSHUVLyQ� GH� HQHUJtD��SHUILORPHWUtD��PLFURGXUH]D�\�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ��WDPELpQ�VH�GHVFULEHQ�ODV�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1��D�&�\�&1[��DVt�FRPR�GH�ORV�GLIHUHQWHV�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSD��

5

(Q� HO� FDStWXOR� ��� VH� UHSRUWDQ� ORV� UHVXOWDGRV� FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV� D� OD� VtQWHVLV� \� FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ� GH� ORV�GLIHUHQWHV�PDWHULDOHV�REWHQLGRV��SUHVHQWiQGRVH�\�GLVFXWLpQGRVH�FDGD�PDWHULDO�GH�PDQHUD�LQGHSHQGLHQWH���)LQDOPHQWH�VH�SUHVHQWDQ�ODV�FRQFOXVLRQHV�GHULYDGDV�GH�HVWH�WUDEDMR���

6

5()(5(1&,$6��>�@� (VSLQR]D� %HOWUiQ� )UDQFLVFR� -DYLHU� \� *RQ]iOH]� +HUQiQGH]� -HV~V�� $YDQFH� \� SHUVSHFWLYD�� ���� �����

��������>�@�� =DPEUDQR�*XVWDYR��5LDVFRV�+HQU\�\�3ULHWR�3HGUR��5HY��$FDG��&RORPE��&LHQF������������������>�@�� +��3UHQJHO��:��3IRXWV��$��6DQWKDQDP��6XUI��&RDW��7HFKQRO���������������������>�@�� /��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��6��5RPHUR��&RQWDFWR�1XFOHDU��1R���������������>�@�� 0��)ORUHV��2��%ODQFR��6��0XKO��&��3LQD��-��+HLUDV��6XUI��&RDW��7HFKQRO�������������������>�@�� &KDQ�+��/��(NDQD\DNH�8��$VKRN�.��$ODP�0��5��<RX�4��-��$��$SSOLHG�6XUIDFH�6FLHQFH���������������������>�@�� /��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��0��$��&DVWUR��6��0XKO��-��$��0HMLD�+HUQDQGH]��$SSOLHG�3K\VLFV��$�����������

�������>�@�� /��*DUFtD��)��-��(VSLQR]D��6XSHUILFLHV�\�9DFtR����������������>�@�� $��/XFKHV��*��/HLJJLHUL��0��0DUWLQR��$SSOLHG�6XUIDFH�6FLHQFH����������������������

7

&$3Ì78/2����3HOtFXODV�'HOJDGDV�������$VSHFWRV�JHQHUDOHV��8QD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�VH�IRUPD�D�WUDYpV�GH�OD�FRQGHQVDFLyQ�iWRPR��PROpFXOD��SRU�iWRPR��PROpFXOD��VREUH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GH�XQ�VXVWUDWR�GH�PDQHUD�FRQWURODGD�\��SXHGH�GHILQLUVH�FRPR�DTXHOOD�HVWUXFWXUD�GH�PDWHULDO�TXH� WLHQH� XQD� GH� VXV� GLPHQVLRQHV�PX\� SHTXHxD� HQ� FRPSDUDFLyQ� FRQ� ODV� RWUDV� GRV�� HQ� OD� SUiFWLFD� VH�FRQVLGHUDQ�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�DTXHOORV�PDWHULDOHV�TXH� WLHQHQ�HVSHVRUHV�GHVGH�SRFRV�QDQyPHWURV� ������P���KDVWD�YDULDV�PLFUDV�������P���DXQTXH�HVWR�QR�HV�PX\�HVSHFtILFR�>�@��(Q�JHQHUDO�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�HQFXHQWUDQ� DSOLFDFLRQHV� HQ� OXJDUHV� GRQGH� VH� UHTXLHUH� XQ� UHFXEULPLHQWR� SURWHFWRU� FRQ� SURSLHGDGHV�HVSHFtILFDV���(V� DVt� TXH� ORV� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� HQ� IRUPD� GH� SHOtFXOD� GHOJDGD� KDQ� UHVXOWDGR� VHU� IXQGDPHQWDOHV� HQ� HO�GHVDUUROOR�GH�OD�WHFQRORJtD�GHELGR�D�OD�JUDQ�YDULHGDG�GH�DSOLFDFLRQHV�TXH�WLHQHQ��SRU�HMHPSOR��HQ�HO�FDPSR�GH� OD�ySWLFD�VH�XWLOL]DQ�FRPR�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�DQWLUHIOHMDQWHV�R�SURWHFWRUHV�GH�HVSHMRV��GLYLVRUHV�GH�KD]���ILOWURV��HWF��HQ�HO�iUHD�GH�OD�HOHFWUyQLFD��VX�LPSDFWR�PiV�LPSRUWDQWH�KD�VLGR�HQ�OD�PLQLDWXUL]DFLyQ�GH�ORV�FLUFXLWRV� LQWHJUDGRV�� OR�TXH�GH�KHFKR�KD�UHYROXFLRQDGR�HVWD�WHFQRORJtD��VH�XWLOL]DQ� WDPELpQ�FRPR�FDSDV�GLHOpFWULFDV�HQ�OD�IDEULFDFLyQ�GH�PLFUR�FRQGHQVDGRUHV��HWF���HQ�HO�FDPSR�GH�OD�RSWRHOHFWUyQLFD�VH�XWLOL]DQ�ODV� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� HQ� GLYHUVRV� GLVSRVLWLYRV� HOHFWURySWLFRV�� FRPR� JXtDV� GH� RQGD�� FRPR� PHGLRV� GH�UHJLVWUR�GH�LQIRUPDFLyQ��HWF���\�HQ�IRUPD�GH�HVWUXFWXUD�PXOWLFDSD�VH�XWLOL]DQ�HQ�OD�IDEULFDFLyQ�GH�HVSHMRV�DOWDPHQWH�UHIOHFWRUHV�SDUD�ORQJLWXGHV�GH�RQGD�HVSHFLILFDV�HQ�UHVRQDGRUHV�OiVHU�>�@��3DUWLFXODUPHQWH��HQ�HO�iUHD�PHWDO�PHFiQLFD��VH�XVDQ�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GXURV�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�HQ�KHUUDPLHQWDV�GH�FRUWH��VXV�SURSLHGDGHV�WULEROyJLFDV �VH�DSURYHFKDQ�SDUD�REWHQHU�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�FRQ�PHQRU�IULFFLyQ�\�UHVLVWHQWHV�DO�GHVJDVWH��GDQGR�FRPR�UHVXOWDGR�SURGXFWRV�FRQ�PHMRU�GHVHPSHxR�\�YLGD�~WLO� PiV� ODUJD�� 3RU� HVWDV� UD]RQHV� DFWXDOPHQWH� OD� LQYHVWLJDFLyQ� HQ� HO� GHVDUUROOR� GH� UHFXEULPLHQWRV�SURWHFWRUHV� GXURV� \� UHVLVWHQWHV� DO� GHVJDVWH� VH� KD� LQFUHPHQWDGR� GH� PDQHUD� QRWDEOH�� /RV� PDWHULDOHV� � /D� WULERORJtD� HVWXGLD� OD� LQWHUDFFLyQ� HQWUH� GRV� VXSHUILFLHV� HQ� PRYLPLHQWR� UHODWLYR�� SRU� OR� TXH� HO� REMHWLYR� GH� ORV� UHFXEULPLHQWRV�WULEROyJLFRV�HV�GREOH��UHGXFLU�OD�IULFFLyQ�\�HO�GHVJDVWH��

8

FRP~QPHQWH� HVWXGLDGRV� SDUD� HVWRV� SURSyVLWRV� VRQ� QLWUXURV� \� FDUEXURV� GH� PHWDOHV� GH� WUDQVLFLyQ�� ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV� GXURV� EDVDGRV� HQ� QLWUXURV� FRPR� HO� 7L1� \� HO� 7L$O1� SRVHHQ� SURSLHGDGHV� PHFiQLFDV� \�WULEROyJLFDV� VXSHULRUHV� D� ODV� GH� ORV� DFHURV�� SRU� HOOR� VRQ� H[WHQVDPHQWH� XWLOL]DGRV� SDUD� PHMRUDU� HO�GHVHPSHxR�H� LQFUHPHQWDU� OD� YLGD�~WLO� GH�KHUUDPLHQWDV�GH�FRUWH��3RU�RWUD�SDUWH�� H[LVWHQ�DOJXQDV�iUHDV�FRPR� HV� HO� FDVR� GH� ORV� GLVFRV� GXURV� GH� DOPDFHQDPLHQWR� PDJQpWLFR� GH� LQIRUPDFLyQ� GRQGH� HO� XVR� GH�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�SURWHFWRUHV�FRQ�DOWD�UHVLVWHQFLD�DO�GHVJDVWH�\�EDMRV�FRHILFLHQWHV�GH�IULFFLyQ�VRQ�IDFWRUHV�FODYH� SDUD� HO� GHVDUUROOR� GH� OD� DFWXDO� \� OD� VLJXLHQWH� JHQHUDFLyQ� GH� PHGLRV� GH� DOPDFHQDPLHQWR� GH�LQIRUPDFLyQ�>�@���������0XOWLFDSDV��$FWXDOPHQWH�VH�KD�HVWDGR� OOHJDQGR�D�XQ� OtPLWH�SDUD�VHJXLU� LQFUHPHQWDQGR� OD�GXUH]D� \� OD� UHVLVWHQFLD�DO�GHVJDVWH� PHGLDQWH� QLWUXURV� \� RWURV� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� HQ� IRUPD� GH� FDSDV� LQGLYLGXDOHV�� SRU� OR� TXH�UHFLHQWHPHQWH�KD�HVWDGR�FUHFLHQGR�HO� LQWHUpV�HQ�HO�HVWXGLR�\�GHVDUUROOR�GH�ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�HQ�IRUPD�GH�PXOWLFDSDV��ORV�FXDOHV�FRQVWDQ�GH�GRV�R�PiV�FDSDV�GH�PDWHULDOHV�GLIHUHQWHV�TXH�VH�GHSRVLWDQ�VREUH�XQ�VXVWUDWR�HQ� IRUPD�DOWHUQDGD�\�JHQHUDOPHQWH�GH�PDQHUD�SHULyGLFD� �)LJXUD������� (O� HVSHVRU�GH� ODV�FDSDV�YDUtD��SHUR�VH�SXHGHQ�OOHJDU�D�SURGXFLU�FDSDV�FRQ�HVSHVRUHV�GH����QP�R�PHQRV��(O�DXPHQWR�GH�LQWHUIDVHV�SDUDOHODV�D�OD�VXSHUILFLH�OLPLWD�OD�SURSDJDFLyQ�GH�PLFURJULHWDV��YHU�)LJXUD�������SRU�OR�TXH�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV�SUHVHQWDQ� PHMRUHV� SURSLHGDGHV� PHFiQLFDV� FRPR� OD� GXUH]D� \� OD� UHVLVWHQFLD� D� OD� IUDFWXUD�� HVWH�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�KD�VLGR�UHSRUWDGR�WDQWR�SDUD�VLVWHPDV�PHWDO�FHUiPLFR�FRPR�HO�7L�7L1�>�@��FRPR�SDUD�VLVWHPDV� FHUiPLFR�FHUiPLFR� FRPR� HO� 7L1�$O�2��� � &RQ� HO� XVR� GH� PXOWLFDSDV� VH� SXHGHQ� FRPELQDU� ODV�PHMRUHV�SURSLHGDGHV�GH�GLIHUHQWHV�PDWHULDOHV�SDUD�SURGXFLU�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�SURWHFWRU�FRQ�SURSLHGDGHV�VXSHULRUHV��

9

�)LJXUD������(VTXHPD�GH�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�PXOWLFDSD�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�

�/RV�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSD�TXH�KDQ�VLGR�HVWXGLDGRV�UHFLHQWHPHQWH�SDUD�PHMRUDU�HO�GHVDUUROOR�WULEROyJLFR�VRQ��&1[�7L1��7L&1[�7L1��7L&�7L1��7L1�7L��GRQGH�OD�FDSD�GH�7L1�HV�XVXDOPHQWH�GHSRVLWDGD�SULPHUR�GHELGR�D�TXH�VH�DGKLHUH�ILUPHPHQWH�D�GLIHUHQWHV�VXVWUDWRV�>�@���

�)LJXUD������(VTXHPD�GH�SURSDJDFLyQ�GH�JULHWDV�HQ�ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�VHQFLOORV�\�HQ�ORV�VLVWHPDV�

PXOWLFDSDV��������7pFQLFDV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��/DV� WpFQLFDV� HPSOHDGDV� SDUD� HO� GHSyVLWR� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� VH� GLYLGHQ� HQ� GRV� JUDQGHV� JUXSRV�� ORV�SURFHVRV�GH�GHSyVLWR�TXtPLFR�HQ�IDVH�YDSRU��&9'��SRU�ODV�VLJODV�HQ�LQJOpV�&KHPLFDO�9DSRU�'HSRVLWLRQ���\�ORV�SURFHVRV�GH�GHSyVLWR�ItVLFR�HQ�IDVH�YDSRU��39'��SRU�ODV�VLJODV�HQ�LQJOpV�GH�3K\VLFDO�9DSRU�'HSRVLWLRQ���

10

(Q�ODV�SULPHUDV��ODV�SHOtFXODV�VH�SURGXFHQ�SRU�OD�UHDFFLyQ�TXtPLFD�GH�GLYHUVRV�FRPSXHVWRV�SDUD�SURGXFLU�XQ�PDWHULDO�HQ� IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��'HQWUR�GH�HVWH�JUXSR�VH�HQFXHQWUDQ� ODV�WpFQLFDV�GH�GHSyVLWR�TXtPLFR� SRU� UHDFFLyQ� HQ� IDVH� YDSRU� \� WpFQLFDV� HOHFWURTXtPLFDV�� (QWUH� ODV� WpFQLFDV� ItVLFDV� GH� GHSyVLWR�HVWiQ��HSLWD[LD�GH�KDFHV�PROHFXODUHV��HYDSRUDFLyQ�WpUPLFD��� OD�SXOYHUL]DFLyQ�FDWyGLFD�\�OD�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�TXH�HV�OD�WpFQLFD�XWLOL]DGD�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR���&9'��

• 'HSyVLWR�TXtPLFR�GHVGH�IDVH�YDSRU��(Q�HVWRV�PpWRGRV�VH�SDUWH�GLUHFWDPHQWH�GH�JDVHV��D�YHFHV�HQ�IRUPD�OtTXLGD�TXH�SDVDQ�D�HVWDGR�GH�YDSRU��ORV�FXDOHV�PHGLDQWH�UHDFFLyQ�HQ�OD�IDVH�YDSRU�GDQ�XQ�SURGXFWR� QXHYR� TXH� VH� FRQGHQVD� HQ� IRUPD� GH� SHOtFXOD� GHOJDGD� VREUH� HO� VXVWUDWR�� XQD� GH� ODV�SULQFLSDOHV�YHQWDMDV�HV�TXH�QR�VH�QHFHVLWD�DOWR�YDFtR��8QD�YDULDQWH�GH�HVWH�PpWRGR�HV�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�FRPSXHVWRV�PHWDORUJiQLFRV��FRQ�OD�FXDO�VH�REWLHQHQ�SHOtFXODV�GH�DOWD�SXUH]D��JUDQ�SHUIHFFLyQ�FULVWDOLQD�\�XQ�DOWR�FRQWURO�GHO�HVSHVRU��OD�GHVYHQWDMD�HV�TXH�ORV�UHDFWLYRV�VRQ�Wy[LFRV�HQ�H[WUHPR��>�@�

39'��(QWUH�ODV�WpFQLFDV�GH�GHSyVLWR�ItVLFR�VH�HQFXHQWUDQ��

• 'HSyVLWR�SRU�SXOYHUL]DFLyQ�FDWyGLFD��VSXWWHULQJ���/D�LQWURGXFH�.DUPLQVN\�HQ�������HQ�XQD�FiPDUD�GH�YDFtR��SUHVLRQHV��� ����[� �����3D��VH� LQWURGXFH�XQ�JDV� LQHUWH�SXUR��TXH�JHQHUDOPHQWH�HV�$UJyQ��$U���KDVWD�XQD�SUHVLyQ�GH�����[������3D��6H�SRODUL]D�HO�FiWRGR��TXH�FRUUHVSRQGH�DO�PDWHULDO�TXH�VH�YD�D�GHSRVLWDU��HQWUH�����\���N9��FUHiQGRVH�DVt�XQ�SODVPD��/RV�LRQHV�SRVLWLYRV�GH�$U��DO�FKRFDU�FRQ�HO�FiWRGR��DUUDQFDQ��R��HYDSRUDQ��HO�PDWHULDO�TXH�GHVSXpV�VH�GHSRVLWDUi�HQ�HO�iQRGR�GRQGH�VH�FRORFD�HO�VXVWUDWR��(O� PpWRGR� HV� HQ� H[WUHPR� YHUViWLO�� SXHV� VH� GHSRVLWDQ� SHOtFXODV� PHWiOLFDV�� GH� y[LGRV� \�VHPLFRQGXFWRUHV��

• (YDSRUDFLyQ� WpUPLFD�� (Q� XQD� FiPDUD� GH� DOWR� YDFtR� �SUHVLRQHV� �� ���� [� ����� 3D��� VH� HYDSRUD� SRU�HIHFWR�-RXOH�HO�PDWHULDO�D�GHSRVLWDU��FRORFiQGROR�GHQWUR�GH�XQ�FULVRO�FRQVWUXLGR�GH�XQ�PDWHULDO�TXH�QR�UHDFFLRQD�FRQ�OD�VXVWDQFLD�D�GHSRVLWDU��

11

• (SLWD[LD�GH�KDFHV�PROHFXODUHV�� /D�HSLWD[LD�SRU�KDFHV�PROHFXODUHV�HV�XQD� WpFQLFD�KDELWXDO�HQ�HO�FUHFLPLHQWR� GH� KHWHURHVWUXFWXUDV� GH� VHPLFRQGXFWRUHV� SRU� OD� JUDQ� SHUIHFFLyQ� FULVWDOLQD� TXH�DOFDQ]D�� 6H� XWLOL]DQ� KDFHV� PROHFXODUHV� TXH� LQFLGHQ� VREUH� XQ� VXVWUDWR� \� GLYHUVDV� UHDFFLRQHV�TXtPLFDV� RFDVLRQDQ� HO� GHSyVLWR� GH�PRQRFDSDV� VXFHVLYDV�� 0HGLDQWH� HO� DGHFXDGR� FRQWURO� GH� ODV�HVSHFLHV�TXtPLFDV�GH�ORV�KDFHV�VH�SXHGH�YDULDU�OD�FRPSRVLFLyQ�GH�ODV�FDSDV�TXH�VH�IRUPDQ��/RV�UHTXHULPLHQWRV�WpFQLFRV�VRQ�HOHYDGRV�SXHV�VH�H[LJH�XQ�SHUIHFWR�FRQWURO�GH�OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�\�GHO�YDFtR�HQ�OD�FiPDUD�GH�FUHFLPLHQWR��

• $EODFLyQ� OiVHU�� 7pFQLFD� GH� GHSyVLWR� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� DOWHUQDWLYD� D� ODV� PHQFLRQDGDV�DQWHULRUPHQWH�TXH�KD�VLGR�DPSOLDPHQWH�XWLOL]DGD�HQ� ORV�~OWLPRV�DxRV�SDUD�SURGXFLU�XQD�DPSOLD�YDULHGDG�GH�PDWHULDOHV�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��GHELGR�D�DOJXQDV�YHQWDMDV�TXH�RIUHFH�VREUH�RWUDV� WpFQLFDV� GH� GHSyVLWR�� 3DUWLFXODUPHQWH� HVWD� WpFQLFD� KD� PRVWUDGR� VHU� PX\� HIHFWLYD� SDUD�GHSRVLWDU� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� GXURV� \� VXSHUGXURV� FRPR� VRQ�� SHOtFXODV� GH� FDUERQR� DPRUIR� WLSR�GLDPDQWH��'/&���7L&��7L%���:&��7L1�HQWUH�RWURV�>����@�

�(Q�JHQHUDO� ODV� WpFQLFDV�&9'�� \� DOJXQDV�39'�� UHTXLHUHQ�GH�DOWDV� WHPSHUDWXUDV�GH�VXVWUDWR� �WtSLFDPHQWH�HQWUH�����&�\������&��SDUD�TXH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�WHQJDQ�EXHQD�DGKHVLyQ�\�DOWD�GXUH]D�>��������@��OR�TXH��SXHGH�UHVXOWDU�SHUMXGLFLDO�HQ�DOJXQRV�FDVRV��FRPR�SRU�HMHPSOR�SDUD�ORV�DFHURV�GH�DOWD�YHORFLGDG��\D�TXH�ODV�DOWDV�WHPSHUDWXUDV� SXHGHQ�PRGLILFDU� VXV� SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�� (Q� HO� FDVR� GH� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� SXOYHUL]DFLyQ�FDWyGLFD��HO�SULQFLSDO�SUREOHPD�TXH�WLHQHQ� ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GH�7L1�GHSRVLWDGRV�SRU�HVWD�WpFQLFD�HV� OD�SUHVHQFLD� GH� GHIHFWRV�� 6H� KD� HQFRQWUDGR� XQD� FRUUHODFLyQ� HQWUH� HO� JURVRU� GH� ORV� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� \� VX�UHVLVWHQFLD� D� OD� FRUURVLyQ�� OR� FXDO� LQGLFD� TXH� ORV� GHIHFWRV� MXHJDQ� XQ� SDSHO� LPSRUWDQWH�� GHELGR� D� TXH�SHUPLWHQ� TXH� OD� VROXFLyQ� HQWUH� HQ� FRQWDFWR� FRQ� HO� VXVWUDWR� LQLFLiQGRVH� OD� FRUURVLyQ�� /RV� SURFHVRV�HOHFWURTXtPLFRV�HPSOHDGRV�SDUD�GHSRVLWDU�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GHFRUDWLYRV�\�IXQFLRQDOHV��GXURV�\�UHVLVWHQWHV�D�OD�FRUURVLyQ��EDVDGRV�HQ�PDWHULDOHV�FRPR�HO�FURPR��HO�FDGPLR�\�HO�QtTXHO�SURGXFHQ�JUDYHV�SUREOHPDV�GH�FRQWDPLQDFLyQ�DPELHQWDO��VREUH�WRGR�VL�QR�VRQ�HVWULFWDPHQWH�YLJLODGRV��(O�&U���TXH�VH�XVD�HQ�HO�GHSyVLWR�HOHFWURTXtPLFR�GH�FURPR�VH�FODVLILFD�FRPR�XQ�FDQFHUtJHQR�FRQILUPDGR�HQ�KXPDQRV��(O�HOHFWURGHSyVLWR�GHO�OODPDGR�FURPR�GXUR�SURGXFH�JUDQGHV�YRO~PHQHV�GH�GHVHFKRV�Wy[LFRV�DGHPiV�GH�FRQWDPLQDFLyQ�GHO�DJXD�

12

\�HO�DLUH�>��@��SRU�OR�TXH�VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�HQWUH�ORV�JUXSRV�GH�WHFQRORJtDV�TXH�QHFHVLWDQ�VHU�UHHPSOD]DGRV�SRU�WHFQRORJtDV�DOWHUQDWLYDV��������$QWHFHGHQWHV�GH�OD�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU���$�PHGLDGRV�GH�ORV�DxRV�VHVHQWD��SRFR�GHVSXpV�GH�OD�LQYHQFLyQ�GHO�OiVHU�GH�UXEt�VH�UHSRUWy�SRU�SULPHUD�YH]�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�SRU�6PLWK�\�7XUQHU�TXLHQHV��XWLOL]DURQ� OD�WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ� OiVHU�>������@��HVWD�WpFQLFD�FRQVLVWH�HVHQFLDOPHQWH�HQ�XWLOL]DU�XQ�OiVHU�SXOVDGR�GH�DOWD�SRWHQFLD�FRPR�IXHQWH�GH�HQHUJtD�SDUD�HYDSRUDU�HO�PDWHULDO�TXH�VH�GHVHD�REWHQHU�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��$XQTXH�GXUDQWH�ORV�DxRV�VLJXLHQWHV�VH�UHDOL]DURQ�YDULRV�WUDEDMRV�HQFDPLQDGRV�D�OD�REWHQFLyQ�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�XWLOL]DQGR�UDGLDFLyQ�OiVHU�FRPR�IXHQWH�GH�HQHUJtD��QR�HV�VLQR�KDVWD�ORV�DxRV���·V�TXH�OD�WpFQLFD�IXH�XWLOL]DGD�DPSOLDPHQWH�SDUD�HO� GHVDUUROOR� H� LQYHVWLJDFLyQ�HQ�HO�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��HO�LPSXOVR�GH� OD� WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ� OiVHU� IXH�GHELGR�D� OD� REWHQFLyQ�H[LWRVD�GH�VXSHUFRQGXFWRUHV�GH�DOWD�WHPSHUDWXUD� FUtWLFD� HQ� XQD� DWPyVIHUD� GH� R[tJHQR� D� EDMD� SUHVLyQ� VLQ� OD� QHFHVLGDG� GH� XQ� WUDWDPLHQWR�SRVWHULRU�DO�GHSRVLWR�>��@��6LQ�HPEDUJR��HO�SURJUHVR�VXEVLJXLHQWH�EXVFDQGR�HO�HVWDEOHFLPLHQWR�GHILQLWLYR�GH� OD�WpFQLFD�SDUD� OD�SURGXFFLyQ�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�FDOLGDG�ySWLPD�IXH� OHQWR��GHELGR�SRU�XQ� ODGR�D�TXH� FRPSHWtD� FRQ� WpFQLFDV� ELHQ� HVWDEOHFLGDV� \� SRU� HO� RWUR�� D� TXH� HO� FRQRFLPLHQWR� VREUH� ORV� SURFHVRV�ItVLFRV� IXQGDPHQWDOHV� LQYROXFUDGRV�HQ�HVWi� WpFQLFD�HUDQ� LQVXILFLHQWHV�� �$FWXDOPHQWH��D�SHVDU�GH�TXH�VH�KDQ� VXSHUDGR�PXFKRV� GH� VXV� SUREOHPDV�� D~Q� SXHGH� FRQVLGHUDUVH� XQD� WpFQLFD� UHODWLYDPHQWH� QRYHGRVD�SDUD� HO� GHSyVLWR� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� \�� VL� VH� OH� FRPSDUD� FRQ� RWUDV� WpFQLFDV� GH� GHSyVLWR� FRPR� SRU�HMHPSOR�OD�SXOYHUL]DFLyQ�FDWyGLFD�R�OD�HSLWD[LD�GH�KDFHV�PROHFXODUHV�D~Q�SHUPDQHFH�LQH[SORUDGD�HQ�JUDQ�SDUWH�� /D� WHFQRORJtD�HPHUJHQWH�SDUD�HO� GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�XWLOL]DQGR� OD� WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU� KD� UHVXOWDGR� VHU� XQD� KHUUDPLHQWD� SRGHURVD� \� YHUViWLO� SDUD� SUHSDUDU� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH�PDWHULDOHV�GLItFLOHV�R� LPSRVLEOHV�GH�SURGXFLU�SRU� ODV�WpFQLFDV�FRQYHQFLRQDOHV�GH�GHSyVLWR� ItVLFR�HQ� IDVH�YDSRU�>��@���$FWXDOPHQWH�OD�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU�HV�XQD�WpFQLFD�DPSOLDPHQWH�XWLOL]DGD�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�y[LGRV��FHUiPLFRV��QLWUXURV�� FDUEXURV�� VLVWHPDV� PHWiOLFRV�� SROtPHURV� \� IXOOHUHQRV� >�@�� SDUWLFXODUPHQWH� HVWD� WpFQLFD� KD�

13

PRVWUDGR� VHU� DGHFXDGD� SDUD� GHSRVLWDU� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� GXURV� \� VXSHUGXURV� FRPR� VRQ�� SHOtFXODV� GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�WLSR�GLDPDQWH��'/&���7L&��7L%���:&��7L1�HQWUH�RWURV�>������@��(Q�HVWD�WpFQLFD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�VH�OOHYD�D�FDER�GHQWUR�GH�XQD�FiPDUD�GH�YDFtR��D�OD�TXH�VH�OH�GHQRPLQD�FiPDUD�GH�DEODFLyQ��GRQGH�VRQ�FRORFDGRV�HO�PDWHULDO�TXH�LQWHUHVD�REWHQHU�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��DO�FXDO�VH�GHQRPLQD�EODQFR��\�HO�VXVWUDWR�VREUH�HO�TXH�VH�TXLHUH�GHSRVLWDU�OD�SHOtFXOD��/D� OX]� LQWHQVD�GH�XQ� OiVHU�SXOVDGR��SHUPLWH�DOFDQ]DU�GHQVLGDGHV�GH�SRWHQFLD�GH� ����:FP���D� �����:FP����VXILFLHQWHV�SDUD�HOHYDU�OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GHO�EODQFR�HQ�YDULRV�PLOHV�GH�JUDGRV�&HOVLXV�GH�PDQHUD�ORFDO��GH�WDO�PDQHUD�TXH�ORV�iWRPRV�GHO�EODQFR�VH�LRQL]DQ��SURGXFLpQGRVH�XQ�SODVPD��������)tVLFD�GH�OD�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU��/D�WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�HPSOHDGD�SDUD�OD�VtQWHVLV�GH�PDWHULDOHV�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�VH�EDVD�HQ�ORV�SURFHVRV�ItVLFRV�LQYROXFUDGRV�GXUDQWH�OD�LQWHUDFFLyQ�GH�UDGLDFLyQ�OiVHU�GH�DOWD�SRWHQFLD�HQ�IRUPD�SXOVDGD� FRQ� EODQFRV� VyOLGRV� >��@�� (VWH� SURFHVR� GH� LQWHUDFFLyQ� LQYROXFUD� HO� DFRSODPLHQWR� GH� OD� HQHUJtD�ySWLFD� FRQ� HO� VyOLGR�� UHVXOWDQGR� HQ� OD� YDSRUL]DFLyQ�� H\HFFLyQ� GH� iWRPRV�� LRQHV�� HVSHFLHV�PROHFXODUHV� \�IUDJPHQWRV� GHO� PDWHULDO�� TXH� GD� OXJDU� D� OD� LQLFLDFLyQ� \� H[SDQVLyQ� GHO� SODVPD� \� HQ� JHQHUDO� D� RWURV�SURFHVRV��/RV�iWRPRV��LRQHV�\�PROpFXODV�TXH�IRUPDQ�HO�SODVPD�VH�FRQGHQVDQ�VREUH�HO�VXVWUDWR�IRUPDQGR�OD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��(Q�OD�ILJXUD�����VH�PXHVWUD�XQD�UHSUHVHQWDFLyQ�HVTXHPiWLFD�GHO�DUUHJOR�H[SHULPHQWDO�SDUD�GHSRVLWDU�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�SRU�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��'HQWUR�GH�OD�FiPDUD�VH�QHFHVLWD�PDQWHQHU�XQD�SUHVLyQ�EDMD�SDUD�GLVPLQXLU�OD�WUD\HFWRULD�OLEUH�PHGLD�GHO�PDWHULDO�DEODFLRQDGR�GHO�EODQFR�HQ�VX�FDPLQR�DO�VXVWUDWR��DGHPiV�GH�TXH�HQ�DOJXQRV�FDVRV�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH� JDVHV� UHVLGXDOHV� HQ� OD� FiPDUD� SXHGH� FRQWDPLQDU� OD� FRPSRVLFLyQ� GH� OD� SHOtFXOD�� 7DPELpQ� HV� SRVLEOH�UHJXODU�OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GHO�VXVWUDWR�\�FRQ�HOOR�FRQWURODU�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�HVSHFtILFDV�HQ�OD�SHOtFXOD�TXH�VH�HVWi�IRUPDQGR��

14

�)LJXUD������(VTXHPD�GH�XQ�DUUHJOR�H[SHULPHQWDO�WtSLFR�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�����FiPDUD�GH�YDFtR�����EODQFR�����PRWRU�����VXVWUDWR�����SOXPD�GH�DEODFLyQ�����SRUWD�VXVWUDWR�FRQ�KRUQR�SDUD�FDOHQWDU��

���KD]�OiVHU�SXOVDGR���(O� SURFHVR� GH� GHSyVLWR� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� SRU� DEODFLyQ� OiVHU� FRQVLVWH� IXQGDPHQWDOPHQWH� GH� FXDWUR�HWDSDV��� ������,QWHUDFFLyQ�OiVHU�EODQFR��&XDQGR� OD� UDGLDFLyQ� HV� DEVRUELGD� SRU� OD� VXSHUILFLH� GHO� EODQFR� OD� HQHUJtD� HOHFWURPDJQpWLFD� VH�FRQYLHUWH�LQPHGLDWDPHQWH�HQ�H[FLWDFLyQ�HOHFWUyQLFD��/RV�HOHFWURQHV�H[FLWDGRV�WUDQVILHUHQ�VX�HQHUJtD�D�OD�UHG�GHO�VyOLGR�HQ�XQRV�SRFRV�SLFRVHJXQGRV�\�FRPLHQ]D�HO�FDOHQWDPLHQWR�GH�OD�FDSD�TXH�DEVRUELy�OD�HQHUJtD��(Q�HVWH�FDVR�OD�OX]�DEVRUELGD�VH�WUDQVIRUPD�HQ�HQHUJtD�WpUPLFD�\�VH�WUDQVSRUWD�GHQWUR�GHO�PDWHULDO��GHSHQGLHQGR�GH�OD�FRQGXFWLYLGDG�WpUPLFD�\�HO�FDORU�HVSHFtILFR�GHO�EODQFR���6L�OD�LQWHQVLGDG�GH�OD� OX]�HV�VXILFLHQWHPHQWH�DOWD�� OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�EODQFR�VH�IXQGH�\�FRPR�FRQVHFXHQFLD�HO�PDWHULDO�VH�HYDSRUD�>������@�� ������([SDQVLyQ�GH�ODV�HVSHFLHV�DEODFLRQDGDV�3DUD� LQWHQVLGDGHV�DOWDV� �GHO� RUGHQ� GH� ����:FP����� ODV�HVSHFLHV� HYDSRUDGDV�VH� LRQL]DQ� \� IRUPDQ� XQ�SODVPD�IUHQWH�D� OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�EODQFR��&HUFD�GH� OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�EODQFR�HO�YDSRU�HV�SDUFLDOPHQWH�LRQL]DGR�� IRUPDQGR� XQ� SODVPD� TXH� FRPLHQ]D� D� DEVRUEHU� OD� UDGLDFLyQ� OiVHU� LQFLGHQWH�� HVWH� SURFHVR�SURYRFD� HO� FDOHQWDPLHQWR� GHO� SODVPD� \� IDYRUHFH� OD� LRQL]DFLyQ� \�R� H[FLWDFLyQ� GHO� PDWHULDO� HPLWLGR��

15

GDQGR� OXJDU�D� OD� IRUPDFLyQ�GH�XQ�SODVPD�H[FLWDGR�� TXH�DO�GHVH[FLWDUVH� IRUPD�XQD�SOXPD�YLVLEOH�GH�EULOODQWHV�FRORUHV��TXH�FRQVWLWX\H�XQD�GH�ODV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�GLVWLQWLYDV�GH�OD�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��>������@�� ������,QWHUDFFLyQ�HVSHFLHV�HQHUJpWLFDV���VXVWUDWR�/RV�SURFHVRV�GH�LQWHUDFFLyQ�GH�ODV�SDUWtFXODV�GHO�SODVPD�FRQ�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�VXVWUDWR��VRQ�GH�JUDQ�LPSRUWDQFLD�SDUD� OD�VtQWHVLV�GH�PDWHULDOHV�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��/D�ItVLFD�GH�HVRV�SURFHVRV�GHSHQGH�IXHUWHPHQWH�GH�OD�HQHUJtD�GH�ODV�HVSHFLHV�HQ�HO�SODVPD��HVSHFLHV�FRQ�HQHUJtDV�!���H9�SXHGHQ�FDXVDU�GDxR�UDGLDWLYR�VREUH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�VXVWUDWR��SRU�HMHPSOR�VSXWWHULQJ��/RV�LRQHV�FRQ�HQHUJtDV�HQWUH�����\�����H9�FUHDQ�GHIHFWRV�HQ�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�VXVWUDWR�GHO�WLSR�GH�YDFDQFLDV�R�SXHGHQ�SURYRFDU�SURFHVRV�GH�LQWHUGLIXVLyQ�HQ�OD�LQWHUIDVH�>�@���� ������1XFOHDFLyQ�\�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��3DUWH� GHO�PDWHULDO� TXH� FRPSRQH� OD� SOXPD� SXHGH� UH�GHSRVLWDUVH� HQ� HO� EODQFR� R� GHSRVLWDUVH� HQ� ODV�SDUHGHV�GH� OD�FiPDUD��VLQ�HPEDUJR�OD�PD\RUtD�DOFDQ]D�D� OOHJDU�DO�VXVWUDWR��GRQGH�RFXUUHQ�GLYHUVRV�IHQyPHQRV�GH�QXFOHDFLyQ�\�FUHFLPLHQWR��,QLFLDOPHQWH�ODV�HVSHFLHV�TXH�IRUPDQ�DO�SODVPD�LQFLGHQ�VREUH�HO� VXVWUDWR�� HVWDV� SDUWtFXODV� FKRFDQ� \� UHERWDQ� R� SXHGHQ� DGKHULUVH� D� OD� VXSHUILFLH�� (Q� HO� FDVR� GH�DGKHULUVH�D� OD�VXSHUILFLH��HVWDV�SXHGH�UH�HYDSRUDUVH�GHVSXpV�GH�XQ�FRUWR�WLHPSR��6LQ�HPEDUJR� ORV�iWRPRV�DGVRUELGRV� SXHGHQ�PLJUDU� D� OR� ODUJR� GH� OD� VXSHUILFLH� GHO� VXVWUDWR� \� IRUPDU� DJUHJDGRV�� /D�PRYLOLGDG�GH�ORV�iWRPRV�GHWHUPLQD�FRPSOHWDPHQWH�HO�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�TXH�VH�YH�LQIOXHQFLDGR�SRU�IDFWRUHV�H[SHULPHQWDOHV�WDOHV�FRPR�OD�WDVD�GH�GHSyVLWR��OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GH�VXVWUDWR��OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�JDVHV�GH�WUDEDMR��DVt�FRPR�OD�HVWUXFWXUD�\�PRUIRORJtD�GH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�VXVWUDWR��

������&DUDFWHUtVWLFDV�JHQHUDOHV�GH�OD�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��(Q�WpUPLQRV�JHQHUDOHV�HVWD�WpFQLFD�WLHQH�ODV�VLJXLHQWHV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV���� 'HSRVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�FULVWDOLQDV�D�WHPSHUDWXUD�DPELHQWH�R�ELHQ�D�EDMDV�WHPSHUDWXUDV�GH�VXVWUDWR�

�PHQRV�GH�����&�� >��@��0pWRGRV�GLIHUHQWHV�D�pVWH� WDOHV�FRPR�'HSyVLWR�4XtPLFR�HQ� IDVH�9DSRU���(YDSRUDFLyQ�UHDFWLYD�\�3XOYHUL]DFLyQ�&DWyGLFD� �UHTXLHUHQ��HQ�JHQHUDO��GH�DOWDV�WHPSHUDWXUDV�GH�VXVWUDWR���

16

� 7UDQVIHUHQFLD�FRQJUXHQWH� �FRQVHUYDFLyQ�GH� OD�FRPSRVLFLyQ���HVWR�TXLHUH�GHFLU�TXH�EDMR�FLHUWDV�FRQGLFLRQHV� H[SHULPHQWDOHV�� VH� SXHGH� FRQVHJXLU� TXH� OD� SHOtFXOD� GHSRVLWDGD� WHQJD� OD� PLVPD�FRPSRVLFLyQ�TXH�HO�EODQFR�

� 3UiFWLFDPHQWH�VH�SXHGH�GHSRVLWDU�FXDOTXLHU�PDWHULDO��GHVGH�HOHPHQWRV�SXURV�KDVWD�FRPSXHVWRV�GH�HOHYDGD�FRPSOHMLGDG��

� /D�WpFQLFD�RIUHFH�OD�SRVLELOLGDG�GH�FRQWURODU�HO�HVSHVRU�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�FRQ�EXHQD�SUHFLVLyQ��OR�TXH�SHUPLWH� WUDEDMDU� HQ� VLVWHPDV� GH� EDMD� GLPHQVLRQDOLGDG� GRQGH� VH� UHTXLHUHQ� HVSHVRUHV� GH� XQDV�FXDQWDV�PRQRFDSDV�>��@��

� (V�XQD�WpFQLFD�YHUViWLO�SRUTXH�PXFKRV�SDUiPHWURV�SXHGHQ�VHU�FDPELDGRV�GHELGR�D�TXH�HO� OiVHU�VH�HQFXHQWUD�IXHUD�GH�OD�FiPDUD��WDOHV�FRPR�OD�IOXHQFLD��OD�ORQJLWXG�GH�RQGD��OD�GXUDFLyQ�GH�SXOVR�\�IUHFXHQFLD��WDPELpQ�HV�SRVLEOH�OD�YDULDFLyQ�GH�ODV�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�SUHSDUDFLyQ�FRPR�OD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR��WHPSHUDWXUD�GH�VXVWUDWR��JDV�\�SUHVLyQ�GH�WUDEDMR�>��@��

�/DV� FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV� DQWHULRUHV� IDFLOLWDQ� OD� REWHQFLyQ� GH� SHOtFXODV� FRQ� ODV� SURSLHGDGHV� GHVHDGDV� GH�FRPSRVLFLyQ��HVWUXFWXUD��HOpFWULFDV�� ySWLFDV��HWF��� VLQ� QHFHVLGDG�GH�UHDOL]DU� WUDWDPLHQWRV�SRVWHULRUHV�DO�GHSyVLWR��FRPR�SRU�HMHPSOR�WUDWDPLHQWRV�WpUPLFRV�HQ�DWPyVIHUD�FRQWURODGD�>�@��(V� LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH� OD� WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ� OiVHU� WDPELpQ� WLHQH�DOJXQDV�GHVYHQWDMDV�R�SUREOHPDV�FRPR� VRQ� OD� IRUPDFLyQ� GH� JUDQGHV� SDUWtFXODV� PLFURVFySLFDV� FRQ� GLiPHWURV� HQWUH� ���� \� ��� PLFUDV��IHQyPHQR�FRQRFLGR�FRPR�´VSODVKLQJµ��VDOSLFDGR��\� OD�GLILFXOWDG�GH�REWHQHU�FDSDV�KRPRJpQHDV�HQ�iUHDV�JUDQGHV�>��@��

17

5()(5(1&,$6���>�@�� /��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��$EODFLyQ�OiVHU�GH�y[LGRV��6tQWHVLV�\�FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��7HVLV�

GH�GRFWRUDGR��8QLYHUVLGDG�$XWyQRPD�GHO�(VWDGR�GH�0p[LFR��&DS������������>�@�� -��&KHXQJ�\�$��6DQNXU��6ROLG�6WDWH�DQG�0DWHU��6FL����������������>�@�� (��&DPSV��2��2OHD��&��*XWLHUUH]�7DSLD��0��9LOODJUDQ��5HYLHZ�RI�6FLHQWLILF�,QVWUXPHQWV�������������������>�@�� &��0RUDQ��3��3ULHWR��$��)RUQ��6XUI��&RDW��7HFKQRO�����������������������>�@� 6��&KLULQR�2UWHJD��'LVHxR�GH�XQD�FiPDUD�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�SRU�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��

7HVLV�GH�OLFHQFLDWXUD��8QLYHUVLGDG�$XWyQRPD�GHO�(VWDGR�GH�0p[LFR��&DS�����������>�@� �&KDQ�+��/��(NDQD\DNH�8��$VKRN�.��$ODP�0��5��<RX�4��,QWXUL�5��%��6KX�1���%DUQDUG�-�$��$SSOLHG�6XUIDFH�

6FLHQFH���������������������>�@�� =DELQVNL�-��6���9RHYRGLQ�$��-��9DF��6FL��7HFKQRO���$������������������>�@�� +��3UHQJHO��:��3IRXWV��$��6DQWKDQDP��6XUI��&RDW��7HFKQRO�������������������>�@�� $��*LDUGLQL��9��0DURWWD��6��2UODQGR��*�3��3DULVL��6XUI��DQG�&RDW��7HFKQRO������������������������>��@�� -��(��6XQGJUHQ�DQG�+��7��*��+HQW]HOO��-��9DF��6FL��7HFKQRO���$�����������������>��@�� %��1DYLQVHN��3��3DQMDQ�DQG�,��0LORVHY��6XUI��DQG�&RDW��7HFKQRO������������������������>��@� +��.UHEV��0��:HLVKHLW��3XOVHG�/DVHU�'HSRVLWLRQ��3/'��²�D�9HUVDWLOH�7KLQ�)LOP�7HFKQLTXH��+��'RXJODV��'��

/RZQGHV��>��@� +��'RXJODV��'��/RZQGHV��%��*HRJKHJDQ��6FLHQFH������������������>��@�� /��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��6��5RPHUR��&RQWDFWR�1XFOHDU��1R���������������>��@�� &KDQ�+��/��(NDQD\DNH�8��$VKRN�.��$ODP�0��5��$SSOLHG�6XUIDFH�6FLHQFH����������������������>��@�� =DELQVNL�-��6���9RHYRGLQ�$��-��9DF��6FL��7HFKQRO���$�������������������>��@�� (GJDU� 9LOODJUiQ� 9DUJDV�� 'HVDUUROOR� \� FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ� GH� GRVtPHWURV� XOWUD�GHOJDGRV� GH� R[LGR� GH�

DOXPLQLR��7HVLV�GH�0DHVWUtD��8QLYHUVLGDG�$XWyQRPD�GHO�(VWDGR�GH�0p[LFR��&DS�����������>��@�� 3��5��:LOOPRWW�DQG�-��5��+XEHU��5HY��0RG��3K\V������������������>��@�� .��6DHQJHU�HQ�3XOVHG�/DVHU�'HSRVLWLRQ�RI�7L1�ILOPV��HG��'��%��&KULVH\�\�*��.��+XEOHU��-RKQ�:LOH\�DQG�

6RQV��,QF��1HZ�<RUN��&DS�����������

18

>��@�/��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��0��$��&DVWUR��6��0XKO���$SSO��3K\V���$������������>��@�� /��3RQFH��0��)HUQiQGH]�*XDVWL��(��-LPpQH]��(��+DUR��3RQLDWRZVNL��5HYLVWD�0H[LFDQD�GH�)tVLFD������1R��

����������������

19

&$3Ì78/2����0DWHULDOHV�GH�HVWXGLR�������1LWUXUR�GH�7LWDQLR��7L1���(O� 1LWUXUR�GH� 7LWDQLR�HV�XQ�PDWHULDO� FHUiPLFR�� FRQ�DOWD� UHVLVWHQFLD�TXtPLFD�SXHV�HV�DOWDPHQWH� LQHUWH�D�iFLGRV��EDVHV�\�VROYHQWHV��VX�FRHILFLHQWH�GH�H[SDQVLyQ�WpUPLFD�HV�GH�����[��������&����VX�PyGXOR�GH�<RXQJ�R�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG�HV�GH�����*3D�� �SUHVHQWD�XQD�UD]yQ�GH�3RLVVRQ�GH������\�XQD�EUHFKD�GH�HQHUJtD�HQWUH������\������H9���VH�R[LGD�D�����&�HQ�DLUH��VX�SXQWR�GH�IXVLyQ�HV�GH������&�\�VX�GHQVLGDG�HV�GH�����J�FP��>�@��/D� HVWUXFWXUD� FULVWDOLQD� GHO� 7L1� HV� F~ELFD� FHQWUDGD� HQ� ODV� FDUDV� �IFF�� >�@�� VX� SDUiPHWUR� GH� UHG� HV�D ������� o

A ��/RV�iWRPRV�GH�WLWDQLR��7L��VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�GLVSXHVWRV�HQ� ODV�DULVWDV�\�HQ�HO�FHQWUR�GH�FDGD�XQD�GH� ODV�FDUDV�GHO�FXER��PLHQWUDV�TXH� ORV�iWRPRV�GH�QLWUyJHQR��1��VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�SRVLFLRQDGRV�GH�WDO�PDQHUD�TXH� IRUPDQ�XQD�VXEUHG�F~ELFD�FRQFpQWULFD�D� OD� UHG�F~ELFD�SULQFLSDO�� FRQ�XQD�GLVWDQFLD� � HQWUH�iWRPRV�GH�QLWUyJHQR�GH������ o

A ��/D�ILJXUD�����PXHVWUD�OD�HVWUXFWXUD�GHO�QLWUXUR�GH�WLWDQLR�\�OD�RULHQWDFLyQ�HQ�ORV�SODQRV�������\�����������

��

�D��� E��� F���)LJXUD�����5HSUHVHQWDFLyQ�HVTXHPiWLFD�GH�OD�HVWUXFWXUD�GHO�7L1��D��(VWUXFWXUD�FULVWDOLQD�IFF��E��

(VWUXFWXUD�FULVWDOLQD�HQ�OD�RULHQWDFLyQ�GHO�SODQR��������F��(VWUXFWXUD�FULVWDOLQD�HQ�OD�RULHQWDFLyQ�GHO�SODQR�������

20

(QWUH�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�GHO�7L1�HQ�IRUPD�GH�SHOtFXOD�VH�SXHGHQ�GHVWDFDU�VXV�EDMDV�WDVDV�GH�UHVLVWHQFLD�DO�GHVJDVWH�\�D� OD�FRUURVLyQ��DVt�FRPR�VX�HVWDELOLGDG�WpUPLFD��SRU� OR�TXH�KD�VLGR�XQ�PDWHULDO�DPSOLDPHQWH�HVWXGLDGR� \� XWLOL]DGR�SRU�PiV�GH� ��� DxRV�FRPR� UHFXEULPLHQWR�GXUR�� SRU�HMHPSOR�� HQ� OD� LQGXVWULD�GH� OD�KHUUDPLHQWD�VH�KD�UHSRUWDGR�TXH�UHFXEULHQGR�EURFDV�FRQ�XQD�FDSD�GH�7L1�VH�LQFUHPHQWD�HQ�PiV�GH�WUHV�YHFHV� HO� Q~PHUR� GH� EDUUHQRV� TXH� VH� SXHGHQ� UHDOL]DU�� $GLFLRQDOPHQWH� VH� ORJUD� XQ� DXPHQWR� GH� OD�SURGXFWLYLGDG�HQ�HO�PDTXLQDGR�\D�TXH�FRQ�ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GH�7L1�VH�REWLHQHQ�FRUWHV�PiV�ILQRV��DGHPiV�GH�TXH�VH�LQFUHPHQWD�OD�YHORFLGDG�GH�FRUWH�>�@��(V�LPSRUWDQWH�PHQFLRQDU�TXH�OD�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L1�WLHQHQ� DSOLFDFLRQHV� FRPR� EDUUHUD� GH� GLIXVLyQ�� FRPR� UHFXEULPLHQWRV� DQWLUHIOHFWRUHV�� FRPR� SHOtFXODV�WUDQVSDUHQWHV�VHOHFWLYDV�\�SRU�VX�FDUDFWHUtVWLFR�FRORU�GRUDGR�VH�XWLOL]DQ�HQ�DSOLFDFLRQHV�GHFRUDWLYDV�>�@��DGHPiV�SRU�VHU�ELRFRPSDWLEOH�VH�XVD�HQ�LPSODQWHV�GHO�FXHUSR�KXPDQR�>�@��/D�GXUH]D�\�HO�FRORU�GH�ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GH�7L1�VRQ�IXHUWHPHQWH�GHSHQGLHQWHV�GH�VX�FRPSRVLFLyQ�\�ODV�IDVHV�SUHVHQWHV��(VWR�SHUPLWH�XVDU�HO�FRORU�GRUDGR�FRPR�XQ�SDUiPHWUR�FXDOLWDWLYR�GH�FRQWURO�GH�FDOLGDG�HQ� ORV�SURFHVRV�GH�GHSyVLWR��6H�KD�REVHUYDGR�SRU�HMHPSOR�TXH�HO�FDPELR�HQ� OD�RULHQWDFLyQ�SUHIHUHQFLDO�������KDFLD�XQD�PH]FOD�GH�������\�������YXHOYH�PiV�DPDULOOR�HO�FRORU�GH�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GH�7L1�GHSRVLWDGRV�SRU�FKDSHDGR�LyQLFR�>�@��/DV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L1�KDQ�VLGR�SUHSDUDGDV�XWLOL]DQGR�XQD�JUDQ�YDULHGDG�GH�WpFQLFDV�GH�GHSRVLWR�WDOHV�FRPR�3XOYHUL]DFLyQ�&DWyGLFD��(YDSRUDFLyQ�5HDFWLYD��'HSyVLWR�SRU�+D]�GH�,RQHV��$EODFLyQ�/iVHU�>�@��DVt�FRPR�XWLOL]DQGR�SURFHVRV�&9'�>�@��(Q�HVWH�~OWLPR�FDVR�HO�7L1�VH�JDQy�VX�DFHSWDFLyQ�LQLFLDO�JUDFLDV�D�TXH�SUHVHQWy�DOWD�DGKHVLyQ�\�UHVLVWHQFLD�DO�GHVJDVWH�FXDQGR�VH�DSOLFy�SRU�WpFQLFDV�&9'�VREUH�FDUEXURV�HPSOHDGRV�HQ�KHUUDPLHQWDV�GH�FRUWH��(V�LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH�HQ�ORV�SURFHVRV�&9'��OD�DOWD�DGKHVLyQ�VH�GHEH� D� TXH� ODV� HOHYDGDV� WHPSHUDWXUDV� ������ &�� IDYRUHFHQ� OD� GLIXVLyQ� GHO� PDWHULDO� GHO� UHFXEULPLHQWR�GHQWUR� GHO� VXVWUDWR�� (VWDV� WHPSHUDWXUDV� QR� GDxDQ� ORV� FDUEXURV�� SHUR�VL� SHUMXGLFDQ� ORV� DFHURV� GH� DOWD�YHORFLGDG��TXH�SXHGHQ�PRGLILFDU�VXV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV��3RU�HOOR��ORV�SURFHVRV�&9'�QR�VRQ�PX\�~WLOHV�SDUD�UHFXEULU�DFHURV���/RV� YDORUHV� GH� GXUH]D� WtSLFRV� UHSRUWDGRV� SDUD� SHOtFXODV� GH� 7L1� HVWiQ� HQWUH� ������ *3D� >��� ��� �@�GHSHQGLHQGR� GH� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� GHSRVLWR� DVt� FRPR� GH� ORV� SDUiPHWURV� XWLOL]DGRV� SDUD� VX� IRUPDFLyQ�� GHO�

21

HVSHVRU�GH� OD�FDSD��GH� OD� WpFQLFD�GH�PHGLFLyQ�GH�GXUH]D�H� LQFOXVR�GH� OD� RULHQWDFLyQ�FULVWDORJUiILFD�GHO�GHSRVLWR��VLHQGR�OD�GLUHFFLyQ�������OD�TXH�SUHVHQWD�OD�PD\RU�GXUH]D�>����@��������&DUERQR�$PRUIR��D�&��

(O�FDUERQR�HV�XQ�QR�PHWDO��SHUWHQHFH�DO�UHGXFLGR�JUXSR�GH�HOHPHQWRV�TXtPLFRV�TXH�SXHGHQ�GDU�RULJHQ�D�GLIHUHQWHV�WLSRV�GH�HVWUXFWXUDV�OODPDGDV�DOyWURSRV��ODV�GRV�IRUPDV�FULVWDOLQDV�DORWUySLFDV�SULQFLSDOHV�GHO�FDUERQR�VRQ��HO�GLDPDQWH�\�HO�JUDILWR��ILJXUD�������8QD�WHUFHUD�IRUPD�GHQRPLQDGD�IXOOHUHQR�IXH�SUHVHQWDGD�HQ� ����� \� GHEH� VX� QRPEUH� DO� DUTXLWHFWR� %XFNPLQVWHU� )XOOHU�� IDPRVR� SRU� FRQVWUXLU� XQDV� F~SXODV�JHRGpVLFDV�TXH�UHFXHUGDQ�HQ�VX�HVWUXFWXUD�D�HVWRV�FRPSXHVWRV�TXtPLFRV�>��@��(O� FDUERQR� HV� XQ� HOHPHQWR� QRWDEOH� SRU� YDULDV� UD]RQHV�� 6XV� IRUPDV� DORWUySLFDV� LQFOX\HQ��VRUSUHQGHQWHPHQWH��XQD�GH�ODV�VXVWDQFLDV�PiV�EODQGDV��HO�JUDILWR��\�XQD�GH�ODV�PiV�GXUDV��HO�GLDPDQWH���HO�JUDILWR�HV�RSDFR�\�EXHQ�FRQGXFWRU�HOpFWULFR��PLHQWUDV�TXH�HO�GLDPDQWH�HV�WUDQVSDUHQWH�D�OD�OX]�YLVLEOH��\�HV�DLVODQWH����

����

D��� � � � E���� � � � F��)LJXUD������7UHV�IRUPDV�FULVWDOLQDV�GHO�FDUERQR��D��JUDILWR�FRQ�HQODFH�VS���WULJRQDO���E��GLDPDQWH�FRQ�

HQODFH�VS���WHWUDJRQDO��\�F��IXOOHUHQR��(VWD�YHUVDWLOLGDG�GH� ORV�VLVWHPDV�GH�FDUERQR�SURYLHQH�GH� ODV�SRVLEOHV�KLEULGDFLRQHV�GH� ORV�HQODFHV�&�&��/RV�iWRPRV�GH�FDUERQR�WLHQHQ�FXDWUR�HOHFWURQHV�HQ�VX�FDSD�PiV�H[WHUQD���V����V����S����FXDQGR�VH�HQOD]D�HV�FDSD]�GH�IRUPDU�RUEtWDOHV�PROHFXODUHV�HQ�XQD�GH� ODV�WUHV�KLEULGDFLRQHV��VS��VS��\�VS�� ODV�FXDOHV�VRQ�OLQHDO��WULJRQDO�\�WHWUDKHGUDO�UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�>��@��3DUD�OD�KLEULGDFLyQ�VS���ORV�FXDWUR�RUEtWDOHV�KtEULGRV�VS��IRUPDQ� XQ� WHWUDHGUR� UHJXODU� FRQ� iQJXORV� LJXDOHV� GH� ����� ��·� HQWUH� FDGD� XQR� GH� HOORV� �RULHQWDFLyQ� GH�

22

Pi[LPD�SUREDELOLGDG��IRUPDQGR�XQD�UHG�WULGLPHQVLRQDO�IXHUWH��)LJXUD�����D���(Q�XQ�HQODFH�GH�KLEULGDFLyQ�VS��� ORV� WUHV� RUEtWDOHV� VS�� LGpQWLFRV� VH� ORFDOL]DQ� HQ� HO� PLVPR� SODQR� \� VX� RULHQWDFLyQ� GH� Pi[LPD�SUREDELOLGDG�IRUPD�XQ�iQJXOR�GH������HQWUH�FDGD�XQR�GH�HOORV��)LJXUD�����E���(O�FXDUWR�RUELWDO��HO�HOHFWUyQ�S��QR�KLEULGL]DGR�� HVWi� GLULJLGR� SHUSHQGLFXODUPHQWH� DO� SODQR� TXH� IRUPDQ� ORV� WUHV� RUELWDOHV�� 8Q� HQODFH�VS�FRQVLVWH�GH�GRV�RUEtWDOHV�VS��\�GHELGR�D�OD�IXHUWH�UHSXOVLyQ�PXWXD�HQWUH�HOORV��IRUPDQ�XQ�iQJXOR�GH������\�FRQVHFXHQWHPHQWH�HV�OLQHDO��)LJXUD�����F���/D� HVWUXFWXUD� GHO� GLDPDQWH� HV� SUREDEOHPHQWH� OD� PiV� LPSRUWDQWH� GH� OD� PD\RUtD� GH� ODV� HVWUXFWXUDV�FULVWDORJUiILFDV�TXH�KDQ�VLGR�LQYHVWLJDGDV��/D�HVWUXFWXUD�GHO�GLDPDQWH�WLHQH�OD�FDUDFWHUtVWLFD�GH�TXH�FDGD�iWRPR�GH�FDUERQR�HVWi� URGHDGR�SRU�RWURV�FXDWUR�iWRPRV�GH�FDUERQR�HQ� ODV�HVTXLQDV�GH�XQ� WHWUDHGUR�UHJXODU��FRQ�XQD�ORQJLWXG�GH�DULVWD�HQ�HO�FXER�D� ������ o

A ��\�FDGD�iWRPR�HVWi�HQOD]DGR�D�VXV�YHFLQRV�SRU�IXHUWHV�HQODFHV�FRYDOHQWHV�GH�WLSR�VS���/D�HVWUXFWXUD�GHO�GLDPDQWH�HV�F~ELFD�\�VH�SXHGH�YLVXDOL]DU�FRPR�GRV�HVWUXFWXUDV�IFF�LQWHUSHQHWUDGDV�\�GHVSOD]DGDV�SRU��õ��õ��õ��D��D�OR�ODUJR�GH�OD�GLDJRQDO�GHO�FXER��/D�GLVWDQFLD�&�&�HQWUH� ORV�YHFLQRV�PiV�SUy[LPRV�HV�GH������ o

A ��DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH�XQ� ���SRU�FLHQWR�PD\RU�TXH�HQ�HO�JUDILWR��(O�JUDILWR�VH�FRPSRQH�GH�XQD�VHULH�GH�FDSDV�SODQDV�SDUDOHODV�FRQ�HQODFHV�WULJRQDOHV�VS����YHU�)LJXUD����D���'HQWUR�GH�FDGD�SODQR�HO�iWRPR�GH�&�HVWi�HQOD]DGR�D�RWURV�WUHV�iWRPRV�IRUPDQGR�XQD�VHULH�GH�KH[iJRQRV�FRQWLQXRV�TXH�SXHGHQ�VHU�FRQVLGHUDGRV�FRPR�XQ�DUUHJOR�ELGLPHQVLRQDO�HVHQFLDOPHQWH�LQILQLWR��(O�HQODFH�HV�FRYDOHQWH� GH� WLSR� VS��� HO� FXDUWR� HOHFWUyQ� GH� YDOHQFLD� QR�KLEULGL]DGR� VH� DSDUHD� FRQ� RWUR� HOHFWUyQ�GHVORFDOL]DGR�GHO�SODQR�DG\DFHQWH�PHGLDQWH�HQODFHV�PiV�GpELOHV�GH�WLSR�9DQ�GHU�:DDOV��(Q�HVWH�FDVR� OD�GLVWDQFLD�&�&�HV�GH������ o

A ��

��D�0RGHOR�GHO�iWRPR��GH�FDUERQR�FRQ�KLEULGDFLyQ�

VS���

E�0RGHOR�GHO�iWRPR��GH�FDUERQR�FRQ�KLEULGDFLyQ�VS��

23

�F��0RGHOR�GHO�iWRPR��GH�FDUERQR�FRQ�KLEULGDFLyQ�VS�

)LJXUD�����0RGHOR�GHO�iWRPR�GH�FDUERQR�FRQ�VXV�WUHV�KLEULGDFLRQHV��VS��VS��\�VS����'LIHUHQWHV�7LSRV�GH�&DUERQR�$PRUIR��D�&���$GHPiV� GH� ODV� IRUPDV� FULVWDOLQDV� DQWHULRUPHQWH� GHVFULWDV�� VH� SXHGHQ� REWHQHU� GLIHUHQWHV� WLSRV� GH�SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� FDUERQR� DPRUIR� �D�&��� FRQ� XQD� JUDQ� GLYHUVLGDG� HQ� VX� PLFURHVWUXFWXUD� \�SURSLHGDGHV� WDOHV� FRPR� GXUH]D�� GHQVLGDG�� EUHFKD� GH� HQHUJtD� HQWUH� RWUDV�� FX\D� GLIHUHQFLD� UDGLFD�EiVLFDPHQWH�HQ�OD�IUDFFLyQ�GH�HQODFHV�VS��\�VS��TXH�FRQWLHQHQ��(O� LQWHUpV� SRU� VLQWHWL]DU� D�&� VH� GHEH� D� TXH� SUHVHQWD� SURSLHGDGHV� VXPDPHQWH� DWUDFWLYDV�� TXH� LQFOX\HQ�HQWUH�RWUDV�� UHVLVWHQFLD�DO� DWDTXH�TXtPLFR�� DOWD� GXUH]D� \�EDMR� FRHILFLHQWH�GH� IULFFLyQ�� TXH� ODV�KDFHQ�XQ�PDWHULDO�LGyQHR�FRPR�UHFXEULPLHQWR�GXUR�SURWHFWRU�HQ�DSOLFDFLRQHV�PHFiQLFDV�>������@��2WUDV�DSOLFDFLRQHV�QR� PHQRV� LPSRUWDQWHV� VRQ� HQ� VLVWHPDV� PLFUR� HOHFWURPHFiQLFRV�� GLVSRVLWLYRV� GH� DOPDFHQDPLHQWR�PDJQpWLFR�\�FDEH]DV�OHFWRUDV�GH�GLVFRV�GXURV�>��@��/RV�GLIHUHQWHV�WLSRV�GH�SHOtFXODV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�VH�SXHGHQ�FODVLILFDU�GH�OD�VLJXLHQWH�PDQHUD��D�� &DUERQR� $PRUIR� WLSR�'LDPDQWH� �'$&��� /DV� SHOtFXODV� GH� FDUERQR� DPRUIR� WLSR� GLDPDQWH� �'$&�� VRQ�PHMRU�FRQRFLGDV�HQ�OD�OLWHUDWXUD�FRPR�SHOtFXODV�'/&��'LDPRQG�²�/LNH�&DUERQ���(Q� �����$LVHQEHUJ� \� &KDERW� >��@� GHSRVLWDURQ� ODV�SULPHUDV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�FRQ� OD�WpFQLFD�GH�KD]�GH� LRQHV��HQFRQWUDQGR�TXH�DOJXQDV�SURSLHGDGHV�ItVLFDV�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHSRVLWDGDV�HUDQ�VLPLODUHV�D� ODV�GHO�GLDPDQWH��GHVSXpV�+ROODQG�\�2MKJ�HQ������XWLOL]DQGR�SODVPDV�IRUPDGRV�PHGLDQWH�XQD�GHVFDUJD� GH� UDGLRIUHFXHQFLD� �5)�� GHSRVLWDURQ� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� '$&� \� WDPELpQ� HQFRQWUDURQ� � TXH� ODV�

24

SHOtFXODV� PRVWUDEDQ� H[FHOHQWHV� SURSLHGDGHV� PHFiQLFDV� \� ySWLFDV�� SRU� OR� TXH� FRQILUPDURQ� HO� WUDEDMR�DQWHULRU��OR�FXDO�JHQHUy�JUDQ�LQWHUpV�HQ�HO�HVWXGLR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�'$&���(Q������(QNH�\�FRODERUDGRUHV�>��@�UHSRUWDURQ�TXH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�'/&�WHQtDQ�EDMRV�FRHILFLHQWHV�GH�IULFFLyQ���µ� �������²�����HQ�YDFtR�\�µ� ����������HQ�DLUH����E��&DUERQR�$PRUIR�7HWUDHGUDO��7$&���(O�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�WHWUDHGUDO�HV�XQD�IRUPD�GHO�D�&�FRQ�XQ�DOWR�JUDGR�GH�HQODFHV�VS������������OR�TXH�OH�GD�XQD�DOWD�GHQVLGDG������J�FP���\�DOWD�GXUH]D��GHO��������GH�OD�GHO�GLDPDQWH���$VNHQRY�\�FRODERUDGRUHV�>��@�XVDURQ�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�DUFR�HOpFWULFR�SDUD�SURGXFLU�SHOtFXODV�'$&�FRQ�DOWR�FRQWHQLGR�GH�VS��VLQ�KLGUyJHQR��HVWDV�SHOtFXODV�VRQ�DFWXDOPHQWH�FRQRFLGDV�FRPR�SHOtFXODV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�WHWUDHGUDO��7$&����(O�7$&�KD�VLGR�LGHQWLILFDGR�FRPR�HO�PDWHULDO�FRQ�OD�PLFURHVWUXFWXUD�PiV�SDUHFLGD�D�OD�GHO�GLDPDQWH��FRQ�SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�~QLFDV�GHELGR� D�VX�DOWR� FRQWHQLGR�GH�VS��� � KD�VLGR�FUHFLGR�SRU� YDULDV� WpFQLFDV�WDOHV�FRPR�$UFR�&DWyGLFR�)LOWUDGR� �)&9$��)LOWHUHG�&DWKRGLF�9DFXXP�$UF���KD]�GH� LRQHV�FRQ�VHOHFFLyQ�GH�PDVD��06,%��0DVV�6HOHFWHG�,RQ�%HDPV���SXOYHUL]DFLyQ�FDWyGLFD�\�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�HQWUH�RWUDV�>��@��(O�LQWHUpV�HQ� HO� GHSyVLWR� GH� 7$&� SRU� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� DEODFLyQ� OiVHU� VH� GHULYD� GHO� KHFKR� GH� TXH�VH� SXHGHQ� REWHQHU�SHOtFXODV�7$&�FRQ�DOWR�FRQWHQLGR�GH�VS��D�WHPSHUDWXUD�DPELHQWH�>��@���F��&DUERQR�$PRUIR�WLSR�3ROtPHUR��3$&���6RQ�SHOtFXODV�TXH�FRQWLHQHQ�DOUHGHGRU�GH������DWyPLFR�GH�KLGUyJHQR��OD�FDQWLGDG�GH�pVWH�SXHGH�VHU�FRQWURODGD�GHSHQGLHQGR�GH�OD�WpFQLFD�XWLOL]DGD�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�\�GH�ODV�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�WUDEDMR��(Q�JHQHUDO��XQ�KLGURFDUEXUR�JDVHRVR�HV�XWLOL]DGR�FRPR�JDV�GH�WUDEDMR�SDUD�FUHFHU�HVWH�WLSR�GH�SHOtFXODV��FRQ�OR�FXDO�XQD�FDQWLGDG�GH�KLGUyJHQR�VH�LQFRUSRUD�HQ�OD�PLFURHVWUXFWXUD�GH�pVWDV��WHQLHQGR�FRPR�UHVXOWDGR�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&�VXDYHV��G��&DUERQR�$PRUIR�WLSR�*UDILWR��*$&���(O�&DUERQR�$PRUIR�WLSR�*UDILWR�HVWi�FDUDFWHUL]DGR�SRU�WHQHU�XQD�DOWD� FDQWLGDG�GH�HQODFHV�VS�� \� WDPELpQ�FDUERQR� YtWUHR�� 6H�SLHQVD�TXH�HO� FDUERQR� YtWUHR�VRQ�FDGHQDV�R�PLFURILEUDV�TXH�VH�SDUHFHQ�D�OD�FRQILJXUDFLyQ�GH�ODV�FDGHQDV�GH�SROtPHURV���WLHQH�XQD�HVWUXFWXUD�SRURVD��OD�FXDO�OH�GD�XQD�EDMD�GHQVLGDG��WtSLFDPHQWH�GH�����D�����J�FP���EDMD�EUHFKD�GH�HQHUJtD��������H9��\�EDMR�FRQWHQLGR�GH�VS�����������OR�FXDO�GD�OD�FDUDFWHUtVWLFD�GH�TXH�VHDQ�SHOtFXODV�VXDYHV��

25

/RV�GLIHUHQWHV� WLSRV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�PHQFLRQDGRV�DQWHULRUPHQWH��VH�SXHGHQ�XELFDU�HQ�XQ�GLDJUDPD�WHUQDULR�GH�IDVHV��)LJXUD�������VHJ~Q�VXV�FDQWLGDGHV�GH�HQODFHV�VS���VS��\�GH�KLGUyJHQR��'H�LJXDO�IRUPD��OD�WDEOD�����PXHVWUD�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�ItVLFDV�GH�ODV�GLIHUHQWHV�IRUPDV�GHO�D�&��8QD�JUDQ�YDULHGDG�GH�WpFQLFDV�GH�GHSyVLWR�KDQ�VLGR�HPSOHDGDV�SDUD�SURGXFLU�FDSDV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR��/RV� PpWRGRV� PiV� DPSOLDPHQWH� XVDGRV� LQFOX\HQ� 3(&9'� �'HSyVLWR� TXtPLFR� HQ� IDVH� YDSRU� DVLVWLGR� SRU�SODVPD���SXOYHUL]DFLyQ�FDWyGLFD��GHVFDUJD�GH�DUFR�DVt�FRPR�PpWRGRV�EDVDGRV�HQ�OiVHU�>��@��/RV�GLIHUHQWHV� WLSRV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�PHQFLRQDGRV�DQWHULRUPHQWH��VH�SXHGHQ�XELFDU�HQ�XQ�GLDJUDPD�WHUQDULR�GH�IDVHV��)LJXUD�������VHJ~Q�VXV�FDQWLGDGHV�GH�HQODFHV�VS���VS��\�GH�+��'H�LJXDO�IRUPD��OD�WDEOD�������PXHVWUD�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�ItVLFDV�GH�ODV�GLIHUHQWHV�IRUPDV�GHO�D�&��8QD�JUDQ�YDULHGDG�GH�WpFQLFDV�GH�GHSyVLWR�KDQ�VLGR�HPSOHDGDV�SDUD�SURGXFLU�FDSDV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR��/RV� PpWRGRV� PiV� DPSOLDPHQWH� XVDGRV� LQFOX\HQ� 3(&9'� �'HSyVLWR� TXtPLFR� HQ� IDVH� YDSRU� DVLVWLGR� SRU�SODVPD���SXOYHUL]DFLyQ�FDWyGLFD��GHVFDUJD�GH�DUFR�DVt�FRPR�PpWRGRV�EDVDGRV�HQ�OiVHU�>��@��

�)LJXUD������'LDJUDPD�WHUQDULR�GH�IDVHV�GH�GLIHUHQWHV�IRUPDV�GH�FDUERQR��GHSHQGLHQGR�GH�OD�IUDFFLyQ�GH�HQODFHV�VS��\�HO�FRQWHQLGR�GH�KLGUyJHQR��&DUERQR�$PRUIR�7HWUDHGUDO��7$&���&DUERQR�$PRUIR�7HWUDHGUDO�+LGURJHQDGR��7$&�+���&DUERQR�$PRUIR�+LGURJHQDGR��&DUERQR�$PRUIR��D�&��\��3$&��&DUERQR�$PRUIR�WLSR�

SROtPHUR��>��@��

26

7DEOD������3URSLHGDGHV�ItVLFDV�GH��GLIHUHQWHV�IRUPDV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR��&DWHJRUtD� 'XUH]D�

�*3D��VS������ 'HQVLGDG�

�J�FP����+����DW���

'$&� ������ ������ �������� ������7$&� ������ ������ �������� �����3$&� 6XDYH� ������ �������� ������*$&� 6XDYH� ����� �������� ����>��@�

������1LWUXUR�GH�&DUERQR��&1[���(O�JUDQ�LQWHUpV��SRU�VLQWHWL]DU�HO�QLWUXUR�GH�FDUERQR�VXUJLy�D�UDt]�GHO�WUDEDMR�WHyULFR�GH�0DUYLQ�/��&RKHQ�HQ������� HQ�HO� FXDO� SURSXVR�TXH�GH�H[LVWLU� XQ�FRPSXHVWR� GH�FDUERQR�QLWUyJHQR�FRQ�HQODFH�FRYDOHQWH�� VXV�SURSLHGDGHV� VHUtDQ� VLPLODUHV� R� VXSHULRUHV� D� ODV� GHO� GLDPDQWH�� (VWD� SUHGLFFLyQ� IXH� H[WHQVDPHQWH�FXHVWLRQDGD�GHELGR�D�OD�LGHD�FRP~QPHQWH�DFHSWDGD�GH�TXH�QR�SRGUtD�H[LVWLU�QLQJ~Q�PDWHULDO�TXH�DOFDQ]DUD�OD� GXUH]D� GHO� GLDPDQWH�� $FWXDOPHQWH�� ORV� QLWUXURV� GH� FDUERQR� VH� KDQ� SURSXHVWR� FRPR�PDWHULDOHV� TXH�SXHGDQ�VXVWLWXLU�DO�GLDPDQWH�HQ�DOJXQDV�VLWXDFLRQHV��>��@�/RV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�GH�&1[�SXHGHQ�H[KLELU�SURSLHGDGHV�VLPLODUHV�ODV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�'/&��EDMR�FRHILFLHQWH�GH�IULFFLyQ��DOWD�GXUH]D�\�UHVLVWHQFLD�DO�GHVJDVWH��DGHPiV�GH�TXH�SXHGHQ�VHU�UHVLVWHQWHV�D�OD�IUDFWXUD�\�DOWDPHQWH�HOiVWLFDV��HQ�FRQVHFXHQFLD�SXHGHQ�WHQHU�XQ�DPSOLR�UDQJR�GH�DSOLFDFLRQHV�>��@���/RV�FRPSXHVWRV�GH�QLWUXUR�GH�FDUERQR�SXHGHQ�VHU�FODVLILFDGRV�GHQWUR�GH���WLSRV��D��&1[�6RQ�SHOtFXODV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�FRQ�XQD�IUDFFLyQ�DOWD�GH�iWRPRV�FRQ�HQODFHV�VS���/D�LQWURGXFFLyQ�GH�1�FDXVD�HQOD]DPLHQWR�HQWUH�SODQRV�JUDItWLFRV�GH�FDUERQR��8Q�DVSHFWR�SRFR�XVXDO�GH�HVWDV�SHOtFXODV�HV�TXH�GHSRVLWDGDV�SRU�HQFLPD�GH�����&�OOHJDQ�D�VHU�QDQRHVWUXFWXUDV��FRQ�XQ�IXHUWH�HQOD]DPLHQWR�HQWUH�ORV�SODQRV�JUDItWLFRV��OR�FXDO�GD�XQ�LQFUHPHQWR�HQ�OD�GXUH]D�PHFiQLFD�\�XQD�JUDQ�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�>��@��OD�GXUH]D�GH�HVWRV�PDWHULDOHV�HVWi�HQWUH����*3D�\����*3D�>��@��E�� WD�&1[� (VWH� JUXSR� LQFOX\H� SHOtFXODV� GHSRVLWDGDV� SRU� WpFQLFDV� FRPR� OD� DEODFLyQ� OiVHU� HQ� GRQGH� HO�GHSyVLWR�VH�UHDOL]D�HQ�XQD�DWPyVIHUD�GH�1���ODV�SUHVLRQHV�EDMDV�\�HO�DOWR�JUDGR�GH�LRQL]DFLyQ�DVHJXUD�TXH�

27

HO�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�VHD�FRQWURODGD�SRU�ORV�LRQHV��*HQHUDOPHQWH��HO�FRQWHQLGR�GH�VS��HQ�HO�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�WHWUDHGUDO��WD�&��HV�GHO�RUGHQ�GHO��������SDUD�XQ�FRQWHQLGR�1�GHO�������F��D�&1�+�/DV�SHOtFXODV�D�&1�+��VRQ�GHSRVLWDGDV�XVDQGR�XQD�PH]FOD�GH�JDV�GH�KLGURFDUEXURV��WDOHV�FRPR�PHWDQR�� DFHWLOHQR�� EHQFHQR� \� 1�� R� 1+��� /D� LQFRUSRUDFLyQ� SXHGH� VHU� REVWDFXOL]DGD� FRQ� HO� XVR� GH� DOWDV�WHPSHUDWXUDV� GHO� VXVWUDWR� R� XQD� DOWD� IUDFFLyQ� GH� 1��� SURGXFLHQGR� XQ� PDWHULDO� PiV� WLSR� JUDItWLFR�� (Q�FRQWUDVWH�FRQ�ODV�SHOtFXODV�D�&�1��OD�GXUH]D�GH�HVWDV�SHOtFXODV�GHFUHFH�FRQ�HO�FRQWHQLGR�GH�1�GHELGR�D�OD�IRUPDFLyQ�GH�QLWULORV�R�1+���G��WD�&+1�/DV�SHOtFXODV�WD�&1�+�WLHQHQ�XQ�FRQWHQLGR�PiV�DOWR�GH�VS��\�XQ�PiV�EDMR�FRQWHQLGR�GH�KLGUyJHQR�TXH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&1�+�ODV�GXUH]DV�GH�HVWRV�QLWUXURV�VRQ�GH����*SD�D����*3D��H��D�&1[�WLSR�)XOHUHQR�(VWRV�PDWHULDOHV�HVWiQ�FDUDFWHUL]DGRV�SRU�VX�HVWUXFWXUD�GH�DQLOORV�KH[DJRQDOHV�FRPELQDGD�FRQ�DQLOORV�SHQWDJRQDOHV��HQ�JHQHUDO�SROtJRQRV�FRQ�Q~PHUR�GH� ODGRV� LPSDU��FX\RV�SODQRV�VH�FXUYDQ�H�LQWHUVHFWDQ��(Q�HVWDV�SHOtFXODV�OD�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�HV�DOUHGHGRU�GHO�����\�OD�GXUH]D�HQWUH������� *3D� >��@�� (VWD� PLFURHVWUXFWXUD� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� &1[� WLSR� IXOHUHQR�� IXHURQ� SULPHUR�GHVFXELHUWDV�SRU�6MRVWURP�\�FRODERUDGRUHV�HQ������>��@�\�SRVWHULRUPHQWH�+HOOJUHQ�HQIRFy�VX�WUDEDMR�HQ�VLQWHWL]DU�DTXHOODV�SHOtFXODV�PHGLDQWH�HO�PpWRGR�GH�PDJQHWURQ�VSXWWHULQJ�>��@��9RHYRGLQ�\�FRODERUDGRUHV��>��@�EDVDGRV�HQ�ORV�WUDEDMRV�DQWHULRUHV�PHGLDQWH�HO�PpWRGR�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�ORJUD�FUHFHU�SHOtFXODV�&1[�WLSR�IXOHUHQR��HQ�VX�WUDEDMR�GLVFXWHQ�ODV�FRQGLFLRQHV�DGHFXDGDV�GH�WHPSHUDWXUD�GHO�VXVWUDWR�\�SUHVLyQ�GHO�JDV�GH�QLWUyJHQR�SDUD�OD�VtQWHVLV�GH�HVWH�WLSR�GH�SHOtFXODV���������

28

5()(5(1&,$6��>�@� � KWWS���ZZZ�EU\FRDW�FRP�WLQ�SK\VSURS�KWPO�>�@� � KWWS���HQ�ZLNLSHGLD�RUJ�ZLNL�7LWDQLXPBQLWULGH�>�@� �� )��(VSLQR]D��-��*yQ]DOHV��$YDQFH�\�3HUVSHFWLYD�����������������>�@��� /�� (VFREDU�$ODUFyQ�� (�� &DPSV��0�� $�� &DVWUR�� 6�� 0XKO�� -�� $�� 0HMtD� +HUQiQGH]�� $SSO�� 3K\V��� $����� �����

�������>�@��� %UDXQHU�+��6XUI��$QG�&RDW��7HFKQRO���1R������SS�������������>�@��� 3HUU\�$��-��7KLQ�6ROLG�)LOPV��9RO�����������������>�@� �� +��/MXQJFUDQW]��0��2GpQ��/��+XOWPDQ��-�(��*UHHQH��-��(�6XQGJUHQ��-���$SSO��3K\V�����������������>�@� � 5HEHQQH�+��(��DQG�'��*��%KDW��6XUI�DQG�&RDW��7HFKRQRO���1R���������������>�@��� :HQ�-XQJ�&KX��*H�3LQJ�<X��-LD�+RQJ�+XDQJ��6XUI�DQG�&RDW�7HFKQRO�����������������>��@��� KWWS���HV�ZLNLSHGLD�RUJ�ZLNL�&DUERQR�>��@��� 6��$LVHQEHUJ��5��&KDERW��-��$SSO��3K\V�������������������>��@�� 6��5��3��6LOYD��0LFURVWUXFWXUH�RI�D�&�HQ�3URSHUWLHV�RI�$PRUSKRXV�&DUERQ��HGLWDGR�SRU�6��5DYL�3��6LOYD��

8QLYHUVLW\�RI�6XUUH\��8.��&DS����SS�����������>��@�� -�� 0F/DXJKOLQ�� +DUGQHVV� RI� D&� HQ�3URSHUWLHV� RI� $PRUSKRXV� &DUERQ�� HGLWDGR� SRU� 6�� 5DYL� 3�� 6LOYD��

8QLYHUVLW\�RI�6XUUH\��8.���&DS�����SS�������������>��@�� $��*ULOO��)ULFWLRQ�LQ�GLDPRQG�OLNH�D�&�HQ�3URSHUWLHV�RI�$PRUSKRXV�&DUERQ��HGLWDGR�SRU�6��5DYL�3��6LOYD��

8QLYHUVLW\�RI�6XUUH\��8.��&DS����SS�������������>��@�� $��6��/RLU��*DUUHOLH��&��'RQQHW��-��/��6XEWLO��0��%HOLQ��%��)RUHVW��)��5RJHPRQG�DQG�3��/DSRUWH���$SSOLHG�

6XUIDFH�6FLHQFH������������������>��@�� :��-DFRE�DQG�$��9RQ�.HXGHOO��'HSRVLWLRQ�PHWKRGV�IRU�D�&�OD\HUV�)LOPV�HQ�3URSHUWLHV�RI�$PRUSKRXV�

&DUERQ��HGLWDGR�SRU�6��5DYL�3��6LOYD��8QLYHUVLW\�RI�6XUUH\��8.��&DS����SS�������������>��@�� (��*��:DQJ��3URJUHVV�LQ�0DWHULDOV�6FLHQFH�����������������@��>��@�� +��5LDVFRV�/DQGi]XUL��(ODERUDFLyQ�\�DQiOLVLV�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�&1[�REWHQLGDV�SRU�HO�PpWRGR�GH�

DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��7HVLV�GH�'RFWRUDGR��8QLYHUVLGDG�GHO�9DOOH��&DOL��9DOOH��&RORPELD��&DS������������

29

>��@�� 6��(��5RGLO��6��0XKO��'LDPRQG�DQG�5HODWHG�0DWHULDOV���������������������>��@�� +��6MRVWURP��6��6WDIVWURP��0��%RPDQ��DQG�-��6XQGJUHQ��3K\V��5HY��/HWW��������������������>��@�+��5LDVFRV�/DQGi]XUL��(ODERUDFLyQ�\�DQiOLVLV�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�&1[�REWHQLGDV�SRU�HO�PpWRGR�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��7HVLV�GH�'RFWRUDGR��8QLYHUVLGDG�GHO�9DOOH��&DOL��9DOOH��&RORPELD��&DS������������>��@�� $��$��9RHYRGLQ��-��-RQHV��-��=DELVQNL��=��&]LJDQ\��DQG�/��+XWWPDQ��-��$SSO��3K\V��������������������

30

&$3Ì78/2����0pWRGR�H[SHULPHQWDO��/D� WpFQLFD� SDUD� HO� GHSyVLWR� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� HPSOHDGD� HQ� HO� SUHVHQWH� WUDEDMR�� HV� OD� GHQRPLQDGD�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��(O�VLVWHPD�GH�DEODFLyQ�XWLOL]DGR�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�HVWi�FRQVWLWXLGR�GH�ODV�SDUWHV�TXH�D�FRQWLQXDFLyQ�VH�GHVFULEHQ�\�TXH�VH�LOXVWUDQ�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�����������6LVWHPD�GH�$EODFLyQ��(O�VLVWHPD�GH�DEODFLyQ�XWLOL]DGR�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�HVWi�FRQVWLWXLGR�SRU�ODV�VLJXLHQWHV�SDUWHV��• (O�OiVHU�(Q�HVWH�WUDEDMR�XWLOL]DPRV�FRPR�IXHQWH�GH�HQHUJtD�SDUD� OD�HYDSRUDFLyQ�GH� ORV�PDWHULDOHV��XQ� OiVHU��YHU���$���%��0��,QGXVWULHV�1/�����GH�HVWDGR�VyOLGR��1G��<$*��*UDQDWH�GH�,WULR�\�$OXPLQLR�GRSDGR�FRQ�1HRGLPLR��FRQ�ODV�VLJXLHQWHV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV��

• /RQJLWXG�GH�RQGD�GH�HPLVLyQ�������QP��UHJLyQ�GHO�FHUFDQR�LQIUDUURMR�GHO�HVSHFWUR��• (QHUJtD�Pi[LPD�GHO�SXOVR������P-����• (QHUJtD�PtQLPD�GHO�SXOVR�����P-�• 'XUDFLyQ�GHO�SXOVR����QV�• )UHFXHQFLD�GH�UHSHWLFLyQ�GH�SXOVRV�GH���D����+]�

(V� LPSRUWDQWH� VHxDODU� TXH� XQ� SDUiPHWUR� LPSRUWDQWH� DVRFLDGR� DO� OiVHU� TXH� LQIOX\H� HQ� HO� SURFHVR� GH�DEODFLyQ�HV�OD�GHQVLGDG�GH�HQHUJtD�� �(QHUJtD�SRU�SXOVR�GHO�KD]�OiVHU��ÉUHD�HQ�TXH�VH�IRFDOL]D�>-�FP�@���OD�FXDO��GHSHQGH�GH�GRV�SDUiPHWURV�LPSRUWDQWHV��OD�HQHUJtD�SRU�SXOVR�GHSRVLWDGD�HQ�HO�EODQFR�\�HO�JUDGR�GH�IRFDOL]DFLyQ�GHO�KD]�VREUH�HO�EODQFR��pVWH�~OWLPR�HVWi�GHILQLGR�SRU�HO�WDPDxR�GHO�KD]�VREUH�HO�EODQFR�\�D�VX�YH]�GHSHQGH�GH�OD�GLVWDQFLD�HQWUH�HO�EODQFR�\�OD�OHQWH�XVDGD�SDUD�IRFDOL]DU��GLVWDQFLD�IRFDO� ����FP���• 6LVWHPD�GH�YDFtR�(O�VLVWHPD�GH�YDFtR� OR�FRQVWLWX\HQ�GRV�ERPEDV�GH�YDFtR��XQD�ERPED�GH�YDFtR�GH� WLSR�PHFiQLFR� �$OFDWHO������6'�� \� XQD� ERPED�GH�DOWR� YDFtR�GH� WLSR�GLIXVRUD� �9HHFR�0RGHOR� (3� ���:��� OD� SUHVLyQ�TXH�VH�SXHGH�DOFDQ]DU�HV�GHO�RUGHQ�GH��[�����7RUU��/DV�SUHVLRQHV�GH�OD�FiPDUD�GH�YDFtR�VH�PLGHQ�XVDQGR�XQ�VHQVRU�WLSR�

31

SLUDQL� �%DO]HU��PRGHOR� ,.5�������HO�FXDO�PLGH�DOWDV�SUHVLRQHV� ��[����� 7RUU�� \�XQ�VHQVRU� WLSR�FiWRGR� IUtR��%DO]HU��PRGHOR�735�������HO�FXDO�PLGH�EDMDV�SUHVLRQHV���[�����7RUU���• &iPDUD�GH�DEODFLyQ��/D�FiPDUD�GH�DEODFLyQ�HVWi�FRQVWUXLGD�HQ�DFHUR�LQR[LGDEOH��GLVHxDGD�SDUD�WUDEDMDU�HQ�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�DOWR�YDFtR��a�����7RUU���6H�HQFXHQWUD�FRQHFWDGD�GLUHFWDPHQWH�DO�VLVWHPD�GH�YDFtR�PHGLDQWH�GRV�YiOYXODV�TXH�SHUPLWHQ� KDFHU� HO� YDFtR� PHFiQLFR� \� HO� DOWR� YDFtR� GH� PDQHUD� LQGHSHQGLHQWH�� 'HQWUR� GH� OD� FiPDUD� VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�ORV�VLJXLHQWHV�FRPSRQHQWHV��� 3RUWD� EODQFR�� (VWD� XELFDGR� HQ� HO� HMH� GH� XQ� PRWRU�� OR� FXDO� KDFH� TXH� JLUH� HO� EODQFR� GXUDQWH� HO�

GHSyVLWR��HVWR�HV�FRQ�HO�ILQ�GH�UHGXFLU�OD�IRUPDFLyQ�GH�FUiWHUHV�HQ�HO�EODQFR��� (QWUDGD� SDUD� JDVHV�� 3HUPLWH� WUDEDMDU� HQ� DWPyVIHUDV� FRQWURODGDV� UHDFWLYDV� R� LQHUWHV� �DUJyQ��

QLWUyJHQR�X�R[tJHQR���SXGLpQGRVH�YDULDU�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�WUDEDMR��� 9HQWDQDV�GH�YLGULR��XQD�GH�ODV�FXDOHV�SHUPLWH�OD�HQWUDGD�GHO�KD]�OiVHU�\�ODV�RWUDV�SHUPLWHQ�YLJLODU�HO�

H[SHULPHQWR��� 3RUWD�VXVWUDWR�� (VWD�XELFDGR�SDUDOHOR� IUHQWH�DO�EODQFR� \�FXHQWD�FRQ�XQ�KRUQR� UHVLVWLYR� \D�TXH�HO�

VXVWUDWR� IUHFXHQWHPHQWH� QHFHVLWD� VHU� FDOHQWDGR� SDUD� PHMRUDU� FLHUWRV� SDUiPHWURV� FRPR� OD�DGKHUHQFLD�\�HO�FUHFLPLHQWR�FULVWDOLQR��(O�KRUQR�UHVLVWLYR� �YHU� ILJXUD������ IXH� IDEULFDGR�XWLOL]DQGR�GRV� SODFDV� GH� DFHUR� LQR[LGDEOH�� FRORFDQGR� HQWUH� pVWDV� XQD� UHVLVWHQFLD� GH� WLSR� FRD[LDO� FRQ� XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�GH�PDWHULDO�FHUiPLFR�SDUD�DLVODUOR�GH�ODV�SODFDV�\�HYLWDU�XQ�FRUWR�FLUFXLWR��

3DUD�REWHQHU�XQD�FXUYD�GH�FRPSDUDFLyQ�HQWUH�YROWDMH�\�WHPSHUDWXUD�GHO�VXVWUDWR��VH�FRORFy�XQ�WHUPRSDU��FURPHO�DOXPHO�� WLSR� .�� GLUHFWDPHQWH� VREUH� OD� VXSHUILFLH� GHO� VXVWUDWR� SDUD� UHJLVWUDU� OD� WHPSHUDWXUD� D�GLIHUHQWHV�YROWDMHV��/D�FRUULHQWH�HQ� OD�UHVLVWHQFLD�GHO�KRUQR�VH�UHJXOy�FRQ�XQD�IXHQWH�GH�YROWDMH�GH�WLSR�9DULDF�� (Q� OD� WDEOD� ���� VH�PXHVWUDQ� ODV� WHPSHUDWXUDV� TXH� VH� DOFDQ]DQ� D� GLIHUHQWHV� YROWDMHV� FXDQGR� HO�VXVWUDWR�HV�XQ�GLVFR�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������GH�����FP�HVSHVRU��

���

32

�)LJXUD������+RUQR�UHVLVWLYR��

�7DEOD�����7HPSHUDWXUD�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�D�GLIHUHQWHV�YROWDMHV�SDUD�XQ�GLVFR�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������GH�����FP�HVSHVRU�

9ROWDMH��9�� 7HPSHUDWXUD��&�������� ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������

�(O�HVTXHPD�GHO�HTXLSR�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�XWLOL]DGR�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�VH�PXHVWUD�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�����\�VH�KDUi�UHIHUHQFLD�D�pO�GXUDQWH�HO�GHVDUUROOR�GHO�SURFHGLPLHQWR�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��

33

�)LJXUD�����(VTXHPD�GHO�VLVWHPD�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�SRU�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��

��%ODQFRV�6H�XWLOL]DURQ�EODQFRV�GH�WLWDQLR�\�JUDILWR�GH�DOWD�SXUH]D������������HQ�IRUPD�FLUFXODU�FRQ�XQ�GLiPHWUR�GH���SXOJDGD�\�õµ�GH�JURVRU���6XVWUDWRV�8QD�DSOLFDFLyQ�SRWHQFLDO�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1��&1[��D�&�DVt�FRPR�ORV�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSD�HQ�ODV�SHOtFXODV�LQGLYLGXDOHV� HV� HQ� HO� UHFXEULPLHQWR� GH� PHWDOHV� �VREUH� WRGR� HQ� DFHURV��� HV� DVt� TXH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� VH�GHSRVLWDURQ�VREUH��D��SUREHWDV�GH�DFHUR�$,6,�������YHU�DQH[R���%���GH�����FP�GH�GLiPHWUR�SRU�����FP�GH�HVSHVRU�SXOLGRV�D�HVSHMR�\��E��VREUH�VLOLFLR�FULVWDOLQR�FRQ�RULHQWDFLyQ����������

34

3UHSDUDFLyQ�GH�ORV�VXVWUDWRV�(O�SDVR�LQLFLDO�SDUD�OD�SUHSDUDFLyQ�GH�ORV�VXVWUDWRV�GH�DFHUR�IXH�HO�FRUWH�GH�ORV�PLVPRV��HQ�SUREHWDV�GH���FP�GH�GLiPHWUR�SRU�����FP�GH�HVSHVRU��D�SDUWLU�GH�XQD�EDUUD�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������VLQ�QLQJ~Q�WUDWDPLHQWR�SUHYLR��7RGDV�ODV�PXHVWUDV�IXHURQ�UHFWLILFDGDV�\�SRVWHULRUPHQWH�SXOLGDV�D�HVSHMR�HQ�XQD�GH�ODV�FDUDV�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO��(O�SURFHGLPLHQWR�SDUD�SXOLU�ODV�PXHVWUDV�HV�HO�VLJXLHQWH��

D� 'HVEDVWH�EXUGR��E� 'HVEDVWH�LQWHUPHGLR�F� 3XOLGR�D�HVSHMR�

(O�GHVEDVWH�EXUGR�WLHQH�FRPR�ILQDOLGDG�TXLWDU�ODV�KXHOODV�GH�PHFDQL]DGR��VH�UHDOL]D�HQ�XQD�GHVEDVWDGRUD�GH�FLQWD�OD�FXDO�HV�XQD�EDQGD�UHFXELHUWD�GH�FDUEXUR�GH�VLOLFLR�TXH�JLUD�D�YHORFLGDGHV�GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH������ USP� \� HVWi� EDxDGD� FRQWLQXDPHQWH� GH� DJXD� R� ELHQ�� HO� GHVEDVWH� EXUGR� WDPELpQ� VH� SXHGH� KDFHU�UHFWLILFDQGR�OD�PXHVWUD�HQ�XQD�FDUD�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO��(O� OLMDGR�R�GHVEDVWH�LQWHUPHGLR�WLHQH�FRPR�REMHWLYR�GHMDU�HQ�OD�PXHVWUD�UD\DV�PiV�ILQDV�TXH�ODV�GHMDGDV�SRU�HO�GHVEDVWH�EXUGR�SDUD�TXH�SRVWHULRUPHQWH�VHDQ�IiFLOPHQWH�HOLPLQDGDV�SRU�HO�SXOLGR�D�HVSHMR��6H�KDFH�FRQ� OLMDV� UHFXELHUWDV� GH� SROYR� GH� FDUEXUR� GH� VLOLFLR� �6L&�� GH� GLIHUHQWHV� WDPDxRV� GH� SDUWtFXOD�� /DV�SDUWtFXODV�YDQ�DGKHULGDV�D�XQD�EDVH�GH�SDSHO�PHGLDQWH�XQ�SHJDPHQWR�UHVLVWHQWH�DO�DJXD�\�pVWDV�WLHQHQ�ILORV�TXH�YDQ�FRUWDQGR�HO�PDWHULDO�GH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�UHFWLILFDQGR�PiV�HQWUH�PiV�ILQDV�VHDQ�ODV�SDUWtFXODV��/DV� OLMDV�VHJ~Q�HO� WDPDxR�GH�SDUWtFXOD�VH�FRQRFHQ�SRU�Q~PHUR��SRU�HMHPSOR�� ����� ���������� ����\�����VLHQGR�pVWH�~OWLPR�HO�GH�SDUWtFXODV�PiV�ILQDV��3DUD�HIHFWXDU�HO�GHVEDVWH�LQWHUPHGLR�VH�OLMD�OD�PXHVWUD�FRQ�HO� SDSHO� DEUDVLYR� ���� HQ� VHQWLGR� GH� ���� GH� ODV� OtQHDV� TXH� GHMy� HO� GHVEDVWH� EXUGR�� GHVSXpV� VH� OLMD� OD�PXHVWUD�FRQ�HO�SDSHO�DEUDVLYR�����HQ�VHQWLGR�GH������GH� ODV� OtQHDV�TXH�GHMy�HO�GHVEDVWH�DQWHULRU�\�VH�VLJXH� HO� PLVPR� SURFHGLPLHQWRV� SDUD� ORV� SDSHOHV� DEUDVLYRV� ����� ���� \� ����� HQ� WRGDV� ODV� HWDSDV� GHO�GHVEDVWH�LQWHUPHGLR�VH�XVD�DJXD�FRPR�OXEULFDQWH��'HVSXpV�GH�GHVEDVWDU�OD�PXHVWUD�KDVWD�OD�OLMD������VH�SDVD�DO�SXOLGR�D�HVSHMR��TXH�WLHQH�FRPR�ILQDOLGDG�REWHQHU�XQD�VXSHUILFLH�SODQD�\�OLEUH�GH�ODV�UD\DV�TXH�GHMD�HO� GHVEDVWDGR� LQWHUPHGLR�� HVWH� SXOLGR� VH� KDFH� HQ� XQD� SXOLGRUD� TXH� WLHQH� XQ� GLVFR� JLUDWRULR� GH� DFHUR�FXELHUWR�FRQ�XQ�SDxR�TXH�VLUYH�GH�VRSRUWH�DO�SROYR�DEUDVLYR�TXH�UHDOL]D�HO�SXOLGR��FRUWDQGR�HO�PDWHULDO�GH�OD� VXSHUILFLH� GH� OD� PXHVWUD�� HO� DEUDVLYR� XWLOL]DGR� IXH� XQD� VXVSHQVLyQ� GH� SROYR� GH� y[LGR� GH� DOXPLQLR�

35

�DOXPLQD��GH������D������PLFUDV�GH�WDPDxR�GH�SDUWtFXOD��(V�DVt�TXH�SDUD�HIHFWXDU�HO�SXOLGR�D�HVSHMR�VH�FRORFD� OD� VXSHUILFLH� D� SXOLU� HQ� FRQWDFWR� FRQ� HO� SDxR� DxDGLHQGR� ODV� VXVSHQVLyQ� GH� DOXPLQD� KDVWD� TXH�GHVDSDUH]FDQ�ODV�UD\DV�GHO�GHVEDVWH�LQWHUPHGLR��3DUD�HO�FDVR�GHO�VLOLFLR��VH�FRUWy�HQ�WDPDxRV�GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� ��FP��D�SDUWLU�GH�XQD�REOHD�GH��µ�GH�GLiPHWUR���/LPSLH]D�GH�VXVWUDWRV�(Q�WRGDV�ODV�WpFQLFDV�GH�UHFXEULPLHQWR�\�SDUD�WRGR�WLSR�GH�VXVWUDWR�HV�QHFHVDULR�XQ�FXLGDGR�PX\�HVSHFLDO�HQ�OD�SUHSDUDFLyQ�VXSHUILFLDO��/D�OLPSLH]D�HV�IXQGDPHQWDO�SDUD�FRQVHJXLU�EXHQD�DGKHUHQFLD��/D�SUHVHQFLD�GH�FRQWDPLQDQWHV�WDOHV�FRPR�JUDVDV��y[LGRV��SDUWtFXODV�DGKHULGDV��UHVWRV�GH�SDVWDV�GH�SXOLU�HWF��GLILFXOWDQ�HO�SURFHVR�GH�GHSyVLWR�\�HQ�PXFKRV�FDVRV�OR�LPSLGHQ��&RQ� HO� REMHWLYR� GH� OLPSLDU� ORV� VXVWUDWRV� GH� XQD� JUDQ� SDUWH� GH� ORV� FRQWDPLQDQWHV� PHQFLRQDGRV��SUHYLDPHQWH� DO� GHSyVLWR�� ORV� VXVWUDWRV� IXHURQ� ODYDGRV� FRQ� H[WUDQ� �FRQFHQWUDFLyQ� ����� GHVSXpV� FRQ�DOFRKRO�R�DFHWRQD�\�ILQDOPHQWH�VH�KL]R�XQ�ODYDGR�XOWUDVyQLFR�HO�FXDO�FRQVLVWH�HQ�LQWURGXFLU�HO�VXVWUDWR�HQ�XQ�UHFLSLHQWH�FRQ�DOFRKRO�GXUDQWH����VHJXQGRV��GHVSXpV�VH�VHFD�OD�SUREHWD�FRQ�DLUH�FRPSULPLGR��8QD�YH]�TXH�ORV�VXVWUDWRV�HVWiQ�OLPSLRV��VH�FRORFDQ�HQ�HO�SRUWD�VXVWUDWRV��pVWH�D�VX�YH]�VH�LQWURGXFH�HQ�OD�FiPDUD�DOLQHiQGRVH�FRQ�HO�SRUWDEODQFR��HOLJLpQGRVH�DGHFXDGDPHQWH�OD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR��(Q�FDVR�GH�TXH�HO�VXVWUDWR�UHTXLHUD�FDOHQWDUVH��pVWH�GHEH�VHU�FRORFDGR�HQ�HO�KRUQR�UHVLVWLYR���5HFRPHQGDFLRQHV�JHQHUDOHV�TXH�GHEHQ�VHJXLUVH�DO�XWLOL]DU�HO�HTXLSR�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�D��6L�WLHQH�GXGDV�DFHUFD�GHO�HTXLSR�R�VX�IXQFLRQDPLHQWR��HV�SUHIHULEOH�FRQVHJXLU�LQIRUPDFLyQ�\D�TXH�FRUUH�HO�ULHVJR�GH�GDxDUOR���E��&XDQGR�HO�OiVHU�HVWp�GLVSDUDQGR�HV�QHFHVDULR�WHQHU�SXHVWDV�ODV�JDIDV�GH�VHJXULGDG��F��'HELGR�D�TXH�HO� OiVHU�TXH�VH�XWLOL]D�HV�GH�DOWD�SRWHQFLD��QR�VH�GHEHQ�FRORFDU�HQ�OD�WUD\HFWRULD�GHO�KD]�REMHWRV� UHIOHFWRUHV�� WDOHV� FRPR� KHUUDPLHQWDV�� UHORMHV� GH� SXOVHUD� R� FXDOTXLHU� RWUR� REMHWR� TXH� SXHGD�UHIOHMDU�HO�KD]��\D�TXH�GLFKR�UHIOHMR�SXHGH�DOFDQ]DU�ORV�RMRV�GHO�H[SHULPHQWDGRU��

36

G��$VHJXUDUVH�GH�TXH�HO�VLVWHPD�GH�HQIULDPLHQWR�GH�OD�ERPED�GLIXVRUD�IXQFLRQH�HQ�IRUPD�DGHFXDGD�FXDQGR�HVWp�HQ�XVR��H��/D�FiPDUD�GH�DOWR�YDFtR�\�FXDOTXLHU�DFFHVRULR�TXH�VH�HQFXHQWUH�HQ�VX�LQWHULRU�GHEHQ�HVWDU�OLPSLRV��HV�GHFLU��OLEUHV�GH�UHVLGXRV��SROYR��HWF����\D�TXH�ODV�LPSXUH]DV�SXHGHQ�GHVJDVLILFDUVH�HQ�XQ�WLHPSR�PX\�JUDQGH�LPSLGLHQGR�DOFDQ]DU�HO�YDFtR�UHTXHULGR���*HQHUDOPHQWH��SDUD�PDQLSXODU�DFFHVRULRV�HQ�HO�LQWHULRU�GH�OD�FiPDUD�HV�UHFRPHQGDEOH�XWLOL]DU�JXDQWHV�GH�OiWH[����������3URFHGLPLHQWR�SDUD�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��9DFtR�GH�OD�FiPDUD�&DOHQWDPLHQWR�GH�ERPED�GLIXVRUD� �6H�HQFLHQGHQ�ODV�ERPEDV�PHFiQLFD�\�GLIXVRUD��VH�SURFHGH�D�DEULU�OD�YiOYXOD�GH�OD�ERPED�GLIXVRUD�9��\�OD�OODYH�GHO�DJXD��VH�GHMD�FDOHQWDQGR�OD�GLIXVRUD�GXUDQWH����PLQ��DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH��HVWR�FRQ�OD�ILQDOLGDG�GH�TXH�DOFDQFH�OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GH�WUDEDMR��\D�TXH�HV�HO�YDSRU�GH�DFHLWH�HO�TXH�KDFH�HO�WUDEDMR�GH�HYDFXDFLyQ����3UHYDFtR�8QD�YH]�TXH� OD�ERPED�GLIXVRUD�DOFDQ]y� OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�DGHFXDGD��VH�SURFHGH�D�KDFHU�XQ�SUHYDFtR�HQ� OD�FiPDUD��HVWR�VH�KDFH�GH�OD�VLJXLHQWH�PDQHUD��VH�FLHUUD�OD�YiOYXOD�9���FDEH�KDFHU�PHQFLyQ�TXH�pVWD�YiOYXOD�QR�SXHGH�SHUPDQHFHU�FHUUDGD�GXUDQWH�XQ�SHULRGR� ODUJR� �PHQRV�GH���PLQXWRV���D�FRQWLQXDFLyQ�VH�DEUH�OHQWDPHQWH�OD�YiOYXOD�GH�OD�ERPED�PHFiQLFD��9����VH�SUHQGH�HO�PHGLGRU�GH�YDFtR��09��\�VH�HVSHUD�D�TXH�OD�SUHVLyQ�DOFDQFH�HO�YDORU�GH�����[�������7RUU��FRQ�HVWR�VH�JHQHUD�XQ�YDFtR�SUHYLR�HQ�OD�FiPDUD���3XUJDGR�\�OOHQDGR�GHO�WXER�TXH�FRQHFWD�HO�WDQTXH�GH�1��$U��/D� OODYH�GHO�WDQTXH�GHEH�GH�HVWDU�FHUUDGD�� �VH�DEUH� OD�YiOYXOD�GH�DJXMD��9$��� �VH�VXEH� OD�HVFDOD�GH�9$�D�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� ����� OD� SUHVLyQ� HQ� HO� PHGLGRU� VXELUi� PiV� R� PHQRV� DO� RUGHQ� GH� �[���� 7RUU���

37

SRVWHULRUPHQWH�VH�HVSHUD�D�TXH�OD�SUHVLyQ�VHD�GHO�RUGHQ�GH��[�����7RUU��VH�FLHUUD�9$��3DUD�HO�OOHQDGR�GH�OD�OtQHD�GH�JDV�GH�1��$U���/����VH�DEUH�OD�OODYH�GHO�WDQTXH�\�GHO�PDQyPHWUR�GHO�WDQTXH�GH�1��$U����$OWR�YDFtR�6H�FLHUUD� OD�YiOYXOD�9��\�VH�DEUH� OD�YiOYXOD�9���SDUD� ORJUDU�HO�DOWR�YDFtR�UHTXHULGR�VH�DEUH� OD�YiOYXOD�GH�FRPSXHUWD��9&��\�HQ�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH����PLQXWRV�VH�ORJUD�OD�SUHVLyQ�EDVH����[�������7RUU����&DOHQWDPLHQWR�GH�VXVWUDWR�6H�XWLOL]D�HO�KRUQR�UHVLVWLYR�\�VH�HOLJH�HO�YROWDMH�GH�����9ROWV�SDUD�DOFDQ]DU�XQD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GH�����&��OD�FXDO�VH�VHOHFFLRQy�GHELGR�D�TXH�HQ�WUDEDMRV�DQWHULRUHV�>����@��VH�UHSRUWy�TXH�D�WHPSHUDWXUDV�EDMDV������&�²�����&��PHMRUDEDQ�WDQWR�OD�DGKHUHQFLD�FRPR�OD�GXUH]D�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1��\�WDPELpQ�TXH�HUD�SRVLEOH�REWHQHU�SHOtFXODV�FULVWDOLQDV���2SHUDFLyQ�GHO�/iVHU�3DUD�RSHUDU�HO�OiVHU��HO�SURFHGLPLHQWR�HV�HO�VLJXLHQWH���(V� QHFHVDULR� HQFHQGHU� HO� VLVWHPD� GH� HQIULDPLHQWR� \� HVSHUDU� D� TXH� OD� WHPSHUDWXUD� VH� HVWDELOLFH� HQ�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH����&��GHVSXpV�VH�SUHQGH�HO�OiVHU�\�VH�GHEH�GH�ILMDU�OD�HQHUJtD�GH�WUDEDMR��SDUD�HVWR�VH�PLGH�OD�HQHUJtD�GH�XQ�VROR�SXOVR�\�SRVWHULRUPHQWH�VH�DXPHQWD�R�GLVPLQX\H�HVWD�HQHUJtD�KDVWD�REWHQHU�HO�YDORU�GH�OD�HQHUJtD�UHTXHULGD��ILQDOPHQWH�VH�FRORFD�OD�IUHFXHQFLD�GH�WUDEDMR���6LVWHPD�ySWLFR�8QD�YH]�ILMDGRV�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�GHO�OiVHU��HQHUJtD�\�IUHFXHQFLD���VH�SURFHGH�D�GLULJLU�HO�KD]�VREUH�HO�EODQFR�FRQ�XQ�VLVWHPD�GH�HVSHMRV��SRVWHULRUPHQWH�VH�HQIRFD�FRQ�XQD�OHQWH�HVIpULFD�FRQ�GLVWDQFLD�IRFDO�GH����FP��OD�FXDO�VH�DFHUFD�R�DOHMD�GHO�EODQFR�GHSHQGLHQGR�GHO�WDPDxR�GH�´VSRWµ�TXH�VH�UHTXLHUD�XWLOL]DU�����

38

'HSyVLWR�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�<D� TXH� VH� WLHQHQ� ODV� FRQGLFLRQHV� HVWDEOHFLGDV� GH� GHSyVLWR�� VH� HQFLHQGH� HO�PRWRU� GHO� SRUWDEODQFR� \� VH�SURFHGH� D� GLVSDUDU� VREUH� HO� EODQFR�� 'HEH� YHULILFDUVH� TXH� OD� SUHVLyQ� GH� WUDEDMR� SHUPDQH]FD� FRQVWDQWH�GXUDQWH�HO�WLHPSR�GH�GHSyVLWR���$SDJDGR�GHO�HTXLSR�$O�WHUPLQDU�HO�GHSyVLWR�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD��VH�DSDJD�HO� OiVHU��HO�VLVWHPD�GH�HQIULDPLHQWR�VH�GHMD�IXQFLRQDQGR�GXUDQWH����PLQXWRV�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH��VH�FLHUUD� OD�YiOYXOD�GH�FRPSXHUWD�\�VH�DEUH� OD�YiOYXOD�GH�YHQWHR��SDUD� OLEHUDU� HO� YDFtR� HQ� OD� FiPDUD�� VH� UHWLUD� OD� EULGD� TXH� FRQWLHQH� HO� SRUWDVXVWUDWRV� \� VH� UHWLUDQ� ORV�VXVWUDWRV�VREUH�ORV�FXDOHV�VH�GHSRVLWDURQ�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��������7pFQLFDV�GH�FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV���������'LIUDFFLyQ�GH�5D\RV�;��/D�GLIUDFFLyQ� GH� UD\RV�;�HV�XQD� WpFQLFD� QR�GHVWUXFWLYD�TXH�SURSRUFLRQD� LQIRUPDFLyQ�GLUHFWD�VREUH� ODV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�HVWUXFWXUDOHV�GH�ORV�PDWHULDOHV���/RV�PDWHULDOHV�SXHGHQ�H[LVWLU�HQ�IRUPD�FULVWDOLQD�R�DPRUID��XQ�PDWHULDO�HV�FULVWDOLQR�FXDQGR�ORV�iWRPRV�TXH� OR� FRPSRQHQ�VH� GLVWULEX\HQ� GH� IRUPD� UHJXODU� \� SHULyGLFD� D� OR� ODUJR� GHO� HVSDFLR� HQ� IRUPD� GH� UHG��8QLHQGR�HQWUH�Vt� ORV�SXQWRV�GH� OD� UHG��HO�HVSDFLR�TXHGD�GLYLGLGR�HQ�SDUDOHOHStSHGRV�HOHPHQWDOHV�TXH�VH�UHSLWHQ��OODPDGRV�FHOGDV�XQLWDULDV�R�FULVWDOLWRV��SRU�RWUD�SDUWH�XQ�PDWHULDO�HV�DPRUIR�FXDQGR�QR�WLHQH�XQ�DUUHJOR�UHJXODU�GH�iWRPRV��(O�DUUHJOR�UHJXODU�GH�iWRPRV�HV�HO�TXH�SURGXFH�ORV�SDWURQHV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV� ;�� TXH� FRQVLVWHQ� HQ� SLFRV� ORFDOL]DGRV� D� FLHUWRV� iQJXORV� GH� GLIUDFFLyQ� FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV� SDUD� FDGD�PDWHULDO�� (Q� HO� FDVR� GH� PDWHULDOHV� DPRUIRV�� FRPR� QR� H[LVWH� RUGHQ� HQ� HO� DUUHJOR� GH� iWRPRV�� QR� VH�SURGXFLUi�GLIUDFFLyQ� \� HQ�HVWH�FDVR�HO� SDWUyQ�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�QR�SUHVHQWDUD�SLFRV�VLQR�EDQGDV�DQFKDV�H�LQFOXVR�SXHGH�QR�PRVWUDU�QLQJXQD�VHxDO��

39

/D�GLIUDFFLyQ�HV�XQ�IHQyPHQR�RQGXODWRULR�EDVDGR�HQ�OD�LQWHUIHUHQFLD�GH�ODV�RQGDV�HOHFWURPDJQpWLFDV�TXH�VRQ�GLVSHUVDGDV�SRU�OR�iWRPRV�GHO�PDWHULDO��3DUD�REVHUYDU�OD�GLIUDFFLyQ�HQ�ORV�VyOLGRV�VH�GHEHQ�XWLOL]DU�RQGDV�FX\D�ORQJLWXG�VHD�PHQRU�TXH�HO�HVSDFLDGR�HQWUH�iWRPRV�GHO�PDWHULDO��/D�VHSDUDFLyQ�HQWUH�iWRPRV�HQ�XQD�UHG�FULVWDOLQD�DVt�FRPR�ODV�GLPHQVLRQHV�GH�ORV�iWRPRV�VRQ�GHO�RUGHQ�GH�$QJVWURPV�� $

A ���SRU�OR�TXH�VH�XWLOL]DQ�UD\RV�;�SDUD�HVWXGLDU�ORV�PDWHULDOHV��&XDQGR�XQ�DUUHJOR�GH�iWRPRV�HVSDFLDGRV�UHJXODUPHQWH�HV�LUUDGLDGR�FRQ�UD\RV�;��OD�UDGLDFLyQ�GLVSHUVDGD�VXIUH� LQWHUIHUHQFLD�� (O� SURFHVR� GH� GLVSHUVLyQ� VH� OOHYD� D� FDER� GH� OD� VLJXLHQWH� PDQHUD�� ORV� UD\RV� ;�LQWHUDFW~DQ�FRQ�ORV�HOHFWURQHV�GH�ORV�iWRPRV�SURYRFDQGR�TXH�YLEUHQ�FRQ�OD�PLVPD�IUHFXHQFLD�GH�ORV�UD\RV�;�� ORV�HOHFWURQHV�DO� YLEUDU�HPLWHQ�UD\RV�;�FRQ� OD�PLVPD� IUHFXHQFLD�\� ORQJLWXG�GH�RQGD��GH�PRGR�TXH�HO�IHQyPHQR�FRPSOHWR�SXHGH�YHUVH�FRPR�VL�ORV�UD\RV�LQFLGHQWHV�VLPSOHPHQWH�VH�GLVSHUVDUDQ�DO�LQWHUDFWXDU�FRQ�ORV�iWRPRV�GHO�EODQFR��(Q�DOJXQDV�GLUHFFLRQHV�OD�LQWHUIHUHQFLD�HV�FRQVWUXFWLYD�\�HQ�RWUDV�GHVWUXFWLYD��6L� HO� iQJXOR� GH� LQFLGHQFLD� HV� LJXDO� DO� iQJXOR� GH� GLVSHUVLyQ�� ORV� iQJXORV� HVWiQ� GLVSHUVDGRV� HQ� IDVH� \� OD�LQWHUIHUHQFLD�HV�FRQVWUXFWLYD��6LQ� HPEDUJR�� HQ� XQ� FULVWDO�� GRQGH� ORV� iWRPRV� HVWiQ� DUUHJODGRV� HQ� SODQRV� FULVWDOLQRV� LJXDOPHQWH�HVSDFLDGRV�� OD� LQWHUIHUHQFLD� FRQVWUXFWLYD� VyOR� RFXUUH� EDMR� FRQGLFLRQHV�PiV� UHVWULFWLYDV�� /D� ILJXUD� ����PXHVWUD�GRV�SODQRV�FULVWDOLQRV�FRQ�XQD�GLVWDQFLD�LQWHUSODQDU�G��(O�iQJXOR�HQWUH�ORV�SODQRV�\�OD�GLUHFFLyQ�GHO�KD]�HV�HO�iQJXOR�GH�UHIOH[LyQ�θ ��(O�UD\R�5��HV�UHIOHMDGR�SRU�HO�SULPHU�SODQR�SDUD�GDU�5�·��'H�PDQHUD�VLPLODU�HO�UD\R�5��HV�UHIOHMDGR�SRU�HO�VHJXQGR�SODQR�SDUD�GDU�5�·��6L�VH�TXLHUH�TXH� ORV�UD\RV�5�·�\�5�·�VH�UHIXHUFHQ�PXWXDPHQWH�� GHEHQ� WHQHU� OD�PLVPD� IDVH�� HVWD� FRQGLFLyQ� VH� FXPSOH� VL� OD� GLVWDQFLD� DGLFLRQDO�UHFRUULGD�SRU�5�5�··�HV�LJXDO�D�XQ�Q~PHUR�HQWHUR�GH�ORQJLWXGHV�GH�RQGD�GHO�UD\R�;��/D�GLVWDQFLD�DGLFLRQDO�HV��[��DVt�TXH��[� �Qλ ��GRQGH�Q�HV�XQ�Q~PHUR�HQWHUR��3HUR�GH� OD�JHRPHWUtD�GHO�VLVWHPD��[� G�VHQ�θ � ��(Q�FRQVHFXHQFLD��HQ�IXQFLyQ�GHO�HVSDFLDPLHQWR�LQWHUSODQDU�G��OD�FRQGLFLyQ�SDUD�LQWHUIHUHQFLD�FRQVWUXFWLYD�VH�FRQYLHUWH�HQ�

�G�VHQθ �Qλ �GRQGH�Q �������«��HVWD�HV�OD�OH\�IXQGDPHQWDO�GH�OD�FULVWDORJUDItD�GH�UD\RV�;�FRQRFLGD�FRPR�OH\�GH�%UDJJ���SDUD�XQD�ORQJLWXG�GH�UD\RV�;�GDGD��HO�KD]�UHIOHMDGR�HPHUJHUi�VyOR�HQ�DTXHOORV�iQJXORV�SDUD�ORV�FXDOHV�VH�VDWLVIDJD�GLFKD�FRQGLFLyQ��

40

�)LJXUD������'LIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;�SRU�SODQRV�GH�iWRPRV�VHSDUDGRV�XQD�GLVWDQFLD�G��

�(Q�HO�SUHVHQWH�WUDEDMR�VH�HPSOHy�XQ�GLIUDFWyPHWUR�GH�UD\RV�;��HO�FXDO�PLGH� OD� LQWHQVLGDG�GH� ORV�UD\RV�;��GLIUDFWDGRV� SRU� XQ� PDWHULDO�� FRQ� XQ� IRWRGHWHFWRU� GH� HVWDGR� VyOLGR�� (O� GHWHFWRU� '�� SURGXFH� SXOVRV� GH�FRUULHQWH� TXH� VRQ� FRQWDGRV� SRU� XQ� FLUFXLWR� H[WHUQR� DSURSLDGR�� \� pVWH� Q~PHUR� HV� GLUHFWDPHQWH�SURSRUFLRQDO� D� OD� LQWHQVLGDG� GH� ORV� UD\RV� ;� TXH� DOFDQ]DQ� DO� GHWHFWRU�� /D� JHRPHWUtD� GH� OD� FiPDUD� GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�VH�SUHVHQWD��HQ�OD�ILJXUD������/D�PXHVWUD�VH�PRQWD�VREUH�XQD�SODWDIRUPD�3�TXH�SXHGH�JLUDU�HQ�HO�HMH�GH�XQ�FLOLQGUR��HO�GHWHFWRU�\�HO�JHQHUDGRU�*�GH�UD\RV�;�VH�PRQWDQ�VREUH�ODV�SDUHGHV�GH�HVWH�FLOLQGUR�HQ� IRUPD�WDO�TXH� ORV�WUHV�VH�KDOOHQ�FRSODQDUHV��(O�GHWHFWRU�HVWD�PRQWDGR�VREUH�XQ�VRSRUWH�TXH�JLUD�HQ�VLQFURQtD�FRQ�OD�PXHVWUD��GH�PDQHUD�TXH�XQD�URWDFLyQ�SRU�XQ�iQJXOR�GH��θ �GHO�GHWHFWRU�HVWi�DFRPSDxDGD�DXWRPiWLFDPHQWH� SRU� XQD� URWDFLyQ� θ � GH� OD�PXHVWUD�� (VWR� DVHJXUD� TXH� HO� iQJXOR� GH� LQFLGHQFLD� \� HO� GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�TXH�VH�TXLHUH�GHWHFWDU�VHDQ�LJXDOHV��/D�LQWHQVLGDG�GH�OD�UHIOH[LyQ�HV�JUDILFDGD�FRQWUD�HO�iQJXOR�GH�%UDJJ���θ ���OR�TXH�FRQIRUPD�ORV�GLIUDFWRJUDPDV�\�VH�JXDUGDQ�HQ�XQD�FRPSXWDGRUD���

41

���

�D�� E��

)LJXUD������D��'LDJUDPD�GH�XQ�GLIUDFWyPHWUR�GH�UD\RV�;��HQ�GRQGH�*�HV�HO�JHQHUDGRU�GH�UD\RV�;��'�HO�GHWHFWRU��3�HO�SRUWDPXHVWUD��2�HO�FHQWUR�GHO�FtUFXOR�GHO�GLIUDFWyPHWUR�\�θ �HO�iQJXOR�GH�LQFLGHQFLD�GH�ORV�

UD\RV�;��E��HVSHFWURV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�SDUD�XQD�PXHVWUD�FULVWDOLQD�\�SDUD�XQ�PDWHULDO�DPRUIR���/D� LQWHUSUHWDFLyQ�GH� ORV�GLIUDFWRJUDPDV�SDUD� OD� LGHQWLILFDFLyQ�GH�PDWHULDOHV�FULVWDOLQRV�� XVXDOPHQWH�HV�VLPSOH� \D� TXH� H[LVWHQ� EDVHV� GH� GDWRV� FRQ� LQIRUPDFLyQ� GH� DOJXQDV� GHFHQDV� GH� PLOHV� GH� VXEVWDQFLDV�FULVWDOLQDV�WDQWR�RUJiQLFDV�FRPR�LQRUJiQLFDV��'LFKDV�EDVHV�GH�GDWRV�KDQ�VLGR�UHFRSLODGDV�SRU�OD�$PHULFDQ�6RFLHW\�IRU�7HVWLQJ�0DWHULDOV��$670��D�HVFDOD�LQWHUQDFLRQDO��GH�WDO�PDQHUD�TXH�FDGD�PDWHULDO�FODVLILFDGR�SRU�OD�$670�WLHQH�DVLJQDGD�XQD�ILFKD�GH�GDWRV�FRQ�OD�VLJXLHQWH�LQIRUPDFLyQ��� 'HWDOOHV�GH�OD�WpFQLFD�H[SHULPHQWDO�XWLOL]DGD��ORQJLWXG�GH�RQGD��GLiPHWUR��WLSR�GH�FiPDUD���HWF���\�

UHIHUHQFLD�ELEOLRJUiILFD�GHO�WUDEDMR�RULJLQDO��� 'DWRV�FULVWDORJUiILFRV��VLVWHPD�FULVWDOLQR��JUXSR�HVSDFLDO��YDORUHV�GH�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�UHG��HWF����� ,QIRUPDFLyQ�UHODWLYD�D�OD�PXHVWUD��VX�RULJHQ��DQiOLVLV�TXtPLFR��WUDWDPLHQWR�WpUPLFR��HWF����

42

� (Q�IRUPD�GH�FROXPQDV�VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�WDEXODGRV�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�ORV�iQJXORV�R�ELHQ�GH�ODV�GLVWDQFLDV�LQWHUSODQDUHV�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV��(Q�OD�ILJXUD�����VH�PXHVWUD�XQD�ILFKD�$670��OD�TXH�FRUUHVSRQGH�DO�7L1��

(V� LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH�~QLFDPHQWH� ORV�SODQRV�FULVWDORJUiILFRV�SDUDOHORV�D� OD�VXSHUILFLH�GHO�VXVWUDWR�FRQWULEX\HQ� DO� SDWUyQ� GH� GLIUDFFLyQ�� HQ� HO� FDVR� GH� TXH� ORV� GLIHUHQWHV� FULVWDOLWRV� TXH� FRQVWLWX\HQ� HO�PDWHULDO� PXHVWUDQ� DOJXQRV� GH� VXV� SODQRV� FULVWDORJUiILFRV� SUHIHUHQWHPHQWH� RULHQWDGRV� HQ� XQD�GHWHUPLQDGD� GLUHFFLyQ�� HO� SDWUyQ� GH� GLIUDFFLyQ� FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH� VROR� PRVWUDUi� SLFRV� DVRFLDGRV� D� ORV�SODQRV� FULVWDORJUiILFRV� SDUDOHORV� D� OD� VXSHUILFLH�� VH� GLFH� HQWRQFHV� TXH� HO� PDWHULDO� SRVHH� RULHQWDFLyQ�SUHIHUHQFLDO� R� WH[WXUD�� 3RU� RWUD� SDUWH�� FXDQGR� ORV� FULVWDOLWRV� GHO�PDWHULDO� HVWiQ� RULHQWDGRV� DO� D]DU�� HO�SDWUyQ�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�PRVWUDUi�YDULRV�SLFRV�HQ�GRQGH�FDGD�SLFR�FRUUHVSRQGHUi�D�XQ�SODQR�FULVWDORJUiILFR�GLIHUHQWH�\�HQWRQFHV�VH�GLFH�TXH�HO�PDWHULDO�HV�SROLFULVWDOLQR���

�)LJXUD������)LFKD�$670�GH�7L1��

43

/RV� HVSHFWURV� GH� GLIUDFFLyQ� GH� XQ�PDWHULDO� FULVWDOLQR� WDPELpQ� QRV� SHUPLWHQ� GHWHUPLQDU� HO� � WDPDxR� GH�JUDQR�SURPHGLR�� hklD �XVDQGR�OD�IyUPXOD�GH�6FKHUUHU�>�@��

θβλ

cos

9.0=hklD �

GRQGH� β �HV�HO�DQFKR�PHGLR�GHO�SLFR�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ��PHGLGR�HQ�UDGLDQHV��� λ �HV�OD�ORQJLWXG�GH�RQGD�GH�ORV�UD\RV�;�\�θ �HV�HO�iQJXOR�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ��/D�HVWUXFWXUD�FULVWDOLQD�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L1�IXH�HVWXGLDGD�SRU�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;��XWLOL]DQGR�XQ� 'LIUDFWyPHWUR� GH� UD\RV� ;� �6LHPHQV� '������� VH� XWLOL]y� OD� UDGLDFLyQ� .α� GHO� &X� �λ.� � ������� $

A ���7tSLFDPHQWH� ODV�PXHVWUDV�IXHURQ�PHGLGDV�EDMR� ODV�VLJXLHQWHV�FRQGLFLRQHV��SDVR��������θ �GH����D�������9 ����N9��,� ����P$�\�WLHPSR�GH�DGTXLVLFLyQ� ����PLQ����������(VSHFWURVFRSLD�5DPDQ��/D�HVSHFWURVFRSLD�5DPDQ�HV�XQD�WpFQLFD�QR�GHVWUXFWLYD�TXH�SHUPLWH�GHWHUPLQDU�OD�HVWUXFWXUD��FULVWDOLQD�R�DPRUID��GH�ORV�PDWHULDOHV��/D�GLVSHUVLyQ�5DPDQ�VH�EDVD�HQ�OD�GLVSHUVLyQ�GH�OX]�GHELGR�D�OD�LQWHUDFFLyQ�GH�IRWRQHV�FRQ�YLEUDFLRQHV�GH�OD�UHG�FULVWDOLQD�R�IRQRQHV��(Q�XQ�H[SHULPHQWR�5DPDQ�WtSLFR��VH�XWLOL]D�FRPR�IXHQWH�GH�H[FLWDFLyQ�XQ�OiVHU�SDUD�SURGXFLU�OD�GLVSHUVLyQ�5DPDQ��OD�OX]�GLVSHUVDGD�HV�DQDOL]DGD�HQ�XQ�HVSHFWUyPHWUR�\�XQ�GHWHFWRU�FRQ�XQD�VHQVLELOLGDG�FHUFDQD�DO�QLYHO�GH�XQ�VROR�IRWyQ��/D�OX]�GLVSHUVDGD�LQHODVWLFDPHQWH�FRQWLHQH�LQIRUPDFLyQ�GH� ORV�HVWDGRV�YLEUDFLRQDOHV�GH� OD�PXHVWUD�EDMR�HVWXGLR�� ORV�FXDOHV�VH�PDQLILHVWDQ�SRU�FRUULPLHQWRV�GH�IUHFXHQFLD�GH� OD� OX]� LQFLGHQWH��)tVLFDPHQWH� OR�TXH�VXFHGH�HV�TXH� ORV� IRQRQHV�VH�DFRSODQ�D� ORV� IRWRQHV�D�WUDYpV� GH� XQD� SRODUL]DFLyQ� LQGXFLGD� HQ� HO� FULVWDO� SRU� ORV� LQWHQVRV� FDPSRV� HOpFWULFRV� GHO� KD]� OXPLQRVR�XWLOL]DGR�SDUD�OD�H[FLWDFLyQ��(O�PRPHQWR�GLSRODU�LQGXFLGR�HV�XQD�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�IUHFXHQFLD��GH�OD�UDGLDFLyQ�HOHFWURPDJQpWLFD�LQFLGHQWH�\�OD� YLEUDFLyQ� GH� OD� PROpFXOD� FDXVDUi� GLVSHUVLyQ� \D� VHD� GH� OD� PLVPD� IUHFXHQFLD� TXH� OD� OX]� LQFLGHQWH��GLVSHUVLyQ� GH� 5D\OHLJK�� R� ELHQ� HPLWLUi� IRWRQHV� FRQ� XQD� IUHFXHQFLD� FRUULGD� SRU� XQD� FDQWLGDG� LJXDO� D� OD�

44

IUHFXHQFLD�YLEUDFLRQDO�GH� OD�UHG��GLVSHUVLyQ�5DPDQ�6WRNHV�\�DQWL�6WRNHV��/D�GLVSHUVLyQ�6WRNHV��HO�HIHFWR�5DPDQ�QRUPDO��VH�SURGXFH�FXDQGR�VH�H[WUDH� OD�HQHUJtD�GHO�KD]�GH� OX]�XWLOL]DGR�\�pVWD�SRQH�D�YLEUDU�DO�FULVWDO���PLHQWUDV�TXH�OD�GLVSHUVLyQ�DQWL�6WRNHV�VXUJH�GH�OD�DQLTXLODFLyQ�GH�ODV�YLEUDFLRQHV�H[LVWHQWHV�HQ�HO�PDWHULDO� LQGXFLGDV�WpUPLFDPHQWH��/RV�PRGRV�YLEUDFLRQDOHV�GHSHQGHQ�GH�ORV�HQODFHV�DWyPLFRV�GHO�VyOLGR��SRU�OR�WDQWR�XQ�HVSHFWUR�5DPDQ�SXHGH�XVDUVH�SDUD�LQWHUSUHWDU�OD�HVWUXFWXUD�GH�XQ�VyOLGR�>�@��/D�ILJXUD�����PXHVWUD�XQ�GLDJUDPD�HVTXHPiWLFR�FRQ�ORV�SULQFLSDOHV�FRPSRQHQWHV�GH�XQ�VLVWHPD�5DPDQ�>�@���

�)LJXUD������'LDJUDPD�HVTXHPiWLFR�GH�XQ�HTXLSR�5DPDQ��

�/DV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR� IXHURQ�FDUDFWHUL]DGDV�SRU�HVSHFWURVFRSLD�5DPDQ�XVDQGR�XQ�VLVWHPD�PLFUR�5DPDQ�GH�DOWD�UHVROXFLyQ��+5�/DE5DP�����GH�-RELQ�<YRQ��TXH�FRQVWD�GH�XQ�HVSHFWUyPHWUR�GH����FP�GH� ORQJLWXG� IRFDO�� XQD�FiPDUD�&&'�$QGRU�XVDGD�FRPR�GHWHFWRU�� XQ�PLFURVFRSLR� ROLPSXV�FRQ�REMHWLYRV�GH���;����;�\����;��FRPR�IXHQWH�GH�H[FLWDFLyQ�VH�XWLOL]D�XQ�OiVHU�+H�1H�TXH�HPLWH�HQ�������QP��/RV�SDUiPHWURV�XWLOL]DGRV�SDUD�OD�DGTXLVLFLyQ�GH�HVSHFWURV�IXHURQ��HQ�HO�FDVR�GHO�D�&�VH�XWLOL]R�OD�UHMLOOD�GH�����OtQHDV�PP��REMHWLYR���;��\�VH�UHDOL]DURQ�ODV�PHGLFLRQHV�HQ�HO�LQWHUYDOR�GH����������FP����VH�XVR�XQ�WLHPSR� GH� DGTXLVLFLyQ� ��� VHJXQGRV� DFXPXODQGR� ���� GDWRV� HQ� FDGD� SXQWR�� VH� XVR� HO� ILOWUR� GH� GHQVLGDG�QHXWUD� LJXDO�D� ���HO�FXDO�DWHQ~D�HQ�XQ� ����� OD� LQWHQVLGDG�GH� OD� OX]��SDUD�HO�&1[�VH�XWLOL]DURQ� ORV�PLVPRV�SDUiPHWURV�DQWHULRUHV�H[FHSWR�TXH�HO� ILOWUR�XWLOL]DGR� IXH�HO� GH�GHQVLGDG�QHXWUD��� �DWHQ~D� OD� FHQWpVLPD�SDUWH�GH�OD�OX]���

45

�������0LFURVFRStD�(OHFWUyQLFD�GH�%DUULGR��0(%���(O� REMHWLYR�GH� OD�PLFURVFRStD�HV�REWHQHU� LPiJHQHV�DPSOLILFDGDV�FRQ� OD�PHMRU� UHVROXFLyQ�SRVLEOH��FRQ�HO�SURSyVLWR� GH� HVWXGLDU�� DQDOL]DU� \� FRQRFHU� FRQ�PiV� GHWDOOH� OD�PRUIRORJtD� VXSHUILFLDO� GH� ORV�PDWHULDOHV��'XUDQWH� OD� GpFDGD� GH� ORV� VHWHQWDV� DSDUHFLy� HO� OODPDGR� 0LFURVFRSLR� (OHFWUyQLFR� GH� %DUULGR� �6FDQQLQJ�(OHFWURQ�0LFURVFRSH���HO�FXDO�HV�XQ�LQVWUXPHQWR�GLVHxDGR�SDUD�HVWXGLDU��HQ�DOWD�UHVROXFLyQ��OD�VXSHUILFLH�GH� ORV� VyOLGRV�� (Q� HVWH� VHQWLGR�� HO� PLFURVFRSLR� HOHFWUyQLFR� SXHGH� FRQVLGHUDUVH� FRPR� HO� HTXLYDOHQWH� DO�PLFURVFRSLR�ySWLFR�GH�UHIOH[LyQ��GRQGH�HO�SULPHUR�SRVHH�XQD�UHVROXFLyQ�PXFKR�PD\RU��(O� PLFURVFRSLR� HOHFWUyQLFR� FRQVLVWH� IXQGDPHQWDOPHQWH� GH� XQ� FDxyQ� GH� HOHFWURQHV� �VX� IXHQWH� GH�LOXPLQDFLyQ��� OHQWHV� FRQGHQVDGRUDV�� OHQWH� REMHWLYD�� OHQWHV� LQWHUPHGLDV� \� OHQWH� SUR\HFWRUD�� /D� WpFQLFD�HVHQFLDOPHQWH�FRQVLVWH�HQ�KDFHU�LQFLGLU�HQ�OD�PXHVWUD�XQ�KD]�GH�HOHFWURQHV�FRQ�HQHUJtDV�WtSLFDV�GH�KDVWD����NH9��/D�LQWHUDFFLyQ�GHO�KD]�GH�HOHFWURQHV�SURYRFD�OD�DSDULFLyQ�GH�GLIHUHQWHV�VHxDOHV�TXH��FDSWDGDV�FRQ�GHWHFWRUHV�DGHFXDGRV�� SURSRUFLRQDQ� LQIRUPDFLyQ�DFHUFD�GH� OD� QDWXUDOH]D�GH� OD�PXHVWUD�� (VWDV�VHxDOHV�VRQ��HOHFWURQHV�UHWURGLVSHUVRV��VHFXQGDULRV��DEVRUELGRV��$XJHU�� WUDQVPLWLGRV�\�UD\RV�;�FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV��/D�ILJXUD�����PXHVWUD�HVTXHPiWLFDPHQWH�OD�LQWHUDFFLyQ�KD]�HOHFWUyQLFR�PXHVWUD�\�ODV�GLIHUHQWHV�VHxDOHV�TXH�VH�RULJLQDQ�>�@��$OJXQDV� GH� ODV� VHxDOHV� JHQHUDGDV� HQ� OD� LQWHUDFFLyQ� GH� ORV� HOHFWURQHV� FRQ� OD� PDWHULD� VyOLGD� IXHURQ�XWLOL]DGDV� HQ� HO� SUHVHQWH� WUDEDMR� SDUD� REWHQHU� LPiJHQHV� GH� OD� VXSHUILFLH� GH� OD� PXHVWUD� \� DQiOLVLV�HOHPHQWDO� GH� ODV� PLVPDV� �ILJXUD� ������ HVWDV� VHxDOHV� VRQ�� HOHFWURQHV� VHFXQGDULRV�� HOHFWURQHV�UHWURGLVSHUVDGRV�\�HPLVLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;��

�)LJXUD������7LSRV�GH�VHxDOHV�TXH�VH�SURGXFHQ�GXUDQWH�OD�LQWHUDFFLyQ�GHO�KD]�HOHFWUyQLFR�FRQ�OD�PXHVWUD���

46

/RV�HOHFWURQHV�VHFXQGDULRV�VRQ�ORV�HOHFWURQHV�HPLWLGRV�SRU�XQ�PDWHULDO��FRPR�UHVXOWDGR�GH�H[FLWDFLRQHV�SURGXFLGDV�SRU�HO�KD]�GH�HOHFWURQHV�LQFLGHQWHV�VREUH�OD�PXHVWUD��6H�FDUDFWHUL]DQ�SRU�SRVHHU�XQ�HQHUJtD�FLQpWLFD� PXFKR� PHQRU� TXH� OD� HQHUJtD� GH� ORV� HOHFWURQHV� GHO� KD]� LQFLGHQWH�� /D� UHVROXFLyQ� DOFDQ]DGD� DO�WUDEDMDU�FRQ�HVWRV�HOHFWURQHV�D���N9�HV�GH��QP�\�GHVFULEHQ�SULPRUGLDOPHQWH�OD�WRSRJUDItD�GHO�UHOLHYH�GHO�PDWHULDO�HQ�REVHUYDFLyQ�>�@��

�)LJXUD������6HxDOHV�GH�OD�LQWHUDFFLyQ�GHO�KD]�GH�HOHFWURQHV�FRQ�OD�PXHVWUD�SDUD�REWHQHU�LPiJHQHV�GH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�\�DQiOLVLV�HOHPHQWDO�GH�ODV�PLVPDV�

�/RV�HOHFWURQHV�UHWURGLVSHUVDGRV�SURFHGHQ�HQ�VX�PD\RUtD�GHO�KD]�LQFLGHQWH�TXH�UHERWD�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�R�GH�ORV� iWRPRV� TXH� FRQIRUPDQ� HO� PDWHULDO� GHVSXpV� GH� LQWHUDFFLRQDU�� 'HELGR� D� TXH� HQ� ODV� LQWHUDFFLRQHV�HOHFWUyQ�HOHFWUyQ�OD�WUDQVIHUHQFLD�GH�HQHUJtD�HV�SHTXHxD��SRU�OR�TXH�ORV�HOHFWURQHV�UHWURGLVSHUVDGRV�VRQ�DTXHOORV�GH�HQHUJtDV�VXSHULRUHV�D����H9��/D�SURIXQGLGDG�FRQ�UHVSHFWR�D�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�GH�OD�TXH�SURFHGHQ� ORV�UHWURGLVSHUVDGRV�HV�VHQVLEOHPHQWH�PD\RU�TXH� OD�GH� ORV�HOHFWURQHV�VHFXQGDULRV��(VWD�SURIXQGLGDG�SXHGH�VHU�GH�DOUHGHGRU�GH����� YHFHV� OD� SURIXQGLGDG�GH�SHQHWUDFLyQ�GHO� KD]� LQFLGHQWH�� TXH�GHSHQGH�GH� OD�HQHUJtD�GHO�KD]�\�GHO�Q~PHUR�DWyPLFR��=���(V�GHFLU�� OD�VHxDO�GH�UHWURGLVSHUVDGRV�QR�VROR�SURFHGH�GH� ODV� LQPHGLDFLRQHV�GH� OD�VXSHUILFLH�VLQR�WDPELpQ�GH�EDVWDQWHV�FDSDV�DWyPLFDV�SRU�GHEDMR�GH�HOOD�� SURSRUFLRQDQGR� LQIRUPDFLyQ�PiV� LQWHUQD� GH� OD� VXSHUILFLH�� DGHPiV� GH� UHIOHMDU� OD� SUHVHQFLD� GH� ORV�HOHPHQWRV�GH�DFXHUGR�FRQ�VX�Q~PHUR�DWyPLFR��=���\D�TXH�D�PD\RU�=��HO�HOHPHQWR�VH�REVHUYDUi�FDGD�YH]�PiV�FODUR�HQ�OD�HVFDOD�GH�JULVHV�H�LQFOXVR�EULOODQWH�HQ�OD�LPDJHQ�REWHQLGD�GHO�0(%�>�@��

47

�������(VSHFWURPHWUtD�SRU�'LVSHUVLyQ�GH�(QHUJtD��('6���$GLFLRQDOPHQWH�D�OD�LQIRUPDFLyQ�TXH�SURSRUFLRQDQ�ORV�HOHFWURQHV�VHFXQGDULRV�\�UHWURGLVSHUVDGRV��TXH�VH�SURGXFH� FXDQGR� VH� LUUDGLD� XQD� VXSHUILFLH� FRQ� HOHFWURQHV�� VH� XWLOL]D� WDPELpQ� OD� LQIRUPDFLyQ� TXH�SURSRUFLRQDQ�ORV�UD\RV�;�JHQHUDGRV�SRU� OD� LQWHUDFFLyQ�GH� ORV�HOHFWURQHV�FRQ�HO�PDWHULDO�GH� OD�PXHVWUD��XWLOL]DQGR�HO�PLFURDQDOL]DGRU�GH�UD\RV�;��(QHUJ\�'LVSHUVLYH�;�UD\�6SHFWURPHWHU��('6���(O�DQWHULRU�HV�XQ�LQVWUXPHQWR�TXH�GHWHFWD�\�DQDOL]D�OD�UDGLDFLyQ�;�HPLWLGD�SRU�OD�PXHVWUD��)LJXUD�������/RV� UD\RV� ;� FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV� VRQ� GHELGRV� D� ODV� WUDQVLFLRQHV� GH� ORV� HOHFWURQHV� H[FLWDGRV� SRU� HO� KD]�SULPDULR�� $O� LQWHUDFFLRQDU� ORV� HOHFWURQHV� FRQ� ORV� iWRPRV� GH� OD�PXHVWUD�� H[LVWHQ� FROLVLRQHV� TXH� SXHGHQ�UHVXOWDU�HQ�DOJXQRV�FDVRV�HQ� OD�HPLVLyQ�GH�XQ�HOHFWUyQ�GH� ORV�iWRPRV��FXDQGR�XQ�HOHFWUyQ�GH�XQD�FDSD�LQWHUQD� GHO� iWRPR� HV� VDFDGR� SRU� XQ� HOHFWUyQ� GH� DOWD� HQHUJtD� GHO� KD]�� HO� iWRPR� SXHGH� UHJUHVDU� GH� VX�HVWDGR�EDVH�D�DOJ~Q�RWUR�HVWDGR�GH�PHQRU�HQHUJtD��HQWRQFHV�XQ�HOHFWUyQ�GH�ODV�FDSDV�VXSHULRUHV�SXHGH�RFXSDU� HO� KXHFR� HQ� OD� FDSD� LQWHUQD� HPLWLHQGR� XQ� IRWyQ�� /D� HPLVLyQ� GH� IRWRQHV� SURGXFH� HO� HVSHFWUR� GH�UD\RV�;�FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV��ILJXUD��������

�)LJXUD������'LDJUDPD�GH�OD�SRVLFLyQ�GH�GHWHFWRU�GH�UD\RV�;�FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV��6H�GLFH�TXH�XQ�iWRPR�HVWi�HQ�VX�´HVWDGR�EDVHµ�FXDQGR�VX�HQHUJtD�WRWDO�HV�PtQLPD��&XDQGR�ORV�HOHFWURQHV�VRQ� GHVSOD]DGRV� D� QLYHOHV� GH� HQHUJtDV� VXSHULRUHV� R� VDFDGRV� HO� iWRPR�� GHMDQGR� XQ� KXHFR� HQ� XQ� QLYHO�LQIHULRU��VH�GLFH�TXH�HO� iWRPR�HVWi�H[FLWDGR�� 3DUD�H[FLWDU�XQ�iWRPR�� HO� KD]�HOHFWUyQLFR�GHEH� WHQHU�XQD�HQHUJtD�PD\RU�SDUD�VDFDU�XQ�HOHFWUyQ�GH�XQ�QLYHO�GDGR���

48

�)LJXUD������5HSUHVHQWDFLyQ�HVTXHPiWLFD�GH�OD�HPLVLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;�SRU�XQ�iWRPR��*HQHUDOPHQWH��ODV�OtQHDV�GH�UD\RV�;�FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV�UHFLEHQ�HO�QRPEUH�GH�OD�FDSD�HQ�OD�TXH�WLHQH�OXJDU�OD�YDFDQWH� LQLFLDO� \� FRQ�XQ�VXEtQGLFH� OD� FDSD�GRQGH�SURFHGH�HO� HOHFWUyQ�TXH�SDVD�D�RFXSDU�GLFKD� YDFDQWH��)LJXUD��������3RU�HMHPSOR��VL�OD�YDFDQWH�WLHQH�OXJDU�HQ�OD�FDSD�.�\�HO�HOHFWUyQ�TXH�SDVD�D�RFXSDU�OD�YDFDQWH�FDH�GHVGH�OD�FDSD�DG\DFHQWH��/���VH�GLFH�TXH�VH�HPLWHQ�UD\RV�;� αK ��6L�HO�HOHFWUyQ�FDH�GHVGH�OD�FDSD�0�ORV�UD\RV� ;� HPLWLGRV� VRQ� βK �� \� DVt� VXFHVLYDPHQWH�� /RV� PLFURDQiOLVLV� HVWiQ� JHQHUDOPHQWH� FRPSUHQGLGRV�HQWUH�ODV�FDSDV�.��/�\�0�\D�TXH�1�\�2�VRQ�SDUD�HOHPHQWRV�SHVDGRV��

�)LJXUD�������/tQHDV�GH�UD\RV�;�FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV�

�$QiOLVLV�TXtPLFR�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�/D�DGTXLVLFLyQ�GH�XQ�HVSHFWUR�GH�UD\RV�;�FRQVLVWH�HQ�UHFRJHU��GXUDQWH�GHWHUPLQDGR�WLHPSR��QRUPDOPHQWH�SRFRV�PLQXWRV�� ORV� IRWRQHV� GH� UD\RV� ;� TXH� SURFHGHQ� GH� OD�PXHVWUD�� FODVLILFiQGRORV� VHJ~Q� VX� HQHUJtD��&RPR�SXHGH�YHUVH�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�������XQ�HVSHFWUR�GH�GLVSHUVLyQ�GH�HQHUJtD�VH�SUHVHQWD�XVXDOPHQWH�FRPR�XQ�KLVWRJUDPD�HQ�GRQGH�HO� HMH� KRUL]RQWDO�VRQ� XQLGDGHV�GH�HQHUJtD�� HQ� NH9�� \� HO� HMH� YHUWLFDO� Q~PHUR�GH�FXHQWDV��

49

�)LJXUD�������(VSHFWUR�GH�GLVSHUVLyQ�GH�HQHUJtDV�GH�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L1��

�8QD�YH]�DGTXLULGR�HO�HVSHFWUR��FRQ�OD�D\XGD�GH�SDWURQHV�VH�SXHGH�UHDOL]DU�GH�IRUPD�DXWRPiWLFD�HO�DQiOLVLV�FXDOLWDWLYR��HV�GHFLU��OD�LGHQWLILFDFLyQ�GH�SLFRV�\�HO�DQiOLVLV�FXDQWLWDWLYR�R�FiOFXOR�GH�OD�FRQFHQWUDFLyQ�GH�ORV�GLIHUHQWHV�HOHPHQWRV��(QWUH� ODV� SULQFLSDOHV� GHVYHQWDMDV� GH� OD� WpFQLFD� HVWi� HO� KHFKR� GH� TXH� ~QLFDPHQWH� VH� SXHGHQ� DQDOL]DU�HOHPHQWRV� GHVGH� HO� &� �= ��� KDVWD� HOHPHQWRV� PX\� SHVDGRV�� GH� WDO� PDQHUD� TXH� OD� FXDQWLILFDFLyQ� GH�HOHPHQWRV� OLJHURV� QR� VH� SXHGH� UHDOL]DU�� 3RU� RWUR� ODGR�� DO� DQDOL]DU� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV�� VH� REWHQGUi�LQIRUPDFLyQ�QR�VyOR�GH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�HVWXGLDGD��VLQR�WDPELpQ�GHO�YROXPHQ�SRU�GHEDMR�GH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�D�OD�TXH�VHDQ�FDSDFHV�GH�SHQHWUDU�ORV�HOHFWURQHV��'HELGR�D�HVWR��DO�DQDOL]DU�SHOtFXODV�PX\�GHOJDGDV������ µ P��SDUD�GLVPLQXLU� OD�VHxDO� SURYHQLHQWH�GHO� VXVWUDWR�� HV�QHFHVDULR� UHGXFLU� HO� YROWDMH� GH�DFHOHUDFLyQ�GH� ORV�HOHFWURQHV��OR�TXH�OLPLWD�WDPELpQ�HO�DQiOLVLV�GH�HOHPHQWRV�QR�PX\�SHVDGRV��/D� PRUIRORJtD� VXSHUILFLDO�� � OD� VHFFLyQ� WUDQVYHUVDO� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� IXHURQ� HVWXGLDGDV� SRU�PLFURVFRStD� HOHFWUyQLFD� GH� EDUULGR� FRQ� XQ� HTXLSR� 3KLOOLSV� ;/���� \� OD� FRPSRVLFLyQ� HOHPHQWDO� GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�FRQ�HO�GHWHFWRU�('6�GHO�PLVPR�HTXLSR��XWLOL]DQGR�HQ�HO�FDVR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�����NH9�\�SDUD�HO�FDVR�GH�D�&�\�&1[�����NH9�����

50

�������3HUILORPHWUtD��/D� SHUILORPHWUtD� UHSUHVHQWD� XQD� WpFQLFD� UHODWLYDPHQWH� VHQFLOOD�� VHQVLEOH� \� GH� DOWD� SUHFLVLyQ� SDUD�GHWHUPLQDU�HO�HVSHVRU�GH�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�>�@��8Q�SHUILOyPHWUR�PLGH�FRQ�H[DFWLWXG�ODV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�YHUWLFDOHV� �JURVRU�� GHVGH� PiV� GH� ��� $

A � KDVWD� DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� ���� PLFUDV�� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV�GHSRVLWDGDV� VREUH� XQD� DPSOLD� YDULHGDG� GH� VXVWUDWRV�� 3DUD�PHGLU� HO� HVSHVRU� VyOR� VH� UHTXLHUH� GH� XQD�SHTXHxD� iUHD� GH� VXVWUDWR� VLQ� GHSyVLWR� TXH� SHUPLWD� REVHUYDU� HO� HVFDOyQ� TXH� FRUUHVSRQGH� DO� SDVR� GHO�VXVWUDWR�D�OD�SHOtFXOD��/DV�PHGLFLRQHV�VH�UHDOL]DQ�HOHFWURPHFiQLFDPHQWH�GHVSOD]DQGR� OD�PXHVWUD�SRU�GHEDMR�GH�XQD�DJXMD�FRQ�SXQWD�GH�GLDPDQWH��XQD�SODWDIRUPD�PXHYH� OD�PXHVWUD��HQ�VHQWLGR�KRUL]RQWDO�� /D�DJXMD�DSR\DGD�VREUH� OD�PXHVWUD��VH�GHVSOD]D�HQ�VHQWLGR�YHUWLFDO�\�UHFRUUH�OD�VXSHUILFLH��8Q�WUDVGXFWRU�DFRSODGR�D�OD�DJXMD�JHQHUD�VHxDOHV�HOpFWULFDV�SURSRUFLRQDOHV�DO�FDPELR�HQ�VX�SRVLFLyQ��/DV�VHxDOHV�VRQ�DPSOLILFDGDV��GLJLWDOL]DGDV�\�DOPDFHQDGDV� HQ� OD� PHPRULD� GHO� VLVWHPD� GHO� SHUILOyPHWUR� SDUD� H[KLELFLyQ�� PDQLSXODFLyQ�� PHGLFLyQ� H�LPSUHVLyQ��(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�OR�GLVFXWLGR�DQWHULRUPHQWH��<D�TXH�HO�SHUILOyPHWUR�VyOR�GHWHFWD�FDPELRV�GH�DOWXUD�HQ�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GH�OD�PXHVWUD��VL�OD�SODWDIRUPD�QR�HVWi�KRUL]RQWDO��GRV�SXQWRV�TXH�HVWiQ�DO�PLVPR�QLYHO�HQ�OD�PXHVWUD�QR�OR�HVWDUiQ�HQ�OD�JUiILFD��/D�VROXFLyQ�FRQVLVWH� HQ� LQGLFDUOH� DO� SURJUDPD� GRV� SXQWRV� TXH� VH� VDEH� VH� HQFXHQWUDQ� HQ� HO�PLVPR� QLYHO�� FRPR� VH�PXHVWUD� HQ� OD� ILJXUD� ������ F�� (O� SURJUDPD� FUHD� XQD� QXHYD� JUiILFD� WRPDQGR� HQ� FXHQWD� HVWD� QLYHODFLyQ�SURSXHVWD��'HELGR� D� TXH� HO� VLVWHPD� GH� PHGLFLyQ� GH� SHUILOHV� HV� PX\� VHQVLEOH� DO� DPELHQWH� EDMR� HO� FXDO� RSHUD�� VH�UHFRPLHQGD�TXH�HO�SHUILOyPHWUR�VHD�RSHUDGR�HQ�XQ�iUHD�OLEUH�GH�SROYR�H[FHVLYR��GH�FRUULHQWHV�GH�DLUH�\�GH�YLEUDFLRQHV�PHFiQLFDV��/D�WHPSHUDWXUD�DPELHQWH�GHEH�HVWDU�HQWUH����\����&��(V�UHFRPHQGDEOH�FXDQGR�VH�UHDOLFHQ�PHGLFLRQHV��TXH�HO�VLVWHPD�VH�HVWDELOLFH�DO�PHQRV����PLQXWRV�GHVSXpV�GHO�HQFHQGLGR��$GHPiV��OD�SODWDIRUPD�VH�GHEH�OLPSLDU�FRQ�SDSHO� OLEUH�GH�SHOXVD�\�DEUDVLYRV��FRQ�DJXD�GHVLRQL]DGD�R�DOFRKRO�JUDGR�ODERUDWRULR�� 3RGHPRV� PHQFLRQDU� FRPR� XQD� GHVYHQWDMD� TXH� SDUD� GHWHUPLQDU� HO� HVSHVRU� VH� UHTXLHUH�IRUPDU�XQ�HVFDOyQ�ELHQ�GHILQLGR��OR�FXDO�QR�VLHPSUH�HV�SRVLEOH���

51

�)LJXUD�������D��(VTXHPD�GHO�IXQFLRQDPLHQWR�GHO�SHUILOyPHWUR��E��3HUILO�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�PRVWUDQGR�ORV�SXQWRV�GH�UHIHUHQFLD��HQ�HO�VXVWUDWR��SDUD�UHDOL]DU�OD�QLYHODFLyQ�\�F��SHUILO�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GHVSXpV�GH�OD�QLYHODFLyQ���8QD� YH]� GHWHUPLQDGR� HO� HVSHVRU� GH� OD� SHOtFXOD� \� FRPR� HO� WLHPSR� GH� GHSyVLWR� HV� FRQRFLGR�� HV� SRVLEOH�GHWHUPLQDU�OD�WDVD�GH�GHSyVLWR��/RV�HVSHVRUHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�IXHURQ�PHGLGRV�FRQ�XQ�SHUILOyPHWUR��6ORDQ�'HNWDN�,,��\�FRQ�OD�PHGLFLyQ�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHSRVLWDGDV�HQ�VLOLFLR�HQ�HO�PLFURVFRSLR�HOHFWUyQLFR�GH�EDUULGR�����������(QVD\R�GH�0LFURGXUH]D��/D�GXUH]D�VH�GHILQH�FRPR�OD�UHVLVWHQFLD�TXH�SUHVHQWD�XQ�PDWHULDO�D�VHU�SHQHWUDGR�>��@��$� OR� ODUJR�GH� OD�KLVWRULD�VH�KDQ�HPSOHDGR�GLIHUHQWHV�WpFQLFDV�SDUD�GHWHUPLQDU�HVWD�SURSLHGDG�GH�ORV�PDWHULDOHV��FRPR�OD�SUXHED�GH�UDVSDGR�GH�0RKV�TXH�VH�XVD�HQ�JHRORJtD�SDUD�PHGLU�OD�GXUH]D�UHODWLYD�GH�YDULRV�PLQHUDOHV�\�HO�HVFOHURVFRSLR� TXH� PLGH� OD� GXUH]D� GLQiPLFD� HQ� WpUPLQRV� GH� OD� DOWXUD� GH� UHERWH� GHO� SXQ]yQ� >��@�� VLQ�HPEDUJR�� � OD�PD\RU� SDUWH� GH� ODV� SUXHEDV� GH� GXUH]D� VRQ� XQ�PHGLR� GH� GHWHUPLQDU� OD� UHVLVWHQFLD� GH� XQ�PDWHULDO�DO�FRUWH�R�SHQHWUDFLyQ��/D�SUXHED�GH� LQGHQWDFLyQ�SDUD�PHGLU� OD�UHVLVWHQFLD�GH�XQ�PDWHULDO�D� OD�SHQHWUDFLyQ�KD�VLGR�XVDGD�GHVGH�KDFH�PiV�GH�����DxRV�>��@��(Q�WDO�SUXHED��)LJXUD��������XQ�LQGHQWDGRU�GH�JHRPHWUtD�FRQRFLGD�VH�SUHVLRQD�XWLOL]DQGR�FLHUWD�FDUJD �FRQWUD�OD�VXSHUILFLH�GH�XQ�PDWHULDO��VLHQGR�XVDGDV�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�SHQHWUDFLyQ�R�HO�iUHD�GH�OD�LPSUHVLyQ�UHVXOWDQWH��LQGHQWDFLyQ��FRPR�XQD�PHGLGD�GH�OD� * Se define Carga como una fuerza aplicada sobre una superficie

52

UHVLVWHQFLD�GHO�PDWHULDO�D�OD�SHQHWUDFLyQ��(O�LQGHQWDGRU�SDUD�KDFHU�OD�LPSUHVLyQ�SXHGH�VHU�UHGRQGHDGR�R�SXQWLDJXGR�\�HV�KHFKR�GH�XQ�PDWHULDO�PXFKR�PiV�GXUR�TXH�OD�SLH]D�TXH�VH�VRPHWH�D�SUXHED��SRU�HMHPSOR�GH�DFHUR�HQGXUHFLGR��GH�FDUEXUR�GH�WXQJVWHQR��R�GH�GLDPDQWH�>��@���/D�SUXHED�GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ�VH�GLYLGH�HQ�PDFURGXUH]D��%ULQHOO�\�5RFNZHOO���HVWR�HV��FXDQGR�OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ�HV�YLVLEOH� D� VLPSOH� YLVWD�� \� PLFURGXUH]D� �9LFNHUV� \� .QRRS��� OD� FXDO� XVD� XQ� PLFURVFRSLR� SDUD� REVHUYDU� OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ�>��@����

�)LJXUD������3UXHED�GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ��

/D�HOHFFLyQ�GHO�PpWRGR�GH�SUXHED�GHSHQGH�SULQFLSDOPHQWH�GHO�WDPDxR�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�\�GHO�SURSyVLWR�~OWLPR�GH�OD�SUXHED��([LVWHQ�PXFKDV�DSOLFDFLRQHV�GH�PHGLFLRQHV�GH�GXUH]D�TXH�UHTXLHUHQ�GH�SUXHEDV�GH�GXUH]D�GH� UHJLRQHV�PX\�SHTXHxDV�� SRU�HMHPSOR�HQ� ORV�PDWHULDOHV�TXH�HVWiQ�VXMHWRV�D� OD�VHJUHJDFLyQ�TXtPLFD��FDGD�IDVH�FRQVHUYD�VXV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV��FRPR�OD�GXUH]D��$O�GHWHUPLQDU�OD�GXUH]D�GH�FDGD�IDVH�LQGLYLGXDO�� VH� GHEHQ� XVDU� LPSUHVLRQHV� UHODWLYDPHQWH� SHTXHxDV�� OR� TXH� RULJLQD� OD� QHFHVLGDG� GH� KDFHU�SUXHEDV� GH� PLFURGXUH]D� >��@�� 3DUD� HO� FDVR� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� VH� UHTXLHUH� GH� XQD� SUXHED� GH�PLFURGXUH]D�GHELGR�D�TXH�VH�UHTXLHUHQ�FDUJDV�SHTXHxDV�SRUTXH�HO�HVSHVRU�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�YDUtD�HQWUH���� QP� \� ����� QP� \� OR� TXH� VH� UHTXLHUH� HV� TXH� VH� WHQJD� OD�PtQLPD� LQIOXHQFLD� GHO� VXVWUDWR� HQ� HO� YDORU�REWHQLGR�GH�GXUH]D�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��SRU�OR�TXH�XQR�GH�ORV�PpWRGRV�XWLOL]DGRV�HQ�HVWH�SUR\HFWR�IXH�HO�9LFNHUV��$O� HTXLSR� SDUD� SUXHEDV� GH�PLFURGXUH]D� VH� OH� GHQRPLQD� FRP~QPHQWH�PLFURGXUyPHWUR� R� GXUyPHWUR�� HO�HTXLSR�TXH�VH�XVy�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�IXH�XQ�PLFURGXUyPHWUR�6KLPDG]X�GH�FDUJD�DXWRPiWLFD��)LJXUD��������HO�

53

�FXDO� WLHQH� XQ� LQGHQWDGRU� TXH� FRQVLVWH� HQ� XQD� SXQWD� GH� GLDPDQWH� SLUDPLGDO� GH� FXDWUR� FDUDV� LJXDOHV�IRUPDQGR�XQ�iQJXOR�GH�������)LJXUD��������/D� GXUH]D� 9LFNHUV� vH � HV� HO� Q~PHUR� UHODFLRQDGR� FRQ� OD� FDUJD� DSOLFDGD� \� HO� iUHD� VXSHUILFLDO� GH� OD�LPSUHVLyQ�SHUPDQHQWH�KHFKD�SRU�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�SLUDPLGDO��3DUD�GHWHUPLQDU�OD�GXUH]D�VH�XWLOL]D�OD�VLJXLHQWH�IyUPXOD��

� 2/4.1854 dPHv = � ����'RQGH��P �HV�OD�FDUJD�DSOLFDGD��HQ�JI���� d �HV�HO�SURPHGLR�GH�OD�ORQJLWXG�GH�ODV�GRV�GLDJRQDOHV�GH�OD�KXHOOD�GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ�HQ��P�� �

�)LJXUD�������0LFURGXUyPHWUR�6KLPDG]X�

�(O�PLFURGXUyPHWUR�HVWi�GLVHxDGR�GH�WDO�PDQHUD�TXH�SHUPLWH�DO�LQGHQWDGRU�\�D�OD�SLH]D�HVWDU�HQ�FRQWDFWR�JUDGXDO�\�VXDYH�EDMR�XQD�FDUJD�SUHGHWHUPLQDGD��OD�VHOHFFLyQ�GH�FDUJD�TXH�SHUPLWH�HO�HTXLSR�HV�GH���JI�D�����JI��� TXH� HV� DSOLFDGD� GXUDQWH� XQ� SHULRGR� GHWHUPLQDGR� ���� ���� ���� ��� \� ���VHJXQGRV��� (O� HTXLSR� HVWi��GLVHxDGR� GH� WDO� PDQHUD� TXH� QR� SHUPLWH� PRYLPLHQWRV� ODWHUDOHV� GHO� LQGHQWDGRU� QL� GH� OD� PXHVWUD� HQ� HO�

54

SHULRGR� GH� FDUJD� \� GHVFDUJD�� GHEHUi� HVWDU� ORFDOL]DGR� HQ� XQ� iUHD� OLEUH� GH� YLEUDFLRQHV� SDUD� HYLWDU�UHVXOWDGRV�HUUyQHRV�� /D�VXSHUILFLH�GH� OD�PXHVWUD�GHEHUi�VHU�QRUPDO�D� OD�GLUHFFLyQ�GHO� HMH�GH� OD�FDUJD�DSOLFDGD�FRQ�XQD�GHVYLDFLyQ�GH������>��@��(O� HTXLSR� WLHQH� DFRSODGR� XQ� PLFURVFRSLR� TXH� XWLOL]D� XQD� UHWtFXOD� JUDGXDGD� SDUD� PHGLU� ODV� GLDJRQDOHV�GHMDGDV�SRU�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�VREUH�OD�PXHVWUD��(V�LPSRUWDQWH�TXH�ODV�KXHOODV�GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ�QR�HVWpQ�FHUFD�GH� OD�RULOOD�GH� OD�PXHVWUD�\�TXH� ODV�GLVWDQFLDV�HQWUH�LQGHQWDFLRQHV�GHEHQ�GH�VHU��GRV�YHFHV�\�PHGLD� � OD�ORQJLWXG�GH�OD�KXHOOD�GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ�SDUD�HYLWDU�TXH�VH�DIHFWHQ�PXWXDPHQWH�>��@���

��

)LJXUD������D�3UXHED�GH�PLFURGXUH]D�9LFNHUV�>��@� E��,QGHQWDGRU�SLUDPLGDO�9LFNHUV��/D�VXSHUILFLH� GH� OD�PXHVWUD�HQ� OD� TXH�VH� UHDOL]D� OD� SUXHED�GHEH�GH�HVWDU�SXOLGD�D�HVSHMR�SDUD�TXH� ODV�LQGHQWDFLRQHV�DXQ�FXDQGR�VHDQ�SHTXHxDV�VHDQ�YLVLEOHV�\�GH�HVD�PDQHUD�SXHGD�PHGLUVH�OD�GLDJRQDO�GH�ODV�PLVPDV��3DUD� OD�UHDOL]DFLyQ�GH� OD�SUXHED�VH�GHFLGH� OD�FDUJD�GH�HQVD\R�D�XWLOL]DU��VH�FRORFD� OD�PXHVWUD�VREUH�XQ�VRSRUWH�;<��)LJXUD��������TXHGDQGR�OD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD��SHUSHQGLFXODU�DO�LQGHQWDGRU��VH�GHWHUPLQD�HO�SXQWR�GH� LQWHUpV� VREUH� OD� PXHVWUD� XVDQGR� HO� PLFURVFRSLR�� VH� HQIRFD� HO� PLFURVFRSLR� D� OD� VXSHUILFLH� \� VH�HVWDEOHFH� OD� LOXPLQDFLyQ� QHFHVDULD�� VH� FRORFD� OD� SHVD� UHTXHULGD� HQ� HO� PLFURGXUyPHWUR�� HQVHJXLGD� VH�

55

VHOHFFLRQD�HO�WLHPSR�GH�FDUJD�\�VH�DFWLYD�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�GH�GLDPDQWH�SDUD�REWHQHU�ODV�LQGHQWDFLRQHV�GH�OD�PXHVWUD��ILQDOPHQWH�VH�PLGHQ�DPEDV�GLDJRQDOHV�PHGLDQWH�HO�PLFURVFRSLR�RFXODU�\�VH�KDFH�HO�SURPHGLR�GH�GLFKRV�YDORUHV��HO�FXDO�HV�FRPSDUDGR�FRQ�WDEODV�GH�HTXLYDOHQFLD�D�GXUH]D�9LFNHUV�SURSRUFLRQDQGR�HO�YDORU�GH�pVWD�SDUD�OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ�R�GH�PDQHUD�PiV�SUHFLVD�XWLOL]DQGR�OD�IyUPXOD�������'XUH]D�FRPSXHVWD��&XDQGR�VH�UHDOL]D�XQD� LQGHQWDFLyQ�� � OD�GHIRUPDFLyQ�GHO�PDWHULDO�RFXUUH�SRU�GHEDMR�GH� OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�� OD� SURIXQGLGDG� GH� OD� UHJLyQ� GH� OD� PXHVWUD� DIHFWDGD� SRU� OD� GHIRUPDFLyQ� SOiVWLFD� HV�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH�WUHV�YHFHV�VXSHULRU�D�YDORU�GH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR��)LJXUD�������>��@��SRU�OR�TXH�SDUD�REWHQHU�XQ�YDORU�GH�GXUH]D�GH�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�VLQ�OD�LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR�HV�QHFHVDULR�TXH�VH�VDWLVIDJD�HO�UHTXHULPLHQWR�GH�TXH�HO�HVSHVRU�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD��W��GHEH�GH�VHU�WtSLFDPHQWH�VLHWH�R�GLH]�YHFHV�PD\RU�TXH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�SHQHWUDFLyQ�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�'���ILJXUD�������>��@��(VWi�FRQGLFLyQ�QR�VH�FXPSOH�SDUD�ODV�SHOtFXODV�REWHQLGDV�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�D�SHVDU�GH�TXH�XVDPRV�XQD�FDUJD�GH����JI�FRQ�HO�SURSyVLWR�GH�OLPLWDU�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�SHQHWUDFLyQ�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU��SRU�OR�TXH�VH�KL]R�XVR�GH�XQ�PpWRGR�TXH�FRQVLGHUD�HO�YDORU�GH� OD�GXUH]D�FRPSXHVWD�GHELGR�D� OD�FRQWULEXFLyQ�GHO�VXVWUDWR��3DUD�HO�FiOFXOR�GH� OD� GXUH]D�GH� OD�SHOtFXOD� FRPSXHVWD� VH� DSOLFy� HO� PRGHOR� ItVLFR� GH� -|QVVRQ� \� 6�+RJPDUN� >��@� GH� OD� GHIRUPDFLyQ� GH� OD�SHOtFXOD� GXUDQWH� OD� LQGHQWDFLyQ� TXH� KD� GHPRVWUDGR� PRGHODU� OD� GXUH]D� GH� VLVWHPDV� GH� UHFXEULPLHQWR�VXVWUDWR��XVDQGR�XQD�DSUR[LPDFLyQ� cH ��

�s

s

f

f

c HA

AH

A

AH += � �

GRQGH� cH �HV�OD�GXUH]D�FRPSXHVWD�� fH �HV�OD�GXUH]D�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�� sH �HV�OD�GXUH]D�GHO�VXVWUDWR�� fA �HV�HO�iUHD�GH�FDUJD�GHO�UHFXEULPLHQWR�\� sA �HV�HO�iUHD�GH�FDUJD�GHO�VXVWUDWR�\� sf AAA += �(VWH�PRGHOR� HV� YiOLGR� SDUD� SHOtFXODV� FRQ� XQD� GXUH]D�PD\RU� TXH� OD� GHO� VXVWUDWR�� VLHQGR� ORV� YDORUHV� GH�GXUH]D�FRQILDEOHV�SDUD�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�PiV�GH�����QP��'H�FRQVLGHUDFLRQHV�JHRPpWULFDV��-|QVVRQ�\�6�+RJPDUN�GHULYDURQ�XQD�H[SUHVLyQ�SDUD�OD�GXUH]D�GHO�FRPSXHVWR�HQ�GRQGH�HO�UHFXEULPLHQWR�VH�FRPSRUWD�TXHEUDGL]R�VREUH�XQ�VXVWUDWR�FRQ�GHIRUPDFLyQ�SOiVWLFD��

56

22

2,12,1 )/(/2 DtCDtC

HHHH sc

sf −

−+= �

/D� IyUPXOD� DQWHULRU� SHUPLWH� FDOFXODU� OD� GXUH]D� GH� OD� SHOtFXOD� VLQ� OD� LQIOXHQFLD� GHO� VXVWUDWR�� VLHQGR� W� HO�HVSHVRU� GH� OD� SHOtFXOD�� D )7/( d= � OD� SURIXQGLGDG� GH� SHQHWUDFLyQ� GH� OD� LQGHQWDFLyQ�� d � OD� ORQJLWXG�SURPHGLR�GH�ODV�GLDJRQDOHV�GH�OD�KXHOOD�GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ��YHU�)LJXUD������D��\� 0728.0)11(2

2

2,1 == °SenC ��

������

)LJXUD�������'HIRUPDFLyQ�SOiVWLFD�LQGXFLGD�SRU�HO�LQGHQWDGRU���

�)LJXUD�������D��,QGHQWDFLyQ�VLQ�OD�LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR��������E��,QGHQWDFLyQ�FRQ�OD�LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR���������1DQRLQGHQWDFLyQ���2WUD� WpFQLFD� HPSOHDGD� HQ� HVWH� WUDEDMR� SDUD� OD� PHGLGD� GH� OD� GXUH]D� KD� VLGR� OD� QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�� /D�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ� HV� XQD� WpFQLFD� TXH� SHUPLWH� � UHDOL]DU� LQGHQWDFLRQHV� FRQ� FDUJDV�PiV� SHTXHxDV� �HQ� HO�LQWHUYDOR�GH�ORV�P1��TXH�OD�PLFURLQGHQWDFLyQ��(O�SURFHVR�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�HV�XQD�SUXHED�PHFiQLFD�TXH�SURYHH�LQIRUPDFLyQ�VREUH�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��(Q�ORV�VLVWHPDV�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�VH�VXHOH�HPSOHDU�XQ�LQGHQWDGRU�WLSR�%HUNRYLFK�FRQ�IRUPD�GH�SLUiPLGH�WULDQJXODU�TXH�WLHQH�XQD�JHRPHWUtD�PX\�ELHQ�GHILQLGD�\�XQD�IRUPD�SXQWLDJXGD��IRUPDQGR�XQ�iQJXOR�GH������

57

JUDGRV� UHVSHFWR� D� OD� QRUPDO� D� OD� EDVH�� 'H� HVWD� IRUPD� ODV� LQGHQWDFLRQHV� DSDUHFHQ� FRPR� WULiQJXORV�HTXLOiWHURV�FRPR�HO�SUHVHQWDGR�HQ� OD� ILJXUD�������(VWD� IRUPD�SXQWLDJXGD�HV�PiV�IiFLO�GH� ORJUDU�FRQ�XQD�SLUiPLGH� WULDQJXODU�� FRPR� OD� %HUNRYLFK�� TXH� FRQ� OD� SXQWD� 9LFNHUV� GH� FXDWUR� ODGRV� SRUTXH� WUHV� SODQRV�FRQIOX\HQ�HQ�XQ�SXQWR��PLHQWUDV�TXH�FXDWUR�OR�KDFHQ�HQ�XQD�UHFWD���&RPR�HO�SURSLR�QRPEUH�GH� OD� WpFQLFD� LQGLFD�� OD�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�SHUPLWH� OD�UHDOL]DFLyQ�GH� LQGHQWDFLRQHV�FRQ� XQDV� SURIXQGLGDGHV� GH� SHQHWUDFLyQ� \� FRQ� UDGLRV� GH� FXUYDWXUD� GH� RUGHQ� GH� ORV� QDQyPHWURV�� (VWD�FDSDFLGDG� KDFH� TXH� VHD� XQD� WpFQLFD� LGyQHD� SDUD� OD� GHWHUPLQDFLyQ� GH� ODV� SURSLHGDGHV� PHFiQLFDV� GH�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�\�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�FRQ�HVSHVRUHV�LQIHULRUHV�D�OD�PLFUD���

� ���� �)LJXUD������D��)RUPD�WULDQJXODU�GH�OD�SXQWD�%HUNRYLFK���E��,QGHQWDFLyQ�FRQ�SXQWD�%HUNRYLFK�HQ�OD�VXSHUILFLH�

GH�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GH�&1[���/D� DSDULFLyQ� GH� OD� QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ� SHUPLWH� HO� HVWXGLR� \� FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ� GH� SHTXHxRV� YRO~PHQHV� GH�PDWHULDO�OR�FXDO�WLHQH�XQD�JUDQ�LPSRUWDQFLD�WHFQROyJLFD�\D�TXH�VH�WLHQGH�D�XQD�UHGXFFLyQ�SDXODWLQD�GH�ORV�WDPDxRV� �OD� LQGXVWULD� GH� ORV� VHPLFRQGXFWRUHV� HV� XQ� FODUR� HMHPSOR��� 2WUDV� LQGXVWULDV� TXH� SXHGHQ�EHQHILFLDUVH�GH� OD�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�VRQ� ODV�UHODFLRQDGDV�FRQ� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�\� ORV�UHFXEULPLHQWRV�>��@����&XUYDV�GH�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR���8Q� H[SHULPHQWR� GH� QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ� HVWi� FRPSXHVWR� EiVLFDPHQWH� SRU� XQD� FDUJD� \� GHVFDUJD� GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�� ODV� FXDOHV� GDQ� OXJDU� D� OR� TXH� VH� GHQRPLQD� FXUYD� FDUDFWHUtVWLFD� GH��FDUJD���GHVSOD]DPLHQWR��(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUD�XQ�HVTXHPD�GH�OD�FXUYD�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR��HQ�OD�TXH�VH�VHxDOD�TXp�SDUWH�GH�OD�PLVPD�SHUWHQHFH�DO�VHJPHQWR�GH�FDUJD�\�FXiO�DO�GH�GHVFDUJD�\�DVLPLVPR�

58

FRQWLHQH�XQ�DPSOLR�UDQJR�GH�LQIRUPDFLyQ��WDOHV�FRPR�OD�FDUJD�Pi[LPD�DSOLFDGD�HQ�OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ�� maxP ���HO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�Pi[LPR�� maxh ��\�HO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�UHVLGXDO�TXH�TXHGD�WUDV�OD�GHVFDUJD�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�� fh ��� $� SDUWLU� GH� ORV� GDWRV� FRQWHQLGRV� HQ� OD� FXUYD� FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�� WDPELpQ� VH� SXHGHQ� REWHQHU�RWURV�YDORUHV�UHODWLYRV�D�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�GHO�PDWHULDO�WDOHV�FRPR�OD�GXUH]D��H ���HO�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG� �E ��� ORV� WUDEDMRV� HOiVWLFR�� SOiVWLFR� \� WRWDO� GH� LQGHQWDFLyQ� � elW �� plW � \� tW ��� OD� ULJLGH]� GH�FRQWDFWR�� S ���TXH�YLHQH�GDGD�SRU�OD�SHQGLHQWH�GHO�DMXVWH�OLQHDO�GH�OD�SDUWH�LQLFLDO�GH�OD�FXUYD�GH�GHVFDUJD�� dPdhS /= ��\�HO�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD���5����

�)LJXUD�������(VTXHPD�FDUDFWHUtVWLFR�GH�OD�FXUYD�GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�HQ�XQ�H[SHULPHQWR�

GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ���$�SDUWLU�GH� � ODV�FXUYDV�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�VH�SXHGH�H[WUDHU�EDVWDQWH� LQIRUPDFLyQ��$�VLPSOH�YLVWD�VH�SXHGH�YHU�TXH�WUDV� OD�GHVFDUJD��HO� LQGHQWDGRU�QR�VH�TXHGD�HQ�HO�SXQWR�GH�Pi[LPR�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR��VLQR�TXH� HO� PDWHULDO� KD� UHFXSHUDGR� SDUWH� GHO� GHVSOD]DPLHQWR� Pi[LPR� TXHGiQGRVH� HQ� OR� TXH� VH� OODPD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�UHVLGXDO�� fh ���(O�YDORU�GH� fh �GHSHQGH�GH�OD�QDWXUDOH]D�GHO�PDWHULDO��6HJ~Q�VHD�HO�YDORU�GH�HVWH� GHVSOD]DPLHQWR� UHVLGXDO� VH� SXHGH� GHWHUPLQDU� HO� JUDGR� GH� HODVWLFLGDG� GHO� PDWHULDO� D� HVWXGLDU�� 8Q�PDWHULDO� FRQ� XQ� FRPSRUWDPLHQWR� SUHIHUHQWHPHQWH� HOiVWLFR� UHFXSHUDUD� JUDQ� SDUWH� GHO� GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�Pi[LPR�TXH�KDFHQ�TXH�HO�YDORU�GH� fh �VHD�PX\�SHTXHxR��PLHQWUDV�TXH�XQ�PDWHULDO�FRQ�XQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�SOiVWLFR�WHQGUi�XQD�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�PX\�SHTXHxD��FRQ�OR�FXDO�HO�YDORU�GH� fh �HV�EDVWDQWH�JUDQGH��6LUYD�FRPR�

59

HMHPSOR� GH� OR� DQWHULRU� ODV� FXUYDV� GH� OD� ILJXUD� ������ /D� ILJXUD� ����� �D�� UHSUHVHQWD� HO� FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�IXQGDPHQWDOPHQWH�SOiVWLFR�WtSLFR�GH�XQ�PHWDO�FRQ�XQD�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�SUiFWLFDPHQWH�QXOD��3RU�VX�SDUWH��OD�ILJXUD�������E��UHSUHVHQWD�HO�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�GH�XQ�PDWHULDO�FRQ�XQD�JUDQ�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�PiV�SURSLR�GH�ORV�PDWHULDOHV�FHUiPLFRV�FRPR�ORV�HVWXGLDGRV�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR��7L1�\�&1[���/D�FDSDFLGDG�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU� SDUD� SURGXFLU� GHIRUPDFLyQ� SOiVWLFD�� \� SRU� OR� WDQWR� OD� IRUPD� GH� ODV� FXUYDV� FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR��GHSHQGH�GHO�UDGLR�GH�FXUYDWXUD�HIHFWLYR�GH�OD�SXQWD�HPSOHDGD��&XDQWR�PiV�SHTXHxR�VHD�HO�UDGLR�GH�FXUYDWXUD��PHQRV�FDUJD�VHUi�QHFHVDULD�SDUD�GHIRUPDU�HO�PDWHULDO�SOiVWLFDPHQWH��8QD�SXQWD�SHUIHFWD� TXH� WHUPLQDUD� HQ� XQ� VROR� iWRPR� VHUtD� FDSD]� GH� SURGXFLU� GHIRUPDFLyQ� GHVGH� HO� LQLFLR�� (O�LQGHQWDGRU�XWLOL]DGR�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�WLHQH�XQ�UDGLR�GH�FXUYDWXUD�GH����QP��

0 200 400 600 800

0

10

20

30

40

50

Ca

rga

(m

N)

Desplazamiento (nm)

AISI 4140

�������0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

0

1

2

3

4

5

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

Ti/TiN/CNx (5mN)

������������������������������������������������D�����������������������������������������������������������������������E��)LJXUD�������(MHPSORV�GH�FXUYDV�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�SDUD�PDWHULDOHV�FRQ��D��FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�SOiVWLFR�

�$FHUR�$,6,�������\��E��HOiVWLFR��SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�GH�7,�7L1�&1[����&iOFXOR�GH�OD�GXUH]D��+��\�GHO�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG��(���/D�GHWHUPLQDFLyQ�GH�OD�GXUH]D�\�GHO�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG�UHSRUWDGD�HQ�HO�SUHVHQWH�WUDEDMR�HVWD�EDVDGD�HQ�HO�PpWRGR�GHVDUUROODGR�SRU�2OLYHU�\�3KDUU�>��@��&RPR� VH� GLVFXWLy� DQWHULRUPHQWH�� HQ� ORV� H[SHULPHQWRV� WUDGLFLRQDOHV� GH� PLFURLQGHQWDFLyQ�� HO� iUHD� GH�LQGHQWDFLyQ�VH�GHWHUPLQD�GLUHFWDPHQWH�SRU�PHGLRV�ySWLFRV�XQD�YH]�TXH�VH�KD�UHWLUDGR�OD�FDUJD��/R�TXH�VH�PLGHQ�VRQ�ODV�GLDJRQDOHV�GH�OD�PDUFD�GHMDGD�SRU�OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ��\�D�SDUWLU�GH�HOODV�VH�FDOFXOD�HO�iUHD��

60

&XDQGR�ODV�GLPHQVLRQHV�GH� ODV� LQGHQWDFLRQHV�VRQ�PX\�SHTXHxDV��HO�PpWRGR�DQWHULRU�VH�FRPSOLFD��SRU� OR�TXH�WHQHPRV�TXH�DFXGLU�D�PLFURVFRSLRV�GH�DOWD�UHVROXFLyQ�SXHV�QR�VRPRV�FDSDFHV�GH�YHU�OD�PDUFD�GHMDGD�HQ�OD�PXHVWUD�SRU�HO�PLFURLQGHQWDGRU��$�HVWH�SUREOHPD�KD\�TXH�LQFOXLU�ORV�HUURUHV�DVRFLDGRV�D�OD�SURSLD�ySWLFD�TXH�QRV�SHUPLWH�YLVXDOL]DU�OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ��3DUD�VROXFLRQDU�ORV�SUREOHPDV�DQWHULRUHV��HQ�OD�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�VH�KDFH�XVR�GH�VX�FDSDFLGDG�SDUD�PHGLU�FRQ� SUHFLVLyQ� ORV� GHVSOD]DPLHQWRV� GH� OD� SXQWD�� /R� TXH� VH� KDFH� HV� XQ� FiOFXOR� GHO� iUHD� GH� FRQWDFWR� HQ�IXQFLyQ� GH� OD� JHRPHWUtD� GHO� LQGHQWDGRU� \� OD� SURIXQGLGDG� GH� FRQWDFWR�� 7RGR� OR� DQWHULRU� VH� EDVD� HQ� OD�SRVLELOLGDG�GH�GHVFULELU�OD�JHRPHWUtD�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�FRQ�XQD�IXQFLyQ�GH�iUHD� )( chF �TXH�UHODFLRQD�HO�iUHD�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�FRQ�OD�GLVWDQFLD�GH�SHQHWUDFLyQ�GHVGH�HO�YpUWLFH�GH�OD�SXQWD��6XSRQLHQGR�TXH�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�QR�VH�GHIRUPD�GH�IRUPD�DSUHFLDEOH��HO�iUHD�GH�FRQWDFWR�HQ�FDUJD�Pi[LPD�VH�SXHGH�FDOFXODU�D�SDUWLU�GH�XQD�UHODFLyQ�GHO�WLSR��

� )( chFA = � ������GRQGH� ch �KDFH�UHIHUHQFLD�D�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�SOiVWLFD�R�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR��/D� IRUPD�FRQFUHWD�GH� OD� IXQFLyQ�GH�iUHD� � )( chF �� WLHQH�TXH�GHWHUPLQDUVH�GH�XQD� IRUPD�H[SHULPHQWDO��3DUD�XQ�LQGHQWDGRU�%HUNRYLFK�SHUIHFWR�OD�UHODFLyQ�HQWUH� ch �\� A �HV��

� 25.24 chA = � �����������������

VLQ�HPEDUJR��KD\�TXH�WHQHU�HQ�FXHQWD� ODV�GHVYLDFLRQHV�GH�XQD�IRUPD�SHUIHFWD�GHELGR�DO�GHVJDVWH�GH� OD�SXQWD�\�D�RWURV�IDFWRUHV��(VWR�OOHYD�D�XQD�IXQFLyQ�GH�iUHD�FRUUHJLGD�GH�OD�VLJXLHQWH�IRUPD��

� 128/1

8

4/1

3

2/1

2

1

1

2...5.24)( cccccc hChChChChhA +++++= � ������

GRQGH� ODV� FRQVWDQWHV� iC � GHEHQ� VHU� GHWHUPLQDGDV� H[SHULPHQWDOPHQWH� SDUD� OD� SXQWD� TXH� VH� HVWp��HPSOHDQGR��8QD�YH]�TXH�WHQHPRV�OD�IXQFLyQ�GH�iUHD��HO�SUREOHPD�HV�FyPR�GHWHUPLQDU�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�� ch ��D�SDUWLU� GH� ODV�FXUYDV�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�� ,QLFLDOPHQWH��HVWD�SURIXQGLGDG�VH�REWHQtD�D�SDUWLU�GH�XQD�OtQHD� WDQJHQWH�HQ� ORV�SULPHURV�SXQWRV�GH� OD�FXUYD�GH�GHVFDUJD��6H�SUHVXSRQH�TXH�HO�iUHD�GH�FRQWDFWR�SHUPDQHFH�FRQVWDQWH�DO�SULQFLSLR�GH�OD�GHVFDUJD�\�TXH�HO�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�GH�OD�FXUYD�HV�OLQHDO���

61

6LQ�HPEDUJR�� HQ� OD�PD\RUtD�GH� ORV�FDVRV� ODV�FXUYDV�GH�GHVFDUJD�QR�VH�SXHGHQ� GHVFULELU� ELHQ�FRQ�XQD�UHODFLyQ� OLQHDO�� (Q� FRQVHFXHQFLD� KD\� TXH� HPSOHDU� UHODFLRQHV� QR� OLQHDOHV� FRPR� LQGLFDURQ� 2OLYHU� \��3KDUU�>��@��6HJ~Q�HVWRV�HVWXGLRV�� ODV�FXUYDV�GH�GHVFDUJD�HVWiQ�PHMRU�GHVFULWDV�SRU�XQD�HFXDFLyQ�GH� OD�IRUPD��

�� m

fhhP )( −= α � ������GRQGH� P � HV� OD� FDUJD� DSOLFDGD�� h � HO� GHVSOD]DPLHQWR� GHO� LQGHQWDGRU�� fh � HO� GHVSOD]DPLHQWR� ILQDO� DO�WHUPLQDU�OD�GHVFDUJD��α �\�P�VRQ�SDUiPHWURV�TXH�VH�GHWHUPLQDQ�PHGLDQWH�XQ�DQiOLVLV�GH�UHJUHVLyQ�SRU�PtQLPRV�FXDGUDGRV�GH�ORV�GDWRV�H[SHULPHQWDOHV��3DUD�YDULRV�PDWHULDOHV�HVWXGLDGRV��HO�YDORU�GH�m �RVFLOD�HQWUH������\�������2OLYHU� \� 3KDUU�� EDViQGRVH� HQ� FiOFXORV� SUHYLRV� GH� 6QHGGRQ� >��@�� SURSXVLHURQ� XQ� PpWRGR� SDUD� OD�GHWHUPLQDFLyQ�GH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�� ch ��FRPR��

�dh

dP

Phhc

maxmax ε−= � ������

VLHQGR� dPdh / �OD�ULJLGH]�� S ��GHO�FRQWDFWR�HQWUH�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�\�OD�PXHVWUD��GHWHUPLQDGR�GH�OD�SHQGLHQWH�GHO� DMXVWH� GH� OD� FXUYD� GH� GHVFDUJD� H[SHULPHQWDO� VHJ~Q� OD� HFXDFLyQ� ����� (O� YDORU� GH� ε � GHSHQGH� GH� OD�JHRPHWUtD�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�\�WLHQH�XQ�YDORU�GH������SDUD�XQ�LQGHQWDGRU�%HUNRYLFK�>��@��8QD�YH]�TXH�WHQHPRV�HO�YDORU�GH� ch ��SRGHPRV�FDOFXODU�HO�iUHD�GH�FRQWDFWR�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�FRQ�OD�D\XGD�GH�OD�IXQFLyQ�GH�iUHD��HFXDFLyQ�������\�ILQDOPHQWH�SRGHPRV�FDOFXODU�OD�GXUH]D�GHO�PDWHULDO�GLYLGLHQGR�OD�FDUJD�DSOLFDGD�SRU�HO�iUHD�FDOFXODGD�

�)(

max

chA

PH = � �������

2WUR�GH�ORV�GDWRV�TXH�VH�SXHGH�H[WUDHU�GH�ODV�FXUYDV�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�HV�HO�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG�R�PyGXOR�GH�<RXQJ��(VWH�SDUiPHWUR�QRV�GD�OD�FDSDFLGDG�GH�GHIRUPDFLyQ�GHO�PDWHULDO�EDMR�HVWXGLR��(O�PyGXOR�GH� <RXQJ� VH� FDOFXOD� D� SDUWLU� GH� OD� FXUYD� GH� GHVFDUJD�� SXHV� HV� GRQGH� VH� SUHVHQWD� HO� FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HOiVWLFR�GHO�PDWHULDO��

62

7HQLHQGR� HQ� FXHQWD� TXH� HO� LQGHQWDGRU� QR� HV� SHUIHFWDPHQWH� UtJLGR�� HV� GHFLU�� TXH� WDPELpQ� VH� GHIRUPD�HOiVWLFDPHQWH��VH�GHEHQ�WHQHU�HQ�FXHQWD�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�HOiVWLFDV�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU��\�HVWR�VH�KDFH�D�WUDYpV�GHO�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG�UHGXFLGR��GHILQLGR�FRPR��

� 12

1

2

1 )1()1(−

−+

−=

s

s

rEE

Eνν � ������

GRQGH� iv \� iE � VRQ�� UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�� HO� FRHILFLHQWH� GH� 3RLVVRQ� \� HO� PyGXOR� GH� HODVWLFLGDG� SDUD� HO�LQGHQWDGRU��\� sv �\� sE �VRQ�ODV�PLVPDV�PDJQLWXGHV�SDUD�OD�PXHVWUD�TXH�TXHUHPRV�HVWXGLDU��(O�PyGXOR�UHGXFLGR�VH�SXHGH�FDOFXODU�D�SDUWLU�GH�OD�ULJLGH]�� S ��\�HO�iUHD�GH�FRQWDFWR�� A ��FRPR��

�A

SEr

2

π= � �������

(O�YDORU�GH�OD�ULJLGH]�� S ��VH�FDOFXOD�D�SDUWLU�GH�OD�SHQGLHQWH�GHO�DMXVWH�SRU�PtQLPRV�FXDGUDGRV�GHO�LQLFLR�GH�OD�FXUYD�GH�GHVFDUJD�D�OD�IXQFLyQ�GDGD�HQ�OD�HFXDFLyQ������$� SDUWLU� GH� ODV� HFXDFLRQHV� DQWHULRUHV� \� GH� ORV� YDORUHV� GHO� PyGXOR� GH� HODVWLFLGDG� \� GH� 3RLVVRQ� GHO�LQGHQWDGRU��VH�SXHGH�H[WUDHU�HO�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG�GHO�PDWHULDO�TXH�HVWHPRV�HVWXGLDQGR��$GLFLRQDOPHQWH��GH�OD�FXUYD�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR��VH�SXHGH�REWHQHU�WDPELpQ�HO�WUDEDMR�KHFKR�GXUDQWH�OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ��6H�SXHGHQ�LGHQWLILFDU���FDQWLGDGHV���L��HO�WUDEDMR�WRWDO�KHFKR�SRU�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�HQ�OD�PXHVWUD�

tW ��GHILQLGR�SRU�

∫=max

0

h

t PdhW ��LL��HO�WUDEDMR�HOiVWLFR�� elW ��TXH�VH�UHFXSHUD�GXUDQWH�HO�SURFHVR�GH�GHVFDUJD��HO�FXDO�HV�GHILQLGR�FRPR�HO�iUHD�EDMR�OD�FXUYD�GH�GHVFDUJD��9HU�ILJXUD��������\��LLL��HO�WUDEDMR�SOiVWLFR� eltpl WWW −= >��@���3RUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD���5���(O�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�QRV�GD�XQD�LGHD�PiV�GLUHFWD�GHO�WLSR�GH�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR��HOiVWLFR�R�SOiVWLFR��TXH�WLHQH�HO�PDWHULDO��8Q�YDORU�DOWR�GH�HVWD�FDQWLGDG�LQGLFD�XQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HOiVWLFR��PLHQWUDV�TXH�HO�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�SOiVWLFR�VH�GD�HQ�HO�FDVR�FRQWUDULR��8Q�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�GHO������ LQGLFD� TXH� HO� PDWHULDO� VH� UHFXSHUD� WRWDOPHQWH� GH� OD� GHIRUPDFLyQ�� QR� TXHGDUtD� KXHOOD� YLVLEOH��

63

0LHQWUDV� TXH� XQD� UHFXSHUDFLyQ� HOiVWLFD� GHO� ��� LQGLFDUtD� XQ� PDWHULDO� HQ� HO� TXH� WRGD� OD� GHIRUPDFLyQ�LQWURGXFLGD�HV�SHUPDQHQWH�SXHV�OD�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HV�QXOD��(O�FiOFXOR�GHO�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�HV�GHILQLGD�SRU�=KHQJ�\�FRODERUDGRUHV�>��@�FRPR��

100%max

maxx

h

hhR

f−= �

'RQGH� maxh �\� fh VRQ�HO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�D�OD�FDUJD�Pi[LPD�\�HO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�UHVLGXDO��UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�FRPR�VH�LQGLFy�HQ�OD�ILJXUD���������,QVWUXPHQWDFLyQ�(O�HTXLSR�XWLOL]DGR�SDUD�UHDOL]DU�ODV�PHGLGDV�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�HV�XQ�QDQRKDUGQHVV�WHVWHU�1+7�GH�&60�,QVWUXPHQWV��FX\D�IRWRJUDItD�VH�PXHVWUD�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�������HV�FDSD]�GH�WUDEDMDU�HQ�HO�UDQJR�GH�FDUJD�GH�ORV�P1�\�FRQVWD�IXQGDPHQWDOPHQWH�GH�WUHV�HOHPHQWRV�SULQFLSDOHV������HO�LQGHQWDGRU�SURSLDPHQWH�GLFKR��HO�FXDO�HVWi�FXELHUWR�SRU�XQ�DULOOR�PHWiOLFR�ILJXUD������������XQ�PLFURVFRSLR�ySWLFR�\�����XQ�SRVLFLRQDGRU�GH�SUHFLVLyQ�� TXH� PXHYH� ODV� PXHVWUDV� D� PHGLU� HQWUH� HO� PLFURVFRSLR� \� HO� LQGHQWDGRU�� \� ODV� VLW~D� HQ� ODV�GLVWLQWDV�SRVLFLRQHV�GRQGH�VH�GHEHQ�UHDOL]DU�ODV�LQGHQWDFLRQHV���

�)LJXUD�������)RWRJUDItD�GHO�1DQRLQGHQWDGRU�&60�,QVWUXPHQWV�

64

2WUD� YHQWDMD� TXH� WLHQH�HO� HTXLSR�HV�TXH�VH�SXHGH�SURJUDPDU�SDUD�TXH� UHDOLFH� YDULDV� LQGHQWDFLRQHV�GH�PDQHUD� DXWRPiWLFD�� GDQGR� FRPR� UHVXOWDGR� ILQDO� XQD� PHGLD� GH� ORV� UHVXOWDGRV� REWHQLGRV� MXQWR� FRQ� VX�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�GHVYLDFLyQ�HVWDGtVWLFD���

�)LJXUD�������(VTXHPD�GHO�DULOOR�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�

�����&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1��/DV� SHOtFXODV� GH� QLWUXUR� GH� WLWDQLR� IXHURQ� SUHSDUDGDV� SRU� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� DEODFLyQ� OiVHU� XVDQGR� FRPR�VXVWUDWRV� SLH]DV� GH� VLOLFLR� FULVWDOLQR� FRQ� RULHQWDFLyQ� ������� FRUWDGR� HQ� SLH]DV� FRQ� XQ� iUHD� GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH���FP��\�GLVFRV�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������GH�����FP�GH�GLiPHWUR�SRU�����FP�GH�HVSHVRU�SXOLGRV�D�HVSHMR�� FRQ� XQD�GXUH]D� LQLFLDO� GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� ����*3D�� 6H�XWLOL]DURQ� EODQFRV�GH� WLWDQLR� � GH�DOWD�SXUH]D� ����������� HQ� IRUPD� FLUFXODU� FRQ� XQ� GLiPHWUR� GH� �� SXOJDGD�� SDUD� IRUPDU� ODV� FDSDV� GH� 7L1��3UHYLDPHQWH�DO�GHSyVLWR� ORV�VXVWUDWRV� IXHURQ� OLPSLDGRV�XOWUDVyQLFDPHQWH�HQ�DFHWRQD�\�HWDQRO�VLJXLHQGR�SURFHGLPLHQWRV� HVWiQGDU�� HVWR� FRQ� HO� ILQ� GH� REWHQHU� XQD� EXHQD� DGKHUHQFLD� GHO� UHFXEULPLHQWR� FRQ� HO�VXVWUDWR���

65

(O�SURFHGLPLHQWR�VHJXLGR�SDUD�OD�SUHSDUDFLyQ�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�VH�GHVFULEH�D�FRQWLQXDFLyQ��VH�HYDFXD�OD�FiPDUD�KDVWD�DOFDQ]DU�XQD�SUHVLyQ�EDVH�GH�����[�������3RVWHULRU�D�HOOR��VH�FDOLHQWD�HO�VXVWUDWR�FRQ�XQ�KRUQR�UHVLVWLYR�IDEULFDGR�HQ�QXHVWUR�ODERUDWRULR��OD�FRUULHQWH�VH�UHJXOy�FRQ�XQD�IXHQWH�GH�YROWDMH��XVDQGR����� $� SDUD� DOFDQ]DU� XQD� WHPSHUDWXUD� GH� ���� &� TXH� VH�PLGLy� FRQ� XQ� WHUPRSDU� �FURPHO�DOXPHO�� WLSR� .��FRORFDGR�GLUHFWDPHQWH�VREUH�OD�VXSHUILFLH�HQ�TXH�VH�UHDOL]y�HO�GHSyVLWR��XQD�YH]�DOFDQ]DGD�OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GH�����&�VH�GHSRVLWy�XQD�FDSD�GH�7L�GXUDQWH�XQ�WLHPSR�GH���PLQXWRV���OD�FXDO�WLHQH�FRPR�SURSyVLWR�IRUPDU�XQD�FDSD�PHWiOLFD�GH�DFRSODPLHQWR�HQWUH�HO�VXVWUDWR�\�HO�UHFXEULPLHQWR�GH�7L1��HVWR�FRQ� OD� ILQDOLGDG�GH�PHMRUDU�OD�DGKHUHQFLD�GHO�1LWUXUR��3RVWHULRUPHQWH�VH�OOHQD�OD�FiPDUD�FRQ�XQD�PH]FOD�GH�JDVHV�1��$U�HQ�SURSRUFLyQ�������KDVWD�DOFDQ]DU�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�WUDEDMR�TXH�VH�ILMy�HQ�����[������7RUU���6H�SUHSDUDURQ�XQD�VHULH�GH�PXHVWUDV�D�GLIHUHQWHV�IOXHQFLDV��GH�����D������-�FP����PDQWHQLHQGR�FRQVWDQWH�ORV�UHVWDQWHV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR��ODV�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�QLWUXUR�GH�WLWDQLR�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ�OD�WDEOD������6H�SUHSDUDURQ�WDPELpQ�XQD�VHULH�GH�PXHVWUDV�XVDQGR�YDORUHV�LJXDOHV�GH�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�FRQ�HO�ILQ�GH�GHWHUPLQDU�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�HQ�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHGLGDV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�SURGXFLGDV���

7DEOD������3DUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�HPSOHDGRV�SDUD�SUHSDUDU�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L1�3DUiPHWURV� 5DQJR�%ODQFR��� 7LWDQLR��GH�DOWD�SXUH]D�����������6XVWUDWR��� $,6,�������6LOLFLR�3UHVLyQ�GH�WUDEDMR��� ��[������7RUU�)UHFXHQFLD��� ���+]��7LHPSR�GH�GHSyVLWR��� ���PLQ�'LVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR��� ����FP��7HPSHUDWXUD��� �����&��$WPyVIHUD��� $U�1����������

1 6H�KD�UHSRUWDGR�TXH�ODV�FDSDV�GHSRVLWDV�SRU�����PLQXWRV�GH�7L��WLHQHQ�XQ�HVSHVRU�GH�����µP�FRQ�XQ�WDPDxR�GH�JUDQR�OLJHUDPHQWH�PHQRU�TXH�HO�7L1�>��@

66

����&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&��/DV� SHOtFXODV� GH� FDUERQR� DPRUIR� IXHURQ� SUHSDUDGDV� SRU� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� DEODFLyQ� OiVHU� XVDQGR� FRPR�VXVWUDWRV� � SLH]DV� GH� VLOLFLR� FULVWDOLQR� FRQ� RULHQWDFLyQ� ������� FRUWDGR� HQ� SLH]DV� FRQ� XQ� iUHD� GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH���FP��\�GLVFRV�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������GH�����FP�GH�GLiPHWUR�SRU�����FP�GH�HVSHVRU�SXOLGRV�D� HVSHMR�� FRQ� XQD� GXUH]D� LQLFLDO� GH� DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� ���� *3D�� 6H� XWLOL]DURQ� EODQFRV� GH� JUDILWR� GH� DOWD�SXUH]D� ����������� HQ� IRUPD� FLUFXODU� FRQ� XQ� GLiPHWUR� GH� �� SXOJDGD�� SDUD� IRUPDU� ODV� FDSDV� GH� D�&��3UHYLDPHQWH�DO�GHSyVLWR� ORV�VXVWUDWRV� IXHURQ� OLPSLDGRV�XOWUDVyQLFDPHQWH�HQ�DFHWRQD�\�HWDQRO�VLJXLHQGR�SURFHGLPLHQWRV� HVWiQGDU�� HVWR� FRQ� HO� ILQ� GH� REWHQHU� XQD� EXHQD� DGKHUHQFLD� GHO� UHFXEULPLHQWR� FRQ� HO�VXVWUDWR���/DV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�IXHURQ�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�GRV�GLVWDQFLDV�GHO�VXVWUDWR������\�����FP��XVDQGR�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP���VH�HOLJLHURQ�HVWDV�FRQGLFLRQHV�\D�TXH�HQ�XQ�WUDEDMR�SUHYLR�>��@�VH�KD�PRVWUDGR� TXH� FRQ� HVWDV� FRQGLFLRQHV� VH� REWLHQH� XQ� DOWR� FRQWHQLGR� GH� VS��� OR� TXH� GD� FRPR� UHVXOWDGR�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�FRQ�DOWD�GXUH]D��/RV�UHVWDQWHV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR��VH�PDQWXYLHURQ�FRQVWDQWHV�\�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ�OD�WDEOD�������

7DEOD������3DUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�HPSOHDGRV�SDUD�SUHSDUDU�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�D�&�3DUiPHWURV� 5DQJR�%ODQFR�� *UDILWR��GH�DOWD�SXUH]D�����������6XVWUDWR��� $,6,�������6LOLFLR�3UHVLyQ�GH�WUDEDMR�� ��[�������7RUU�)UHFXHQFLD�� ���+]��7LHPSR�GH�GHSyVLWR��� ��PLQ�7HPSHUDWXUD��� ���&��$WPyVIHUD�� ���

��

67

����&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�&1[��

/DV� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� QLWUXUR� GH� FDUERQR� IXHURQ� GHSRVLWDGDV� HURVLRQDQGR� XQ� EODQFR� GH� JUDILWR� HQ�SUHVHQFLD�GH�XQD�DWPyVIHUD�GH�QLWUyJHQR��1����YDULDQGR�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�WUDEDMR�HQ�HO�LQWHUYDOR�GH�����[������7RUU�KDVWD�����[������7RUU��PDQWHQLHQGR�FRQVWDQWH�ORV�UHVWDQWHV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�� ODV�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�QLWUXUR�GH�FDUERQR�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ�OD�WDEOD������6H�SUHSDUDURQ�WDPELpQ�XQD�VHULH�GH�PXHVWUDV�XVDQGR�YDORUHV�LJXDOHV�GH�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�FRQ�HO�ILQ�GH�GHWHUPLQDU�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�HQ�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHGLGDV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�SURGXFLGDV���

7DEOD������3DUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�HPSOHDGRV�SDUD�SUHSDUDU�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�&1[�3DUiPHWURV� 5DQJR�%ODQFR��� *UDILWR��GH�DOWD�SXUH]D�����������6XVWUDWR��� $,6,�������6LOLFLR�)UHFXHQFLD��� ���+]��7LHPSR�GH�GHSyVLWR��� ���PLQ�'LVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR��� ����FP��7HPSHUDWXUD��� �����&��)OXHQFLD��� �����-�FP��$WPyVIHUD��� 1��

�����&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L�7L1�D�&�

�/DV�PXOWLFDSDV�GH�7L�7L1�D�&�IXHURQ�SUHSDUDGDV�SRU�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�XVDQGR�FRPR�VXVWUDWRV�SLH]DV�GH�VLOLFLR�FULVWDOLQR�FRQ�RULHQWDFLyQ��������FRUWDGR�HQ�SLH]DV�FRQ�XQ�iUHD�GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH���FP��

\�GLVFRV�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������GH�����FP�GH�GLiPHWUR�SRU�����FP�GH�HVSHVRU�SXOLGRV�D�HVSHMR��FRQ�XQD�GXUH]D�LQLFLDO�GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH�����*3D��6H�XWLOL]DURQ�EODQFRV�GH�WLWDQLR�\�JUDILWR�GH�DOWD�SXUH]D������������HQ� IRUPD� FLUFXODU� FRQ� XQ� GLiPHWUR� GH� �� SXOJDGD�� SDUD� IRUPDU� ODV� FDSDV� GH� 7L1� \��

68

D�&� UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�� 3UHYLDPHQWH� DO� GHSyVLWR� ORV� VXVWUDWRV� IXHURQ� OLPSLDGRV� XOWUDVyQLFDPHQWH� HQ�DFHWRQD�\�HWDQRO�VLJXLHQGR�SURFHGLPLHQWRV�HVWiQGDU��HVWR�FRQ�HO�ILQ�GH�REWHQHU�XQD�EXHQD�DGKHUHQFLD�GHO�UHFXEULPLHQWR�FRQ�HO�VXVWUDWR���/DV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�IXHURQ�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�OD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�²�VXVWUDWR�GH�����FP��XVDQGR�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP��YDULDQGR�~QLFDPHQWH�HO�WLHPSR�GH�GHSyVLWR�FRPR�VH�LQGLFD�HQ�OD�WDEOD������ /RV� SDUiPHWURV� UHVWDQWHV� GH� GHSyVLWR�� VH� PDQWXYLHURQ� FRQVWDQWHV� \� VRQ� ORV� PLVPRV� TXH� ORV�PRVWUDGRV�HQ� OD� WDEOD������/DV�SHOtFXODV�GH�QLWUXUR�GH�WLWDQLR� IXHURQ�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP��\�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�UHVWDQWHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�VH�PDQWXYLHURQ�FRQVWDQWHV�\�VRQ�ORV�PRVWUDGRV�HQ�OD�WDEOD�������/D�WDEOD�����PXHVWUD�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR���

7DEOD������3DUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV�7L�7L1�D�&�

6XVWUDWR���0XOWLFDSD� 'LVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR��FP��

)OXHQFLD��-�FP��� 7LHPSR�GH�GHSyVLWR��PLQ��

0���$FHUR�7L�7L1�D�&�� ���������� ������������ ����������0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�D�&�� ���������� ������������ �����������0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�D�&�� ���������� ������������ ����������

�����&RQGLFLRQHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L�7L1�&1[��/DV�PXOWLFDSDV�GH�7L�7L1�&1[�IXHURQ�SUHSDUDGDV�SRU�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�XVDQGR�FRPR�VXVWUDWRV�SLH]DV�GH�VLOLFLR�FULVWDOLQR�FRQ�RULHQWDFLyQ��������FRUWDGR�HQ�SLH]DV�FRQ�XQ�iUHD�GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH��FP��

\�GLVFRV�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������GH�����FP�GH�GLiPHWUR�SRU�����FP�GH�HVSHVRU�SXOLGRV�D�HVSHMR��FRQ�XQD�GXUH]D�LQLFLDO�GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH�����*3D��6H�XWLOL]DURQ�EODQFRV�GH�WLWDQLR�\�JUDILWR�GH�DOWD�SXUH]D������������HQ� IRUPD� FLUFXODU� FRQ� XQ� GLiPHWUR� GH� �� SXOJDGD�� SDUD� IRUPDU� ODV� FDSDV� GH� 7L1� \��&1[� UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�� 3UHYLDPHQWH� DO� GHSyVLWR� ORV� VXVWUDWRV� IXHURQ� OLPSLDGRV� XOWUDVyQLFDPHQWH� HQ�DFHWRQD�\�HWDQRO�VLJXLHQGR�SURFHGLPLHQWRV�HVWiQGDU��HVWR�FRQ�HO�ILQ�GH�REWHQHU�XQD�EXHQD�DGKHUHQFLD�GHO�UHFXEULPLHQWR�FRQ�HO�VXVWUDWR���

69

/DV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�&1[�IXHURQ�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�OD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�²�VXVWUDWR�GH�����FP��XVDQGR�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP���/RV�SDUiPHWURV�UHVWDQWHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�VRQ� ORV�PLVPRV�TXH� ORV�PRVWUDGRV�HQ� OD�WDEOD� ����� /DV� SHOtFXODV� GH� QLWUXUR� GH� WLWDQLR� IXHURQ� GHSRVLWDGDV� D� XQD� IOXHQFLD� GH� ����� -�FP�� \� ORV�SDUiPHWURV�UHVWDQWHV�GH�GHSyVLWR�VRQ�ORV�PRVWUDGRV�HQ�OD�WDEOD�������/D�WDEOD�����PXHVWUD�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV�7L��7L1���&1[���

7DEOD������3DUiPHWURV�GH�GHSyVLWR�GH�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV�7L�7L1�&1[�6XVWUDWR���0XOWLFDSD� 'LVWDQFLD�EODQFR�

VXVWUDWR��FP��)OXHQFLD��-�FP��� 7LHPSR�GH�GHSyVLWR�

�PLQ��0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�&1[�� ���������� ������������ ������������0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�&1[�� ���������� ������������ ������������

70

5()(5(1&,$6���>�@� /��*DUFtD��)��-��(VSLQR]D��6XSHUILFLHV�\�9DFtR����������������>�@�� /��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��0��$��&DVWUR��6��0XKO��$SSO��3K\V���$�����������������>�@�� &XOOLW\�%��'�HQ�(OHPHQWV�RI�;�UD\�GLIIUDFWLRQ��(G��3XHEOR�\�(GXFDFLyQ��/D�+DEDQD��FXED���������>�@�� /��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��$EODFLyQ�/iVHU�GH�y[LGRV��6tQWHVLV�\�FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ�GH�3HOtFXODV�'HOJDGDV��7HVLV�

GH�'RFWRUDGR��8QLYHUVLGDG�$XWyQRPD�GHO�(VWDGR�GH�0p[LFR��&DS�������������>�@�� %�� 5HEROOR�� 6tQWHVLV� \� &DUDFWHUL]DFLyQ� GH� 3HOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� FDUERQR� DPRUIR� QLWUXUDGR��

GHSRVLWDGDV� SRU� DEODFLyQ� OiVHU�� 7HVLV� GH� 0DHVWUtD�� %HQHPpULWD� 8QLYHUVLGDG� $XWyQRPD� GH� 3XHEOD��3XHEOD��&DS������������

>�@� -��$UHQDV�$ODWRUUH��5HYLVWD�GLJLWDO�XQLYHUVLWDULD��������������>�@�� <DFDPiQ�0LJXHO� -��� 5H\HV�*� -RVp��0LFURVFRStD� (OHFWUyQLFD�� XQD� YLVLyQ�DO�PLFURFRVPRV�� (G�� )RQGR�

(GXFDWLYR�3DQDPHULFDQR��0p[LFR��SS�������������>�@�� *ROGVWHLQ�,��-�HQ�6FDQQLQJ�(OHFWURQ�0LFURVFRS\�DQG�;�5D\�0LFURDQDO\VLV��(G��3OHQXP�3UHVV��86$��&DS��

����SS�������������>�@�� %UXxLGOH�5��(YDQV�&��:LOVRQ�6��(QF\FORSHGLD�RI�0DWHULDOV�&KDUDFWHUL]DWLRQ��%XWWHUZRUWK��+HLQHPDQQ�

�������>��@�� 'R\OH�/���.H\VHU�$���/HDFK�-���6FKUDGHU�*�\�6LQJHU�0���HQ�0DWHULDOHV�\�SURFHVRV�GH�PDQXIDFWXUD�SDUD�

LQJHQLHURV��(GLWRULDO�3UHQWLFH�+DOO��7HUFHUD�(GLFLyQ��0p[LFR��&DS�����SS������������>��@�� -DPHV�)��6KDFNHOIRUG��&LHQFLD�GH�0DWHULDOHV�SDUD�,QJHQLHURV��7HUFHUD�(GLFLyQ��3HDUVRQ�3UHQWLFH�+DOO��

SS�������������>��@�� 6��-��%XOO��-�3K\V��'��$SSO�3K\V�������5�����������>��@�� 6WDQGDUG�7HVW�0HWKRG�IRU�9LFNHUV�+DUGQHVV�RI�0HWDOOLF�0DWHULDOV��$QQXDO�%RRN�RI�$670���(�������������>��@�� *��0��3KDUU�\�:��&��2OLYHU��056�%XOO����������������>��@�� '��&iFHUHV�6iQFKH]��(VWXGLR�GH�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�HQ�PRQRFULVWDOHV�\�OiPLQDV�GHOJDGDV�GH�

0J2�PHGLDQWH�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ��7HVLV�'RFWRUDGR��8QLYHUVLGDG�$XWyQRPD�GH�0DGULG��&DS������������

71

>��@�� %��-|QVVRQ�DQG�6��+RJPDUN��0HWDOOXUJLFDO�DQG�3URWHFWLYH�&RDWLQJV������������������>��@����:��2OLYHU�DQG�*��0��3KDUU��-��0DWHU��5HV������������������>��@����,��6QHGGRQ��,QW��-��(QJ��6FL���������������>��@�� :��=KHQJ��9DF�6FL��7HFKQRO���$����������������>��@� %��0DMRU��:��&UX]�\�FRODERUDGRUHV��6XUIDFH�DQG�&RDWLQJ�7HFKQRORJ\����������������@��>��@� �2��2OHD�&DUGRVR�� (��&DPSV�� /�� (VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��6��0XKO�� 6�� (��5RGLO��0�� $��&DPDFKR�/ySH]�� (��+DUR�

3RQLDWRZVNL��7KLQ�6ROLG�)LOPV�����������������

72

&$3Ì78/2����5HVXOWDGRV�\�GLVFXVLRQHV������3HOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�1LWUXUR�GH�7LWDQLR��7L1��(VSHVRU�3DUD�GHWHUPLQDU�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�ORV�HVSHVRUHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHSRVLWDGDV�VH�XWLOL]y�XQ�SHUILOyPHWUR��VLQ�HPEDUJR��GHELGR�D�TXH�VH�WLHQH�DFFHVR�OLPLWDGR�D�pVWH��VH�KL]R�XVR�WDPELpQ�GHO�PLFURVFRSLR�HOHFWUyQLFR�GH�EDUULGR�� HQ� HVWH� FDVR� HO� YDORU� GH� ORV� HVSHVRUHV� VH� GHWHUPLQy� D� SDUWLU� GH� LPiJHQHV� GH� OD� VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO�GH� ORV�GHSyVLWRV�KHFKRV�HQ�VLOLFLR��DOJXQRV�GH� ORV�FXDOHV�VH�YHULILFDURQ�FRQ�HO�SHUILOyPHWUR�REWHQLpQGRVH�UHVXOWDGRV�TXH�FRQFXHUGDQ�FRQ�DPEDV�WpFQLFDV��D�PDQHUD�GH�HMHPSOR�HQ�OD�ILJXUD������D�\�E���VH� PXHVWUDQ� LPiJHQHV� REWHQLGDV� SRU� PLFURVFRStD� HOHFWUyQLFD� GH� EDUULGR� GRQGH� VH� SXHGH� DSUHFLDU� HO�HVSHVRU�GH�OD�FDSD��DVt�FRPR�OD�XQLIRUPLGDG�GHO�GHSyVLWR��

���� ��������������������������������������������D����������������������������������������������������������������������������E��)LJXUD�����,PiJHQHV�REWHQLGDV�HQ�6(0�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO�GH�GRV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L1�D�ODV�IOXHQFLDV�GH������\������-�FP��UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH��GRQGH�VH�DSUHFLD�HO�HVSHVRU�XQLIRUPH�GH�ODV�FDSDV�GH�

GHSRVLWDGDV���/D�)LJXUD�����PXHVWUD�HO�HVSHVRU�HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�IOXHQFLD�HQ�HO�UDQJR�GH������D������-�FP���VH�SXHGH�YHU�TXH�DO�DXPHQWDU�OD�IOXHQFLD�DXPHQWD�HO�HVSHVRU��OR�FXDO�VH�GHEH�D�TXH�XQD�PD\RU�IOXHQFLD�FRUUHVSRQGH�D�XQ�PD\RU�GHVSUHQGLPLHQWR�GH�PDWHULDO�GHO�EODQFR��

73

10 15 20 25 30 35 40

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Esp

eso

r (n

m)

Fluencia J/cm2 �

)LJXUD�����(VSHVRUHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�VREUH�VLOLFLR�HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�IOXHQFLD�

�(VWUXFWXUD�/D�ILJXUD�����PXHVWUD�HO�HVSHFWUR�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;�GH�XQD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�VREUH�DFHUR�$,6,������D�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH���[������7RUU�\�D�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH�����-�FP���(O�HVSHFWUR�VH�FDUDFWHUL]D�SRU�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH� SLFRV� VLWXDGRV� HQ� �θ� � ������� \� �������� ORV� FXDOHV� FRUUHVSRQGHQ� D� ORV� SODQRV� ������ \� ������UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�GH� OD�IDVH�F~ELFD�GHO�7L1��(O�KHFKR�GH�TXH�VROR�HVWDV�UHIOH[LRQHV�HVWpQ�SUHVHQWHV�HQ�HO�GLIUDFWRJUDPD�VXJLHUH�TXH� OD�SHOtFXOD�KD�FUHFLGR�FRQ�RULHQWDFLyQ�SUHIHUHQFLDO�HQ� OD�GLUHFFLyQ�GHO�SODQR��������(O�FRHILFLHQWH�GH�WH[WXUD��GHILQLGR�SRU�OD�UHODFLyQ�7����� �,��������,������,��������HQ�HVWH�FDVR�HV�GH����GDGR� TXH� QR� DSDUHFH� OD� UHIOH[LyQ� ������� LQGLFDQGR� TXH� OD� PXHVWUD� HVWi� FRPSOHWDPHQWH� RULHQWDGD� HQ� OD�GLUHFFLyQ��������/RV�SLFRV�DGLFLRQDOHV�TXH�DSDUHFHQ�HQ�HO�HVSHFWUR�HQ��θ� ������������������������\�������FRUUHVSRQGHQ�DO�VXVWUDWR��DFHUR�$,6,���������

74

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

TiN

(400)

TiN

(200)

sss

Inte

nsid

ad

(u

.a.)

2θ(º)

s

Presión de trabajo = 1 x 10-2 Torr

Fluencia = 9 J/cm2

�)LJXUD�����(VSHFWUR�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;�GH�XQD�GH�ODV�PXHVWUDV�GHSRVLWDGDV�D���[������7RUU��

�&RQ� HO� SURSyVLWR� GH� HVWXGLDU� HO� HIHFWR� GH� ORV� SDUiPHWURV� GH� GHSyVLWR� VREUH� ODV� SURSLHGDGHV�HVWUXFWXUDOHV�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��VH� UHDOL]DURQ� H[SHULPHQWRV�D� GLIHUHQWHV� IOXHQFLDV�� GH� ���� D������-�FP���D�XQD�SUHVLyQ�GH���[������7RUU��/D�ILJXUD�����PXHVWUD�ORV�SDWURQHV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;��QRUPDOL]DGRV� DO� HVSHVRU� SDUD� SURSyVLWRV� GH� FRPSDUDFLyQ�� FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV� D� ODV� PXHVWUDV�GHSRVLWDGDV�VREUH�DFHUR�$,6,������D�ODV�IOXHQFLDV�GH�����D������-�FP���6H�SXHGH�YHU�TXH�FRQIRUPH�VH�LQFUHPHQWD� OD� GHQVLGDG� GH� HQHUJtD� HO� JUDGR� GH� FDOLGDG� FULVWDOLQD� SULPHUR� PHMRUD� \� GHVSXpV�� SDUD�YDORUHV�PD\RUHV�GH���-�FP���OD�FDOLGDG�FULVWDOLQD�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GLVPLQX\H��OR�FXDO�SXHGH�DWULEXLUVH�DO�KHFKR�GH�TXH�D�DOWDV�GHQVLGDGHV�GH�HQHUJtD�VH�SURGXFH�XQ�SODVPD�PiV�GHQVR�\�FRQ�PD\RU�HQHUJtD��TXH�UHVXOWD� HQ� XQ� ERPEDUGHR� PiV� LQWHQVR� \� HQHUJpWLFR� GH� OD� SHOtFXOD� HQ� FUHFLPLHQWR�� GDQGR� FRPR�UHVXOWDGR�XQ�HIHFWR�GH�DPRUIL]DFLyQ�GHO�PDWHULDO�GHELGR�D�OD�IRUPDFLyQ�GH�FULVWDOHV�GH�PHQRU�WDPDxR�>�@��

75

36 38 40 42 44 46 48

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

7 J/cm2

2θ (º)

9 J/cm2

14 J/cm2

Inte

nsid

ad

(u

.a.)

19 J/cm2

TiN

(200)

sustrato

27 J/cm2

)LJXUD�����(VSHFWURV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV�D�ODV�PXHVWUDV�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�IOXHQFLDV�GH�����D������-�FP���

�/D�ILJXUD�����PXHVWUD�ORV�SDWURQHV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;��QRUPDOL]DGRV�DO�HVSHVRU�SDUD�SURSyVLWRV�GH�FRPSDUDFLyQ�� FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV� D� ODV� PXHVWUDV� GHSRVLWDGDV� D� ODV� IOXHQFLDV� GH� ����� D� ����� -�FP��� 6H�SXHGH�YHU�GHO�HVSHFWUR�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�OD�IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP���TXH�HO�PDWHULDO�VH�GHSRVLWy�HQ�ODV�RULHQWDFLRQHV�������\��������HQ�HVWH�FDVR�ORV�FRHILFLHQWHV�GH�WH[WXUD�VRQ�7������ ������\�7����� �������HVWRV�YDORUHV�LQGLFDQ�TXH�VH�WLHQH������GH�OD�IDVH�FULVWDOLQD�RULHQWDGD�HQ�OD�GLUHFFLyQ�������\�����HQ�OD�GLUHFFLyQ�������\�HQ�HO�FDVR�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�D������-��FP��VH�WLHQH�TXH�HO�FRHILFLHQWH�GH� WH[WXUD� HV� ��� OR� FXDO� LQGLFD� XQD� RULHQWDFLyQ� SUHIHUHQFLDO� HQ� OD� GLUHFFLyQ� ������� 6H� SXHGH� YHU� TXH� OD�RULHQWDFLyQ� HQ� OD� GLUHFFLyQ� GHO� SODQR� ������ HPSLH]D� D� GHVDSDUHFHU� D� SDUWLU� GH� ����� -�FP��� \� TXH� OD�RULHQWDFLyQ�HQ� OD�GLUHFFLyQ�GHO�SODQR� ������DSDUHFH�D�SDUWLU�GH� OD� IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP���HVWH�UHVXOWDGR�VXJLHUH� TXH� D� IOXHQFLDV� PD\RUHV� D� ����� -�FP��� ODV� SDUWtFXODV� OOHJDQ� FRQ� HQHUJtDV� PX\� JUDQGHV��SHUPLWLHQGR�HO�DFRPRGR�GH�ORV�iWRPRV�HQ�OD�RULHQWDFLyQ�PiV�FRPSDFWD�������� ORV�WDPDxRV�GH�JUDQR�D�ODV�

76

IOXHQFLDV�GH������\������-�FP��VRQ������\������QP�UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH��$GLFLRQDOPHQWH�HO�KHFKR�GH�TXH�ORV�SLFRV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�HQ�OD�RULHQWDFLyQ�������WLHQGDQ�D�GHVDSDUHFHU��SRGUtD�LQWHUSUHWDUVH�HQ�WpUPLQRV�GH�OD�IRUPDFLyQ�GH�JUDQRV�GH�WDPDxR�FDGD�YH]�PHQRUHV��

�)LJXUD�����(VSHFWURV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV�D�ODV�PXHVWUDV�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�

IOXHQFLDV�GH������D������-�FP����&RQ� HO� SURSyVLWR� GH� YHULILFDU� HVWR� XOWLPR�� HO� WDPDxR� SURPHGLR� GH� ORV� FULVWDOHV� VH� HVWLPy� XVDQGR� OD�HFXDFLyQ�GH�6FKHUUHU�>�@��/RV�UHVXOWDGRV�REWHQLGRV�VRQ�PRVWUDGRV�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�����HQ�OD�FXDO�VH�REVHUYD�FODUDPHQWH�TXH�HO� WDPDxR�GH�FULVWDO�GLVPLQX\H�DO� LQFUHPHQWDUVH� OD� IOXHQFLD��GHVGH����QP�KDVWD�YDORUHV�FHUFDQRV�D������QP�SDUD�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH�������-�FP���(VWH�UHVXOWDGR�HV�FRQVLVWHQWH�FRQ�OR�TXH�PXHVWUD�OD�GLIUDFFLyQ�GH�UD\RV�;��

77

10 15 20 25 30

12

14

16

18

20

22 (200)

Ta

ma

ño

de

gra

no

(n

m)

Fluencia Láser (J/cm2)

�)LJXUD�����7DPDxRV�GH�FULVWDO�FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�IOXHQFLD�OiVHU�SDUD�OD�RULHQWDFLyQ��������

�&RPSRVLFLyQ�0HGLDQWH�DQiOLVLV�SRU�('6�VH�GHWHUPLQy�TXH�HOHPHQWRV�FRPSRQtDQ�HO�PDWHULDO�GHSRVLWDGR��HV�LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�('6�QR�HV�DSURSLDGD�SDUD�FXDQWLILFDU�QLWUyJHQR�\�WLWDQLR�GH�PDQHUD�VLPXOWDQHD�GHELGR� D� TXH� ODV� OtQHDV� GH� HQHUJtD� GHO� WLWDQLR� � αL � ������ H9�� \� GHO� QLWUyJHQR� αK � ������ H9�� VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�PX\� FHUFDQDV� �OD� GLIHUHQFLD� HQWUH� HOODV� HV������ H9�� \� OD� UHVROXFLyQ� GHO� HTXLSR� XWLOL]DGR� HV�PD\RU� TXH� HVWD� GLIHUHQFLD� ������� H9�� >�@�� SRU� OR� TXH� QR� HV� SRVLEOH� UHDOL]DU� XQD� FXDQWLILFDFLyQ� GH� OD�FRPSRVLFLyQ��(Q�HVWH�FDVR�OD�WpFQLFD�VROR�SRGUtD�GDU�LQIRUPDFLyQ�DFHUFD�GH�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�HOHPHQWRV�HQ�OD�SHOtFXOD��/RV�UHVXOWDGRV�REWHQLGRV�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ�OD�WDEOD�����GRQGH�VH�SXHGH�YHU�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�R[tJHQR�HQ�WRGDV�ODV�PXHVWUDV��HQ�FRQFHQWUDFLRQHV�DWyPLFDV�GHO�RUGHQ�GHO�������(VWH�YDORU�H[FHVLYDPHQWH�DOWR�GH�R[LJHQR�QR�SXHGH�H[SOLFDUVH�HQ�WpUPLQRV�GHO�R[LJHQR�SUHVHQWH�HQ�HO�JDV�UHVLGXDO��SRU�OR�TXH�VH�KL]R�XQ�DQiOLVLV�GH�('6� DO� EODQFR� GH� WLWDQLR� REWHQLpQGRVH� WDQWR� HQ� ODV� SDUWHV� DEODFLRQDGDV� FRPR� HQ� ODV� SDUWHV� QR�DEODFLRQDGDV�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�R[tJHQR�HQ�FRQFHQWUDFLRQHV�DWyPLFDV�GHO�RUGHQ�GHO������DW��YHU�WDEOD�������OR�FXDO�VXJLHUH�TXH�HO�R[tJHQR�SUHVHQWH�HQ�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�SXHGH�SURYHQLU�GHO�EODQFR��$GLFLRQDOPHQWH��VH�GHEH�VHxDODU�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�FDUERQR�HQ�HO�EODQFR�TXH�KDVWD�HO�PRPHQWR�QR�VH�KD�SRGLGR�H[SOLFDU��

78

7DEOD������$QiOLVLV�HOHPHQWDO�('6�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�)/8(1&,$�>-�FP�@�

1�����$WyPLFR��

2�����$WyPLFR��

7L�����$WyPLFR��

����� �� ������ ����������� ����� ������ ����������� �� ������ ����������� �� ������ ����������� �� ������ ���������� ������ ������ ���������� ����� ������ ������

�7DEOD������$QiOLVLV�HOHPHQWDO�('6�GHO�EODQFR�GH�WLWDQLR�=RQD�DEODFLRQDGD� =RQD�QR�DEODFLRQDGD�

(OHPHQWR� ��$WyPLFR� (OHPHQWR� ��$WyPLFR�&� ����� &� �����2� ����� 2� �����7L� ����� 7L� �����

�0RUIRORJtD�6XSHUILFLDO�/D�PRUIRORJtD�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�REWHQLGDV�IXH�DQDOL]DGD�SRU�PHGLR�GH�PLFURVFRStD�HOHFWUyQLFD�GH�EDUULGR��/DV�SHOtFXODV�HQ�JHQHUDO�PXHVWUDQ�SDUWtFXODV�VDOSLFDGDV�GLVSHUVDGDV��FRPR�SXHGH�REVHUYDUVH�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�����TXH�PXHVWUD�OD�PRUIRORJtD�VXSHUILFLDO�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�ODV�IOXHQFLDV�GH�����������������\�����-�FP���(Q�ODV�FXDWUR�LPiJHQHV�VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�OD�LQIOXHQFLD�TXH�WLHQH�OD�IOXHQFLD�VREUH�HO�VDOSLFDGR��GRQGH� VH� YH� FODUDPHQWH� TXH� FRQIRUPH� VH� GLVPLQX\H� OD� IOXHQFLD�� HO� VDOSLFDGR� VREUH� OD� VXSHUILFLH� GHO�VXVWUDWR�GLVPLQX\H��/D�ILJXUD����G�PXHVWUD�OD�PLFURJUDItD�GH�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GH�7L1�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����-�FP���GRQGH�VH�REVHUYD�XQD�VXSHUILFLH�SUiFWLFDPHQWH�OLEUH�GH�SDUWtFXODV��

79

/D� DGKHUHQFLD� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GH� WLWDQLR� VH� HYDO~R� HPEHELHQGR� XQD� SHOtFXOD� GH� QLWUXUR� GH� WLWDQLR� HQ�EDTXHOLWD�\�TXLWiQGROD�SRVWHULRUPHQWH��OD�SUXHED�PRVWUy�TXH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GH�7L1�QR�VH�GHVSHJDED�VXJLULHQGR�EXHQD�DGKHUHQFLD�HQWUH�OD�SHOtFXOD�\�HO�DFHUR�$,6,�������

� �

������������������������������D�������-�FP�� ��������������������������E�������-�FP�� �� � �

� �F������-�FP�� G������-�FP��

)LJXUD�����0LFURJUDItDV�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�QLWUXUR�GH�WLWDQLR�GHSRVLWDGDV�VREUH�DFHUR�$,6,������D�GLIHUHQWHV�IOXHQFLDV�

�'XUH]D�/D�GXUH]D�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�IXH�REWHQLGD�XVDQGR�SULPHUR�XQ�PLFURLQGHQWDGRU�\D�TXH�HV�HO�HTXLSR�TXH�VH�WHQtD�GLVSRQLEOH��SDUD�FDGD�PXHVWUD�VH�UHDOL]DURQ��FXDWUR�LQGHQWDFLRQHV�XWLOL]DQGR�XQD�FDUJD�GH�����JI��OD�FXDO�VH�HVFRJLy�SDUD�TXH� OD� LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR� IXHUD� OR�PHQRU�SRVLEOH�� /DV� LQGHQWDFLRQHV� IXHURQ�YLVWDV� SRU� 6(0� SDUD� PHGLU� ODV� GLDJRQDOHV� \� REWHQHU� HO� SURPHGLR� GH� HOODV�� /RV� YDORUHV� GH� GXUH]D� VH�

80

GHWHUPLQDURQ�FRQVLGHUDQGR�OD�GXUH]D�FRPSXHVWD�GHELGR�D�OD�FRQWULEXFLyQ�GHO�VXVWUDWR�XVDQGR�HO�PRGHOR�SURSXHVWR�SRU�-|QVVRQ�\�6��+RJPDUN�>�@���(Q�DOJXQRV�FDVRV�XWLOL]DQGR�OD�FDUJD�GH����JI�VREUH��DFHUR�$,6,������VH�REWXYLHURQ�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�PX\�DOWRV��������*3D��SDUD�HVSHVRUHV�HQWUH�����QP�\������QP�SRU�OR�TXH�VH�FRQVLGHUy�TXH�SXGLHUDQ�QR�VHU�FRUUHFWRV��HVWR�SXHGH�GHEHUVH�D�TXH�HO�PDWHULDO�REWHQLGR�PRVWUy�XQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HOiVWLFR��FRPR�VH�SXHGH�YHU�HQ�OD�)LJXUD������HQ�OD�FXDO�VH�PXHVWUD�XQD�LPDJHQ�REWHQLGD�HQ�HO�0(%�GH�XQD�LQGHQWDFLyQ�KHFKD�D�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GH�7L1��GRQGH�VH�REVHUYD�TXH�HO�PDWHULDO�VH�UHFXSHUD�D� OD�GHIRUPDFLyQ�SURGXFLGD�SRU�HO�LQGHQWDGRU� GDQGR� FRPR� UHVXOWDGR� GLDJRQDOHV� GH� PHQRU� WDPDxR� \� SRU� OR� WDQWR� FRPSOLFiQGRVH� OD�GHWHUPLQDFLyQ�GHO�YDORU�GH�OD�GXUH]D����

D�� E��)LJXUD�����,QGHQWDFLyQ�GH�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GH�7L1�GHSRVLWDGD�D����-�FP��VREUH�DFHUR�$,6,�������

�&RPR�VH�PXHVWUD�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�����OD�GXUH]D�DXPHQWD�GH������*3D��D�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH�����-�FP���KDVWD������*3D��SDUD�XQD�IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP���\�GHVSXpV�OD�GXUH]D�GLVPLQX\H�KDVWD�XQ�YDORU�GH������*3D�SDUD�HO�Pi[LPR�GH�IOXHQFLD�XWLOL]DGD�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR�GH������-�FP���(VWRV�YDORUHV�LQGLFDQ�TXH�HO�Pi[LPR�YDORU�GH�GXUH]D�VH�WLHQH�HQ�DOUHGHGRU�GH������-�FP���HVWR�SXHGH�DWULEXLUVH�D�TXH�D�YDORUHV�GH�IOXHQFLDV�PD\RUHV�D������ -�FP�� HO� ERPEDUGHR� GH� SDUWtFXODV� RFXUUH� FRQ� PD\RU� LQWHQVLGDG�� UHVXOWDQGR� SRU� XQ� ODGR� HQ� OD�

81

FUHDFLyQ�GH�GHIHFWRV�GHO�WLSR�GH�GLVORFDFLRQHV�TXH�FDXVDUDQ�XQD�UHGXFFLyQ�HQ�OD�GXUH]D�GHO�PDWHULDO�\�SRU�RWUR�ODGR�D�HO�LQFUHPHQWR�GH�HVIXHU]RV�LQWHUQRV�HQ�OD�FDSD�TXH�VH�UHIOHMDUD�WDPELpQ�FRPR�XQ�GHWULPHQWR�GH�OD�GXUH]D�>�@���

10 15 20 25 30 35

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Du

rez

a (

GP

a)

F luenc ia (J /cm 2)

�)LJXUD�����'XUH]D�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�FRQ�RULHQWDFLyQ�������FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�IOXHQFLD�OiVHU��

�3DUD�REWHQHU�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�VLQ�TXH�VHD�DIHFWDGD�GH�PDQHUD�LPSRUWDQWH�SRU�OD�GXUH]D�GHO� VXVWUDWR�� OD� SHQHWUDFLyQ� Pi[LPD� GHO� LQGHQWDGRU� GHEH� HVWDU� SRU� GHEDMR� GHO� ���� GHO� JURVRU� GH� OD�SHOtFXOD�� OR� TXH� QR� HV� SRVLEOH� ORJUDU� FRQ� HO�PLFURLQGHQWDGRU�� SRU� OR� TXH� VH� XVy� WDPELpQ� OD� WpFQLFD� GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�� 6H� KL]R� SULPHUR� XQ� PXOWLFLFOR� SURJUHVLYR�� HO� FXDO� FRQVLVWH� HQ� UHDOL]DU� XQD� VHULH� GH�LQGHQWDFLRQHV� HQ� HO�PLVPR� SXQWR� LQFUHPHQWDGR� OD� FDUJD�� OR� TXH� SHUPLWH� HO� HVWXGLR� GH� ODV� SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�GHO�PDWHULDO��GXUH]D�\�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG��HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG��6H�KLFLHURQ�SRU�OR�PHQRV�GRV�FLFORV�FRQ�FDUJDV�GHVGH���KDVWD�����P1�TXH�QRV�SHUPLWLy�VHOHFFLRQDU�OD�FDUJD�DGHFXDGD�SDUD�REWHQHU�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�VLQ�OD�LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR��(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUD�XQ�PXOWLFLFOR�SURJUHVLYR�SDUD�XQD�GH�ODV�PXHVWUD�GH�7L1��3DUD���P1�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�HQ�JHQHUDO�SHQHWUy�FRPR�Pi[LPR�����QP��TXH�FRUUHVSRQGH��HQ�HO�SHRU�GH�ORV�FDVRV�D�����GHO�HVSHVRU�OOHJDQGR�D�VHU�KDVWD������GHO�JURVRU�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV��HVWRV�YDORUHV�GH�SHQHWUDFLyQ�GHO� LQGHQWDGRU�GDUiQ�FRPR�UHVXOWDGR�GXUH]DV�FRQ�XQD� LQIOXHQFLD� GHO� VXVWUDWR� PtQLPD�� SRU� OR� TXH� HOLJLy� HO� YDORU� GH� �� P1� SDUD� UHDOL]DU� �� PHGLFLRQHV�

82

VHSDUDGDV���� mµ �HQWUH�HOODV��HQ���GLIHUHQWHV�SRVLFLRQHV�GH�OD�PXHVWUD�UHSRUWiQGRVH�HO�SURPHGLR�GH�ODV�PHGLFLRQHV��$�PRGR�GH�HMHPSOR��HQ�OD�ILJXUD������PXHVWUD�ODV�FXUYDV�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV�D���LQGHQWDFLRQHV�KHFKDV�D�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L1�HQ�GLIHUHQWHV�SXQWRV�GRQGH�VH�SXHGH�YHU�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GH�ORV�UHVXOWDGRV�TXH�LQGLFD�XQ�GHSyVLWR�KRPRJpQHR��

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

0

50

100

150

200

250

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

TiN

MC 2-250mN

�)LJXUD������&XUYD�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�GH�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L1�GH������P1�

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

0

1

2

3

4

5

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

TiN

5mN

1

2

3

4

5

�)LJXUD������&XUYDV�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�GH�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L1�HQ���SXQWRV�GLIHUHQWHV�TXH�PXHVWUDQ�OD�

XQLIRUPLGDG�GHO�UHFXEULPLHQWR���/D� ILJXUD� ����� PXHVWUD� ORV� YDORUHV� REWHQLGRV� GH� GXUH]D� WDQWR� FRQ� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� PLFURGXUH]D� FRPR�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ��VH�SXHGH�YHU�SRU�XQ�ODGR�TXH�VLJXHQ�OD�PLVPD�WHQGHQFLD�\�DGLFLRQDOPHQWH�TXH�ORV�YDORUHV�

83

FRQ� OD�WpFQLFD�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�VRQ�PD\RUHV�GHELGR�D�TXH� OD�FDUJD�DSOLFDGD����P1��HV�PHQRU�TXH� OD�XWLOL]DGD� HQ� OD�PLFURLQGHQWDFLyQ� ���� JI�� \� SRU� OR� WDQWR� OD� LQIOXHQFLD� GHO� VXVWUDWR� HV�PXFKR�PHQRU�� /RV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�REWHQLGRV�SRU�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�YDUtDQ�GHVGH����KDVWD����*3D�TXH�VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�HQ�HO�LQWHUYDOR�GH�GXUH]DV�UHSRUWDGRV�HQ�OLWHUDWXUD�>�������@��(VWRV�UHVXOWDGRV�PXHVWUDQ�WDPELpQ�TXH�HO�PRGHOR�XVDGR�GH�GXUH]D�FRPSXHVWD�HV�DGHFXDGR��6H� SXHGH� YHU� WDPELpQ� HQ� OD� ILJXUD� ����� TXH� HO� YDORU� GH� OD� GXUH]D� GHWHUPLQDGR� SRU� OD� WpFQLFD� GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ� SDUD� OD� IOXHQFLD� GH� ����� -�FP�� HQ� OXJDU� GH� DXPHQWDU�� VDOLpQGRVH� GH� OD� WHQGHQFLD�HVSHUDGD�FRPR�HQ�HO�FDVR�GH�OD�PLFURLQGHQWDFLyQ��XQD�SRVLEOH�H[SOLFDFLyQ�GH�VX�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HV�TXH�OD�PXHVWUD�IXH�WUDWDGD�WpUPLFDPHQWH�FRQ�OD�ILQDOLGDG�GH�GHWHUPLQDU�VL�HO�R[LJHQR�SUHVHQWH�HVWDED�IRUPDQGR�R[LGR�GH�WLWDQLR��UHDOL]iQGRVH�OD�PHGLFLyQ�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�GHVSXpV�GHO�WUDWDPLHQWR�WpUPLFR��

10 15 20 25 30 35

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

(917 nm)(859 nm)

(471 nm)(414 nm)

(318 nm)

(765 nm)

(864 nm)*

Du

reza

(G

Pa

)

Fluencia (J/cm2)

Dureza nanoindentador

Dureza microindentador

�)LJXUD������&RPSDUDFLyQ�GH�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D��PHGLGDV�FRQ�HO�PLFURLQGHQWDGRU�\�HO�QDQRLQGHQWDGRU��

GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�IOXHQFLD� � * /RV�YDORUHV�TXH�VH�LQGLFDQ�HQWUH�SDUpQWHVLV�FRUUHVSRQGHQ�D�ORV�HVSHVRUHV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV

84

/D�ILJXUD������ LOXVWUD�HO�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�GH� OD�SHOtFXOD�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�D�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L1�\�DO�DFHUR�$,6,������XVDGR�FRPR�VXVWUDWR�GXUDQWH� OD� LQGHQWDFLyQ�XVDQGR�XQD�FDUJD�GH���P1��VH�SXHGH�YHU�TXH� ORV�YDORUHV�GH�ORV�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�UHVLGXDO�GH�ODV�FXUYD�GH�GHVFDUJD�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GH�7L1�VRQ�PHQRUHV�TXH�ORV�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,�������HVWR�VLJQLILFD�TXH� OD�SHOtFXOD�GH�7L1�KD�UHFXSHUDGR�PD\RU�SDUWH�GHO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�Pi[LPR�TXH�HO�DFHUR�� OR�FXDO� OR�KDFH�XQ�PDWHULDO�FRQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HOiVWLFR�\�SRU�RWUR� ODGR��FRPR� OD�FXUYD�GH�FDUJD�SDUD�HO�7L1�SUHVHQWD�XQ�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�PHQRU�TXH�HO�DFHUR��LQGLFD�XQD�PD\RU�GXUH]D��/D�GXUH]D�GHO�VXVWUDWR�IXH�GH�����*3D�� OR�TXH�VLJQLILFD�TXH� OD�GXUH]D�VXSHUILFLDO�GHO�PDWHULDO�UHFXELHUWR�VH�LQFUHPHQWR�HQ�XQ�IDFWRU�GH�����

0 50 100 150 200 250

0

1

2

3

4

5

TiN Acero AISI 4140

Ca

rga

(m

N)

h (nm) �)LJXUD������&XUYD�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�D�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L1�\�GH�DFHUR�$,6,�������FRQ�FDUJD�

GH���P1��3RUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD���5���(O�FiOFXOR�GHO�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�VH�KL]R�XWLOL]DQGR�OD�IyUPXOD�GHILQLGD�SRU�=KHQJ�>�@�����������

100%max

maxx

h

hhR

f−= �

'RQGH� maxh �\� fh VRQ�HO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�D�OD�FDUJD�Pi[LPD�\�HO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�UHVLGXDO��UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�FRPR�VH�LQGLFy�HQ�HO�FDStWXOR����

85

/RV�YDORUHV�GHO�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFR�D�SDUWLU�GH�ODV�FXUYDV�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�XVDQGR���P1�D� ODV�GLIHUHQWHV� � IOXHQFLDV�GH�����D������-�FP��VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ� OD� ILJXUD������� HQ� OD�FXDO�VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�TXH�HO�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�FUHFH�GHVGH������KDVWD�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH�����SDUD�OD�IOXHQFLD�GH������-�FP���PDQWHQLpQGRVH�DOUHGHGRU�GHO�������SDUD�IOXHQFLDV�PD\RUHV���&RPSDUDQGR�OD�ILJXUD������FRQ�OD�������VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�TXH�XQ�DXPHQWR�HQ�OD�GXUH]D�FRUUHVSRQGH�D�XQ�DXPHQWR�HQ�OD�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD����

5 10 15 20 25 30 35

35

40

45

50

55

Re

cu

pe

ració

n e

lástica

(%

)

Fluencia (J/cm2)

% Recuperación

elástica

�)LJXUD������3RUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�SDUD�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�HQ�HO�UDQJR�GH�IOXHQFLDV�GH�����D�

�����-�FP��

�����3HOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�&DUERQR�DPRUIR��D�&��(VSHVRUHV�3DUD�GHWHUPLQDU� ORV�HVSHVRUHV�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��VH�XWLOL]y�XQ�SHUILOyPHWUR�� /RV� YDORUHV�GH� ORV�HVSHVRUHV�SDUD�ODV�PXHVWUDV�D�ODV�GLVWDQFLDV�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR�GH������\�����FP�VRQ�������QP�\�������QP�UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH�� (VWRV� YDORUHV� VLJXHQ� OD� VHFXHQFLD� HVSHUDGD� \D� TXH� D� XQD� PD\RU� GLVWDQFLD� OOHJDUDQ�

86

PHQRV� SDUWtFXODV� SDUD� IRUPDU� OD� SHOtFXOD� GHELGR� D� TXH� HO� SODVPD� VH� HVWD� H[SDQGLHQGR� HQ� XQ� YROXPHQ�PD\RU����0LFUR�HVWUXFWXUD�/D�PLFUR�HVWUXFWXUD�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHO�D�&�VH�HVWXGLy�SRU�HVSHFWURVFRSLD�5DPDQ��GHELGR�D�TXH�VH�KD�PRVWUDGR�TXH�HVWD�WpFQLFD�HV�VHQVLEOH�DO�FRQWHQLGR�GH�HQODFHV�VS��VS��HQ�ODV�FDSDV�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR���(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUD�HO�HVSHFWUR�5DPDQ�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�XQD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR�GH�����FP��FRPR�SXHGH�REVHUYDUVH�FRQVLVWH�HQ�XQD�EDQGD�DQFKD�DVLPpWULFD�FRPSXHVWD�D�VX�YH]�GH�GRV�EDQGDV�GHQRPLQDGDV�'�\�*����������

�)LJXUD������(VSHFWUR�5DPDQ�GH�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GH�D�&�GHSRVLWDGD�D�XQD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR�GH���FP�

�/D�EDQGD�*�VH�ORFDOL]D�DOUHGHGRU�GH������FP����\�VX�RULJHQ�LQYROXFUD�HO�PRYLPLHQWR�GH�SDUHV�GH�iWRPRV�GH�FDUERQR� HQ� XQ� SODQR� �HQODFHV� VS���� &DEH� VHxDODU� TXH� OD� EDQGD� *� QR� UHTXLHUH� OD� SUHVHQFLD� GH� DQLOORV�KH[DJRQDOHV� �YHU� ILJXUD�������� \�SXHGH�RULJLQDUVH�HQ�FDGHQDV�GH�iWRPRV�GH�&�� /D�EDQGD�'�TXH�VH�XELFD�DOUHGHGRU�GH������FP���HVWi�DVRFLDGD�D�XQ�PRGR�GH�YLEUDFLyQ�GH�WLSR�´UHVSLUDFLyQµ�GH�DQLOORV�KH[DJRQDOHV��SRU�OR�TXH�VX�LQWHQVLGDG�HVWi�HVWULFWDPHQWH�FRQHFWDGD�FRQ�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�DQLOORV�KH[DJRQDOHV��YHU�ILJXUD������E���

1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Inte

nsid

ad

(u

.a.)

Número de onda cm-1

aC-3.0cm

1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Inte

nsid

ad

(u

.a.)

Número de onda cm-1

aC-3.0cm

%DQGD�*�%DQGD�'�

87

�D�� �E��

)LJXUD������0RGRV�GH�YLEUDFLyQ�GH�ORV�iWRPRV�TXH�GDQ�OXJDU�D�ODV�EDQGDV�*��D��\�'��E��HQ�HO�HVSHFWUR�5DPDQ�GH�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�>�@��

�/RV� HVSHFWURV� 5DPDQ� REWHQLGRV� IXHURQ� LQWHUSUHWDGRV� HQ� EDVH� D� XQ� PRGHOR� SURSXHVWR� SRU� )HUUDUL� \�5REHUWVRQ� >��@�� (O� PRGHOR� HQ� FXHVWLyQ� SURSRQH� XQD� WUD\HFWRULD� GH� DPRUIL]DFLyQ� TXH� YD� GH� JUDILWR� D�FDUERQR�DPRUIR�WHWUDHGUDO�\�TXH�FRQVLVWH�GH�WUHV�HWDSDV��HQ�SDUWLFXODU��SDUD�ORV�ILQHV�GH�HVWH�WUDEDMR�HO�PRGHOR� HQ� FXHVWLyQ� VH� SXHGH� UHVXPLU� GH� OD� VLJXLHQWH� PDQHUD�� XQ� FRUULPLHQWR� GH� OD� EDQGD� *� D� EDMDV�IUHFXHQFLDV� ������ FP���� \� OD� GLVPLQXFLyQ� GH� OD� UD]yQ� GH� ,�'��,�*�� ������� LQGLFDQ� TXH� ODV� FDSDV� WLHQHQ�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�FDGD�YH]�PiV�VHPHMDQWHV�D�ODV�GHO�D�&��PLHQWUDV�TXH�XQ�FRUULPLHQWR�D�DOWDV�IUHFXHQFLDV�GH� OD� EDQGD� *� �����FP���� \� XQ� GHFUHPHQWR� GH� OD� UD]yQ� ,�'��,�*�� ������ LQGLFDQ� TXH� ODV� FDSDV� WLHQHQ�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV� FDGD� YH]� PiV� VHPHMDQWHV� D� ODV� GH� WD�&�� HV� GHFLU� XQ� PD\RU� FRQWHQLGR� GH� VS�� TXH�FRUUHVSRQGH�D�XQD�PD\RU�GXUH]D��3DUD�UHDOL]DU�HO�DQiOLVLV�XVDQGR�HVWH�PRGHOR�OR�TXH�VH�KDFH�HV�DMXVWDU�ORV�HVSHFWURV�5DPDQ�XVDQGR�GRV�IXQFLRQHV��XQD�%:)��%UHLW�:LJQHU��)DQR��SDUD�OD�EDQGD�*�\�XQD�/RUHQW]LDQD�SDUD�OD�EDQGD�'��FRQ�OR�FXDO�VH�REWLHQH� OD� UHODFLyQ� � ,�'��,�*�� \� OD� SRVLFLyQ� GHO� SLFR� *�� /D� ILJXUD� ����� PXHVWUD� ORV� HVSHFWURV� 5DPDQ�REWHQLGRV��SDUD� ODV�PXHVWUDV�GHSRVLWDGD�D������-�FP��D�XQD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR�GH�����\�����FP���MXQWR�FRQ�ORV�DMXVWHV�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV���

88

1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Inte

nsid

ad

(u

.a.)

Número de onda (cm-1)

aC-3.0cm

�1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Inte

nsid

ad

(u.a

.)

Número de onda (cm-1)

aC-4.5cm

�)LJXUD�������(VSHFWUR�5DPDQ�GH�ODV�PXHVWUDV�GHSRVLWDGDV�D������-�FP��\�D�XQD�GLVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR�

GH�����\�����FP��MXQWR�FRQ�VX�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�DMXVWH���/RV�UHVXOWDGRV�REWHQLGRV�GHO�DMXVWH�LQGLFDQ�TXH�ODV�SRVLFLRQHV�GH�OD�EDQGD�*�VH�HQFXHQWUDQ�HQ������\������FP���SDUD�ODV�PXHVWUDV�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�����\�����FP���DGLFLRQDOPHQWH�OD�UHODFLyQ�,�'��,�*��WLHQH�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�������� \��������SDUD� ODV�PLVPDV�PXHVWUDV��'H�DFXHUGR�D� OR� GLVFXWLGR�DQWHULRUPHQWH� ORV� UHVXOWDGRV�LQGLFDQ�TXH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����FP��WLHQH�XQ�FRQWHQLGR�GH�VS��PD\RU�TXH�OD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����FP����'XUH]D�/D�GXUH]D�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&�IXH�GHWHUPLQDGD�XVDQGR�ODV�PLVPDV�FRQGLFLRQHV�TXH�SDUD�OD�PHGLFLyQ�GH�PLFURGXUH]D�GHO�7L1��/RV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�REWHQLGRV�IXHURQ�GH������*3D�SDUD�OD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����FP�\�GH�����*3D�SDUD�OD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����FP���6H�XWLOL]y�WDPELpQ�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�SDUD�REWHQHU�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D��VH�KL]R�SULPHUR�XQ�PXOWLFLFOR�SURJUHVLYR�FRQ�FDUJDV�GHVGH���KDVWD����P1��YHU�ILJXUD�������TXH�QRV�SHUPLWLy�VHOHFFLRQDU� OD�FDUJD�DGHFXDGD�SDUD�REWHQHU�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�VLQ�OD�LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR��HVWH�YDORU�IXH�GH�����P1�\�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�REWHQLGRV�IXHURQ�GH������*3D�SDUD�OD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����FP�\�GH������*3D�SDUD�OD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����FP���

89

0 200 400 600 800

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

a-C

MC 2-52

)LJXUD������&XUYD�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�GH�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�D�&�GH�����P1��/D�7DEOD�����PXHVWUD�ORV�UHVXOWDGRV�GH�PHGLFLyQ�GH�GXUH]D�DVt�FRPR�ORV�GH�OD�HVSHFWURVFRSLD�5DPDQ��VH�SXHGH� YHU� TXH� ORV� YDORUHV� GH� GXUH]D� PXHVWUDQ� XQ� FRPSRUWDPLHQWR� VLPLODU� HQ� DPERV� FDVRV�� (VWRV�UHVXOWDGRV� VRQ� FRQVLVWHQWHV� D� ORV� REWHQLGRV� FRQ� DO� DQiOLVLV� 5DPDQ� \D� TXH� FRPR� VH� PHQFLRQy�DQWHULRUPHQWH�XQD�PD\RU�GXUH]D�FRUUHVSRQGH�D�XQ�PD\RU�FRQWHQLGR�GH�VS���$GLFLRQDOPHQWH� HV� LQWHUHVDQWH� VHxDODU� TXH� QXHYDPHQWH� ORV� YDORUHV� GH� GXUH]D� GHWHUPLQDGRV� SRU�PLFURLQGHQWDFLyQ� HVWiQ� SRU� GHEDMR� GH� ORV� TXH� PXHVWUD� OD� PHGLFLyQ� SRU� QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ� DXQTXH� D�GLIHUHQFLD� GHO� 7L1� OD� GHVYLDFLyQ� HV�PD\RU�� HVWR� SXHGH� GHEHUVH� D� TXH� HO�PRGHOR� GH� GXUH]D� FRPSXHVWD�XWLOL]DGR� SDUD� GHWHUPLQDU� OD� GXUH]D� GH� OD� SHOtFXOD� FRQ� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� PLFURLQGHQWDFLyQ� HV� YiOLGR� SDUD�SHOtFXODV� FRQ� HVSHVRUHV�PD\RUHV� D� ���� QP� \� HQ� QXHVWUR� FDVR� ORV� HVSHVRUHV� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GH� D�&��IXHURQ� GH� ������ QP� \� GH� ������ QP� SDUD� ODV�PXHVWUDV� GHSRVLWDGDV� D� ���� FP� \� ���� FP�� � SRU� OR� TXH� OD�LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR�VHUi�PD\RU�HQ� OD�PXHVWUD�GHSRVLWDGD�D�����FP�\�SRU�WDQWR�HO�YDORU�GH� OD�GXUH]D�GLVPLQX\H��(Q�HO�FDVR�GH� OD�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�VH�UHDOL]DURQ���PHGLFLRQHV�HQ�SXQWRV�GLIHUHQWHV�\�QXHYDPHQWH�EDMy�HO�YDORU�GH�OD�LQFHUWLGXPEUH�DVRFLDGD�D�OD�PHGLGD���PRVWUDQGR�EXHQD�XQLIRUPLGDG�HQ�HO�UHFXEULPLHQWR���

90

7DEOD������9DORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�FRQ�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�PLFURLQGHQWDFLyQ�\�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�SDUD�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�D�&��

'LVWDQFLD�E�V��FP���HVSHVRU��QP��

%DQGD�*��FP���� ,�'����,�*�� 0LFUR�GXUH]D�*3D�� 1DQRGXUH]D��*3D��

������������ ����� ������� ����� ����������������������� ����� ������� ���� �����������

�3RUFHQWDMH�GH�5HFXSHUDFLyQ�(OiVWLFD����5��/D� ILJXUD������ LOXVWUD� OD�GLIHUHQFLD�HQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�GH� �XQD�PXHVWUD�GHO�DFHUR�XVDGR�FRPR�VXVWUDWR�UHFXELHUWR�FRQ�XQD�FDSD�GH�D�&�\�VLQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR��GXUDQWH�OD�PHGLFLyQ�GH�GXUH]D�SRU�QDQRLQGHQWDFLRQ�XWLOL]DQGR�XQD�FDUJD�GH�����P1���VH�SXHGH�YHU�TXH�ORV�YDORUHV�GHO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�UHVLGXDO�GH�ODV�FXUYDV�GH�GHVFDUJD�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GH�D�&�VRQ�PHQRUHV�TXH�ORV�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,�������HVWR�VLJQLILFD�TXH�OD�SHOtFXOD�GH�D�&�VH�FRPSRUWD�GH�PDQHUD�PDV�HOiVWLFD�TXH�HO�DFHUR�VLQ�UHFXEULU��

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Ca

rga

(m

N)

h (nm)

Acero AISI 4140Acero AISI 4140 / a-C

��)LJXUD������&XUYD�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�D�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�D�&�\�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������FRQ�

FDUJD�GH�����P1��/RV�YDORUHV�GHO�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ� OD�WDEOD������VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�TXH�ODV� SHOtFXODV� SUHVHQWDQ� XQ� SRUFHQWDMH� GH� UHFXSHUDFLyQ� HOiVWLFD� GHO� RUGHQ� GHO� ����� (V� LQWHUHVDQWH�REVHUYDU�TXH�OD�SHOtFXOD�PiV�GXUD�HV�WDPELpQ�OD�PiV�HOiVWLFD���

91

7DEOD������3RUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�SDUD�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&�'LVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR��FP�� maxh ��QP�� fh ��QP�� R% �����FP� ����� ����� ���������FP� ����� ����� �����

�&RPSRVLFLyQ�/D� FRPSRVLFLyQ� HOHPHQWDO� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GH� D�&� VH� GHWHUPLQy� SRU� ('6�� HQ� HVWH� FDVR� GDGR� TXH� HQ�SULQFLSLR� VROR� GHEHUtD� GHWHFWDUVH� FDUERQR�� OD� LGHD� IXH� YHULILFDU� VL� H[LVWtD� OD� SUHVHQFLD� GH� DOJ~Q�FRQWDPLQDQWH�� \D� TXH� FRPR� VH� PRVWUy� HQ� HO� FDVR� GHO� 7L1�� HO� R[tJHQR� HVWXYR� SUHVHQWH� HQ� WRGRV� ORV�GHSyVLWRV�� ORV� UHVXOWDGRV� REWHQLGRV� VH� PXHVWUDQ� HQ� OD� WDEOD� ����� REVHUYDQGR� HQ� HO� SULPHU� FDVR� OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�R[tJHQR��VH�GHEH�UHFRUGDU�TXH�HVWD�SHOtFXOD�WLHQH�XQ�PD\RU�FRQWHQLGR�GH�HQODFHV�VS���SRU�OR�WDQWR�VH�SXHGH�SHQVDU�TXH�HV�PDV�SRURVD�\�SRU� OR� WDQWR�SXHGH�DGVRUEHU�DJXD�GH� OD�DWPyVIHUD�� OR�TXH�H[SOLFDUtD�HO�R[tJHQR�TXH�FRQWLHQH��

7DEOD������$QiOLVLV�HOHPHQWDO�('6�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&������'LVWDQFLD�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR�

&����DW�� 2����DW��

����FP�������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������FP������������������������������������������������ ��

�025)2/2*Ì$�683(5),&,$/�/D�PRUIRORJtD� VXSHUILFLDO� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� REWHQLGDV� IXH� DQDOL]DGD� SRU� PHGLR� GH� PLFURVFRStD�HOHFWUyQLFD�GH�EDUULGR��/DV�SHOtFXODV�HQ�JHQHUDO�PXHVWUDQ�XQD�VXSHUILFLH�VXDYH�FRQ�SRFR�VDOSLFDGR�FRPR�VH�PXHVWUD�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�������� �

92

��� ���������������������������������������������D���������������������������������������������������������������������������E��

)LJXUD�������0LFURJUDItDV�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�D�&�D�ODV�GLVWDQFLDV�EODQFR�VXVWUDWR�GH�D������\��E�����FP�

�����3HOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�1LWUXUR�GH�&DUERQR��&1[���'HELGR�D�TXH�VRQ�YDULRV�ORV�SDUiPHWURV�GH�ORV�TXH�GHSHQGHQ�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�PHFiQLFDV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�&1[��VH�SODQWHy�HVWXGLDU�GHO�HIHFWR�GH� OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�WUDEDMR��1���VREUH� ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�GHO�PDWHULDO�IRUPDGR����&RPSRVLFLyQ�(Q� OD� ILJXUD� ����� VH�PXHVWUD� HO� FRQWHQLGR� GH� QLWUyJHQR�� LQFRUSRUDGR� HQ� OD� SHOtFXOD�� FRPR� IXQFLyQ� GH� OD�SUHVLyQ� GH� WUDEDMR� XWLOL]DGD�� FRPR� � SXHGH� REVHUYDUVH� SDUD� SUHVLRQHV� HQWUH� ���[����� \� ���[����� 7RUU� HO�FRQWHQLGR�GH�QLWUyJHQR�VH� LQFUHPHQWD�GHO� ��� DO� �����DWyPLFR��PDQWHQLpQGRVH�FRQVWDQWH�HQ�HVWH�~OWLPR�YDORU�SDUD�SUHVLRQHV�PD\RUHV��(O�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HQ�OD�SULPHU�SDUWH�SXHGH�H[SOLFDUVH�HQ�WpUPLQRV�GH�OD�FDQWLGDG�GH�QLWUyJHQR�SUHVHQWH�HQ�OD�FiPDUD�TXH�LQWHUDFFLRQDUD�FRQ�HO�SODVPD�GH�FDUERQR�UHVXOWDGR�GH�OD�DEODFLyQ� GHO� EODQFR� GH� FDUERQR�� &RQIRUPH� KD\� PiV� QLWUyJHQR� GLVSRQLEOH�� VH� HVSHUDUtD� XQD� PD\RU�LQFRUSRUDFLyQ� GH� QLWUyJHQR� HQ� OD� SHOtFXOD�� FRQ� UHVSHFWR� D� OD� UHJLyQ� GH� VDWXUDFLyQ� HVWH� WLSR� GH�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR� KD� VLGR� REVHUYDGR� DQWHULRUPHQWH� \� VH� KD� H[SOLFDGR� HQ� WpUPLQRV� GH� SURFHVRV� GH�VSXWWHULQJ�TXtPLFR�\�ItVLFR�>��@��

93

0.01 0.1 110

12

14

16

18

20

22

Co

nte

nid

o d

e n

itro

ge

no

(%

ato

mic

o)

Presión N2 (Torr) �

)LJXUD�������&RQWHQLGR�GH�QLWUyJHQR�FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�1��XVDGD�GXUDQWH�HO�GHSyVLWR���(V�LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH�HQ�HVWH�FDVR�WDPELpQ�VH�GHWHFWy�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�R[tJHQR�HQ�FRQFHQWUDFLRQHV�GHVGH�HO���KDVWD�HO����DWyPLFR���'XUH]D�/D�GXUH]D�HQ�HVWH�FDVR�VH�GHWHUPLQR�~QLFDPHQWH�SRU�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ��XWLOL]DQGR�XQD�FDUJD�GH���P1��(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUDQ�ODV�FXUYDV�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�1��XWLOL]DGD�GXUDQWH�HO�GHSyVLWR��FRPR�VH�SXHGH�REVHUYDU��HQ�HO�FDVR�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�FUHFLGDV�D� OD�SUHVLyQ�GH��[�����7RUU�� OD�SHQHWUDFLyQ�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU�HV�GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH�������QP��PLHQWUDV�TXH�D�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH����[�����7RUU�HO�LQGHQWDGRU�SHQHWUD�GHO�RUGHQ�GH�������QP��HVWR� LQGLFD�TXH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�FUHFLGDV�D�PHQRU�SUHVLyQ�VRQ�PDV�GXUDV��SRU�RWUR�ODGR��VH�SXHGH�REVHUYDU�GLIHUHQWHV�FRPSRUWDPLHQWRV�GHO�PDWHULDO�GHSHQGLHQGR�GH�OD�SUHVLyQ��D�OD�SUHVLyQ�PDV�EDMD�OD�FXUYD�UHYHOD�XQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�PDV�HOiVWLFR�TXH�D�OD�SUHVLyQ�PDV�DOWD�HQ� OD�TXH�HV�HYLGHQWH�XQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�PDV�ELHQ�SOiVWLFR��(VWRV�UHVXOWDGRV�PXHVWUDQ�TXH�YDULDQGR�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�GHSyVLWR�VH�SXHGHQ�REWHQHU�PDWHULDOHV�FRQ�GLIHUHQWH�WLSR�GH�UHVSXHVWD�D�OD�GHIRUPDFLyQ��

94

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

0

1

2

3

4

5

10 mTorr

75 mTorr

300 mTorr

750 mTorr

Ca

rga

ap

lica

da

(m

N)

Penetración (nm)

�)LJXUD������&XUYDV�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH�1��XWLOL]DGD�GXUDQWH�HO�GHSyVLWR�

�(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUDQ�ORV�GDWRV�GH�GXUH]D�FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SUHVLyQ��D�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH����[�����7RUU�OD�GXUH]D�HV�GH������*3D��PLHQWUDV�TXH�D�SUHVLRQHV�GH����[�����7RUU�\�PD\RUHV��OD�GXUH]D�VH�PDQWLHQH�HQ�DOUHGHGRU�GH�����*3D��(VWR�SXHGH�LQWHUSUHWDUVH�HQ�WpUPLQRV�GH�OD�IRUPDFLyQ�GH�XQ�PDWHULDO�PiV�JUDItWLFR�DO�DXPHQWDUVH�OD�SUHVLyQ��TXH�HV�FRQJUXHQWH�FRQ�OD�UHJLyQ�GH�VDWXUDFLyQ�GH�QLWUyJHQR��\D�TXH�HO�SDSHO�GHO�QLWUyJHQR�HV�IDYRUHFHU�HO�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�GRPLQLRV�JUDItWLFRV��(O�VLJXLHQWH�SDVR�FRQVLVWLy�HQ�UHDOL]DU�ORV�GHSyVLWRV�D�XQD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GH�VXVWUDWR�GH�����&��\D�TXH�VH�KD�PRVWUDGR�TXH�D�WHPSHUDWXUDV�GH�VXVWUDWR�GH�HVWH�RUGHQ�HV�SRVLEOH�IRUPDU�&1[�GH�WLSR�IXOOHUHQR�FRQ�DOWD�GXUH]D��SDUD�WDO�SURSyVLWR�VH�HOLJLHURQ�ODV�FRQGLFLRQHV�GH�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH����[�����7RUU�\������-�FP������

95

0.01 0.1 1

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Du

reza

(G

Pa

)Presión N

2 (Torr)

F = 23 J/cm2

db-s

= 5 cm

t dep

= 45 min

�)LJXUD������'XUH]D�FRPR�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SUHVLyQ��D�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH����[�����7RUU�

�(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUDQ�ODV�FXUYDV�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�XWLOL]DQGR�XQD�FDUJD�GH���P1��OD�VXDYLGDG�GH�ODV�FXUYDV�REWHQLGDV�HV�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH� OD�DXVHQFLD�GH� IUDFWXUDV�HQ� OD�]RQD�GH� LQGHQWDFLyQ��DGHPiV�GH�PRVWUDU�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GH�ORV�UHVXOWDGRV�LQGLFDQGR�XQ�PDWHULDO�KRPRJpQHR��/RV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�HQ�HVWH�FDVR�IXHURQ�GH������*3D�SDUD�GLIHUHQWHV�PXHVWUDV�KHFKDV�HQ�ODV�PLVPDV�FRQGLFLRQHV��FRQ�OR�FXDO�VH�YHULILFy� WDPELpQ� OD� UHSURGXFLELOLGDG� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GHSRVLWDGDV� GH� &1[�� VLHQGR� HO� YDORU� GH� OD� GXUH]D�VLPLODU�D�OR�UHSRUWDGR�HQ�OD�OLWHUDWXUD�>������@���

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

0

1

2

3

4

5

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

CNx

5mN

1

2

3

4

5

�)LJXUD������&XUYD�GH�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�GH�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�&1[�

�/D� ILJXUD� �����PXHVWUD� HO� FRPSRUWDPLHQWR� GH� XQD�PXHVWUD� GH� � DFHUR� $,6,� ����� XVDGR� FRPR� VXVWUDWR�UHFXELHUWR�FRQ�XQD�FDSD�GH�&1[�\�VLQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�GXUDQWH�OD�LQGHQWDFLyQ�XVDQGR�XQD�FDUJD�GH���P1��VH�

96

SXHGH�YHU�TXH� ORV�YDORUHV�GHO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�UHVLGXDO�GH� OD�FXUYD�GH�GHVFDUJD�GH� OD�SHOtFXOD�GH�&1[�HV�PHQRU�TXH� OD�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,� ������HVWR�VLJQLILFD�TXH� OD�SHOtFXOD�GH�&1[�KD� UHFXSHUDGR�PD\RU�SDUWH�GHO�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�Pi[LPR�TXH�OD�GHO�DFHUR��OR�FXDO�OR�KDFH�XQ�PDWHULDO�FRQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HOiVWLFR�\�SRU�RWUR� ODGR�� VH� SXHGH� YHU� TXH� OD� FXUYD� GH� FDUJD� SDUD� HO� &1[� SUHVHQWD� XQ� GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�PHQRU� TXH� HO�DFHUR��OR�FXDO�LQGLFD�XQD�PD\RU�GXUH]D��

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

0

1

2

3

4

5

Acero AISI 4140 / CNx Acero AISI 4140

Ca

rga

(m

N)

h (nm) �)LJXUD�������&XUYD�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�D�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�&1[�\�GH�DFHUR�$,6,������FRQ�

FDUJD�GH���P1���/RV�YDORUHV�GHO�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�SDUD�ODV�PXHVWUDV�GH�&1[�GHSRVLWDGDV�D�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH����[�����7RUU�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ�OD�WDEOD������VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�TXH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�SUHVHQWDQ�XQ�SRUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�GHO�RUGHQ�GHO��������

7DEOD������3RUFHQWDMH�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�SDUD�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&�maxh ��QP�� fh ��QP�� R% �

������ ����� ����������� ����� �����

���

97

0RUIRORJtD�VXSHUILFLDO�/DV�SHOtFXODV�REWHQLGDV�PXHVWUDQ�VXSHUILFLHV�PX\� OLVDV�SUiFWLFDPHQWH� OLEUHV�GH�SDUWtFXODV�FRPR�SXHGH�REVHUYDUVH�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�������HVWR�SXHGH�H[SOLFDU�HQ�SDUWH�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GH�ORV�UHVXOWDGRV�\D�TXH�QR�KD\�YDULDFLRQHV�TXH�DIHFWHQ�OD�PHGLFLyQ�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�FRPR�HQ�HO�FDVR�GH�ODV�FDSDV�GH�7L1�HQ�TXH�OD�SUHVHQFLD�GHO�VDOSLFDGR�SXHGH�LQWURGXFLU�DOJXQRV�HUURUHV����

�)LJXUD������0LFURJUDItD�GH�XQD�SHOtFXOD�GHOJDGD�GH�&1[�GHSRVLWDGD�D�OD�SUHVLyQ�GH����[�����7RUU�

�����0XOWLSDFDV�GH�7L�7L1�D�&���6H�KLFLHURQ�PXOWLFLFORV�SURJUHVLYRV�FRQ�FDUJDV�GH���D����P1��GH���D����P1�\�GH�����D����P1��HQ�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUD��D�PDQHUD�GH�HMHPSOR��XQR�GH�ORV�PXOWLFLFORV�REWHQLGRV��'H� ORV� PXOWLFLFORV� VH� REWXYLHURQ� YDORUHV� SDUD� OD� GXUH]D� \� GHO� PyGXOR� GH� HODVWLFLGDG� HQ� IXQFLyQ� GH� OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�GHO�LQGHQWDGRU��ORV�FXDOHV�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ�OD�ILJXUD������MXQWR�FRQ�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�SDUD�ODV�SHOtFXODV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�GH�D�&�\�7L1��

98

0 100 200 300 400 500

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

TiN/a-C

MC 2-52mN

�)LJXUD�����0XOWLFLFOR�SURJUHVLYR�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�SDUD�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L�7L1�D&�VREUH�VLOLFLR�

�6H�SXHGH�YHU�GH�OD�ILJXUD������TXH�OD�GXUH]D�GHO�VLVWHPD�PXOWLFDSD�HV�PD\RU�TXH�OD�GXUH]D�GH�FDGD�XQR�GH�ORV� FRPSRQHQWHV� LQGLYLGXDOHV�� REVHUYiQGRVH� XQ� LQFUHPHQWR�� GH� OD�PXOWLFDSD� FRQ� UHVSHFWR� D� ODV� FDSDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�� GH� XQ� ����� SDUD� XQD� SURIXQGLGDG� GH� ��µP�� KDVWD� XQ� �����D� SURIXQGLGDGHV� GH� ������ QP��$GLFLRQDOPHQWH��HV�LPSRUWDQWH�KDFHU�QRWDU�TXH�D�SHVDU�GH�TXH�HO� LQGHQWDGRU�KD�SHQHWUDGR�WRWDOPHQWH�OD�PXOWLFDSD�� VH� VLJXH� REVHUYDQGR� XQ� HIHFWR� SURWHFWRU� VREUH� HO� VXVWUDWR� WHQLpQGRVH� XQD� GXUH]D� GH�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� ���*3D��TXH�HV�PD\RU�TXH� OD�GHO�VXEVWUDWR�VLQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR��(VWH�UHVXOWDGR�PXHVWUD�TXH�OD�PXOWLFDSD�SUHVHQWD�PHMRUHV�SURSLHGDGHV�TXH�ODV�FDSDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV���

���

99

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26 Espesor de la multicapa (974 nm)

Dureza silicio

Du

reza

(GP

a)

h(nm)

TiN

a-C

Ti/TiN/a-C

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

0RGXOR�GH�(ODVWLFLGDG�6LOLFLR

E (

GP

a)

h (nm)

Ti/TiN/a-C

TiN

a-C

�)LJXUD������'XUH]D�\�PRGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG�HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�SDUD�XQD�PXOWLFDSD�

GH�7L�7L1�D�&�GHSRVLWDGD�VREUH�VLOLFLR�FXDQGR�VH�LQFUHPHQWD�OD�FDUJD�GHVGH���KDVWD�����P1���

100

6H�FDOFXOy�OD�GXUH]D�SURPHGLR�GH�ODV�FDSDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�\�GH�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV��D�SDUWLU�GH�ORV�UHVXOWDGRV�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�XWLOL]DQGR�XQD�FDUJD�GH��P1��REWHQLpQGRVH�ORV�VLJXLHQWHV�UHVXOWDGRV��

3HOtFXOD� 'XUH]D��*3D��7L1� ������������D�&� ������������

0���$FHUR�7L�7L1�D�&� ������������0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�D�&� ������������0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�D�&� ������������

�/RV�HVSHVRUHV�IXHURQ�����������������\���������QP�SDUD�ODV�PXOWLFDSDV�0���0��\�0��UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH��GH� ORV� UHVXOWDGRV� GH� GXUH]D� VH� SXHGH� YHU� TXH� ODV� PXOWLFDSDV� SUHVHQWDQ� PD\RU� GXUH]D� TXH� HO� GH� ODV�FRPSRQHQWHV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�OR�FXDO�LQGLFD�TXH�OD�FRPELQDFLyQ�GH�HVWRV�PDWHULDOHV�SURGXFH�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�SURWHFWRU�FRQ�SURSLHGDGHV�VXSHULRUHV�\��DGLFLRQDOPHQWH�VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�TXH�ORV�UHVXOWDGRV�GHO�YDORU�GH�OD�GXUH]D�GH�ODV���PXOWLFDSDV��VRQ�VHPHMDQWHV��OR�TXH�GHPXHVWUD�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GH�ORV�H[SHULPHQWRV����(Q� OD� )LJXUD������VH�PXHVWUDQ� ODV�FXUYDV�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�GH�XQ�VLVWHPD�PXOWLFDSD� 7L�7L1�D�&�\�VH�SXHGH�REVHUYDU�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GHO�PLVPR��

0 20 40 60 80 100

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

Ti/TiN/a-C

2.5mN

�)LJXUD������&XUYDV�GH�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�SDUD�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L�7L1�D�&�

101

/D�VLJXLHQWH�WDEOD�PXHVWUD�HO�YDORU�GH�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD��GH�ORV�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSD��0XOWLFDSD� &DUJD�P1�� KI�QP�� KPD[� �(U�

0���7L�7L1�D�&� ���� ����� ����� �����0���7L�7L1�D�&� ���� ����� ����� �����

�3DUD� GHWHUPLQDU� ORV� YDORUHV� GH� ORV� HVSHVRUHV� GH� ODV� PXOWLFDSDV� VH� REVHUYDURQ� ODV� VHFFLRQHV�WUDQVYHUVDOHV�GH�ORV�GHSyVLWRV�KHFKRV�HQ�VLOLFLR�PHGLDQWH�HO�PLFURVFRSLR�HOHFWUyQLFR�GH�EDUULGR��/D�ILJXUD������PXHVWUD�XQD�LPDJHQ�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO�GH�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�D�&��GRQGH�VH�DSUHFLDQ�ORV�HVSHVRUHV�GH�FDGD�FDSD�LQGLYLGXDO�\�WDPELpQ�VH�REVHUYD�XQD�]RQD�HQWUH�OD�FDSD�GHO�7L1�\�GHO�D�&� GH� DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH� ���� QP� HQ� GRQGH� VH� SXHGH� DSUHFLDU� XQ� HIHFWR� GH� LQWHUGLIXVLyQ� HQWUH� DPEDV�FDSDV��WDPELpQ�VH�SXHGH�YHU�TXH�QR�H[LVWHQ� ODV�PLFURJULHWDV�WtSLFDV�HQ� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1�GHSRVLWDGDV�SRU�RWUDV�WpFQLFDV�>��@�� OR�FXDO� LQGLFD�TXH�HO�GHSyVLWR�FUHFH�FRPR�XQD�HVWUXFWXUD�GHQVD��HVWR�VH�SXHGH�DWULEXLU�D�TXH��OD�GHQVLGDG�GH�HQHUJtD�HV�DOWD�\�HQ�FRQVHFXHQFLD�HO�SODVPD�HV�HQHUJpWLFR�\��GHQVR��SRU�OR�TXH�KD\�XQ�ERPEDUGHR�LQWHQVR�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�HQ�FUHFLPLHQWR��OR�FXDO�IDYRUHFH�HO�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�OD�SHOtFXOD�FDSD�D�FDSD��

�)LJXUD�������,PDJHQ�REWHQLGD�HQ�6(0�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO�GH�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�D�&�

VREUH�VLOLFLR��GRQGH�VH�DSUHFLDQ�ORV�HVSHVRUHV�GH�FDGD�FDSD�LQGLYLGXDO��

102

&DEH�PHQFLRQDU�TXH�H[LVWH�HVFDVD�LQIRUPDFLyQ�UHVSHFWR�D� OD�FRPELQDFLyQ�GH�PXOWLFDSDV�GH�7L�7L1�D�&��VLQ� HPEDUJR��$�� 'HYLD� \� FRODERUDGRUHV� >��@�� KLFLHURQ� HVWH� WLSR�GH�PXOWLFDSDV�PHGLDQWH�VSXWWHULQJ�SDUD�VROXFLRQDU�HO�SUREOHPD�GH�OD�EDMD�DGKHVLyQ�UHVXOWDQWH�GHO�LQFUHPHQWR�HQ�OD�UD]yQ�VS��VS��TXH�FRQGXFH�D�XQD�PD\RU�GXUH]D�\�TXH�D�OD�YH]�GD�OXJDU�D�XQD��PD\RU�SUHVHQFLD�GH�WHQVLRQHV�LQWHUQDV�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�D�&�VREUH�DOJXQRV�VXVWUDWRV�GH�DFHUR��OR�TXH�FDXVD�DJULHWDPLHQWR�\�GHODPLQDFLyQ�GH�OD�FDSD�UHVWULQJLHQGR�HO� XVR� SUiFWLFR� GHO� D�&�� HOORV� ORJUDURQ� EXHQD� DGKHUHQFLD� GH� ODV�PXOWLFDSDV� \� DGHPiV� GHWHUPLQDURQ� HO�FRHILFLHQWH�GH�IULFFLyQ�SDUD�ODV�FDSDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�GH�7L1�\�D�&�UHVXOWDQGR�TXH�HO�FRHILFLHQWH�GH�IULFFLyQ�GH�D�&�HV�PHQRU�TXH�HO�GH�7L1��OR�FXDO�GD�OD�YHQWDMD�GH�TXH�OD�FDSD�VXSHULRU�GH�D�&�MXHJD�XQ�SDSHO�OXEULFDQWH�HQ� HO� UHFXEULPLHQWR� GHELGR� DO� EDMR� FRHILFLHQWH� GH� IULFFLyQ� TXH� pVWH� SUHVHQWD� \� SRU� RWUD� SDUWH�� QR� KD\�UHSRUWHV�FRQFHUQLHQWHV�D�SUXHEDV�GH�GXUH]D�������0XOWLFDSDV�GH�7L�7L1�&1[��6H� XWLOL]y� OD� WpFQLFD� GH� QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ� SDUD� REWHQHU� ORV� YDORUHV� GH� GXUH]D�� SULPHUR� VH� KLFLHURQ�PXOWLFLFORV�SURJUHVLYRV�XWLOL]DQGR�FDUJDV�GHVGH���KDVWD�����P1��HQ�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUD�XQR�GH�ORV�PXOWLFLFORV� REWHQLGRV�� 'HO� PXOWLFLFOR� SURJUHVLYR� VH� REWXYLHURQ� YDORUHV� SDUD� OD� GXUH]D� \� HO� PRGXOR� GH�HODVWLFLGDG�HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH� OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�GHO� LQGHQWDGRU�� ORV�FXDOHV�VH�PXHVWUDQ�HQ� OD�ILJXUD��������

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0

50

100

150

200

250

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

Ti/TiN/CNx

MC 5-250mN

�)LJXUD�������0XOWLFLFOR�SURJUHVLYR�GH�XQD�PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�&1[�FRQ�FDUJDV�GH������P1�

103

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

9

12

15

18

21

24

Espesor película

Dureza sustrato

Du

rez

a(G

Pa

)

h(nm)

Ti/TiN/CNx

��D��

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

Modulo de Elasticidad (silicio)

Mo

du

lo d

e E

lasticid

ad

(G

Pa

)

h(nm)

43TiNCN

�E��)LJXUD�������'XUH]D�\�PyGXOR�GH�HODVWLFLGDG�HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�SDUD�XQD�PXOWLFDSD�

GH�7L�7L1�&1[�FXDQGR�VH�LQFUHPHQWD�OD�FDUJD�GHVGH���D����P1���

104

(O� PXOWLFLFOR� SURJUHVLYR� FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH� D� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� 7L1�� &1[� \� HO� VLVWHPD� PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�&1[�VH�PXHVWUD�HQ�OD�ILJXUD�������HQ�OD�FXDO�VH�YH�FODUDPHQWH�TXH�OD�GXUH]D�GHO�VLVWHPD�PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�&1[�HV�PD\RU�TXH�OD�GH�VXV�FRPSRQHQWHV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�7L1�\�&1[��REVHUYiQGRVH�XQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�VLPLODU�DO�GH�OD�PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�D�&��HVWR�HV��HO�YDORU�GH�OD�GXUH]D�GH�OD�PXOWLFDSD�VLJXH�VLHQGR�PD\RU�TXH�HO�GHO�VXVWUDWR�FXDQGR�VH�OOHJD�pVWH��D�XQD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�����QP�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH��OR�FXDO�VLJQLILFD�TXH�HO�UHFXEULPLHQWR�VLJXH�SURWHJLpQGROR��WDPELpQ�VH�SXHGH�REVHUYDU�TXH�HQ�����QP��WDQWR�OD�GXUH]D�GH�ODV�FDSDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�FRPR�GH�OD�PXOWLFDSD�HV�DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH�OD�GHO�VXVWUDWR��DXQTXH�HQWUH�����\�����QP�WRGDV� ODV� FDSDV� WLHQHQ�PD\RU� GXUH]D� TXH� OD� GHO� VXVWUDWR�� OR� TXH� VLJQLILFD� TXH� ODV� �� FDSDV� �7L1�� D�&� \�7L�7L1�D�&���VLJXHQ�UHFXEULHQGR�HO�VXVWUDWR��

����������

)LJXUD������'XUH]D�HQ�IXQFLyQ�GH�OD�SURIXQGLGDG�GH�FRQWDFWR�SDUD�XQD�PXOWLFDSD�GH�7L�7L1�&1[�GHSRVLWDGD�HQ�VLOLFLR�FXDQGR�VH�LQFUHPHQWD�OD�FDUJD�GHVGH���KDVWD�����P1��

�(Q�OD�ILJXUD������VH�PXHVWUD�OD�FXUYD�FDUJD�GHVFDUJD�FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH�D�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L�7L1�&1[��6H�REWXYR�HO�SURPHGLR�GH� OD�GXUH]D� OLQHDO�SDUD� OD�FDUJD�SUHHVWDEOHFLGD�GH��P1��GDQGR�FRPR�UHVXOWDGR�XQ�YDORU�GH�GXUH]D�GH������*3D��/D�ILJXUD�PXHVWUD�WDPELpQ��OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GH���LQGHQWDFLRQHV�KHFKDV�HQ�GLIHUHQWHV�SXQWRV�GH�OD�PLVPD�PXHVWUD��

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

0

4

8

12

16

20

24

Espesor de la película

Dureza de Silicio

Du

reza

(GP

a)

h(nm)

Ti/TiN/CNx

TiN

CNx

105

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

0

1

2

3

4

5

Ca

rga

(mN

)

h(nm)

Lineal 5mN

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

�)LJXUD�������&XUYD�GH�FDUJD�GHVSOD]DPLHQWR�GH�XQD�PXHVWUD�GH�7L�7L1�&1�GHSRVLWDGD�VREUH�VLOLFLR��

GRQGH�VH�DSUHFLD�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GH�OD�PLVPD���/D�VLJXLHQWH�WDEOD�PXHVWUD��ORV�YDORUHV�REWHQLGRV�GH�GXUH]D�WDQWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�FRPR�GH�ORV�VLVWHPDV�REWHQLGRV�D�SDUWLU�GH�pVWDV���

3HOtFXOD� 'XUH]D��*3D��7L1� ������������&1[� ������������

0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�&1[� ������������0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�&1[� �������������

�([LVWHQ� SRFRV� UHSRUWHV� GH� HVWXGLRV� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� 7L�7L1�&1[�� HQ� WpUPLQRV� JHQHUDOHV� ORV�YDORUHV� GH� GXUH]D� \� GH� UHFXSHUDFLyQ� HOiVWLFD� GH� ODV� PXOWLFDSDV� REWHQLGRV� HQ� HVWH� WUDEDMR� HVWiQ�OLJHUDPHQWH�SRU�GHEDMR�GH�ORV�UHSRUWDGRV�HQ�OD�OLWHUDWXUD�>������@�OR�TXH�SXHGH�GHEHUVH�D�OD�GLIHUHQFLD�GH�HVWHTXLRPHWUtD�GH� ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�\D�TXH�HQ�QXHVWUR�FDVR�VH�REVHUYR� OD�SUHVHQFLD�GH�R[LJHQR�HO�FXDO� GHWHULRUDUtD� OD� GXUH]D�� 3RU� RWUR� ODGR�� $�� 9\DV� \� FRODERUDGRUHV� >��@� HQFRQWUDURQ� TXH� OD� GXUH]D�GHSHQGH�IXHUWHPHQWH�GHO�HVSHVRU�GH�ODV�FDSDV��DXPHQWDQGR�GUiVWLFDPHQWH�FXDQGR�ORV�HVSHVRUHV�GH�ODV�

106

ELFDSDV�GH�7L1��&1[�VRQ�PX\�SHTXHxRV����QP���VLQ�HPEDUJR�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�GXUH]D�WDPELpQ�VRQ�VLPLODUHV�D�ORV�TXH�REWXYLPRV�HQ�HVWH� WUDEDMR�� � (V� LPSRUWDQWH�VHxDODU�TXH�HQ� ORV� WUDEDMRV�DQWHULRUHV�QR�KDFHQ�XQ�DQiOLVLV�GH�FDGD�FDSD�\�GH�ODV�FDSDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�SRU�VHSDUDGR��REWHQLHQGR�HO�YDORU�GH�GXUH]D�GHO�VLVWHPD�PXOWLFDSD�GHELGR�D�TXH�ODV�FDSDV�VRQ�PX\�GHOJDGDV���(O�HVSHVRU�GH�OD�PXOWLFDSDV�IXH�GH�����\�����QP��\�OD�GXUH]D�REWHQLGD�FRQ�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�QDQRLQGHQWDFLyQ�IXH�GH������\������*3D��HVWH�YDORU�HV�PiV�JUDQGH�TXH�HO�GH�VXV�FRPSRQHQWHV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�OR�FXDO�LQGLFD�TXH�OD� FRPELQDFLyQ� GH� ORV� PDWHULDOHV� XWLOL]DGRV� SURGXFH� XQ� UHFXEULPLHQWR� SURWHFWRU� FRQ� SURSLHGDGHV�VXSHULRUHV��(VWR�LQGLFD�OD�LPSRUWDQFLD�GH�GHSRVLWDU�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�HOiVWLFR�DUULED�GH�XQ�PDWHULDO�GXUR�FRQ�EDMD�WHQDFLGDG�SDUD�SUHYHQLU�OD�SURSDJDFLyQ�GH�JULHWDV�ODV�FXDOHV�SXHGHQ�OOHJDU�DO�VXVWUDWR�\�SURGXFLU�IDOODV�HQ�pVWH�R�ELHQ�HQWUH�HO�VXVWUDWR�\�HO�UHFXEULPLHQWR��$VLPLVPR�HQ�OD�WDEOD�DQWHULRU�VH�PXHVWUDQ�ORV�UHVXOWDGRV�GHO�YDORU�GH�OD�GXUH]D�GH���PXOWLFDSDV�KHFKDV�HQ�ODV�PLVPDV�FRQGLFLRQHV��VH�SXHGH�DSUHFLDU�TXH�ORV�YDORUHV�GH�ODV���PXOWLFDSDV�VRQ�VHPHMDQWHV��FRQ�OR�FXDO�VH�SXHGH�GHPRVWUDU�OD�UHSURGXFLELOLGDG�GH�ORV� H[SHULPHQWRV�� /D� ILJXUD� ����� PXHVWUD� XQD� LPDJHQ� GH� OD� VHFFLyQ� WUDQVYHUVDO� GH� XQ� UHFXEULPLHQWR�PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�&1[��HQ�GRQGH�VH�DSUHFLD�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�GHQVR���

�)LJXUD�������,PDJHQ�REWHQLGD�HQ�6(0�GH�OD�VHFFLyQ�WUDQVYHUVDO�GH�XQ�UHFXEULPLHQWR�PXOWLFDSD�7L�7L1�&1[�GHSRVLWDGD�VREUH�VLOLFLR��GRQGH�VH�DSUHFLDQ�ORV�HVSHVRUHV�GH�FDGD�FDSD�LQGLYLGXDO��

107

/D�VLJXLHQWH� WDEOD�PXHVWUD�HO� YDORU�GH� UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�GH� ODV�FDSDV� LQGLYLGXDOHV�DVt� FRPR�GH� ORV�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSD��

3HOtFXOD� &DUJD�P1�� fh ��QP��maxh ��QP�� �5�

7L1� �� ����� ������ �����&1[� �� ����� ������ �����

0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�&1[� �� ����� ����� �����0���6LOLFLR�7L�7L1�&1[� �� ����� ������ �����

�/RV�YDORUHV�PXHVWUDQ�QXHYDPHQWH�TXH�HO�PDWHULDO�SUHVHQWD�XQ�FRPSRUWDPLHQWR�HOiVWLFR��

108

5()(5(1&,$6���>�@�� /��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��0��$��&DVWUR��6��0XKO��$SSO��3K\V���$�����������������>�@�� &XOOLW\�%��'��HQ�(OHPHQWV�RI�;�UD\�GLIIUDFWLRQ��(G��3XHEOR�\�(GXFDFLyQ��/D�+DEDQD��&XED���������>�@� 0RUDOHV� &DUDSLD� /HWLFLD�� 3URFHGLPLHQWR� 3�6�&� �0(%������ $QiOLVLV� TXtPLFR� HOHPHQWDO� FXDOLWDWLYR��

FXDQWLWDWLYR�\�PDSHR�TXtPLFR�SRU�('6�HQ�HO�0($%��,1,1���������>�@� -|QVVRQ�%���+RJPDUN�6��7KLQ�6ROLG�)LOPV������������������>�@� ,��6��0HMtD��/��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��6��5RPHUR��'HSyVLWR�GH�3HOtFXODV�'HOJDGDV�GH�7L1��D�&����

7L�7L1�D�&�SRU�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU��;9,�&RQJUHVR�7pFQLFR�&LHQWtILFR�,1,1�687,1��������>�@� � �� +��/MXQJFUDQW]��0��2GpQ��/��+XOWPDQ��-�(��*UHHQH��-��(�6XQGJUHQ��-���$SSO��3K\V�����������������>�@��� � :HQ�-XQJ�&KX��*H�3LQJ�<X��-LD�+RQJ�+XDQJ��6XUI�DQG�&RDW�7HFKQRO�����������������>�@��� � :��=KHQJ��9DF�6FL��7HFKQRO���$����������������>�@� � 2OHD� &DUGRVR� 2VFDU�� 3UHSDUDFLyQ� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� FDUERQR� XWLOL]DQGR� XQ� SODVPD� GH�

PLFURRQGDV�WLSR�(&5��7HVLV�GH�PDHVWUtD��&DS�����������>��@� ��)HUUDUL�$��&���5REHUWVRQ�-��3K\VLFDO�5HYLHZ�%�������������������>��@� ��/�� (VFREDU�$ODUFyQ�� $�� $UULHWD�� (�� &DPSV�� 6�� 5RPHUR�� 6�� 0XKO�� 0�� $�� &DPDFKR�/ySH]�� 'LDPRQG� �

5HODWHG�0DWHULDOV����������$UWtFXOR�HQ�SUHQVD��>��@� &��4XLUyV��5��1~xH]��3��3ULHWR�\�FRODERUDGRUHV��9DFXXP������������������>��@� &��0RUDQW�\�FRODERUDGRUHV��6XUIDFH�DQG�&RDWLQJV�7HFKQRORJ\������������������ �>��@� $��.DULPL�\�FRODERUDGRUHV��7KLQ�6ROLG�)LOPV��������������������>��@� $��'HYLD��%��6HJXUD��5HYLVWD�&RORPELDQD�GH�)tVLFD��9RO������1R�����������>��@� &��0RUDQW�\�FRODERUDGRUHV��6XUIDFH�DQG�&RDWLQJV�7HFKQRORJ\������������������>��@� $��9\DV��.��<��/L�\�FRODERUDGRUHV��6XUIDFH�DQG�&RDWLQJV�7HFKQRORJ\�����������������������

109

&21&/86,21(6��

• 6H� REWXYLHURQ� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� GH� 7L1� GH� DOWD� GXUH]D� RULHQWDGDV� SUHIHUHQFLDOPHQWH� HQ� OD�GLUHFFLyQ� ������� HQFRQWUiQGRVH� TXH� OD� GXUH]D� GHO� 7L1� GHSHQGH� GH� OD� IOXHQFLD� XWLOL]DGD� SDUD� HO�FUHFLPLHQWR�GH�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV��

• (O�GHSyVLWR�GH�SHOtFXODV�GHOJDGDV�GH�7L�7L1�D�&�\�7L�7L1�&1[�VREUH�DFHUR�$,6,������LQFUHPHQWDQ�OD�GXUH]D�VXSHUILFLDO�GHO�PDWHULDO�UHFXELHUWR�HQ�KDVWD�XQ�IDFWRU�GH�����

• /RV�UHVXOWDGRV�REWHQLGRV�PXHVWUDQ�TXH�OD�WpFQLFD�GH�DEODFLyQ�OiVHU�HV�DGHFXDGD�SDUD�GHSRVLWDU�HVWH�WLSR�GH�PDWHULDOHV��

• 6H�GHWHUPLQy�HO�YDORU�GH�OD�FDUJD�QHFHVDULD�SDUD�PHGLU�ODV�SHOtFXODV�GH�7L1��D�&�\�&1[��DVt�FRPR�ORV�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSD�VLQ�OD�LQIOXHQFLD�GHO�VXVWUDWR�

• 6H�REWXYLHURQ�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSDV��7L���7L1���&1[�XWLOL]DQGR�ORV�PLVPRV�SDUiPHWURV�TXH�ORV�GH�ODV�FDSDV� LQGLYLGXDOHV�GH�7L1�\�&1[��REWHQLpQGRVH�HQ� ORV�VLVWHPDV�7L�7L1�&1[�XQD�PD\RU�GXUH]D�TXH�OD�GH�ORV�FRPSRQHQWHV�LQGLYLGXDOHV��FRQ�OR�FXDO�VH�FRQILUPD�TXH�OD�FRPELQDFLyQ�GH�GLIHUHQWHV�PDWHULDOHV� HQ� IRUPD� GH� PXOWLFDSD� H[KLEHQ� SURSLHGDGHV� PHMRUDGDV�� $VLPLVPR�� VH� KL]R� XQD�FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ�SDUD�FDGD�FDSD�LQGLYLGXDO�\�SDUD�HO�VLVWHPD�PXOWLFDSD��OR�FXDO�QR�VH�KD�KHFKR�HQ�WUDEDMRV�UHSRUWDGRV��

• 6H�REWXYLHURQ�VLVWHPDV�PXOWLFDSDV��7L���7L1���D�&�XWLOL]DQGR�ORV�PLVPRV�SDUiPHWURV�TXH�ORV�GH�ODV�FDSDV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�GH�7L1�\�D�&��REWHQLpQGRVH�HQ�ORV�VLVWHPDV�7L�7L1�D�&�XQD�PD\RU�GXUH]D�TXH�OD�GH�ORV�FRPSRQHQWHV�LQGLYLGXDOHV�\��GH�PDQHUD�VLPLODU��VH�KL]R�XQD�FDUDFWHUL]DFLyQ�SDUD�FDGD�FDSD�LQGLYLGXDO�\�SDUD�HO�VLVWHPD�PXOWLFDSD��OR�FXDO�QR�VH�KD�KHFKR�HQ�WUDEDMRV�UHSRUWDGRV��

• 3DUD� DO� FDVR� GH� ODV� SHOtFXODV� GH� D�&� \� 7L1� VH� REVHUYy� TXH� OD� GXUH]D� HVWi� UHODFLRQDGD� FRQ� OD�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD��HV�GHFLU��D�PD\RU�GXUH]D�FRUUHVSRQGH�XQD�PD\RU�UHFXSHUDFLyQ�HOiVWLFD�

����

110

(O�GHVDUUROOR�GH�HVWH�WUDEDMR�GLR�OXJDU�D�ODV�VLJXLHQWHV�SXEOLFDFLRQHV�\�SUHVHQWDFLRQHV�HQ�FRQJUHVRV���38%/,&$&,21(6������,��6��0HMtD��/��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��6��0XKO��0��$��&DPDFKR�/ySH]��'HSRVLWLRQ�RI�7L1��D�&��DQG�7L�7L1�D�&�KDUG�FRDWLQJV�E\�ODVHU�DEODWLRQ�,17(51$7,21$/�-2851$/�2)�0$7(5,$/6�$1'�352'8&7�7(&+12/2*<�,-037��$FHSWDGR����������/��(VFREDU��$ODUFyQ��,��6��0HMtD��(��&DPSV��6��0XKO��6��5RPHUR�1DQRKDUGQHVV�FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQ�RI�7L1��D�&1�DQG�7L�7L1�D�&1�KDUG�FRDWLQJV�SUHSDUHG�E\�ODVHU�DEODWLRQ�(Q�SUHSDUDFLyQ�SDUD�$SSOLHG�3K\VLFV�$����,��6��0HMtD��/��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��6��5RPHUR��'HSyVLWR�GH�3HOtFXODV�'HOJDGDV�GH�7L1��D�&��7L�7L1�D�&�SRU�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU��0HPRULDV�GHO�;9,�&RQJUHVR�7pFQLFR�&LHQWtILFR�,1,1�687,1��������������35(6(17$&,21(6�(1�&21*5(626����/��(VFREDU��$ODUFyQ��,��6��0HMtD��(��&DPSV��6��0XKO��6��5RPHUR�1DQRKDUGQHVV�FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQ� RI� 7L1�� D�&1� DQG� 7L�7L1�D�&1� KDUG� FRDWLQJV� SUHSDUHG� E\� ODVHU� DEODWLRQ�;;9,�&RQJUHVR�GH�OD�6RFLHGDG�GH�&LHQFLD�\�7HFQRORJtD�GH�0DWHULDOHV���3XHEOD��3XH������������,��6��0HMtD��/��(VFREDU�$ODUFyQ��(��&DPSV��6��5RPHUR�'HSyVLWR�GH�3HOtFXODV�'HOJDGDV�GH�7L1��D�&��7L�7L1�D�&�SRU�$EODFLyQ�/iVHU�;9,�&RQJUHVR�7pFQLFR�&LHQWtILFR�,1,1�687,1���������&HQWUR�1XFOHDU�GH�0p[LFR�����������

111

$1(;26����$��/iVHU��/D� SDODEUD� OiVHU� HV� HO� DFUyQLPR� IRUPDGR� D� SDUWLU� GH� ´/LJKW� $PSOLILFDWLRQ� E\� 6WLPXODWHG� (PLVVLRQ� RI�5DGLDWLRQµ�� TXH� VLJQLILFD�� ´OX]� DPSOLILFDGD� SRU� HPLVLyQ� HVWLPXODGD� GH� UDGLDFLyQµ� >�@�� � *HQHUDOPHQWH� OD�SDODEUD�OiVHU�VH�XVD�SDUD�GHVLJQDU�WDQWR�D�OD�OX]�TXH�VH�JHQHUD�DVt�FRPR�DO�DSDUDWR�TXH�OD�SURGXFH����(O� SURFHVR� GH� OD� HPLVLyQ� OiVHU� SRGUtD� H[SUHVDUVH� HQ� XQD� IRUPD� VLPSOLILFDGD� FRPR� �OR� RSXHVWR� D� OD�DEVRUFLyQ���(Q�HVHQFLD��HO�IHQyPHQR�GH�OD�HPLVLyQ�OiVHU�HVWi�GHWHUPLQDGR�SRU�OD�FDSDFLGDG�TXH�WLHQHQ�ORV�IRWRQHV�SDUD�HVWLPXODU� OD�HPLVLyQ�GH�RWURV� IRWRQHV��FDGD�XQR�FRQ� LJXDO� ORQJLWXG�GH�RQGD�\�GLUHFFLyQ�GH�SURSDJDFLyQ�TXH�ORV�SULPHURV���'H�DFXHUGR�D�OD�WHRUtD�FXiQWLFD��ORV�iWRPRV�\�ODV�PROpFXODV�WLHQHQ�QLYHOHV�GHILQLGRV�GH�HQHUJtD�\�SXHGHQ�SDVDU�GH�XQ�QLYHO�D�RWUR�HQ�VDOWRV�GLVFRQWLQXRV��(O�FDPELR�GH�HQHUJtD�QHFHVDULR�SDUD�XQ�VDOWR��HVWi�GDGR�SRU� OD� DEVRUFLyQ� R� OD� HPLVLyQ� GH� XQD� FDQWLGDG� GLVFUHWD� GH� HQHUJtD� HQ� IRUPD� GH� UDGLDFLyQ�HOHFWURPDJQpWLFD�� /DV� IUHFXHQFLDV� GH� OD� UDGLDFLyQ� \� ORV� LQWHUYDORV� HQWUH� ORV� QLYHOHV� GH� HQHUJtD� VRQ�FDUDFWHUtVWLFRV�GHO�iWRPR�\�SRU�WDQWR�GLILHUHQ�GH�HOHPHQWR�D�HOHPHQWR���(Q� FRQGLFLRQHV� QRUPDOHV�� OD�PD\RUtD� GH� ORV� iWRPRV� R�PROpFXODV� SHUPDQHFHQ� HQ� VX� QLYHO�PiV� EDMR� GH�HQHUJtD� R� HVWDGR� IXQGDPHQWDO�� &XDQGR� HVWDV� SDUWtFXODV� VRQ� H[FLWDGDV� SRU� XQ� GHVWHOOR� GH� OX]�� SRU� XQD�GHVFDUJD�HOpFWULFD�R�SRU�RWURV�PHGLRV�\�SDVDQ�D�XQ�QLYHO�GH�HQHUJtD�VXSHULRU��DO� UHJUHVDU�GH�QXHYR�DO�HVWDGR� IXQGDPHQWDO�� HPLWHQ� OX]� GH� PDQHUD� LQFRKHUHQWH�� (Q� XQD� FDYLGDG� OiVHU�� WDOHV� IRWRQHV� HPLWLGRV�TXHGDQ� DWUDSDGRV� HQWUH� HVSHMRV� SDUDOHORV� \� DOWDPHQWH� UHIOHFWRUHV�� IRU]iQGRORV� D� UHIOHMDUVH� KDFLD�DGHODQWH�\�DWUiV�GHQWUR�GH�OD�FDYLGDG��6LHPSUH�TXH�XQ�IRWyQ�SDVH�FHUFD�GH�RWUD�SDUWtFXOD�H[FLWDGD�FRQ�OD�PLVPD� HQHUJtD�� HVWD� VHJXQGD� SDUWtFXOD� VHUi� HVWLPXODGD� SDUD� TXH� HPLWD� XQ� IRWyQ�� TXH�VHUi� LGpQWLFR� HQ�ORQJLWXG�GH�RQGD��IDVH�\�FRKHUHQFLD�HVSDFLDO�DO�SULPHUR��D�HVWH�SURFHVR�HV�DO�TXH�VH�OH�GHQRPLQD�HPLVLyQ�HVWLPXODGD� �ILJXUD� $����� $PERV� IRWRQHV� VRQ� DKRUD� FDSDFHV� GH� HVWLPXODU� OD� HPLVLyQ� GH� PiV� IRWRQHV�VHPHMDQWHV�D�HOORV�PLVPRV�\�pVWRV�WDPELpQ�IRUPDUiQ�SDUWH�GH�OD�FDQWLGDG�FUHFLHQWH�GH�IRWRQHV�HQWUH�ORV�

112

HVSHMRV��/D�HPLVLyQ�OiVHU�HPSLH]D�FXDQGR�KD\�VXILFLHQWHV�IRWRQHV�GHQWUR�GHO�PHGLR�DFWLYR��6L�XQR�GH�ORV�HVSHMRV�HV�SDUFLDOPHQWH�WUDQVSDUHQWH��VH�HPLWH�XQ�KD]�GH�OX]�FRKHUHQWH��LQWHQVR�\�DOWDPHQWH�RUGHQDGR����

�)LJXUD�$���(PLVLyQ�HVWLPXODGD�>�@���

8Q�OiVHU�HVWi�FRPSXHVWR�SRU�WUHV�FRPSRQHQWHV�EiVLFRV��L� 8Q�PHFDQLVPR�GH�ERPEHR�R�IXHQWH�GH�HQHUJtD�SDUD�H[FLWDU�D�ORV�iWRPRV��(V�OD�IRUPD�TXH�WLHQH�HO�

VLVWHPD�GH�UHFLELU�OD�HQHUJtD�QHFHVDULD�SDUD�FRQWDU�FRQ�VXILFLHQWHV�iWRPRV�HQ�HVWDGR�H[FLWDGR�\�VH�SXHGD�VRVWHQHU�OD�HPLVLyQ�OiVHU���

LL� (O�PHGLR�DFWLYR��3URSRUFLRQD�iWRPRV��LRQHV�R�PROpFXODV�TXH�SURGXFHQ�OD�DPSOLILFDFLyQ�GH�OD�OX]��1R�WRGDV�ODV�VXEVWDQFLDV�WLHQHQ�ODV�SURSLHGDGHV�SDUD�VHU�PHGLR�DFWLYR�HPLVRU�OiVHU��SXHVWR�TXH�XQ�PHGLR�HILFD]�GH�HPLVLyQ�OiVHU�GHEH�VHU�VXILFLHQWHPHQWH�H[FLWDEOH�SDUD�DOFDQ]DU�HO�HVWDGR�TXH�VH�FRQRFH�FRPR��LQYHUVLyQ�GH�SREODFLyQ���(Q�HVWD�FRQGLFLyQ�KD\�PiV�iWRPRV�HQ�HVWDGR�H[FLWDGR�TXH�HQ�HO�HVWDGR�EDVH� OR�TXH�SHUPLWH�XQD�JDQDQFLD�QHWD�HQ� OD� OX]�TXH�VH�JHQHUD��(V�GHFLU��HO�PHGLR�H[FLWDGR� SURGXFH�PiV� IRWRQHV� GH� ORV� TXH� DEVRUEH�� (V� LPSRUWDQWH� VHxDODU� TXH� ~QLFDPHQWH� ORV�iWRPRV�TXH�HVWiQ�HQ� ORV�QLYHOHV� LQIHULRUHV�VRQ�FDSDFHV�GH�DEVRUEHU�HQHUJtD� OXPLQRVD��VyOR� ORV�iWRPRV�TXH�HVWiQ�HQ�ORV�QLYHOHV�VXSHULRUHV�FRQWULEX\HQ�FRQ�IRWRQHV�SDUD�OD�HPLVLyQ�OiVHU�>�@��

�LLL� 8Q�UHVRQDGRU�ySWLFR��FDYLGDG�UHVRQDQWH���&RQVLVWH�JHQHUDOPHQWH�GH�GRV�R�PiV�HVSHMRV�DOLQHDGRV�

GH�PDQHUD�TXH�OD�OX]�HPLWLGD�SRU�HO�DPSOLILFDGRU�VH�UHIOHMD�VREUH�Vt�PLVPD�UHFRUULHQGR�HO�PLVPR�FDPLQR�ySWLFR�PXFKDV�YHFHV��6H�FRORFD�XQR�GH�ORV�HVSHMRV�GH�OD�FDYLGDG�UHVRQDQWH�GH�PDQHUD�TXH�

113

WHQJD�XQD�UHIOHFWLYLGDG�PHQRU�TXH�HO�������GH�WDO�PDQHUD�TXH�SDUWH�GH�OD�OX]�TXH�HVWi�RVFLODQGR�VDOJD�GH�OD�FDYLGDG�SURGXFLHQGR�XQ�KD]�FROLPDGR�TXH�HV�OR�TXH�VH�GHQRPLQD�KD]�OiVHU��

�(Q�HO�FDVR�GH�XQ�OiVHU�GH�HVWDGR�VyOLGR�1G�<$*��FRPR�HO�XWLOL]DGR�HQ�HVWH�WUDEDMR��HO�1G�IRUPD�LRQHV�TXH�HVWiQ�GLVWULEXLGRV�GHQWUR�GH�XQD�PDWUL]�DFWLYD�FRQ�IRUPD�GH�EDUUD��(VWRV�LRQHV�SUHVHQWHV�HQ�OD�EDUUD��VRQ�H[FLWDGRV�SRU�XQD�IXHQWH�GH�OX]�LQWHQVD��/D�IXHQWH�FRQVWD�GH�XQD�OiPSDUD�GH�;HQyQ�FLOtQGULFD�GH�GHVWHOORV��8Q�VLVWHPD�GH�HQIULDPLHQWR�SRU�DJXD�FRQWUROD�OD�WHPSHUDWXUD�GH�OD�EDUUD�\�GH�OD�OiPSDUD�GH�GHVWHOOR���(O� OiVHU� GH� 1G� �<$*� WLHQH� WDPELpQ� XQ� VLVWHPD� GHQRPLQDGR�PRGR� GH� FRQPXWDFLyQ� 4� �4�VZLWFK��� HO� FXDO�SHUPLWH�DO�OiVHU�WUDEDMDU�GH�PDQHUD�SXOVDGD��/D�FRQPXWDFLyQ�4�SURGXFH�HO�HIHFWR�GH�XQ�REWXUDGRU�TXH�VH�PRYLHUD� UiSLGDPHQWH�� LQWHUFHSWDQGR� \� GHMDQGR� SDVDU� HO� KD]�� OLPLWDQGR� OD� VDOLGD� GH� OX]� KDVWD� TXH� VH�DOPDFHQD� JUDQ� FDQWLGDG� GH� HQHUJtD� UDGLDQWH� HQ� HO� UHVRQDGRU�� &XDQGR� HO� REWXUDGRU� TXHGD� DELHUWR�ILQDOPHQWH��VH�GHWLHQH�OD�FRQPXWDFLyQ�4���VH�OLEHUD�XQ�JUDQ�SXOVR�GH�SRWHQFLD���/D� ILJXUD� $��� PXHVWUD� XQ� GLDJUDPD� GH� ORV� HOHPHQWRV� HVHQFLDOHV� GHO� OiVHU� 1G�<$*� FRQ� VLVWHPD� GH�FRQPXWDFLyQ�4��4�VZLWFK����

�)LJXUD�$����(VTXHPD�GH�HOHPHQWRV�HVHQFLDOHV�GHO�OiVHU�1G�<$*>�@��

114

��%��$FHUR�$,6,�������&DUDFWHUtVWLFDV�GHO�$FHUR�$,6,������GH�HPSOHR�\�DSOLFDFLRQHV��(O�DFHUR�$,6,������HV�XQ�DFHUR�DOHDGR�DO�&URPR�0ROLEGHQR�GH�EXHQD�SHQHWUDFLyQ�GH�WHPSOH�\�FRQ�EXHQDV�FDUDFWHUtVWLFDV�GH�HVWDELOLGDG�HQ�FDOLHQWH�KDVWD�����&��VLQ�IUDJLOLGDG�GH�UHYHQLGR��PX\�YHUViWLO�\�DSWR�SDUD�HVIXHU]RV�GH�IDWLJD�\�WRUVLyQ����6H� XWLOL]D� JHQHUDOPHQWH� HQ� OD� LQGXVWULD� PDQXIDFWXUHUD� SDUD�� HMHV�� HQJUDQDMHV�� FLJ�HxDOHV�� FLOLQGURV� GH�PRWRUHV��ELHODV�� �iUEROHV�GH�WXUELQDV�D�YDSRU��HMHV�WUDVHURV��HWF��0X\�XWLOL]DGR�HQ�SLH]DV� IRUMDGDV�FRPR�KHUUDPLHQWDV��OODYHV�GH�PDQR��GHVWRUQLOODGRUHV��(Q�OD�LQGXVWULD�SHWUROHUD�SDUD�WDODGURV��EURFDV��EDUUHQRV��WXEXODUHV��SDUWHV�GH�ERPEDV��YiVWDJRV�GH�SLVWyQ��HVSiUUDJRV��HWF���/D�WDEOD�$���PXHVWUD� OD�GXUH]D�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,������FRQ�DOJXQRV�WUDWDPLHQWRV�WpUPLFRV�R�VLQ�WUDWDPLHQWR�>�@��SUXHEDV�GH�GXUH]D�UHDOL]DGDV�DO�PDWHULDO�GLHURQ�FRPR�UHVXOWDGR�XQD�GXUH]D�9LFNHUV�GH�����SDUD�XQD�FDUJD�GH���JI�����

7DEOD�$���&DUDFWHUtVWLFDV�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,�����0$7(5,$/��68675$72��

75$7$0,(172�7e50,&2� '85(=$���*3D��

1LQJXQR� ����7HPSOH� ��������� &�� �� KRUD��HQIULDGR�HQ�DFHLWH�R�DJXD��

����$&(52�$,6,������

5HYHQLGR������&�����PLQXWRV�� �����/D�FRPSRVLFLyQ�HOHPHQWDO�GHO�DFHUR�IXH�GHWHUPLQDGD�HQ�HO�PLFURVFRSLR�HOHFWUyQLFR�GH�EDUULGR��OD�FXDO�VH�PXHVWUD�HQ�OD�WDEOD�$������

115

7DEOD�$����&RPSRVLFLyQ�HOHPHQWDO�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,�������GDWRV�('6�HQ�HO�PLFURVFRSLR�HOHFWUyQLFR�GH�EDUULGR�GHO�,1,1��

(OHPHQW� �$W����� ��&�.� ������2�.� �������6L.� ������3�.� ������0R/� ������&U.� ������0Q.� ������)H.� �������7RWDO� ����

� �7DPELpQ�VH�REWXYR�HO�GLIUDFWRJUDPD�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,�������)LJXUD�$����HQ�HO�GLIUDFWyPHWUR�GH�UD\RV�;�GHO�,1,1��HO�FXDO�PXHVWUD�ORV�SLFRV�GH�GLIUDFFLyQ�HQ��θ ������\��������

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Inte

nsid

ad

(u

.a)

X Axis Title

Acero AISI 4140

�)LJXUD�$���'LIUDFWRJUDPD�GHO�DFHUR�$,6,������

116

5()(5(1&,$6��>�@� &KLULQR� 2UWHJD� 6HUDItQ�� 'LVHxR� GH� XQD� FiPDUD� SDUD� HO� GHSyVLWR� GH� SHOtFXODV� GHOJDGDV� SRU� DEODFLyQ�OiVHU��7HVLV�GH�/LFHQFLDWXUD��8QLYHUVLGDG�$XWyQRPD�GHO�(VWDGR�GH�0p[LFR��&DS����������>�@�6DXQGHUV�5LFKDUG��7KRPDV�&RQNOLQ�HQ�/DVHUV��RSHUDFLyQ��HTXLSR�\�GLVHxR��(GLWRULDO�/LPXVD��&DS�����SS�����������>�@�KWWS���ZZZ�IDVWSDFN�FO�3GI�0D\R���DFHURVLQR[���