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THE DYNAMICS OF DIPLOMACY

Prof. Dr. Tanveer Khalid

Abstract:

The world is now viewed, as a community where interconnectedness is the

password. Interstate relations are being promoted in every field,

individually as well as collectively, encompassing unbreakable alliances

as well as controversies leading to confrontation. Thus, networking

between states is fluid and dynamic in patterns of allegiance, alliances,

connections, influence and decision-making. States are expected to

mobilize their diplomatic capacity to deliver the best in both domestic and

international governance, which means they are to understand the

changing dynamics of diplomacy to make it effective as the most relevant

tool in interstate relations. The contents of this article are being produced

with the same focus and approach.

Key words: Diplomacy, Cold War, Technology, Impact

Since the end of the Cold War, a growing number of researchers have paid

attention to diplomacy. However, in comparison with related fields, the concept of

Diplomacy has not been studied profoundly and as Paul Sharp points out ―the study of

diplomacy remains marginal to and almost disconnected from the rest of the fields‖

(1999:34). Barry H. Steiner makes an even harsher statement arguing that ―no area of

world politics has reflected a greater gap between experience and theory than diplomatic

state craft‖ (2004:493).

Diplomacy is a term, which is rather loosely used and is generally meant to refer

in the course of foreign policy. It is a method of political interaction at the international

level and this sense is to be communicated in this article presently. The core concept of

diplomacy is the idea of communicating, interacting, maintaining contacts and

negotiating with states but many of its approaches are the result of expediency or

practicality institutionalized over the years, as part of customary international law

codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 and on Consular

Relations, 1963.

The 19th

century witnessed a new development in the field of diplomacy and a

new trend in the form of Multilateral Diplomacy developed because the national state

system was going for technology development and new problems required collective

work. This led to the concert of Europe and between 1822 and 1914, 26 conferences were

held at which all the great powers were represented and diplomacy had to adjust to the

multilateral environment. World War I brought significant transformation in diplomatic

methods, the League of Nations opened new channels of international relationships where

the diplomatic agenda expanded, and multilateral efforts to solve economic, social and

cultural issues were used. World War II generated an enormous amount of diplomacy,

foremost of which was to organize a collective effort in the face of devastating

aggression. This led to the establishment the United Nations – an organization of

unprecedented dimensions and authority.

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Today a large amount of diplomacy is now conducted in international

organizations more than ever before. The EU is providing its own special type of

interaction where its 27 members are still sovereign states (in the supranational sense)

that must employ elaborate diplomacy within to keep it operating. The 20th

century

witnessed an expansion of ‗Conference diplomacy‘ where not only diplomats but also

chief executives, foreign ministers and heads of executive departments, travel more than

ever before creating ‗trans-governmental relations‘. Chief decision makers are able to

interact directly and instantly because of the early warning systems which facilitate

timely diplomatic responses. The diversity of international actors is also unprecedented

wherein giant powerful states and micro states as well as a multiplicity of non-sovereign

entities play an expanding role in diplomatic circles which is at times more potent than

those of national decision makers (sending their own diplomats on special missions,

intervening in international crisis and affecting the course of events). Diplomacy is made

even more complex by the advent of transnational actors whose intervention potential is

magnified by communication technology. Many NGOs intervene in diplomatic process in

international conferences or as mediators in international conflicts. Even if their

intervention is less than decisive, they have become part of international politics and the

diplomatic process.

Interdependence means mutual dependence, a form of interconnectedness made

more extensive by spectacular advances in technology and the integration of global

economy. Global interdependence is not a new phenomenon. It has developed slowly,

gaining momentum with the industrial revolution and is now moving faster.

Transnational relations are rapidly increasing between NGO‘s, multinational corporations

(MNC‘s), other institutions of civil society and even private individuals. This expansion

of knowledge fosters globalization, which generates more interdependence in all fields

including trade, sports, entertainment, tourism, spread of disease, technology,

communication, popular culture etc. But interdependence is not uniform around the

world. No nation is self-sufficient but some states are better sheltered from upheavals and

some need greater protection for events beyond their control which complicates

international cooperation in addressing the effects of interdependence and globalization.

Diplomats are now called upon to deal with a large variety of issues that were not on the

traditional diplomatic agenda. In 1975, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger observed:

dealing with the traditional agenda is no longer enough. ―A new and unprecedented kind

of issue has emerged. The problem of energy, resources, environment, population, the

uses of space and the seas now rank with questions of military security, ideology and

territorial rivalry, which have traditionally made up the diplomatic agenda‖ (1975:199).

Traditional embassies in foreign capitals, the classic form of diplomatic

representation, remain important but their function is changing. Special missions sent by

foreign ministries are used extensively for a wide variety of purposes including the

important function of mediation. International conferences permit a multiplicity of

specialized issues and this form of diplomacy is still expanding. Heads of states and

governments now meet increasingly in Summit Diplomacy. Foreign ministers are

engaged a great deal with their counterpart in Ministerial Diplomacy. Transnational

channels play an increasing role in connecting societies. Doubtless governments play an

active role in shaping the course of international affairs nevertheless transnational agents

are now active participants and some governments in fact find it useful to work with

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transnational institutions in attaining some of their international objectives. Nearly all

UNO‘s specialized agencies have entered into consultative agreements with NGO‘s.

Secretary General Kofi Annan himself actively promoted ―expanded UN partnership with

civil society‖ (www.un.org/unjip).

As the international society changes and faces, new challenges one can anticipate new

methods of interaction and some of these may be so different as not to qualify for

diplomacy. Track II channels where people who do not formally represent governments,

negotiate international issues occasionally at the secret invitation of government

concerned. This happens when situation is too polarized for open conversation or too

controversial for government intervention. They are at times identified as back-channel

diplomacy. These channels have made diplomatic process more diverse and can be

viewed under the following heads:

Impact of Technology: Technology is a factor of interdependence and contributes to the

many changes in diplomacy. Life in the 21st century is fast and so is the tempo of

diplomacy and there is less patience for formality. Multilateral conferences, many of

them global, are proliferating and technology makes it possible to cope with the awesome

logistics of global conferences. The CSIS, Centre for Strategic Studies, Washington DC

has predicted that the internet would become the ‗central nervous system of international

relations.‘

The CNN Factor: Unfolding events become known almost instantly around the world

wherein the crisis tends to escalate more rapidly and for diplomatic response time is

shorter hence decision making may be under pressure which is more problematic and

more dangerous.

Virtual Diplomacy: Growing information and communication technology in foreign

affairs is dramatizing the changes taking place while some speak of Digital Diplomacy,

which is a fast means of sorting out a vast array of data. Though very effective but all

countries cannot afford the expensive systems while some are attached to the well-

established traditions and are slow in adjusting to the new modes of communication.

Satellite Imagery: is used in coordination of joint fieldwork between governments,

international organizations and non-governmental organizations. This involves computer

systems capable of storing, processing and displaying data according to their

geographical location using imagery acquired by orbiting satellites.

Early warning and crisis management: is done better and it promotes Preventive

Diplomacy by rapid technology, which is becoming an effective method in controlling

controversies.

Cyber Security: is expanding the use of information and communication technology in

international affairs raises the issues of communication security. Cyber security will

remain a continuing quest as hackers; code-breakers perhaps would be terrorists, will find

new ways to bypass the defensive system to attain their aims.

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Cyber Terrorism: is widely discussed among information technology professionals

since September 11, 2001 attacks. Although no single instance can be quoted, computer

attacks by hackers give an idea of the damage that can be done.

Network Power: is one of the hallmarks of transnational phenomenon and has

significant political consequences and diplomatic ramifications. Information and

communication technology is literally transforming this international political process

and the transformation has just begun.

Electronic Spying: Since diplomacy involves the exchange of politically sensitive

information, states develop information rules to protect their confidentiality but the harsh

realities of international politics have led to obtain privileged information because

technology has made it easier.

Structural changes have occurred because of the role of non-state actors apart from the

nation-states, which have increased the complexity of diplomacy. NGO‘s are components

of civil society and are active in open societies. Many have nothing to do with the

political process, some have a broad purpose like improving the democratic process while

others have a narrow focus, but all have an enormous impact on political institutions.

Hallway Diplomacy is often presented as a sign of NGO‘s being kept on the margin of

the diplomatic process. (Where NGO representatives try to communicate with diplomats

wherever they can be reached, hoping for leaks to be used as pressure on government)

some diplomats value contacts with NGO‘s which can be a valuable source of

information of the host society. Thus such interaction is profitable to both diplomats and

NGO‘s in specific context. NGO‘s might affect the diplomatic process when they

succeed in rallying public support behind diplomatic initiatives. International campaign

to ban landmines in the 1990‘s shows how NGO‘s mobilization of support led historic

Landmine Treaty against opposition from major states.

NGO’s Mediation Diplomacy and Peace Keeping: have been practiced in international

conflict, which has given them prominence as international actors. They are able to

establish dialogue with underground forces or outlawed groups with whom states hesitate

to maintain contacts for fear of giving them a degree of legitimacy. Some NGOs are

extensively involved in conflict resolution e.g. ICRC (International court of the Red

Cross) or the Carter Center in Atlanta (having a long history of humanitarian mediation).

Apart from this, NGO‘s have intervened with political groups to avert a looming crisis in

Preventive Diplomacy.

Changing Modes of Diplomacy: Resident Mission is the classic or old tool of

diplomacy dating back to the 15th

century but the transformation of the international

system after the 1st and 2

nd World Wars has created new channels of diplomatic

interaction. This has steadily blurred the distinction between domestic and foreign affairs

and more specialized government departments want direct contact with their counterparts

abroad, which is now called trans-governmental relations. This does not mean that

embassies are becoming irrelevant but that their role is evolving: highly specialized

issues cannot be dealt with by embassy staff hence special missions (military attaches for

gathering military intelligence) are sent separately as resident staff. New modes or the

functions of already existing methods are changing and can be seen in the following:

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Public Diplomacy: is based on public opinion, which plays an increasing role in the

political life of a state, thus diplomats are extensively involved with the media creating a

good impression on the host country. Some embassies go so far as to retain the services

of public relations firms in the host country to conduct outreach campaigns.

Negotiations: are inherent in all forms of diplomacy but in an interdependent world,

embassies are often left out of many international negotiations but they can facilitate

negotiations undertaken by special missions.

Consular Functions: now involves not only help to their nationals abroad but also

promotes humanitarian as well as commercial and additional relations. (Replacing lost

documents, providing registration of newly born children etc.)

Ceremonial and Symbolic Functions: is much more developed at the embassy level

than in other forms of diplomacy displayed in patriotic observances and state celebrations

hence social functions are a part of the diplomatic culture and is rooted in tradition.

Provisional and Stopgap Diplomatic Arrangements: when relations of states are

strained or broken, the interests of its citizens are entrusted to a third state. This is a

known practice and established in Vienna Convention on diplomatic relations 1961.

Neutral states like Switzerland have long provided this service.

Embassies in Disguise: Countries unable to maintain formal diplomatic relations

because of non-recognition can maintain extensive but unofficial diplomatic contact by

establishing liaison missions under whatever label or service. (US relations with Taiwan

after recognition of China in 1979)

International organization Diplomacy: States cannot take-up to solve international

issues (environmental degradation) single handedly. The bigger the organization the more

complex the dealing as states have different perspectives to different issues. Besides

participants are representatives, NGO‘s, state representations in non-national roles, non-

agenda diplomats (on the margin of the agenda) Organizations involved in peace keeping

diplomacy involves deployment of peace keeping missions for conflicts on the verge of

escalation or high emotions or profound reluctance to compromise i.e. peace keeping in

1956 Suez Crisis etc.

Summit Diplomacy: involving major decision makers is directly responsible for

governmental action. Though popular but it suffers from time constraints where heads of

governments find it difficult to stay away from their capitals for a long time.

The Future of Diplomacy: Diplomacy is facing new challenges including an expanded

foreign policy agenda, changing social demands and the rapid growth of domestic

agencies operating abroad. One feature of the 21st century that is changing the character

of diplomacy is the use of advanced information technologies in modern communication.

(ICD Annual Academic Conference on Cultural Diplomacy 2011)

Interconnectedness and interdependence will no doubt increase international activity

thereby leading to more conflicts and confrontation in the future. Some reject diplomatic

dialogue being guided by ideology or self-righteousness even with those perceived as evil

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i.e. President George W. Bush‘s mention of the Axis of evil in his State of the Union

address on 29th

January 2002 referring to Iraq, Iran and North Korea to which John

Bolton, Under-Secretary of State added Libya, Syria and Cuba in his speech on 6th

May

2002. So under these conditions diplomacy does not fare well. Another limitation is

incompetent governance, which means unequal to task, disorganized and failing to bring

professional talent. Many such cases can be seen in the 20th

century like Myanmar under

its military Junta, Afghanistan under Taliban, Sudan under Omar al Bashir. But despite

the drawbacks diplomacy is helping the international society and has remarkably adjusted

to its changing global environment. New and novel practices such as public relations

(public diplomacy) will become established while well-established diplomatic norms

rooted in the practice of centuries will endure hence diplomacy will remain a blend of

novelty and continuity. Diversity among international actors is likely to become more

pronounced, new political systems will inevitably come into practice, and new norms and

new forums for participants will be introduced. International organizations will promote

multilateral nature of the work. Adaptation and innovation will continue as international

relations evolve. Undoubtedly, the impact of civil society (questions of human relations

and social justice) on diplomatic process will remain limited when compared to the role

of nation-states and intergovernmental organizations but their influence will grow.

Regional Diplomacy through regional organizations is also likely to increase.

Diversity in the subject matter of diplomatic agenda will also increase and more domestic

issues will have international ramification because of globalization and economic

integration. Special missions will grow in popularity, which will increase their usefulness

and future relevance. Tradition will not disappear from diplomacy and the basic skills

that make diplomacy what it is, will remain indispensable like tact, understanding of

other people‘s ways, respect, honesty, integrity, patience and of course linguistic ability

and common sense. These traits permit us to bridge differences making diplomacy an

enduring element in international relations. (Alan.K. Henrikson 2006)

Brain Hocking writes correctly therefore that ―diplomacy is responding, as it has in the

past, to change in the character of both state and society‖ (1997:170). Paul Sharp has also

recently written on the role of diplomacy and diplomats saying ‗the demand for both is

currently on the rise‘ (2009:1-2).

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References:

Johsson, C., Laughorn, R. (eds), (2004) ―DIPLOMACY‖, Vol.III, Problems and

Issues in Contemporary Diplomacy: London, Sage Publishers.

Sharp, P., Representation and the Study of International Relations, International

Studies Review, 1/1(1999).

Steiner, B.H., ‗Diplomacy and International Theory Review of International Studies,

30/4, (2004).

Henry A. Kissinger: ‗A New National partnership‘, Department of State Bulletin (Feb

17, 1975), pg.:199, quoted in Keohane & Nye, ‗Power and Interdependence‘, pg.:26.

See website of the UN Fund for Global Partnership, http: //www.un.org/unjip.

Didzis Klavins, Understanding the Essence of Modern Diplomacy, Paper presented at

ICD Annual Academic Conference on Cultural Diplomacy 2011 in Berlin, Dec 15–

18, 2011.

Alan. K. Henrikson, ‗Diplomacy‘s Possible Futures‘, The Hague Journal of

Diplomacy, 1, No.1 (March 2006), pg.:3-27.

Hocking, B., The End(s) of Diplomacy‘, International Journal, vol:53/1, (1997/1998).

Sharp, P., (2009), ―Diplomatic Theory of International Relations‖, Cambridge,

Cambridge University Press.

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES IN PAKISTAN

Mrs. Fahmida Aslam*, Mr. Jamshed Ali Baloch**

Abstract

Economic turmoil in Pakistan is due to facets of reasons. The country

since its very inception has remained in a vicious cycle of political

instability, the lamentable lack of civilian leadership, long military rules

and weak institutions. The cumulative implications of the scenario

manifest Adhocism, inconsistencies in economic policies, foreign debt and

fragile industrial policy. The people of the country have been facing

intractable repercussions of economic turn down as increasing poverty,

unflinching corruption, and awful conditions of governance. War on

terror has further deteriorated economic conditions of Pakistan. The

country has got invincible economic losses in the war against terror. The

solution of economic problems of Pakistan lies in true democratic order,

rule of law, consistent economic policies and the reduction of foreign debt

and more investment in the country.

Key words: Economy, Political Instability, Pakistan, War on Terror.

Introduction:

The economy of Pakistan has been remained hamstrung by a host of issues; political

instability, historic constrains with India, internal law and order situation in the

country, lack of implementation of policies, last but not the least external debt.

Pakistan has sixty-three years checkered history; where military rule in the country

more than its existing period. Due to clashes with India since independence, defense

budget was a priority of every political administration of the country. The situation

manifests Pakistan as ‗praetorian state‘.

The economy of Pakistan in the initial period was not sustainable to shore up the

system; it needed external support to take off the country towards development and

economic sustainability. Unfortunately, political instability and long military rules

shackled the dream of self-reliance and economic growth. The whole system of the

economy of Pakistan since the very existence has been running on external aid this

proved Pakistan as ―client state‖. ―It goes without saying that wrong economic

policies, mismanagement of the foreign aid, and official corruption at the high levels

have increased the country‘s dependence on the IMF and the World Bank, so much

so that not only its freedom of action in external matters has been compromised, but

the government has to yield to the dictates of the donors even in matters of purely

domestic concerns‖ (2001:1).

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1. Cardinal Features of Pakistan’s Economy:

―According to statically data of the Economic survey 2006 and 2008 the growth of

Agriculture sector is estimated is 1.5 percent 3.7 in the year 2006-2007 percent. Other

sectors like manufacturing contribute 4.8 is the highest during the year 2007-

2008.Items like beverage 30 Sugar 34.0percent, leather 13.5percent, cement,

17.9percent. The overall collection of revenue in the year 2008 is 1545.5 billion that

is higher to the expected target of RS 1545.5 billion. The inflation has reached at 10.3

percent during the year of 2007-2008, 7.9 in the year 2006 compared. The food

inflation in the current fiscal year is estimated higher than the previous years. The

performance of export sector was significant in the years 2002-2003 to 2005 -2006

with growth of 16 percent per year.

Export performance during the year 2006 and 2007 was meager with a sheer decrease

of 4 percent .Pakistan‘s deficit on current account widened more to $ 11.6 billion

6.8 percent of GDP . The decrease in the current account deficit is due to large trade

deficit‖ (.www.finance.gov.pk/finance_economic_survey.aspx: 2011).

2. Economic Challenges in Pakistan (1990-2008):

At the start of the last decade of 20th

century, Pakistan got severe setbacks to its

economy. There were two factors that have largely affected the economic progress of

Pakistan. First, there was the withdrawal of US aid to Pakistan at the end of cold war.

Second, Pakistan couldn‘t get the fruits of the new phenomenon of ‗globalization‘

due to political instability from 1990-1999. ―The era of 1980 was better than the

1990s in terms of economic records and poverty alleviation During 1990s the

inflation reached at high level and poverty almost double and debt burden increase

macro-economic inequality become high‖ (1999: 22).

The return of democracy during the 1990s couldn‘t bring pragmatic reformation in

the economy of Pakistan. ―It is one of the ironies of history of Pakistan had to wait

for Benazir Bhutto to come to power before the socialist orientation in economic

management was abandoned. Benazir Bhutto gave full rein to the private sector. A

board of investment was set up in the Prime minister‘s office to sanction the

establishment of new industrial units in the private sectors‖ (1999: 25). The cardinal

principles of the economy of Pakistan during 1990s are increasing debt, poverty,

inflation and corruption.

―The fragile economic conditions and foreign debt resulted accretion of foreign debt

during the decade of 1990s. The result of the faced was the overall debt increase $ 20

billion in June 1990 to $ 43 billion till 1998. The foreign debt of Pakistan became

47.6 percent of GDP having increase of 8.1percent during the 1990s. The increasing

burden of debt, fiscal and poor social records including high poverty, and inflation

unleashed that the decade of 1990s was a failure‖ (1999: 2-3).

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On the other hand, the most extenuating factor that determined the turn-down of the

economy of Pakistan during 1990s is prevalent corruption. Transparency

International declared Pakistan one of the most corrupt countries in the world during

the 1990s. In fact both the governments of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif were

dismissed due to corruption charges.

―Four major elements projected the economic performance of Pakistan during the

decade of 1990s. One, instable political condition and perpetual removal of civilian

rule and the inconsistencies in the economic policies due to the fact established

environment of uncertainty. Two, prevalent the two parties that diminished the

prospects of economic progress made bad governance. Nepotism, whimsical

approach of the civilian rulers and corruption, without any check and balance .Three,

desperate lack of politically motivated leadership that took quick and timely

decisions. The spillover impacts of the fact were that the delay in making decision

caused a great deal of economic loss. Four, there were unforeseen exogenous shocks,

for example the nuclear testing in May 1998 which shook investor‘s confidence

accelerated flight of capital, led to the imposition of economic sanctions and disrupts

external economic assistance‖ (1999: 4).

There are some serious challenges that the economy of Pakistan has been facing since

1990s. These are political instability, lack of direct investment, bad governance,

external debt, corruption, economic policies of the governments and terrorism in the

country. ―Political instability was the significant element of Pakistan‘s failure during

the last eight years from 1988 to 1996. The elected governments of the Benazir and

Nawaz Sharif and four caretaker governments each remained in power for 90 days.

The quick change in governments also brought sudden changes in the economic

policies and the atmosphere was not conducive for the investors‖ (ibid: 7).

3. Lack of Direct Investment:

Direct investment play pivotal role in the economy of a country. The phenomenon of

‗globalization‘ has enhanced the fact of direct investment. The role of FDI (foreign

direct investment) is significantly to the economic development of the host countries.

It progressively enhances the capital, technology, management and access to the

markets.

The foreign direct investment is the linchpin for the infrastructures, which encourage

the comparative advantages, and considerably increase productions.

The general principle of foreign direct investment is that the investors, if get benefit

they will invest their profit rather withdraw it from the host country. Indeed the other

benefit of the direct investment is the confidence building impacts. The domestic

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situations admire the level of investment confidence in a country; the incoming

foreign direct investment can enhance and establish the cycle, which impinges not

only domestic and foreign investment but also foreign trade and production. The

effects of direct investment can be seen in the Asian Pacific region. In the starting

the flow of direct investment in the emerging industrialized nations as Hong Kong,

china, Korea, and Singapore; China India and Vietnam are also bringing direct

investment to consolidate their economies.

4. Governance Issue:

The issue of bad governance is contemplated as a great impediment to the economic

and other public policies and their implementation. The governance is pivotal to the

political, economic and administrative to deal the national issues. The governance is a

significant factor, technique, skill of providing benefits to the local residents, protects

their entrenched rights and institutionally solved their differences. Indeed the good

governing countries are enhancing the investors to come. Therefore, the good

governance is set of effective, efficient, responsive and welfare oriented governance

to accomplish the dire requirements of the society and the nation as whole. Good

governance is cardinal for establishing and attracting investment in the welfare

programs, poverty elevation and betterment of society.

―According to UNDP, governance can be considered linchpin mechanism that

provides economic, political and administrative skills and techniques to manage a

country's affairs at every aspect. It systems, processes and institution's management

of the fundamental issues, by doing that the nationals and other groups must consider

and assess their work , effective protection of their entrenched rights , enhancing the

role of modern media that bring face to face discussions to counter the issues related

to the common people. Enhancing the capacity of the people by participating in the

political and administrative matters to sort out their fundamental issues is the work of

responsible Governance‖(www.eurojournals.com).

The foremost crisis of Pakistan's polity and society today is bad governance. Under

the current democratic government, the situation has deteriorated from bad

governance to no governance at all. The Pakistani state is incapable of undertaking

and promoting collective. With all its benefits are reserved for those within system

i.e. the rulers, officials, and employees. By one reckoning, one third of state's

expenditures is wasted the state's budget and finance system is concerned with inputs

rather than with outcomes.

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The comparative study of the development of East Asian has unleashed the fact that

there are various reasons for the issues of economic governance, which are following:

1. Political stability,

2. Stable macroeconomic environment,

3. The outward-looking trade strategies as opposed to the protectionist strategies,

4. The quality of primary education,

5. Effective land reforms,

6. Credit reforms,

7. A merit based, efficient and competent bureaucracy,

8. Well-functioning institutions, and

9. Identification and development of core areas of comparative advantage.

5. Debt Reduction:

External debt at the end of March 2008 was US$ 45.9 billion. Debt reduction is one

of the greatest challenges of the economy of Pakistan. The country failed to establish

the policy of self-reliance because of political instability, corporate interests of the

army, and authoritarian rule in the country. According to PAKISTAN Interim

Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (I-PRSP); the fiscal deficit of the country in the era

of 1990 was around 7 percent and the current account deficit in the balance of

payment was around 5 percent of the GDP.

The cumulative result of the deficit of the increase of public debt, that is four times

higher which is RS 800 billion in 1990 to Rs. 2971 billion in 1999 and external debt,

which is almost double from $2billion in 1990 to $ 43 billion in 1998. Resultantly,

during 1998-99, 73 percent of the overall revenues and 40 percent of foreign

exchange were consumed by debt service payment.

6. Corruption:

Corruption is the most intractable issue of third world countries. The case of Pakistan

is unique in a sense it is prevalent in every nook and cranny of the country.

Transparency international survey ranked Pakistan as the second most corrupt

country in 1996. The significance of corruption in Asia is highlighted by the fact that

some whatever political regime has crumbled in Pakistan and some other countries in

South Asia, a major and often-decisive cause has been the prevalence of official

misconduct among politicians and administrators and the concomitant spread of

corruption among businessmen.

Like other South Asian countries the case of Pakistan in terms of corruption is

unprecedented; it exists in the higher echelons its widespread effects discourage

investment it rather enhance the flight of capital and it is always encouraging rather

than punishes ; the judicial procedure is fragile to counter the corruption.

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There is a general perception that the corruption is prevalent in the departments,

which are established to control corruption as an anti-corruption department. The

spillover impacts of corruption are on the human development. Skewed public sector

investment priorities, which favor large visible projects where the chances for rent

seeking are substantial. At one point of history, Pakistan has been declared as the

most corrupt country in the world. It is generally believed that in terms of frequency,

the incidents of corruption are highest in law enforcement agencies. In terms of the

amount of corruption money changing hands, taxation departments, state owned

banks and development finance institutions power sector utilities and civil works

departments. Together these departments and institutions annually handle

transactions in the order of approximately RS.1.3 trillion.

The following table shows Pakistan‘s ranking in corruption in:

TABLE -1

Pakistan‘s Rank in Transparency International‘s Annual Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI),

2001-2008:

YEAR RANK NUMBER OF COUNTERS SURVEYED

2008 134 180

2007 138 180

2006 142 163

2005 144 158

2004 129 145

2003 92 133

2002 77 102

2001 79 91

Source: LAN. S. Livingston and Michael O’ Hanlon Brookings Pakistan index Tracking

variable of reconstruction & Security, Oct 30, 2009 (livingston@brookings.edu)

NOTE: The CPI is a composite index the draws on 14 expert opinion surveys. It scores countries on a scale from zero to ten, with zero indicating high levels of perceived corruption and ten indicating law

levels of perceived corruption. Due to a lack of reliable date, Afghanistan was not included in the CPI

survey for the years 2006.

The table evaluates Pakistan‘s index of corruption from 2001 to 2008. It shows that at

the beginning of the new century Pakistan‘s performance was rather fair. The level of

corruption increases suddenly in the year 2004 that is 129 in the rankings. The table

also suggests that the level of corruption increase in year, 2005 it is almost double

than the previous year that is 142 in rank. It decreases in level in, 2007 and 2008

respectively that is 138 and 134 in rank.

7. Economic Policies of Musharraf:

Musharraf era is applauded due to its economic policies. Reformation of the economy

of Pakistan Musharraf adopted pragmatic agenda. When the government of

Musharraf comes into power by a coup in 1999 have to face a great deal of

challenges as high foreign and domestic debt; great fiscal deficit and fragile revenue

capability, extreme poverty high unemployment, the fragile balance of payment and

inept export.

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Comparative experience of the Nineties, Pakistan currently possesses good economic

indicators. The Musharraf era has stabilized overall macroeconomic situations.

Pakistan currently possesses great height of foreign exchange reserves that is almost

$ 12 billion as December 2003, low inflation rate 3 percent, fiscal deficit of 4.5

percent including amelioration in domestic resource mobilization by reforming the

Central Board of Revenue. So far Pakistan possesses outstanding performance in

different targets given by the IMF‘s PRGF.

―The IMF and the World Bank have recognized that the economy is considerably

salubrious and well organized and there is crucial consideration that various reforms,

like ameliorating revenue collection and enhancing the country‘s especial financing

institutions like State Bank of Pakistan and the Security and Exchange Commission

possess development candidness and cut off the cost of doing business in Pakistan.

The situation is marvelous for turnaround providing fragile state of the economy in

the late 1990s‖ (2004: 2010).

However, the second phase of the Musharraf era with the Government of PMLQ

proved economic downturn. International economic crisis, increasing oil prices in

the international market, high inflation rate in the country and law and order

situation, have impaired the economic growth in the country.

―Economic shortfall of any country is directly proportional to the international

environment and the strategy of the government to deal with the issues. Including

internal shortcomings in the economy of Pakistan the last government of PML-Q

explicitly failed in its strategies and its approach‖ (2008: 2010).

There is a great deal of analysts believes that government‘s capacity to effectively

establishing economic planning and to give priority to the development that people

can access by people is diametrically opposed to the dissipation of sponsorship.

Various factors that contribute to the governance vacuum are lack of investment in

education for forthcoming bureaucracy, long military rules that innervated civilian

rule for providing daily work of government, and the institutionalization of politics

and corruption of the state apparatus. Two cardinal features view Pakistan‘s politics:

sheer instability and vicious cycle of military intervention. These are directly

proportionate to the systematic opposition between the civil and military relations.

8. Social Implications of Political Instability:

Including economic implications political instability in Pakistan have social

implications as well. Human Development indicators show that Pakistan has a low

level of human development, due to large defense budget and high debt. There exists

an acute crisis of poverty, inflation, population, polarization of society and gender

discrimination in the country.

Page | 15

9. Polarization of Society:

Pakistan possesses a diverse kind of society. Ethnicity is playing a dominant role in

social, economic, political and in terms of religious affairs of the country.

The crucial elements; of internal politics that possesses an unprecedented importance;

are ethnicity and religion. Ethnicity is part and parcel of political lifeline of Pakistan.

The crucial fact is that it was a cardinal factor of establishment of Bangladesh in 19

71, Baluch Sindhi Nationalism Pashtun issue that has spilled over repercussions on

the national and regional politics.

The ascendancy of Punjab on the economic and political affairs has always remained

bone of contention between the smaller provinces and Punjab. In the Urban, areas are

controlled by MQM capable of bringing about chaos and political upheavals; Owing

to, the ineffectiveness of the government to deal the national issues, regarding the

distribution of resources, distribution of water resources. ―There is a peculiar

situation about the ethnic and religious tension in Pakistan. There is a cycle of tension

and violence where the ethnic violence is stopped the religious tension emerged; at

every time there is considered the intelligence agencies and the army behind all these

issues‖ (2005: 25).

There is a strange relationship between religious and ethnic tension in Pakistan.

Whenever and wherever ethnic tension decrease, sectarian tension increase and vice

versa. This relationship is most probably manipulated by the invisible hands of the

army, through its intelligence services, in order to keep its grip on the country‘s

political processes.

11. Poverty in Pakistan:

Poverty has become a great challenge to the contemporary world. Taking into

account the world community is taking steps as good governance and sustainable

Human Development. The unfinished business of the 21st century is the eradication

of poverty.

According to UNDP and World Bank report 2000-2001out of 1.3 billion people,

livings below the poverty line across the globe 550 million happen to be South Asian.

Poverty can be contemplated in different perspectives. It may be either ―Relative

poverty or ―Absolute poverty‖. Poverty may be moneyless or it may be powerless.

Private sector research on consumer spending pattern tells us that over eighty percent

Pakistani's is spending on food, housing, and utilities. According to estimates put

forward by a market research outfit about 180 billion per month spending on food,

clothing and utilities alone. At the same time access to information has improved

public understanding of the decision making process .This has politicized economic

Page | 16

decision making brought government policies under the scrutiny of not just

economists, businessmen , traders and agriculturists but the general public as well.

Poverty is one of the intractable issues of Pakistan. The South Asia Human

Development Report has unleashed the fact ―less than one third of the population of

Pakistan are poor, almost one half are enduring desperate depravation of various

opportunities of life. Almost two third of the overall adult population is illiterate.

Access to basic facilities as primary health care and safe drinking water is denied to

almost half of the population. Almost 38 percent of the children under five are

desperately in lack of food. There are some crucial causes of poverty in Pakistan as

high defense budget, political instability and long military rules, high external debt

and distribution of resources.

Poverty during the 1990s remained a determined factor; it increased from 29.3

percent during 1993-94 to 32.2 percent in 198-99. Poverty was estimated higher in

the ruler areas as compared to the urban areas. The indicator of FBS based on PIHS

data poverty was estimated during 1998-99 was 36.3 percent and 22.4 percent both in

ruler and urban areas of Pakistan. Different provinces of Pakistan have different

figure of poverty. The NWFP has a higher ratio of poverty than the Punjab

province. The level of poverty in Baluchistan during the years 1998-99 reveals low

poverty, it possess highest poverty ratio than the other provinces during the era.

Poverty is measured as the lack of fundamental requirements of the basic needs

education and cultivable lands are its major factors. The poor people possess greater

dependency, as large numbers of children, one earning member are considered as

poor. The estimated ratio; of five households; members of the poor is less than 18

years of age.

―It is estimated that 45 percent of poor children are vaccinated fully from 58 percent

of non-poor children. It is perceived that the major cause of the increase of the

poverty is the poor are unskilled persons in the fields of agriculture, service sector,

transport, infrastructure, sale and production. Moreover the poor possess less area of

land for cultivation than the non-poor which is 0.27 acres in comparison of 0.84

acres. Indeed poor are more vulnerable by the economic fragility than the rich.‖

Pakistan Interim Poverty (www.finance.gov.pk).

The government of Pervez Musharraf had adopted ―Interim Poverty reduction

strategy‖ The strategy was based on, accelerating economic growth and maintaining

macro-economic stability; investment in human capital, augmenting targeted

interventions , expanding social safety nets; and improving governance. The new

government of PPP has adopted the Benazir income support program, and Benazir

youth development programs. However, these measures are not sufficient to deal

Page | 17

with poverty in Pakistan. There is need of grand strategy to eradicate poverty in

Pakistan. The following table shows poverty in Pakistan in each province of Pakistan.

TABLE – 2

Multiple of Estimates of Pakistan is living in Poverty. By Province30

% of Population Living in Poverty

1998-99 2001-02 2004-05

Punjab b b b b

Pakistani Government 32% 32% 25%

World Bank 30% 30% 29%

SPDC - N/A 34% 31%

Sindh b b b b

Pakistani Government 26% 36% 19%

World Bank 26% 37% 22%

SPDC - N/A 35% 25%

NWFP b b b b

Pakistani Government 41% 42% 27%

World Bank 41% 41% 38%

SPDC - N/A 40% 37%

Balochistan b b b b

Pakistani Government 22% 36% 28%

World Bank 22% 36% 32%

SPDC - N/A 49% 34%

Source: LAN S. Livingston and Michael O’Hanlon: Brookings Pakistan Index Tracking

Variables of Reconstruction & Security, Oct 30, 2009 livingston@brookings.edu

*Social Policy and Development Center, A non Profit policy research institute based in Karachi.

The Table two shows the level of poverty in Pakistan‘s four provinces. In Punjab, it

is 32 percent in 1998 to 99 according to Pakistan government 30 percent according to

the World Bank. The level of poverty is 32 percent according to government of

Pakistan -34 percent according to The World Bank and 34 percent according to

SPDC in 2001 and 2002. The level of poverty decreases according to the government

of Pakistan 25 percent; according to the World Bank 29 percent and 31 percent

according to SPDC in 2004 and 2005. In Sindh province it is 26 percent according to

government of Pakistan same is shown by the World Bank in 1998and 1999. It is

increased in 2001 and 2002 that is 36 according to the government of Pakistan; 37

according to the World Bank and 35 according SPDC to the percent respectively. In

NWFP, it higher than Punjab and Sindh that is 41 percent according to government of

Pakistan; the same is shown by the World Bank in 1998 and 1999. In 2001 and 2002,

it is 42 according to the government of Pakistan; 41 shown by the World Bank and

40 percent shown by the SPDC.

Page | 18

In Baluchistan 22 percent shown by the government of Pakistan and same is shown

by the World Bank. In 2001 and 2002, it is 36 percent according to the government

of Pakistan same is shown by the World Bank and 49 percent according to the

SPDC. In 2004 and 2005, it is 28 percent according to the government of Pakistan;

32 percent according to the World Bank and 34 percent according to the SPDC.

11. Inflation:

Inflation has become the most intractable issue of Pakistan. Political instability,

policies of the Musharraf government and international economic crisis are

responsible for higher inflation in Pakistan. ―The rate of inflation inversely increases

since 2003 in Pakistan. During the crisis period of 1999-98 the rate of inflation was

stable up to 5 percent till 2000-2003. Stability in the monetary policies, including

fiscal determinants seems cardinal factors of lower inflation in Pakistan. Inflation

increase due to wider money growth and increase private sector credit increase. Due

to increase in monetary growth, inflation increase in great deal in the end of 2003,

reached at 11 percent in every year till 2005.

One of the main objectives of macroeconomic policy is to keep the rate of inflation

low and stable because it is an indicator of macroeconomic stability. Low inflation

along with the budget deficit, realistic exchange rates and appropriate real interest

rate are an indicator of the macroeconomic environment conducive to investment and

growth

The stability in inflation was noted 8 to 9 percent up to the end of 2005. The undue

taxes on the poor have left spill on the economic development. The poor are

desperate to deal with high inflation rates. Because the poor people don‘t have many

resources their real asset is in the form of cash and having low saving. The

cumulative effects of inflation make poor people more vulnerable. The high

percentage of inflation on the other hand has largely affected the growth and

economic development.

Conclusion

This research analyzes that political stability is crucial for economic development and

a strong economy is the bedrock of effective foreign policy. In fact in today‘s

globally world internal factors affect external factors. Political instability in Pakistan

has directly and indirectly affected the economic development of the country. The

focus of civilian and military governments in Pakistan remained on stronger defense

rather than strong economy. On the other hand, failure of civilian government has left

intractable implications on the economy of Pakistan in many accounts. For example

during Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto introduced an Islamic socialist economic system that put

the mixture on the policy move was rather political than economic in nature. General

Ziaul Haq introduced Islamic economic system. While during 1990 political

Page | 19

instability became the order of the day. Economic policies introduced by one

government were dismantled by the successor government. The scenario gets

economy of the country in Darwin. Pakistan got severe setback in terms of economy

and policies. The failure of industrial policies, corruption and mismanagement of the

economy by the civilian governments of Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto put

Pakistan in the line of debit countries. More loans were received and got more

dictations in terms of domestic politics and foreign policy.

References:

Ali Mehrinisa, (2001) ―Readings in Pakistan foreign policy‖, Oxford:

University press.

http://www.finance.gov.pk/finance_economic_survey.aspx. Retrieved

on July 2010.

Husain Ishart, (2003), ―Economic management of Pakistan, Oxford:

Oxford university press.

Barki Shahid Javeed, (1999), ―Pakistan Fifty years of Nationhood‖,

Lahore: vanguard books.

Ibid : 07.

Khan Ashfaque H. and Yun-Hwan Kim foreign direct investment in

Pakistan : policy issue and operational implications July 1999 EDRC

Report Series No. 66,1999 by Asian Development BankJuly, 1999.

http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr,Retrieved on July 2010.

Nadvi Khalid and Mark Robins on Pakistan drivers of change synthesis

and policy implications Institute of Development Studies University of

Sussex, Flamer, BrightonBN1 9RE, United Kingdom March 2004,

Retrieved on July 2010.

Chandra D. Suba Pakistan‘s Economy Pangs of Political Instability -

Retrieved on July 2010, www.ipcs.org 2008.

Shah Mehtab Ali (2005) ―Sectarianism – A threat to Human security: A

Case study of Pakistan‖ The Round Table Volume, 94 issue E, 382

October.

Page | 20

ENDGAME IN AFGHANISTAN:

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR PAKISTAN

Mr. Pervaiz Ali Mahesar*, Dr. Yasmeen Yousaf Pardesi

**, Hameed A. Mahesar***

Abstract:

After the end of Cold War the geopolitics of the Asia Pacific witnessed a

great momentum and change. Right after the 9/11 incident, the Bush

administration while addressing the State of Union speech unequivocally

expressed that he would send US troops into Afghanistan in order to root

out Taliban and Al-Qaeda. However, his policies have borne no fruit so

far. Since Nine Eleven, it has taken USA at least 11 years, to have a

complete sway in Afghanistan. Given the agonizing panorama of

incidents, like: desecration of the Holy Koran and killing of 16 civilians in

three villages in Afghanistan, speaks volumes about Americans

mishandling of the war. The of-late policy of Obama administration is

focused on troops to pull out. American drawdown policy in Afghanistan

has rendered the researchers and analysts to think that Endgame in

Afghanistan is not going to be an easy ride. It is widely held that Iraq-like

withdrawal will leave many questions unanswered. This paper will

examine the painful process of Endgame in Afghanistan. It will also

attempt and address a few questions regarding political and economic

stability of Afghanistan before American withdrawal. Moreover, this study

will analyze critically the entire process of pull out in Pakistan‘s

perspective besides highlighting, challenges and opportunities for

Pakistan in the Post-withdrawal Afghanistan.

Key words: Drawdown, Governance, Terrorism, Economic retardation, Radicalism.

Introduction:

Afghanistan is a gateway to Central Asia. Although it is a landlocked country yet

holds great geopolitical importance. USA invaded Afghanistan in order to drive out Al-

Qaeda and terrorists. But after elapsing of 11 years, they have failed to reign in anti-state

and non-state actors from creating trouble in the region. Mr. Leon Panetta announced

troop‘s withdrawal in 2013 where as Afghan government is asking Obama administration

not to starts early pull out. They are of the view that early troops going back to home will

create worst crisis in their country. However, it is widely held in American circles that

―Since the invasion of Afghanistan by US, their major focus was happen to be to foil ill

designs of the terrorists and militants to use Afghanistan as their launching pad‖

(Telegraph: 1st February, 2012).

Page | 21

Afghanistan and Iraq have been the hot spots in the world. The major focus of American

policy makers has been on South Asian issues. Since a decade Americans sole

concentration has been on Afghanistan. The Obama‘s policy of drawdown from

Afghanistan has been the subject of hot debate at national and international forums. He

announced that his country is going to withdraw her troops from Afghanistan by 2014. In

addition to this, it is said that after 2014, the peace and stability in Afghanistan will be

restored. The institutions will be in a better position to run itself. However, the most of

the strategic analysts are of the view that American-NATO withdrawal is not going to be

an easy ride.

―Afghanistan urged the Obama administration to stick to an agreed timetable for

withdrawing its troops after the US caught allies off guard by saying it would switch to a

training role next year. The remarks by Leon Panetta, the defense secretary, surprised

Afghan and NATO officials, who had assumed the US, would continue to play a main

combat role until the completion of a phased security handover to Afghan forces in late

2014‖ (Green, Dyer and Blitz: 2012).

After the Vietnam War, Americans believe that Iraq is going to the second

expensive war. The promises were made with Iraq about restoration of peace and stability

in Iraq. The so-called slogans for democracy, human rights, economic sustainability and

institution building have deadly failed to bring peace and stability in Iraq. The country

like Iraq is not devoid of civil wars, chaos and anarchy. The colonial masters including

Uncle Sam have failed to deliver the goods to the people of Iraq. This country is

witnessing crisis of governance, dissatisfaction among political factions, rise of Shia

factor, generating an atmosphere of intolerance etc. There are some people who hold a

view to even handover Iraq to Iran. However, political parties are also divided over

American stay or withdrawal. Some of the political parties in Iraq think that America

should stay for long period so that unwanted forces may be neutralized. And a few others

believe that America should quit Iraq as soon as possible and let alone Iranian people to

decide their line of action.

Before this study analyzes the process of Endgame in Afghanistan, it is notable to

highlight the current issues and problems involved in the process of Endgame.

Crisis of good governance in Afghanistan

War lords divided on ethnic lines/ Reconciliation with Taliban

Role of regional players in Afghanistan

―Mr. Obama announced plans to withdraw 10,000 troops from Afghanistan by the end of

this year. The remaining 20,000 troops from the 2009 ―surge‖ of forces would leave by

next summer, amounting to about a third of the 100,000 troops now in the country. He

Page | 22

said the drawdown would continue ―at a steady pace‖ until the United States handed over

security to the Afghan authorities in 2014‖ (USNEWS: 02 February, 2012).

Crisis of Governance in Afghanistan:

Afghanistan is a country where peace and stability has hardly been witnessed except

Taliban rule in 1990‘s. For decades, ranging from invasion of Sikander Azam to Uncle

Sam, Afghanistan has almost remained unruly, ungovernable, conflict-ridden etc. The

roles of powers that be in terms of restoration of peace and security have almost been

pipedreams. ―However, most of the leaders in Afghanistan are known for their criminal

behavior and lack competency. They are believed to be not fit to govern themselves.

Hamid Karzai- Afghan president while displaying his displeasure said that he would take

stern action in terms of rooting out corruption from his own government‖ (Filkins: 2011).

The civil wars between Afghan warlords, poppy cultivation, corruption, injustice, poverty

and hunger, malnutrition, weak institutions, destabilization, conspiracies, unemployment,

radicalism, economic retardation, political inaction and lack of accountability are the

obvious symptoms of bad governance. ―The ongoing violence in Afghanistan's east,

along the Pakistan border, and the high-profile attacks and assassinations that continue to

wreak havoc in and around Kabul. The violence is compounded by worries about

government corruption, the fragile economy, and fears that Afghan forces won't be ready

to take over security of the country as American and NATO troops leave‖ (Joyner: 2nd

February, 2012).

However, the crisis of governance can only be solved with restoration of tribal culture,

bring moderate Taliban in the political mainstream of Afghanistan, rebuilding and

reconstruction of Afghanistan, non-intervention of external powers, frequent elections,

strong leadership, consensus-ridden constitution, trade and economic investment, equal

employment opportunities for all, equal representation of all sections of society, justice ,

accountability and transparency. This is a gradual process. It will require consistent effort

from all stakeholders who wish to see Afghanistan as a peaceful and stable nation among

the comity of nations of the world.

War lords divided on ethnic lines/ Reconciliation with Taliban:

After the withdrawal of USSR from Afghanistan, this country was running on the

path of painful journey. The Russian left them without giving the reliable, logical,

reasonable political solution for the future of Afghanistan.

The noted writer of Guardian newspaper, Michael Williams, wrote an article entitled:

―The Real Endgame in Afghanistan‖, ―the writer acknowledged that Bin Laden and Al-

Qaeda were not responsible for the deteriorating law and order situation in Afghanistan.

Further he said that Taliban maintained peace and stability after USSR withdrawal in

1992‖ (05 May, 2011).

Page | 23

However, this deteriorated situation riddled with political feuds, civil wars, corruption,

violence and general crime gave birth to the rag tag army like Taliban. These guys were

supported financially, politically, diplomatically, militarily by regional and global

players. At present, the yesterday‘s good guys turned to be today‘s bad guys.

After a decade or so to the invasion of Afghanistan by America and its satellite

allies on one pretext or the other, is having a secret dialogue with Taliban in Afghanistan.

Pakistan is being ignored in this dialogue process. She may not agree to the terms and

conditions with which Americans are conducting the process of reconciliation with

Taliban. Pakistan has great strategic interests in Afghanistan. It will be a great blow to the

interests of Pakistan if it is ignored deliberately. Pakistan believes in the peace and

stability of Afghanistan. And this is one of the supreme interests of Pakistan. Iran, India,

Russia believes that Afghanistan should be divided on ethnic lines. However, this

solution is not acceptable to Pakistan.

Afghanistan: An American Conundrum:

George Friedman- an analyst, writer and author of many books, writes an article in

Stratfor- Global Intelligence, dated: March 19, 2012, the caption of that article was:

―Afghanistan and the long War‖. He writes that it has taken America more than 10 years

to establish its writ in Afghanistan. Moreover, not only this but also larger war and

smaller wars are being fought by America. He believes that Afghan war is one of the

longest one ever fought by American forces. The off-shoot of this long war is affecting

politically, militarily, economically and psychologically.

Politically speaking, as the period of election in USA is near there is visible decrease in

Obama‘s graph. Militarily, this afghan quagmire is being equated with Vietnam. And the

frequent changes in military top brass are also indicative of dissatisfaction of American

leadership. James Joyner wrote in National Interest magazine, the title of his article was

―Ending the Afghan Slog‖, He says while quoting David Cameroon and Obama meeting.

The latter said: that this is a ―hard slog. This is a hard work. When I came into office,

there had been drift in the Afghan strategy, in part because we had spent more time

focusing Iraq instead‖ (March 19, 2012).

Economically, this war has affected USA in terms of rising inflation, heavy taxation,

burgeoning unemployment and billions of dollars have been invested in what we call

Afghanistan-the graveyard of empires. Robert Bales was a staff sergeant in US force. It

was the fourth time after Iraq war that he was sent for combat duty in Afghanistan. He

killed innocent people in Afghanistan This and a few other events shows that how much

their forces are psychologically ready for waging a war in other countries.

Page | 24

Given the panorama of events like: Salala check post attack; burning of Holy Quran;

killing of innocent people in Afghanistan; Israel-Iran looming war clouds; American‘s

hasty withdrawal from Afghanistan; failure of talks with Taliban; Pakistan‘s review of

relations with USA will affect American‘s Grand Strategy in the context of South Asian.

Role of regional players:

Realizing the gravity of Afghan quagmire, Barack Obama, during his election campaign

(2008), had clearly delineated that without taking into confidence the regional

stakeholders over Afghanistan matter, till then there would be no lasting and durable

solution for the said problem. After embarking upon the most difficult and daunting

challenge of being American president at this critical juncture, his administration

reiterated upon India as well as Pakistan to have a common solution for the common

problem. The Guardian news quotes: ―American policies directly contradict with

Pakistan. America intends to have Afghanistan free from what they characterize radical

Islam besides its stability. This policy without doubt, leads one to think that the USA

wanted to give Indians a safe passage to Afghanistan. This kind of nexus and policy was

seen against Pakistan‘s Strategic Depth‖ (Guardian: 05 May.)

―Hastening America's exit will be painful, and undercuts years of U.S. efforts, but it's our

least bad choice in this doomed war.‖ (BBC: 1st

January, 2012). Afghanistan is a country

where the political, economic, security interests of regional players intersect. Keeping in

view this wide range of interests, external intervention, Tribalism, factionalism, Cold

War, conflict and anarchy have been the order of the day. The work of reconstruction,

rehabilitation and rebuilding of war torn Afghanistan has been undertaken by not only

regional players but also international donor agencies. Americans believe that ―Neither

they will try to make Afghanistan a perfect place, nor make police streets or patrol its

mountains indefinitely‖. (Project Syndicate: Laidi: 2012)However, these so-called

measures and assurances have almost failed to deliver goods to the war starved people of

Afghanistan. Until or unless there is convergence of interests among regional or global

powers, inter-Afghan Taliban dialogue, till then one may not hope for peace, tranquility

and stability in Afghanistan.

Iran:

Iran is a neighbor of Afghanistan. It has a geo-political, cultural and religious stakes in its

neighbor. It can play a vital role in the political and economic stability of Afghanistan.

However, the Post-Cold War era suggests that Iran did not welcome the Afghan refugees

to enter into their land. This incident triggered civil war, poverty and hunger. After the

incident of 9/11, the US and its allies engaged with nuclear Iran in order to topple down

Saddam Hussein and Taliban from Afghanistan. With the end of Taliban and Saddam

Hussain, the closeness and cordiality in US-Iran relations were witnessed.

Page | 25

Right from the Bonn Conference to the Obama‘s policy for withdrawal from Afghanistan

are seen as positive developments by Iran. The Iranian involvement in Afghan matters is

not devoid of politico-economic, religious, strategic and cultural interests. They see

Herat, Farah and Nimruz as their areas of influence. Iranian thinking is dominated by two

factors: one, Hazara- Shia dominated city, second, support for the Northern Alliance.

They wish to see Afghanistan disintegrated on ethnic lines. These factors are considered

as bottlenecks in the peaceful exit of America from Afghanistan. However, other regional

and global players are not on the same page with what Iranian leadership believes.

According to State Department of the US: ―The discovery of the first caches of Iranian –

made weapons in Afghanistan, sent shock waves. It further stated that Iran was doing

more than just bringing Western Afghanistan into its sphere of influence.‖

Russia:

After Iran, Russia has a great role to play in Afghanistan. Russians believe that American

exit from Afghanistan would result in the Vietnam-like defeat. It is widely held that

America and its satellites will stay in Afghanistan beyond 2014. They fear that their cold

war rival is going to have secret deal with Taliban. In addition to this, it is said that this

type of American shift in thinking will lead to illicit drug trafficking and terrorism in to

what Russian describe as their sphere of influence-Central Asia. Moreover, American

stay in Afghanistan is seen by Russian as a grave threat to their security in the Caspian

region.

―The continuous focus of NATO/ISAF on Northern side of Afghanistan-adjacent to

Russia, have given birth to the fragile security in the region‖, writes Aunohita Mojumdar

in Christian Science Monitor, Jan 20, 2011. Many analysts are of the view that

development and security are interlinked with each other. Without ensuring security, how

can one undertake huge investment in rebuilding and reconstructing Afghanistan?

Keeping in view above analysis, Russia currently seems to be in a fix on various

accounts. Firstly, engineered elections in Russian, Secondly, Post Arab Spring scenario,

thirdly, loom war clouds over the Gulf region. Fourthly, American long stays in the Asia-

Pacific region.

India:

Indians have no geographic proximity with Afghanistan as Pakistan and Iran, yet it has

strategic and economic interests. After the incident of 9/11, India was ready to offer her

bases to America in order to launch military attacks over Afghanistan. But due to lack of

geopolitical importance and relevance, it did not get attention of the Great Powers.

Broadly speaking, Indian strategic goals in South Asian region are: Indian encirclement

of Pakistan, Indo-Afghan Strategic Partnership, containment of Islamic extremism, use

Afghanistan as a gateway to Central Asia and regional policeman.

Page | 26

Pakistan was pressurized by Great Powers to give India transit facility or route

towards Afghanistan. India is trying to have an assertive role by introducing Soft Power

presence besides socio-political, economic and security areas in Afghanistan. India has

established consulates in Herat, Jalalabad, Kandahar, Mazar-e-sharif. Pakistan feels that

these steps on the part of India- like Strategic Partnership, and establishment of

consulates, have triggered a new Great Game, clash of interests, civil war, and unrest in

the region. India is believed to have been interfering in Pakistan‘s Baluchistan. These and

a few other Indian activities have left great shock waves for Islamabad. Indian deep

involvement in Afghanistan is also considered as a big hurdle in the dialogue and

reconciliation process with Taliban.

China:

After the invasion of Afghanistan by USA, China has been investing millions of

dollars not only in energy sector (Aynak Copper-South of Kabul) but also in the

rebuilding and reconstruction of Afghanistan. According to analysts, Beijing believes that

USA‘s troop withdrawal from Afghanistan would herald in the power vacuum in the

region. This power vacuum will lead to a New Great Game, strategic, economic and

power rivalry in Afghanistan.

However, India with the help of Americans is trying to play a hegemonic role that is not

acceptable either to Pakistan or China. Indo-US and Indo-Afghan Strategic partnership

are not received as positive signals by the stakeholders in the region. India and China are

competitive powers in the region. Their interests intersect with each other on many

grounds. Their cooperation or competition is natural, given their past territorial dispute-

1962.

Challenges and Opportunities for Pakistan:

Pakistan holds a great geopolitical importance in the region. It is considered as a Pivot of

Asia. It is a hard country as portrayed by American writer Anatol Lieven. It is surrounded

by nuclear powers and dangerous porous borders. After the joining of Pakistan with the

Western allies, it has witnessed troublous and turbulations and highs and lows in its ties

with western powers on the one pretext or on the other. Being a close ally of USA,

Pakistan has much to offer in terms of US War on Terror. It provided a logistic support,

strategic military bases and closely exchange of secret information on Afghanistan.

Zaki Laidi- Professor of International Relations wrote in Project Syndicate, 2012:

―Despite a 10-year military presence, involving the deployment of more than 100,000

troops at a cost of $550 billion, the US still has not succeeded in creating a credible

alternative to the Taliban. Worse, its political alliance with Pakistan has frayed.‖ He

further said that Pak-US relations are not what they were depicted in the post 9/11

scenario. He also acknowledges Pakistan‘s sacrifices, responsibilities, sensitivities and

mass exodus at Afghan border. He said, ―if the US has been unable to involve Pakistan in

Page | 27

resolving the Afghanistan conflict, that failure simply reflects America‘s refusal to give

the Pakistanis what they wanted: a shift in the regional balance of power at the expense of

India‖ (www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/obama-s-middle-east-malady).

The relations between Pakistan and USA are largely based on love and hate and

from convenience of marriage to bad marriage. In spite of this highs and lows in relations

they have enjoyed good and cordial relations in the past. America has been supporting

Pakistan: economically, politically, defense. According to the US Congress: ‗Pakistan

was provided $20 billion in aid between 2001 and 2011. In addition, Congress passed the

Kerry-Lugar bill, which promised $7.5 billion in economic aid from 2009-2014. The US

also encouraged the International Monetary Fund to give Pakistan emergency financial

assistance equivalent to $11 billion, to be disbursed starting in late 2008‘. However, the

underlined pictures clearly reflect what Pakistan wants from America.

However, recently, given the Raymond Davis saga, Abbot Abad Operation,

Memo gate scandal has resulted in the fracture and fissures in their relations. Obama has

announced the date of troop exit from Afghanistan in 2013-14. This American

withdrawal is not being taken as a good omen not only for Afghanistan but also for the

entire region. American process of reconciliation with Taliban or secret talks is seen as a

suicidal for the interests of Pakistan. Qatari dialogue-USA, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia-

Taliban, is recipe to ignite Sunni-Shia factor in the region.

Therefore, clash of Saudi Arabia, Iran and Pakistan‘s interests are inevitable. Iran

with the help of India and Russia can create a disturbance for Pakistan in Baluchistan and

Afghanistan. This constant disturbance and interference in Afghan transition and

Pakistan‘s Baluchistan may result in the security dilemma for Pakistan. Currently, Indo-

Afghan Strategic Partnership is widely perceived as an encirclement of Pakistan. If blame

game and trust deficit will never ensure peace and stability in the region.

Pakistan believes that if America withdraws from Afghanistan without taking into

account what Pakistan likes or dislikes will forestall peaceful dialogue process in

Afghanistan. Pakistan that has been already bearing the burden of millions of Afghan

refugees will further deepen the crisis for her weak economy. This population influx will

lead to an abysmal socio-economic situation in Pakistan.

Keeping in view the above daunting challenges for Pakistan in the wake of

American exit from Afghanistan is also seen as an opportunity. The process of dialogue

with Taliban by Americans is in consonance with what Pakistan wants, and then it is an

opportunity for Pakistan. It can revive its strategic depth in Afghanistan. Since Pakistan

believes in integrated, stable and strong Afghanistan. It can neutralize its rivals in the

region. Pakistan along with Beijing can play a great role in reconstruction and rebuilding

process in Afghanistan. They can exploit natural resources not only in Afghanistan but

they can also have easy access towards Central Asian Republics. Afghanistan is a bridge

between South Asia and Central Asian region.

Page | 28

Conclusion:

It is an open secret that since invasion of Afghanistan by NATO forces, peace and

stability has remained a forlorn hope. The region is embroiled with crisis of multiple

natures. For instance: poverty, extremism, mismanagement, bad governance etc. Peace in

this region is linked with Afghanistan. Not only Pakistan but also entire region is very

much affected by this self-inflicted chaos. Obama‘s fading and failing strategy and

Pakistan‘s shrugging support with respect to US troops pull out from South Asia might

cause a deep rupture between their relationships. From Raymond Davis saga to the

tabling of resolution regarding Baluchistan by USA are not considered as good omen for

Pak-US relation. This misperception has further confounded the peace overtures with

Taliban.

Pakistan believes in peaceful, prosperous and stable Afghanistan. According to the

current Foreign Minister of Pakistan, that Pakistan supports Afghan-led solution. And

this support should not be seen as interference in Afghan matters. Until or unless the

major powers find a logical, durable and reliable solution, taking into account what

Pakistan believes, till then peace and stability might remain a pipedream. However,

Americans off the hook policy, regarding troop‘s withdrawal may create a big vacuum in

Afghanistan. This wide gap will be filled by regional stakeholders. It is feared that this

situation will trigger a Cold war, conflict and conflagration in the region.

Before the US pull out from volatile region, they have to revisit their policy like peaceful

coexistence and treat Afghanistan as a buffer state; should follow a regional approach;

besides taking into account Pakistan‘s sensitivities. The need of an hour is to follow the

famous adage of T.E. Laurence that it is better to let ―them‖ do it than it is to try to ―do it

better‖ for them. Thus it is safe to say that Afghan nationals, local and communities

should be allowed to choose their future line of action for their country. Pakistan has to

follow careful, conscious and considerate steps in the wake of American‘s hasty pull out

and phenomenon of realignment in the region.

Page | 29

Reference:

Telegraph, ―Staying in Afghanistan‖, Dated, 01. February, 2012.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk, Accessed on: 03 February, 2012.

Green, Dyer and Blitz, ―Afghanistan Fears Early US Pull Out‖, Telegraph, by

Mathew Green in Islamabad, Geoff Dyer in Washington and James Blitz in

London, dated: February 02, 2012.

Shankar and Mazzeti, ―Obama Will Speed Pull out From Afghanistan‖. A report

was presented from Washington and Kabul, New York Times, dated: 06. 2011.

http://www.nytimes.com, Accessed on: 05 March, 2012.

―The Drawdown is the first step in the plan to wind down the war‖, US NEWS.

December 22, 2011. www.usnews.com/news/articles. Accessed on: 07 February,

2012.

Filkins, Dexter, ―Endgame‖, by Published in New York Times. Dated: 04 July,

2011. www.newyorker.com/talk/comment. Accessed on: 1st February, 2012.

Joyner, James: ―Why Obama is right to withdraw from Afghanistan early‖, He is

managing editor of the Atlantic Council. His article appeared on 02 February,

2012. http://www.acus.org Accessed on: March 1st, 2012.

Williams, Michael, ―The Real Endgame in Afghanistan‖. Dated: 05 May, 2011.

www.guardian.co.uk. Accessed on: 1st January, 2012.

BBC News, ―Afghanistan: Obama Orders Withdrawal of 33,000 troops‖, dated

23rd

June, 2011. www.bbc.co.uk Accessed on: 1st January, 2012.

Laidi, Zaki ―Obama‘s Middle East Malady‖, Professor of International Relations,

Paris, 2012. www.project-syndicate.org

Page | 30

PREREQUISITES OF FEDERALISM: A CASE OF PAKISTAN

(A critical Analysis)

Prof. Dr. Aslam Pervez Memon*, Dr. Kiran Sami**

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to examine the characteristics necessary for

a successful federal structure, especially with reference to Pakistan. The

federal system is basically designed for the states having social diversity.

In this regard the important factors responsible for uniting or dividing a

nation for example, language, religion, political ideology, territorial

equality, communication, are taken in account. Moreover, this research

will also help to analyze the present political system of Pakistan and

examine its validity and utility in accordance with the celebrated federal

canons and structure. The establishment of a centralized government in a

federal state is highly incompatible with each other. Pakistan is an

example of such incompatibility, where a federal state was attempted to

establish in presence of a centralized government. A federal state cannot

accommodate and sustain centralized governmental system, since both

have opposite tendencies. The success of federal system is only guaranteed

in presence of equality and separation of powers, on the other hand the

success of a centralized system of government is guaranteed only with the

maintenance of total control on all the units.

Key Words: Federalism, Pakistan, Nation, Equality, Cultural Diversity.

Introduction:

― ‗Federalism‘ or ‗Federal government‘ is a very loosely and independently used

term which in its general sense represents an association of provinces, states or cantons

etc., formed for certain common interests without losing their original independence.‖

(1990:37)

A state in which there are different national groups living together within the

same federation and regional state is called the plurinational federation. The Political

system of Pakistan is designed on the basis of federal character due to its post

independent conditions. ―The concept of Pakistan as put forward by the Lahore

Resolution of 23 March 1940 visualised a federal state.‖ (1985:239)

The existence of plural society is a major prerequisite for the adoption of federal

government system. The country Pakistan could be considered a state having plural

society. The purpose of writing this paper is to find out that whether under the umbrella

of federalism, the people of Pakistan got the required system in political realm for which

it was adopted. In addition, it will attempt to verify that how such federalism facilitates

them.

Page | 31

To answer these queries it is necessary to focus on the foundation principles of

federation and federal system with the required conditions for the suitability of its

theoretical as well as practical implementation keeping in view that the federation of

Pakistan was not created out of an association of states formally independent of each

other.

Federalism in Pakistan would not appear to be an outcome of contract or

agreement on the part of the constituent provinces similar to that of the American State to

create a policy. In fact the country gained its independence from direct colonial rule with

much hope for the betterment of its largely Muslim population of peasants and laborers,

which has remained unrealized to this day not only economically but politically as well.

Federalism has traditionally been viewed as one of the most ideal institutional

devices for the territories which are characterized by a high degree of social complexity.

It is a system of Government which involves a certain pattern of relationship between the

centre and the provinces. Such a relationship is amenable to adjustments with the

changed environmental situations. The political parties, interest groups, public opinion

and administrative parties play a vital role in affecting the inter-governmental relations.

Due to the impact of the emergent forces and developments, important changes have

taken place in inter-governmental relationship even in the countries which are considered

to be the traditional homes of federalism. Now questions regarding the regulation and

guarantee of certain rights and freedoms, the rules of law and political pluralism, the

separation of powers and other limiting mechanisms such as constitutionalism,

federalism, as well as the legitimacy of governmental institutions established by means of

periodical and competitive elections, are clear attempts to make the modern concepts of

liberty, equity and dignity concrete with in the public sphere.

The concretization of these concepts has been usually far from easy to establish.

At the same time, however, it has been the very success of these historical products,

brought about the diverse and not always harmonious liberal, democratic, functional and

national perspectives known as liberal democracies, that has underlined the distance

between the universal values included with in their principles and legitimizing languages

and the practical consequences that these have had on specific culturally complex

political realities.

Importance of National Groups:

In federalism there is a co-existence between various national groups. Amongst

the national characteristics of these groups living together in a given policy, their

members recognize themselves as nation because they share some cultural patterns. They

also share sense of historical distinctiveness in relation to other groups. They are situated

in more or less majority and display a will to maintain their distinctiveness in the political

sphere.

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All national groups under the umbrella of same political system take the shape of

a nation, which is called nation-building. The process of nation-building or integration is

essential for the development of a state as a whole. This process has various dynamics

and attached deeply with the themes of identity and legitimacy. Raunaq Jahan writes

―nation-building requires the creation and concentration of authority and an emphasis on

the role of government in the social process.‖ (1972:02)

All national groups are a part of multi-national state but small groups because of

their great numerical inferiority, find themselves governed largely by members of another

national group and are increasingly unable to maintain its distinctive identity would have

grievances.

Communities do not forget the cultural and ethnic differences amongst them but

diversity is not essentially the divisive force. It leads to division when there is a unequal

distribution of rights and resources in the society.

Pakistan since its establishment has experienced the communal problems revolving

around diversity of language and culture. In this regard Hayes Louis opines, ―Pakistan

was born out of communal identity, and it is not surprising that one of the main problems

confronting the new government concerned communal matters.‖ (1986:46)

Following factors are accountable for the successful working of federalism:

Linguistic Affinity:

The language has played very significant role in the political history of mankind

as well its reorganization process.

In Quebic (Canada) language is the life, as well as the symbol of the French struggle. In

political tranquil country of Canada the 1960‘s witnessed the rapid rise of vigorous

movement among French speaking catholic majority in the provinces of Quebic.

Therefore political collaboration between different language groups becomes more

difficult. In Canada, a nationalism focused on language is the key to ethic assertiveness

and the core of culture identity. It must be remembered that importance of language

hardly be denied because the language makes the past and present and links both with the

future.

There is no inherent reason why language difference should be divisive in nature.

The Swiss now have four languages, India is said to be more than eighteen languages,

Nigeria has large array of languages, United States has many languages and Pakistan

does also has many languages. The fact is that the trouble arises over languages when the

government, on the binding of the strongest provinces or the party attempts to force its

language on the whole. The case of East Pakistan can be cited in this regard when on the

issue of national language the state was divided into two halves 1971.

Page | 33

Religion:

Religion is a major basis for identity and cultural cohesion. Common religion can

provide militant cultural identity and a sense of sacred mission, co-existence of different

religious communities with in the same state is peculiarly difficult. But it is important to

note that religious differences are not divisive, so long as there is a reasonable tolerance

and the Government does not attempt to stamp out a religion of which it disapproves.

Switzerland is an example in this aspect. Although there were great streams between

catholic and Protestants, all now live together in harmony even where there is difference

between one village and the next. The establishment of Pakistan on the platform of same

religion and formation of one nation out of various ethnicities can be cited as the best

example of this case.

The nationalism of Pakistan also has its roots in religion, but by the passage of

time its sectarian aspect has contributed towards the split of society mainly because of the

selfish leadership. Leaders for their selfish interests have used the people of Pakistan to

be exploited in the name of religion, since religion is the most sensitive part of an

individual‘s life. Leaders have always interpreted and promoted their own version of

nationalism serving their individual interests.

Ideological Differences:

Differences in political Ideology play most significant role in strengthening or

weakening the federation. This was an important cause of the withdrawal of Jamaica

from the federation of West Indies.

Ideology is the proper channel which directs the passage of federation to a successful

goal passes through the unity and integration which involves mutual ties and sense of

group identity and self-awareness. Federation offers a method of uniting hitherto separate

provinces into a new super nation entity by means of a formal constitution, executed as a

result of a common political commitment made by the parties involved.

Ideological differences contain deep tendencies of divisiveness; it leads towards

the beginning and rise of separatist movements. Ideological unanimity has the potential to

ignore the differences of unusual nature; on the other side in case of ideological conflicts

it does not consider any kind of commonness.

The societies which are pursuing successfully the national ideologies are

positively tolerant of the differences amongst them. In societies where national ideologies

are conflicted the differences of different kinds amongst people are very visible and

people are sensitive about their sun-national identities.

Page | 34

The power of ideology can be estimated through looking at the Pakistan

movement which was conducted on the basis of Islamic ideology and successfully

achieved its goal. Ishtiaque Hussain Qureshi in his article on ‘The Future Development of

Islamic Polity‘ writes ―Muslims were united only by their common allegiance to Islam

otherwise they were a mass of heterogeneous people. They had an ideology (idealism) for

which they should be prepared to sacrifice their life.‖ (1979: xxxiii)

Territorial Equality:

Federalism stresses the importance of a constitutional instrument setting out the

relationship and competence of the federal and local bodies with in a defined territorial area.

Federal system has also been required the permanence of the boundaries of its constituting

provinces. This does not mean that boundary changes cannot occur, as a matter of

constitutional law such changes can be made only with the consent of the provinces involved

and that, as a matter of political policy, they are avoided except in extreme situations. United

State divided Virginia during the civil war, Canada had enlarged the boundaries of its

provinces and Switzerland has divided cantons, but in every case at least the formal consent

of the constitutional provinces was given.

The given explanation proves that the essential basis and foundation of federalism

is equality. Further, in this system the equal system of right position and opportunity is

recognized for every province. Under such structure center does not have margin to go

against the federal interests.

The distribution of power has always been a crucial issue in the field of constitution

making of Pakistan.

Disintegration cannot be avoided when ethnic differentiation is added to regional

inequality with its socio-economic scenarios. When in a federation the demands of one

province are satisfied and others perceive discrimination against them by authorities,

there is a condition of conflict. Even attempts not to discriminate are likely to be

misinterpreted, merely because full and equitable participation has been denied to some

members of federation. ―Admittedly the division of power is indispensable for a federal

system in order to ensure its permanence.‖ (1990:70)

Communication:

Communication is the central nervous system of the federal state. Good and free

communication system is considered a guarantee for the success and improvement of

federation. Direct lines of communication between the public and both the federal and the

constituent governments, allow the public to exert direct influence on both governments

and permit them to exercise direct authority over common citizenry.

If there is no free communication on the movements of products and persons

between the provinces of federation, the federation can hardly grow or may not grow.

Page | 35

Even the poor communication can be a divisive force. A federation where the lines of

communication are not reliable will face the serious problem to keep the federating units

in touch. Federalism in Pakistan even as theoretically stated in the constitution, appears to

suffer from serious limitations when examined in the light of universally recognized

principles of federalism.

Conclusion:

Considering the mentioned important prerequisites of federalism, it has become

necessary to critically examine the political situation of Pakistan immediately after the

independence. Since its establishment, Pakistan has been facing the challenge of realization

of a genuine federal system which failed to meet expectations of the federating units.

Unfortunately, the adopted federal system has not yet emerged successfully because of many

reasons.

Pakistani society is highly diversified and in order to reconcile the centripetal and

centrifugal forces, it is necessary that the system of federalism should be strengthened on

sound foundations. From the day one, the country adopted a highly centralized system of

government which resulted in number of crises. The small federating units would always

complaints of deprivations due to injustice in provincial autonomy. This has given birth

and rise to the regionalist tendencies.

The concept of a federal system suggests a kind of a government in in two layers

in which central and regional governments work in a balanced way while maintaining

their autonomies. The federal system and a centralized government are the incompatible

to each other in political arena. Pakistan has been experiencing through this

incompatibility since the very beginning, which has hindered the establishment of

relationship based on trust amongst the federating units. Syed Jaffar Ahmed writes, ―But

a genuine federal constitution was never formed in Pakistan, and hence, though a number

of constitutions were promulgated in the post-independence period, they failed either to

come up to the expectations of all regions or provinces or to prevent the subsequent

federal crises.‖ (1990:42)

Act of 1935 was adopted as interim constitution, known as QUASI FEDERAL

statute with mainly unitary characteristics and designed by a colonial power

which compelled to provide limited autonomy to its native subjects.

Unfortunately, under these constitutions a highly centralized federal system

established in Pakistan. The government of India Act provided adequate provisions and

process to ensure full predominance of the central authority. These provisions and

process have been fully utilized to its maximum limits.

Page | 36

The central government maintained its hold in the legislative, provincial, financial,

administrative and political spheres; such system could hardly be described as truly

federal.

The political control of the central authorities by appointing governors who held

office at pleasure of the head of states was considered and proved as major intervention

in provincial autonomy of the provinces. The central government has been exercising

pressure and influence in provincial political affairs through its power of appointing and

dismissal of provincial cabinets through the governors. Whereas this has been history of

the federal constitutions that the federal constitution has certain major characteristics, the

most notable of which is the distribution of powers between two sets of governments

guaranteed by the constitution itself.

The actual mode of distribution of powers varies in different federal systems. If

the comparison of Pakistan‘s constitution is made with the constitutions of established

democratic countries, there is no match. In fact, the constitution of Pakistan has been

changed with more ease and less care. The only necessity and criteria justifying such a

change has been the ambition and the convenience of those in power.

A federation cannot exist or survive without a spirit of partnership and co-

operation between the provinces and centre. Equitable treatment and mutual respect are

the basic requirements for the success of any federal structure.

Considering the geo-political and socio-economic structure of Pakistan, the

diverse cultural, traditional and distance of one wing from the other, Pakistan could only

survive through democratic institutions, where power could be shared by the people of

the two wings on an equitable basis. In Pakistan the politicians who advocated for

centralized administration, only served their own interests and the class interests of the

ruling elite. In the process it was not only East Pakistan but the other smaller provinces

like Sindh, North West Frontier and Balochistan also went through the same process of

neglect and exploitation. East Pakistan s position was somewhat different but the basic

principles of federal structure were applicable to all the provinces.

The only notable improvement over the 1935 Act is the distribution of legislative

powers between the center and provinces was in respect of the residual matters. The

article 104 of the 1956 constitution provided that this power would be enjoyed by the

provincial legislature subject to article 107 and 108 of the constitution. But in case of

emergency, parliament could make laws in any provincial matter. In order to resolve

disputes between the federal government and the provincial government or between two

provinces or between the center and one or more provinces, which were not within the

jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Constitution provided that any of the government

involved in such dispute could refer the matter to the Chief Justice of Pakistan who

would appoint a Tribunal to settle the dispute.

Page | 37

In the administrative relationship between the center and the provinces, the

provinces were subservient to the center. There had been more consolidation of power

and authority in the hands of the federal governments. It was the constitutional duty of

the federal government to protect each province against external aggression and internal

disturbance and ensure that the government every province was carried on in accordance

with the provisions of the constitution. The executive authority of the province would be

exercised in such manner as to ensure it complied with the Acts of Parliament and the

laws applicable to the province and also not impede or prejudice the exercise of the

executive of the Federation. The federal government was entitled to give direction to a

province with regard to the duties of the provincial authority. The constitution also gives

sweeping powers to the federal government to exercise control and to give directions to a

province, even in normal times. The provincial governors could and did play, an

important role in provincial politics, being appointed by the President and holding office

during his pleasure in provincial politics.

References:

Ahmed Jaffar Syed, (1990) ―Federalism in Pakistan: A Constitutional Study‖,

Karachi: MAS Printers.

Hayes Louis D., (1986) ―The Struggle for Legitimacy in Pakistan‖, Lahore:

Khalid Imran Printers.

Afzal Rafique M., (1979) ―The Case for Pakistan‖, Lahore: Ripon Printing Press.

Ahmed Jaffar Syed, (1990) ―Federalism in Pakistan: A Constitutional Study‖,

Karachi: MAS Printers.

Khan Mohammad Asghar, ‗Pakistan‘s Geopolitical Imperatives‘ in Mohammad

Asghar (eds) ―The Pakistan Experience: State & Religion‖ (1985), Lahore:

Vanguard Books.

Raunaq Jahan, (1972) "Pakistan: Failure in National Integration‖, New York and

London: Columbia University Press.

Ahmed Jaffar Syed, (1990) ―Federalism in Pakistan: A Constitutional Study‖,

Karachi: MAS Printers.

Page | 38

ISLAMIC IDEOLOGY & DEMOCRACY

Dr. Samina Saeed*, Dr. Rubina Saeed**

Abstract

This research paper intends to make a comparative analysis of Islamic

concepts and democratic concepts of the West. We had put our best

efforts to describe the actual philosophy of the two concepts and its

practicality in the modern age. Both concepts are honestly examined and

describe in their full context in such a way that any hidden feature,

corner or reality relating to either concept may not be remained

untouched.

This comparative study of the above two concepts based on neutrality

aiming at to reveal the actual facts and realities of the concepts and to

suggest the final solution giving concepts to the problems of the entire

universe.

Key Words: Ideology, Democracy, Islam, Comparison.

Introduction:

The word ideology is composed of two Greek words (Idea and logous) which

means the science for Ideas or system of Ideas especially concerning social and

political life. In the broader sense an Ideology is a set of beliefs, values, norms symbols,

goals and practices incorporated into generalized formulation about a good society.

These generalized formulations encompass salient desirable, social, economic and

political relationship. This type of structure lends directions to moral reflection and

activities concerned with the social development of the society. (The Dictionary of

Pakistan : 153)

Ideologies are of different types one of them is an Islamic ideology, which

means the complete code of life it takes a comprehensive view of life and covers all its

aspect and phases. Nothing in human life and behavior is outside or beyond the Islam

insists upon nothing less than the brotherhood of man. The interests of humanity are the

same. Once the world realizes this great truth, there will be remaining no class interests.

No narrow patriotism of race, country or religion will stand in the way of the

millennium of the universal peace.

Another reliable authority clarify this point further if there is to be any

aristocracy among mankind, it is to be the aristocracy of good deeds. A Muslim loves

other and is loved by others. Once who neither loves, nor is loved is worth less. (Ahya-

ulum) Islam stresses the importance of good neighbourly relations. It teaches us:

Page | 39

―He is not a Muslim who satisfies his hunger by taking food while his

neighbour remains hungry [Mishkat Ibn-i-Zubair]‖.

On the other hand, the Christianity declares and separates religions from

political and church from the state, but Islam does not believe in the separation of

religion from political life (Mazhar Ul Haq 1993). Islam is the religion for mankind and

its message is universal and eternal.

Those people who believe in Islamic ideology are known as Muslims. The

simplest definition of Muslim is one who submits to the will of God and in his

messenger Mohammad Ibn-Abdullah faith in the books of God, Faith in God‘s

Prophets, and Faith in life after death.

Following are the five pillars of the foundation of Islamic beliefs, on which the

entire structure of Islamic society stands. (1) Prayer (2) Zakat (3) Fasting (4)

Pilgrimage and (5) Jihad. All these Foundations are revealed to Shariah, and us through

Quran (Holy Book) which are the main sources of knowledge, and secondary sources

are Ijma, Qiyas, Ijtehad. These who accepted this faith at some time during the past

1400 years passed their belief from generation le generation.

Another kind of Ideology is Democracy, which is purely a western concept of

Government. According to oxford classical dictionary, this word was first emerged

around the turn of 5th

to 4th

centuries BC after revolts in Athens had removed a dynasty

of Tyrants from power. Demokratia was what the word meant, ―the rule (kratos,) of the

people (Demos) (2002:14) so originally and really Democracy means the rule of the

people, as a form of government it means the rule of the many and as a form of

representative government it means the rule of majority.

Nature of Islamic Ideology and Democracy:

―When we say that Islam is a complete code of life it means that its guides man

according to the divine or Allah Almighty laws received by mankind through

his prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Islam stands for the establishment of the law

of Almighty on his universe‖. (1996:145)

The Islamic Ideology is based on the following characteristics:

a) A distinctive characteristic of Islam is that it is organized, disciplined and

complete way of life. Its scope is not confined to private life of a man it takes

care of each and every field of human life.

b) There is a balance between Individualism and collectivism in Islam which

means that every personality or human being is responsible and accountable to

God. Islam establishes harmony and balance between the Individual and

society.

Page | 40

c) Islam does not divide life in to matter and sprit, it regards life as a unity, and not

believe in asceticism and neither avoid the materialistic things because Allah

strongly censures those who refuse to enjoy his blessings the Quran says

―Say (to them) by whose order your forbidden (Unto yourself) have

those amenities which God has created For his bound men and those

good things to eat and use Which he made for you) (VII: 32)

Islam injunctions is

―Eat and drink, but exceed not (the limits)‖ (VII: 31)

Islam emphasized that spiritual life on the earth could be achieved by living

piously.

The Quran advises us to pray as follows: our lord! Give us the good in this

world and good in the hereafter (ii: 201)

d) Islam is a religion without any mythology. Its gives the lesson of simplicity, and

avoid from superstitions and irrational beliefs and dogmas, unity of God and

beliefs in Holy prophet and the concept of life after death are the basic of its

faith. They are based on reason and sound logic.

e) Islam is the only religion of the world that uplifts the status of woman in every

spare of life in the society either in a form of a daughter, mother sister, and wife.

f) Islam does not believe in race, color, language, nationality. All the men are

equal, any superiority of one over other is only depends on Taqwa it means that

Islam believe in Humanism as well as universalism because the message of the

Islam is for the entire human race.

g) The main essence of Islam is that it is not a man-made system as all others

religion prevailing in the world are man-made systems, and not of divine origin,

there is no doubt that Islam has any flaw in its laws, while other religions may

contain it. ( Op.cit., p.147)

Thus, we conclude that Islam is the only religion for mankind and its message is

universal and eternal.

While taking into consideration the other Ideology named Democracy, which

means a substantial proportion of the citizenry directly or indirectly, participates in

ruling the state. It is thus distinct from governments controlled by a particular social or

group or by a single person. In a direct democracy, citizens vote on laws in an assembly

as they did in ancient Greek city-state and do today in New England towns, in an

indirect democracy citizens elect officials to represent them in government.

Page | 41

Representation is typical of most modern democracies. Today the essential

features of democracy, as understood in the western world, are that citizens be

sufficiently free in speech and assembly for example to form competing political parties

and that voters be able to choose, among the candidates of these parties in regularly

held elections. (Grolier International Encyclopedia, vol: 19)

Democracy makes it possible for all groups in a society to participate freely in

the management of their own affairs; success of democracy depends on fair play. It

involves balance and equity in allocation of national resources even handedness of the

government in its dealing with citizenry demonstrable appreciation of citizens options

and equal and same application of human rights to all the people.

Comparative Analysis of Islam & Democracy as a System of Government:

In fact there is no religions order in Islam Mr. Majid Siddiqui says that if I were

permitted to coin a word for it I shall call it Theo democracy because in it under the

sovereignty and paramount of Allah, a limited popular sovereignty had been conferred

on the Muslims. Under such a system, the executive head will be elected by a universal

suffrage of Muslim and they are entitled to over throw him if it is needed. He is

responsible to the general body of the Muslim for all his acts of commissions. All the

administrative matters and those problems for which there is no clear injunction in the

book of God will be settled by the unanimous vote of the Muslim. The law of God,

where ever in explicit, can be interpreted by any Muslim, who has acquired sufficient

knowledge of the book of God and is competent enough to from an opinion on legal

matters. In this sense, you may call it a democracy. But in the presence of the law of

God and the clear injunction (Sunnah) of Rasool, no Ammer, no legislative, no cabinet,

no legal expert, not even the whole body of Muslims can affect the least change in it. In

this sense, it is the theocracry. ( Majid Siddiqui 1987)

In the Islamic state and society there is no party politics which means ‗state is

free from party system therefore head of Islamic state is an independent unit and may

express his opinion freely and truthfully according to his conviction and not according

to the wishes of anybody else. On the contrary western democracy demands complete

loyalty right or wrong to his part system irrespective of any moral principle involved.

It is clearly obvious that Muslims as a whole constitute one single invisible

party both religious and politically in a form of ummah. Therefore, western concept of

government and institute does not suit to them. There should be different system of

election, which should be entirely different from the west. (Shujaat ullah Siddiqui

1992)

Mr. NUR Ahmed EXMCA, in one of his statements of the press said that

‗according to expert opinion in the true concept of Islamic democracy there was no

party system as it was characterized by an absence of it and every member of Muslim

Page | 42

society must support to the right course without showing any spirit of partisanship. If

this is the definition of Islamic democracy then there cannot exists any party faction,

groups, opposition or partisanship. (Pakistan Times Lahore Nov 19, 1984)

Islam does not recognize majority vote principle because being a human being

there is always a chance of error. None except the apostle Allah is infallible, since he

speaks through divine guidance. There is no place in Islam for candidature and

electioneering in the modern sense.

In the light of above authentic opinion about Islam, it is believed that Islam is a world

order; hence, the conception of Islamic state is that of a world state, for God is the

sovereign of all.

(1) ―Command is for none but God‘‘ (12:40)

(2) He is the sovereignty of the heavens and the earth. (57:5)

(3) ―Further the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) was sent by God as a mercy

to all mankind‘‘ (107:21)

(4) ―He was a universal messengers of God for human being, giving them

glad tidings, and warning against sin‖ [34-28]

(5) ―Believers are, therefore, enjoined to strive in the causes of God as they

ought to strive‖, [79-22]

The words are perfectly general to and apply to all true and unselfish striving

for the world of spiritual good and righteous living.

The ideals of Islamic state as specified above are righteously life and are further proved

by the repeated voice of the Quran.

‗‘Believe and act righteously ‗which forms its leading them.

Marvelous is the definition of righteousness given in the Quran: ‗‘It is not

righteousness that ye turn your face towards east on west, but it is righteousness to

believe in God and the last day and the angles and the Book and the messengers to

spend of your substance out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy,

for the wayfarer, for those who also ask and for the ransom of slaves, to be steadfast in

prayer, and practice regular charity, to fulfill the contracts which ye have made, and to

be firm and patient, in pain of suffering and adversity and throughout all the periods of

panic, such are the people of truth the God fearing‘‘ (177:2)

Moreover, the supreme note is regard to the financial protection of the needy is

struck in the verse:

―By no means shall ye love; and whatever the test of charity is whether you give

something that you value greatly, something that you love these two verses

some up the essence ethos of Islamic laws‖ (1963"138)

Magnanimous life is lived in strict conformity with divine laws. The Quran is

the code of right conduct which furnish men to implant and organize the will of God on

earth and lead the humanity at its peak and provide them good fortune or destiny.

Page | 43

Righteous life cannot be achieved until and unless the evils of the society are

eliminated and virtue prevails in the society.

Virtue consists in excellent morality and submission of life and conduct with the

laws of God who alone knows what is good.

At this point an interesting line of thought of Greek‘s philosopher Plato is quoted, he

mentioned in his book ―The Republic‖ that everything was subordinate to the ideal of

the philosopher king, whose unique claim of Authority is the fact that he alone knows

what is good for men and state [sabine] (1964:68)

But how can a philosopher-king claim to know the real good when the philosophy itself

cannot be the source of genuine knowledge, reason which forms the basis of philosophy

which differs from place to place and from man to man. Further the line of thought of

thought adopted by Plato results in the exclusion of law together from his ideal state.

This is quite contrary to the deepest conviction of Aristotle, about the moral value of

law, who in his politics‖ accepted from the very start, the point of view that the law

must be the ultimate sovereign of a good state. Even the exists ruler, according to him

cannot dispense with law because the law has an impersonal quality which no man,

however good can allain and it is the golden cord of law by which state is held together.

The law as described by Aristotle, is reason unaffected by desire. Again, the

emphasis is on reason but reason is only a conjecture, which cannot take the place of

truth. Truth lies in what is revealed to the Prophet [PBUH] by God.

―He is knower of the hidden and the manifest‖ invisible (to the human eye and

visible‖ (32:6)

―He knoweth that which is in the heaven and in the earth‖[3:29]

He alone knoweth the secret. So, He discloseth not the secret to any one, except to an

apostle of his choice. [72:26:27]

Secret is thus revealed to the Prophet [PBUH]. Divine laws therefore, are God‘s

gifts rather than a discovery of human reason and, as such, lead humanity to the right

path and regulate the relations between the individual and society in such a way that

righteousness flows from it and the state achieves its end.

The functions of the state are generally divided into 3 organs, namely

Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary is associated with the application of law and

administration of justice.

In the modern sense, law making is known as legislation but in an Islamic

opinion the law is already contained in the text [Quran and the Sunnah] and these are

only to be enforced and extended by means of ijtahad or interpretation of the text, but

such interpretations should not be the result of one‘s choice, reasons or personal

opinion but by analogical deduction i.e. reasoning by way of analogy.

Page | 44

The maters of religious observation and worship (Ibadat) obtain no scope for

legislation in Islam as according to Al Ghazali Muslim political thinker there can be no

reasoning in such matters. As far as the social affairs are concern, legislation is only

possible when it is constructed under the permissible frame of God. Even then it cannot

take the form of lawmaking because laws are already revealed by God. God alone is the

legislature and he says:

―We have revealed to you a book as an exposition to all things‖ [89:16]

Hence, there is no room for legislation in Islam except that only such rules and

regulation may be framed as are necessary for administrative purposes. Islam does not

recognize the liberty of legislation, for it would be in compatible with the ethical

control of human action but ultimately of society.

The execution in Islam needs no clarification as it is concerned with the

carrying out of the law of God which is complete in itself punishment are well defined.

In case there is any difficulty the rule of necessity may be invoked.

The judiciary in Islam is independent of the executive but is bound by the Quran

Sunnah, for ―those who do not judge by what God has sent down are the

disbelievers‖ (5:44)

Wrong doers (45:5)

Law breakers (47:5)

All citizen of the state including the head of the state are equal before the law.

The non-Muslim inhabitants of the Islamic state enjoy a judicial autonomy, each

community having its own tribunals and its own judges, applying its own laws, civil as

well as penal. (Dr. M. Muslehuddin 1988)

The main characteristics of the state can be deduced from the Holy Quran may

be summed up as follows Islam does not believe in clan, class group creed therefore

sovereignty is not vested among the entire population of the state as God is the only and

real sovereign. All legislative powers belong to god and the believers cannot frame or

make any law for themselves neither they can modified any law which god has laid

down. The structure of Islamic state is founded upon the laws given by the God through

his Prophet Muhammad (SLM). Government of the state is the agency through which

the divine laws are obeyed. ( op.cit, p. 18)

While on the other hand, democracy is founded on popular sovereignty. The

people who constitute a state do not all take part either in legislation or in its

administration. They have to delegate their sovereignty to their electoral representative

so that they may make and enforce laws on their behalf through electoral system.

Page | 45

For this purpose, an electoral system is set up, under which only those persons

come out successful that can dub the masses by their wealth, knowledge, cunning and

false and propaganda. Although these representatives come to power by the votes of the

common people and soon erect themselves into an independent authority and assume

the position of over lords. His judgment are usually one, sided and he is influenced and

affected by his emotions and desire to such an extent that rarely, if ever can be judge

important matter with the impartiality and objectivity of scientific reasons quite often

he rejects a conclusion which is rationally proved to him if it conflicts with his

emotions and desired for example, the prohibition law of United State of America.

The most obvious problem with direct democracy was that it seemed as if it

might be able to function only in a country that was fairly small, both in territory and

population. Therefore number of theories developed suggesting this problem could be

overcome by one individual representing an area or a number of people. Since this

approach seemed a practice solution to the problem, it was widely adopted. (1997:135)

There are three senses in which the word represent is used that help provide an

understanding of the problem. First, we often say something represents something else

when it is a faithful reproduction or as exact copy of the original, second, we use the

word represent for something symbolizing something else, third we use the word

represent in the sense of a lawyer acting for or in place of his or her client. In

democracy, an elected representative participates in the making of law but is still bound

by the law.

Once promulgated the law is supreme, not those who made the law,

representative can participate in changing a law, but until it is changed they go along

with everyone else, must obey it. This apparently simple motion came about only after

a long struggle. It was one of the basic principles demanded in the early conflicts that

led to the establishment of democratic institutions. Before that, monarchy claimed that

they had been appointed by God to rule the divine right of kings and were therefore

above the law.

The primary purpose of the representative system in a democracy is to provide a

means for citizens to exercise. Some control over political decision making, when they

cannot directly make those decisions themselves. This means since the representative

will not automatically be expected to serve for life some method must be devised so the

people can either maintain or remove the representative from office. ―This is the

institution of periodic elections. Many scholars argue that the electoral system is a

defining characteristic of democracy‖ (1960:72).

Page | 46

Education as a fundamental principle of democracy may be mildly controversial

but it should not be Democratic, theorists such as John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau

and John Stuart Mill wrote treaties an education that their political theories loosely or

tightly to the need for an educate populace on the United State the founders of the U.S.

democracy believed in the essential role of education in developing an effective

democracy. In fact, the statement that an educated citizenry is necessary in a democracy

is commonplace. What might make the controversial is that contemporary

commentators no longer make the connection clearly and there is an argument over the

nature of the education needed. (1987:65)

Conclusion:

We may draw a number of logically valid conclusions based on concrete and

authentic facts after examining the concepts of Islam and democracy. Islam as a

political system and Western democracy is totally different from each other. The simple

and incontrovertible facts is that so long as Islam remains the living faith of the masses

there is no point in trying to swim against the main stream of ideological heritage and

fountain head.

―Western democracy define as a pluralistic government system, allowing for the

free expression and flow of ideas and for rival political grouping‖.

Islam as claimed is the most democratic religion of the world, which places all human

beings on an equal footing irrespective of creed or colour.

However, Islamic democracy, if we could be allowed to use that term, fundamentally

differs from the Western type of democracy for obvious reasons. In the first place,

according to Islam the real sovereign is Allah, not the people at large. It is the chosen

deputies Caliphs, or vicegerents of Allah who alone is the absolute sovereign. As such

these chosen people are not independent rulers. The Holy Quran is clear on the point

when it says:

―And Allah is the Kingdom of the heavens and the earth, and to Allah is the

eventual coming‖ (XXIV: 42)

It is the universal truth that Islam denies the majority vote principle because there is

always remain the chances of error.

As such an individual opinion can be sounder as against the unanimous decision

of the majority in the advisory council. In any case there is no place in Islam for

candidature and electioneering in the modern sense. The Apostle of Allah has left clear

instructions to the effect that can aspirant to an office should not be entrusted with that

office. Islamic spirit revolts and scorns at the mere idea that two three or more

candidates should offer themselves for an office and indulge in pamphleteering party

meeting and propaganda against one another incurring fabulous expenditure and

employing all sorts of evil means to exploit the voters and ultimately the one who

Page | 47

excels in his resources of falsehood fraud cleverness and unscrupulousness may win the

elections.

While taking into consideration of the characteristics of democracy prevailing in

the present world we have to discuss the circumstances after the demise of Soviet

Union in 1991 the terminology of ―New World Order‖ becomes common emphasizing

mainly on point that we are entering in the age of democratization of the world or

globalization of democracy.

In the context of the threatened new world order of a particular type, do we

think that Islam can combat this challenge from the west by Muslim world order or will

Islam provides an alternative concluding paradigm to human history either our Muslim

society also evolving towards a system of liberal democracy.

Islam & Muslims can respond to this challenge of West. Islam is defined as a

system of Universal ideals and Islamic principles of Divine laws and sovereignty of

Allah and Vicergency of mankind depends on these basic principles and ideals.

Keeping in view the requirements of the 20th

& 21st century, if the basic

principles of Islam .i.e. sovereignty belongs to Allah, Divine laws through His Prophet

Mohammed (SLM) and Vicergency of mankind on the earth and related concepts of

Islamic faith, free will, equality, social justice are reconstructed by the rule of Shariah

through collective life provide the basic ideological setting which should be re

structured in such a way so that we may get the good results in the form of a welfare

society, the rule of law, and a democratic structure based on Shura government and

ultimate right of the people to resist against the unlawful authority. Though Muslim

generation had made implementation of these ideals in the space – time context, but

whatsoever had lost by the Muslims in the different ages is the loss of sight of those

ideals or failed to feel and to maintain the real spirit and goals of the Islamic ideals.

The main cause of the downfall of Muslims degradation could be given the

name of hypocrisy i.e. gap between profession and action, if we want to get back to

renaissance period; we have to fill this gap at the earliest. We should get back to the

Holy Quran and Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SLM) we must have traces our steps

because whenever Muslims had achieved these ideals with clarity of mind and courage

they had left their marks on world politics. (op.cit., p. 233)

Therefore, we can say that the progressive decline of Muslim civilization

throughout the history is merely a proof of the failure of the Muslims and there is no

evidence of the failure of the Islamic ideals. If Muslims are willing to cope up with the

modern times, they honestly have to understand these ideals of Islam in the context of

Page | 48

the modern requirements in accordance with the Islamic principles and are ready to

implement them, and then they can get back to their renaissance.

While examining the concept of democracy, it is revealed that this concept is

totally different from that of Islam, though West had borrowed much from Islam but the

main difference lies in the concept of sovereignty which in Islam belongs to Almighty

Allah alone, He is the sovereign of all, His Divine laws through Prophet Mohammad

(SLM) to mankind served as the complete code of life there is no chances of error in the

Divine laws.

In democracy, sovereignty belongs to a person or groups of class, laws are made

by the people therefore there is always remained the chance of error to be present at any

level as the meaning and implementation of the democracy changes with the passage of

time.

The word ―democracy‖ is still in search of its real name meaning and the way of

its implementation uniformly in the world, because every state and to every person the

meaning of democracy differs and its mode of implementation is different in different

states. Question arises that in the present scenario, how the scholars and even a

common person can think that this is the final solution-giving concept to the problems

of the entire world. Pluralistic nature of the Western government further makes it

impossible to inculcate and implement such unrealistic concepts in the whole world.

Though Islam is democratic in its nature but only within the framework of Al-

Mighty ALLAH.

Therefore as a political system, Islam is different from Western democracy on the

following grounds:

Sovereignty belongs to ALLAH.

It is qualitative and not quantitative.

Rule by consent.

Rule of law

Both human and fundamental rights are fully ensured in Islam

Rights and duties go together strictly and absolutely.

Vise government implies Ijtihad.

Collective leadership

Rule for the general good.

It is the rule by the very best in the entire nation and not just the ruling party.

Therefore, finally it is concluded that the Islam is the only solution to every

problem of mankind because its message is for the entire universe and it is eternal in

character. Even then, if the west thought that collapse of Communism required the

Page | 49

democracy then it should be kept in mind that collapse of Democracy require the

everlasting resistance of Islam till the world exist. Hence, it is advisable for Western

democratic authorities to adopt the Islamic Political system to exclude the evils from

their systems.

References:

David Robertson, ―The Dictionary of Pakistan‖, p: 153.

Mazhar Ul Haq, (1993), ―Political Science Theory and Practice‖, Bookland

Publisher, pg.: 160- 161.

Dr. ManzoorUddin Ahmed, ―Islamic Political System in the Modern AGE

Theory And Practice‖, Karachi: Saad Publications, p.:150.

Bernard Crick, (2002) ―Democracy (A very short Introduction)‖, Oxford

University Press, pg.:14.

S.M. Shahid, (1996 ) ―Islamic Ideology: An Introduction‖, Lahore: Publisher

Emporium, pg.:145.

S. M. Shahid Op.cit., pg.:147.

Deluxe Home Edition, ―Grolier International Encyclopedia‖, Maqbol Academy

in 19 Vol D/6, pg.: 97.

M.A. Majid Siddiqui, (1987) ―Pakistan, the Islamic State‖, Karachi: Royal

Book Company, pg.: 60- 61.

Shujaat ullah Siddiqui (1992) ―Islam Versus Democracy‖, Karachi: Royal Book

Company, pg.: 56- 57.

Mr. Nur Ahmed, ―The Concept of Islamic Democracy‖, Reported in the

Pakistan Times Lahore Nov 19, 1984.

Ameer Ali, ―The Spirit of Islam‖, American Trust Publications 1963, pg.:138.

Sabine, ―A History of Political Theory‖, London, 1964, pg.:68.

Dr. M. Muslehuddin ―Islam and Its Political System‖, Dr. Muslehuddin Islamic

Trust in 1988, pg.:66-67.

Shujat-ullah-Siddiqui, op.cit, pg.:18.

A H Birch, (1997) ―The Concept of Representation‖, New York: Praeger

Publisher, pg.:135.

Henery B. Mayo, (1960) ―An Introduction to Democratic Theory‖, Oxford

University Press, pg.:72.

Layman Tower Sargent, (1987) ―Contemporary Political Ideologies‖,

Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 7th

Editions, pg.:65.

Manzoor Uddin Ahmed, op.cit., pg.: 233.

Page | 50

PAKISTAN’S NUCLEAR PROGRAMME AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA

Imran Ali Noonari*, Majid Ali Noonari** & Bashir Ahmed Shaikh***

Abstract

The nuclear programmes of both India and Pakistan have become a

flashpoint of South Asia and the world because of their rivalry with each

other since independence had led them to wars in 1948, 1965, and 1971.

But since the testing of nuclear weapons from both states in 1998 there is

constant threat that both the nations might engage with each other and

which has happened in 1999 when both fought at the Kargil but due to the

intervention from international community the conflict didn‘t changed in

the nuclear war and again the situation became worse in 2001-2002

India-Pakistan border confrontation. The threat between both states is still

there due to their tense relations although the relations were normalized

since end of 2002 confrontation but after the Mumbai terror in November

2008 has again restrained the relations of both states. The nuclear

doctrines of both States are showing their intentions. Pakistan‘s nuclear

doctrine clearly shows that their nuclear weapons are India specific and

they have no other purpose than just to defend the state from Indian

aggression, whereas in contrast Indian nuclear doctrine shows somewhat

an image of emerging global power by comparing it with other states like

China and developing the triad of forces. The nuclear doctrines of both

States have a huge impact on South Asia because it clearly indicates that

it looks impossible to stop the nuclear race in South Asia because Pakistan

is maintaining credible minimum nuclear deterrence against India and

India against China whereas China against other powers. The future of

South Asian security is not very bright due to the fact that Kashmir issue is

still hanging which is the bone of contention between both states and there

is a need to solve the issue as quickly as possible so that the peace of

South Asia can be restored and the threat of nuclear war on South Asia

would be eliminated.

Key Word: Nuclear, India-Pakistan, Security, Impact

Introduction:

―Southern Asia comprises the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan,

India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. By other definitions and

interpretations (see below), Afghanistan, Burma, Iran, and Tibet are also sometimes

included in the region of South Asia. South Asia is home to well over one fifth of the

world's population, making it both the most populous and most densely

populated geographical region in the world‖ (www.wikipedia.org).

Page | 51

Pakistan and India are the two major states of South Asia. India is the second most

populated state of world and Pakistan is one of the largest Muslim populated state and the

sole Muslim nuclear state. Both states share the borders with the world most populous

states Peoples Republic of China. Due to the conflict between both states since the

partition of Indian Subcontinent in 1947 under the British rule has led many controversies

and started the volatile relations between both the states. As a result of these contentious

relations among Pakistan and India South Asia became one of the volatile regions of the

world as two of its dominant states i.e., Pakistan and India are locked on the most

contentious issues of Kashmir and since the late 1990s it has become the nuclear

flashpoint.

Brief History of Pakistani Nuclear Programme:

Pakistan‘s Nuclear Energy Agency was founded in 1948. Pakistan showed little interest

in the early stages in nuclear technology, but when in 1954 the US exhibition of ―Atom

for Peace‖ came to Pakistan and as a result the government of Pakistan became interested

in acquiring the nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.

Pakistan initiated its civilian nuclear programme in 1956, and in 1965 Pakistan Atomic

Energy Commission (PAEC) was founded. General Ayub Khan froze the nuclear

programme during his reign and it remained frozen until Zulifqar Ali Bhutto came in

power. In the year of 1965 Zulifqar Ali Bhutto has arranged a meeting between Pakistani

president Ayub Khan and Pakistani nuclear scientist Munir Ahmad Khan at London.

Munir Ahmad Khan tried to convince Ayub Khan to restore the nuclear programme but

he refused on the grounds that Pakistan is a poor country which cannot afford to purchase

expensive nuclear technology.

Z.A.Bhutto restored the nuclear programme which aimed to develop nuclear weapons for

Pakistan. There were two major reasons that have forced Pakistan to develop nuclear

weapons and those are:

1- Loss of East Pakistan in 1971 war with India

2- Indian Peaceful Nuclear explosion

Pakistan had a worse experience in the alliances such as SEATO and CENTO because

Pakistan was unable to get help from its Western allies who were the members of

SEATO and CENTO against the India in the wars of 1965 and 1971. These allies had

completely ignored Pakistan in both the wars and even they had provided military and

economic assistance to India after the Sino-Indian war of 1962 in which India was routed

by China. India used this aid against Pakistan in the 1965 war, and during 1971 war it

was due to the Indian intervention that East Pakistan was separated from Pakistan and

became Bangladesh.

1974 PNE (Peaceful Nuclear Explosion) of India further aggravated the security of

Pakistan and it became a vulnerable state. The then prime minister Zulifqar Ali Bhutto

had started the nuclear programme so that the nation realized the importance of self-

security and they could not rely on someone else for their own security, and since

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Pakistan cannot match the traditional weapons viz-a-viz India so it had sought the nuclear

technology as a tool to create a balance between both countries.

Pakistan acquired nuclear plants from Western countries (plants like Chashma and

KANUPP) for the production of electricity. ―The Islamic Republic of Pakistan began

focusing on nuclear development in January 1972 under the leadership of Prime Minister

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.‖(www.wikipedia.org)

The situation changed dramatically when in 1974 India exploded its first nuclear weapon

code named ―Smiling Buddha‖. Since then Pakistan under the leadership of Zulifqar Ali

Bhutto (then prime minister of Pakistan) started to get the nuclear technology so that they

can defend Pakistan in the wake of Indian aggression. But internationally the situation

for the Pakistan was not suitable as US during the 1970s opposed Pakistani efforts to

acquire nuclear technology, and US have become successful in blocking the Pakistani

efforts in Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) to acquire technology. At that Pakistan

changed its policy and looked towards East for help and they found an ally which became

the all-weather friend and that was Peoples Republic of China.

The major boost came to Pakistan‘s nuclear programme in 1975 when Dr. A.Q. Khan

who is the main architect of Pakistan‘s nuclear programme had brought designs of

uranium centrifuges and other nuclear devices. As a result in 1976 A.Q. Khan founded

the Engineering Research Laboratories at kahuta, which are now known as Dr. A.Q.

Khan Research laboratories (KRL).

Pakistan developed its nuclear weapons in 1980s but they didn‘t test the nuclear weapons

due to lot of political reasons and has created the nuclear bluff against India. The pressure

from the West was not strongest against Pakistan‘s nuclear programme due to the

Western particularly US involvement in Afghanistan.

Chinese role has been instrumental in the development of Pakistani nuclear programme

as their cooperation started in 1971, but the decade of 1980s and 1990s has been

phenomenal as they cooperated in different fields of nuclear technology and Chinese

cooperation helped them in acquiring the nuclear weapons as well as missile technology.

It is believed that China has provided the Lop Nor facility to conduct the nuclear test in

1989. Chinese assistance even stretched in the development of nuclear reactors as in 1991

they signed an agreement to build the 300Mega Watt nuclear reactor at Chashma.

It was due to these efforts that Pakistan was able to develop the nuclear weapons in

1990s, but both India and Pakistan tested their nuclear weapons in May 1998. Pakistan‘s

nuclear programme is one of the fastest developing programmes in the world and it has

both the types of nuclear weapons i.e., Uranium and Plutonium with the facilities

available to Pakistan. ―Even though Pakistan is still developing its nuclear arsenal, there

is some modernization taking place. Pakistan is moving from an arsenal of weapons

based wholly on HEU to greater reliance on lighter and more compact plutonium-based

weapons. The shift to plutonium based weapons is being made possible by a rapid

expansion in plutonium production capacity, with two production reactors under

construction to add to the two reactors that are currently operating.‖(www.princeton.edu)

Pakistan‘s nuclear weapons have been fastly increasing as the following table which is

Page | 53

based on assumptions made by the world nuclear watchdogs shows that there is great

increase in the number of nuclear weapons.

Pakistan’s Nuclear Arsenal

Year 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 2009 2010 2011

Estimated Number of

Weapons

2

14

26

38

50

60

80

90

100

Delivery Vehicles of Nuclear Weapons:

There are two types of delivery vehicles of Pakistan‘s nuclear weapons one is the fighter

jets and another one is the missiles. ―Western nuclear experts have feared that Pakistan is

building small, ―tactical‖ nuclear weapons for quick deployment on the battlefield. In

fact, not only is Pakistan building these devices, it is also now moving them over

roads.‖(cryptogon.com) Following chart shows the delivery vehicles of Pakistan:

Pakistan’s nuclear weapon delivery systems, 2011

Delivery System Range Deployment

Aircraft

Aircraft F-16A/B 1,600 1998

Mirage V 2,100 1998

Ballistic missiles

Abdali (Hatf-2) 180 (2012)

Ghaznavi (Hatf-3) 400 2004

Shaheen-1 (Hatf-4) >450 2003

Ghauri (Hatf-5) 1200 2003

Shaheen-2 (Hatf-6) 2000 (2011)

Nasr (Hatf-9) 60 (2014)

Cruise missiles

Babur (Hatf-7) 600 (2011)

Ra‘ad (Hatf-8) 350 (2013)

Source: (Hans Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, 2011)

Newly built JF-17 Thunder fighter jet which was made operational in 2010 when 2

squadrons of JF-17 were added to Pakistan Air Force (PAF), with a range of 2037km

adds a new delivery vehicle to the Pakistan‘s nuclear arsenal.

1. Aircraft Pakistan can deliver its nuclear weapons in US F-16 fighter jets, French

Mirage fighters, and newly developed JF-17 Thunder. (PAF), which can deliver the

nuclear weapons in a war but since the development of surface to air or air to air

missiles by India it looks difficult for PAF to penetrate the Indian air defenses and

deliver nuclear weapons to the targeted areas. So in this age the missile technology

has become one of the important elements in delivering the nuclear weapons and

maintaining the nuclear deterrence against India.

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2. Missile programme: ―Pakistan‘s missile programme is termed as dramatic because

in a short span commencing in 1991 this country has demonstrated the development

of a long range potent missile arsenal with nuclear warhead capabilities.‖

(www.southasiaanalysis.org) During 1990s Pakistan faced the US restrictions over its

nuclear programme in the shape of Pressler amendment; as a result US stopped the

deliveries of new F-16 jets to Pakistan which at that time were only means available

to Pakistan to deliver nuclear weapons. As a result Pakistan looked outside for new

type of delivery vehicles such as development of its own missile and in this regard

China became the close ally and supporter of Pakistan‘s missile and nuclear

developer.

In 1986 Pakistan and China signed an agreement on the nuclear cooperation as a result of

this cooperation China became a major factor in the development of Pakistan‘s nuclear

weapons and its missile technology. ―Pakistan‘s strategic nexus with China enabled an

easy and assured access for build-up of Pakistan‘s missile arsenal as it was for Pakistan‘s

nuclear weaponisation with Chinese help.‖(Ibid)

Pakistan‘s missiles can target the Indian cities at large as they have already developed

one the long range ballistic missiles such as ghauri and Shaheen and it can be seen in the

following image:

Source: http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers2%5Cpaper148.html

Pakistan is also trying to develop the Multiple Independent Re-entry Vehicles (MIRVs)

which will enable Pakistan to fit several warheads on single ballistic missile and can

target the multiple enemy targets. Pakistan has not only successfully tested the ballistic

missiles but also the state of the art cruise missiles, which has given an extra advantage in

future as India is vying to acquire the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) system, and if they

would be successful the cruise missiles would be helpful to maintain the second strike

capability in a nuclear war.

Page | 55

The following table lists capabilities and characteristics:

Missile

Year of

Testing/

Acquisition

Range in

km

Warhead

Weight in

Kg

Propulsion

Stages Propellant Origin

Deployment

Status

HATF-I 1989 80 500 Single Solid Indigenous O

HATF-IA 1992 100 500 Single Solid Indigenous O

HATF-II 1989 300 500 Two Solid PRC (M11) D

HATF-III 1997 600-800 500 Two Solid PRC D

GHAURI-I 1998 1500 500-750 Single Liquid DPRK/PRC T

GHAURI-II 1999 1500-2300 700 Two Liquid DPRK/PRC T

SHAHEEN-I 1999 750 1000 Two Solid PRC (M 9) T

SHAHEEN-II 2000 2500 1000 Two Solid PRC T

M-11 1991-1998 300 500-800 Two Solid PRC S

D =Development O = Operational S= Storage T- Tested Source: www.southasiaanalysis.org

Pakistan‘s missile development continued and they have made progress in the cruise

missile technology also in 2005 when first time they tested Hatf VII (Babur) with a range

of 500 km but later in 2007 they tested the cruise missile with enhanced range of up to

700km. Again in 2011 “Pakistan successfully test-fired the ―indigenously-developed,‖

stealth-capable, cruise missile Hatf-VII (Babur), the military‘s public relations wing said

on Friday. Capable of carrying both nuclear and conventional warheads, Hatf-VII is a

―low-flying, terrain-hugging missile with high maneuverability, pin-point accuracy and

radar avoidance features,‖ said a press release from the Inter-Services Public Relations

(ISPR)… The only surface-to-surface subsonic cruise missile in Pakistan‘s missile

arsenal, Hatf-VII compares with India‘s Nirbhay and the American Tomahawk missile,

albeit 300 km shy of their range. For navigation, the missile incorporates the Terrain

Contour Matching (TERCOM) and Digital Scene Matching and Area Co-relation

(DSMAC) technologies, the press release added.‖(tribune.com.pk)

These developments in the missile technology show that Pakistan is trying to meet the

demands of advanced delivery vehicles as in future they might be able to counter the

threats posed by India. As India is trying to develop the ABMs and surface to air missiles

Akash (Sky).

Indian Nuclear Doctrine:

India has a coherent nuclear doctrine which has main basic characteristics and those are

1- Credible Minimum Nuclear Deterrence: Its credible minimum nuclear

deterrence is based on the perception of its enemies like India perceives China as

a challenger rather than Pakistan so they are vying for the nuclear race viz-a-vis

China which will start a nuclear race.

2- No First Use: India has no first use nuclear policy until the other state attacks

Indian territory and its forces with unconventional weapons or weapons of mass

destruction.

Page | 56

3- India will develop triad of forces i.e., land, air and water forces which can carry

their nuclear weapons.

Pakistan’s Nuclear Doctrine:

Pakistan has actually no written nuclear doctrine, but from time to time statements from

the leadership the doctrine of Pakistan can be assumed.

Pakistan‘s nuclear doctrine has two parameters:

1- It is India specific: Pakistan‘s nuclear programme is totally India centric and it

focuses on India as Pakistan feels the threat from the Indian aggression from time

to time as they have witnessed the challenge from India in 1999 Kargil war and

2001-2002 military standoff between both states when Pakistan was threatened by

India they warned Indian government that nuclear weapons would come into

action if Indian forces crosses the border. Pakistan uses this strategy because they

cannot match the conventional forces with India as they have the modern forces

with large quantities.

2- Credible Minimum Nuclear Deterrence: Their nuclear policy is also credible

minimum nuclear deterrence as they wanted to balance the Indian nuclear

weapons. Pakistan would not be in a position to match the quantity of nuclear

weapons with India but they have emphasized that quality of weapons should be

improved so that they can match the number superiority. Pakistan has rather opted

for few weapons which target the counter value targets. “It is estimated that

Pakistan possesses 35 to 95 nuclear warheads which can target the Indian cities in

case of war. Pakistan has targeted the main Indian cities because Pakistan clearly

think that it is not possible to destroy the Indian retaliatory capabilities so they

would create a deterrence that India would not attack Pakistan by targeting their

big cities. ―Pakistan's motive, as stated by its former President Muhammad Zia-ul-

Haq in 1985, for pursuing a nuclear weapons development program is to counter

the threat posed by its principal rival, India.‖ (www.wikipedia.org)

3. Option of First Use of Nuclear Weapons:

Pakistan‘s nuclear doctrine is basically a defensive doctrine. It does not exclude

the first use option, because they are the last resort of Pakistan. Pakistan‘s first use

of nuclear weapons has deterred the Indian aggression towards Pakistan. As a

result Pakistan has made the option open to use nuclear weapons first against

India due to its imbalance in the conventional forces.

―Pakistan thus deters Indian conventional action through … the threat of

authorized nuclear first use in a conventional conflict at some unspecified, but

relatively early, threshold‖.(belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu)

Indo-US Nuclear Deal and its effect on Pakistan’s Nuclear Programme:

With the changing circumstances in global scenario the emergence of China as a global

power is threatening the US dominance in global affairs. US have established a strategic

alliance with India so that in future it may contain the influence of rising China and guard

the US interests in the region. For that purpose they have made several agreements with

India and Indo-US nuclear deal is one of them which aim to boost the Indian nuclear

enhancement of their nuclear arsenal.

Page | 57

In March 2006 India and US finalized an agreement on civilian nuclear technology. US

agreed on the nuclear deal due to the clean role of India in nuclear proliferation and its

increasing energy demands. India was given a prestigious waiver in nuclear technology

which is an exemption in Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) (NPT), on September 5th

, 2008

in a meeting in Vienna, which is an exemption for a non-signatory of NPT and CTBT As

a result US president signed the agreement on 8th

October 2008. But on the other hand

Pakistan was declined to get same exemptions by US and NSG member states.

As a result of the Indo-US nuclear deal Pakistan went to China for assistance and in 2008

both states reached on an agreement which aims that China will build two nuclear power

reactors in Pakistan. Indo-US nuclear deal has following impacts on the region:

1- It has started the nuclear race between Pakistan and India

2- US support to India will create more problems in the region as China has already

come for Pakistan‘s help and is also possibility that more foreign elements would

exercise their influence in the region.

3- There is the realization that Pakistan is feeling US as antagonist state and it feels

that the nuclear weapons will create stability against powerful states. ―But the US-

India nuclear deal may actually be a fig leaf. Pakistan‘s rush for more bombs has

as much to do with its changing relationship with the United States as with Indian

military modernization. This racing reflects a paradigm shift within Pakistan‘s

military establishment, where feelings against the US have steadily hardened over

many years. Post-bin Laden, the change is starkly visible. In the military‘s mind,

the Americans are now a threat, equal to or larger than India.‖(tribune.com.pk)

Impact of Nuclear Programme on India:

Pakistani nuclear programme has created a huge impact on the South Asian region as it

has brought the nuclear dimension in conflict with India, which has endangered the whole

region as it seems that whole region is paralyzed by the nuclear weapons of both India

and Pakistan. Since it cannot forgeten that both the states have already fought four wars

including Kargil and have been on the brink of a nuclear war on three occasions i.e.,

Kargil and the 2001-2002 military standoff, and the terrorists attacks on Mumbai in 2008.

―A nuclear conflict can have no victor. In South Asia, nuclear deterrence may, however,

usher in an era of durable peace between Pakistan and India, providing the requisite

incentives for resolving all outstanding issues, especially Jammu and

Kashmir.‖(www.foreignaffairs.com)

The nuclear weapons have created the parity between both states and the war was averted

on three occasions between both states.

1- During the Kargil crisis of 1999 when mujahiden have captured the Kargil heights

and India have mobilized their forces and have threatened to launch an attack on

mujahiden camps in Pakistan, but Pakistan have warned that any air strike in

Pakistan could be taken as an attack on Pakistan and it will not watch it but will

retaliate with force, and the nuclear weapons would be the last resort of Pakistan

in any war if its security is jeopardized.

2- On second occasion they came closer to the war when India deployed its hundreds

of thousands of troops on border and it was a military standoff which took place

Page | 58

in 2001-2002 after the Indian parliament was targeted by the terrorists and India

blamed that Pakistan is involved in these attacks. On this occasion the nuclear

parity has worked and India was unable to launch an attack on Pakistan due to the

fear that Pakistan will take it as a full scale war and will not hesitate to use its

nuclear weapons once the security of state would be jeopardized.

3- ―However, the region was once again brought to the precipice in November 2008

when terrorists swept across the city of Mumbai undertaking a series of blasts

which were subsequently blamed on Pakistan. Despite initial brinkmanship and

armed forces being put on alert, restraint eventually prevailed, even if wearing

thin. A hoax call made to Pakistani president by the Indian Foreign Minister

threatening the former of dire consequences at the height of the crisis almost

triggered a war, the closest according to many analysts the world got to a nuclear

exchange after the Cuban Missile Crisis. An immediate call to US Secretary of

State by the Pakistani President stabilized the situation‖

(www.greaterkashmir.com).

The nuclearization of Pakistan has brought parity in the region as before that India was

the sole nuclear power in South Asia and it has already established its influence in

smaller states of South Asia, and which has caused a great sense of security in south

Asian region. With the balance of power in South Asia the smaller neighbors of India can

look for the alliance with Pakistan and can decrease the influence of India in the region.

―Strategically, Pakistan has today not only offset India‘s overwhelming conventional

military superiority by its nuclear weaponisation but also acquired a missile force which

in terms of speed of acquisition outstrips India‘s pace of development of

missiles.‖(www.southasiaanalysis.org)

There is one of the major concerns that rise in India and the West is about the safety of

Pakistan‘s nuclear programme as they doubt that Pakistan‘s nuclear weapons might go

into the wrong hands which can create the nuclear proliferation. So on that issue Pakistan

has done plenty of efforts to reduce the risks of accidental use of nuclear weapons and the

proliferation of nuclear weapons.

―America has been concerned about the safety of Pakistan‘s nuclear weapons since 2004,

and there have been media reports that America has plans to send special security forces

to safeguard the nuclear arsenal in case of instability in Pakistan. But America has denied

any such reports and Pakistani authorities ridiculed the idea of US troops coming to the

country to help safeguard nuclear weapons. Pakistan argues it can protect its own nuclear

weapons, and earlier this month, the Pakistani government stated that it will train 8,000

additional troops to protect its nuclear weapons.‖(communities.washingtontimes.com)

For the protection and the management of the nuclear weapons Pakistani authorities have

created the National Command Authority for the management of nuclear weapons so that

they might not be used accidently or may not go to the wrong hands.

National Command Authority:

―The National Command Authority is charged with joint-space operations (such

as military satellites), information operations (such as information warfare), missile

defense, internal and external command and control, intelligence, surveillance, and

reconnaissance (C4ISR), and strategic deterrence (Pakistan's nuclear deterent program),

and combating weapons of mass destruction. The National Command Authority oversees

and looks after the operations of Army, Air Force, and Navy's strategic commands, along

Page | 59

with their functional basis. The unified military strategic command structure is intended

to give the Prime minister and the Cabinet secretariat a unified resource for greater

understanding of specific threats (military, nuclear, chemical, biological, radiological,

conventional, and non-conventional, and intelligence) and the means to respond to those

threats as quickly as possible to prevent the collateral damage. The civilian Prime

minister is a Chairman of this Command, with all military assets, components of NCA,

and strategic commands directly reporting to Chairman of their course of development

and deployment.‖(www.wikipedia.org)

National Command Authoriy (NCA) was created in 2000 after the approval of national

Security Council. The basic purpose behind the formulation of NCA was to establish an

administrative authority over the use of nuclear weapons. ―The National Command

Authority is responsible for policy formulation and will exercise employment and

development control over all strategic nuclear forces and strategic organizations.‖ (May

1994: 23)

The command comprises on three main branches they are:

1- Employment Control Committee (ECC): It is headed by the prime minister, and

the other members are minister of Foreign Affairs who is also the Deputy

Chaiman, and the ministers of Defence, Interior, Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff

Committee (CJCSC), Services Chiefs, Director-General of Strategic Plans

Division who is the Secretary of the committee and technical advisers and others,

as required by the Chairman.

2- Development Control Committee (DCC): DCC is headed by prime minister and

other members are the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee ( who acts as

deputy chairman of DCC), other members include the Chiefs of Armed Forces,

the director general (SPD) , and a representative from strategic organization and

scientific community (science adviser).

3- Strategic Plans Division (SPD): ―The Strategic Plans Division is responsible for

the management and administration of the country's tactical and strategic nuclear

weapons stockpile. It was created the same year as the NCA was formed.‖(Ibid) It

is headed by the Director General (DG) and the DG should be the rank of Lt

General in Pakistan‘s Armed forces and currently its head is Lieutenant General

(R) Khalid Ahmed Kidwai.

―The nuclear weapons development and production infrastructure managed by

SPD has three broad divisions: the A.Q. Khan Research Laboratory (Kahuta)

produces enriched uranium; the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission is

responsible for uranium mining, fuel fabrication, reactor construction and

operation, and spent fuel reprocessing to produce plutonium; and the National

Development Complex is responsible for weapons and delivery system research

and production.‖(2007: 23) These all three organizations come under the control

of National Engineering and Scientific Commission.

Initially the chairman was the president, but after election of 2008, the newly elected

parliament passed a bill which has given the charge to Prime Minister who is also the

head of government. Other members of the NCA are the ministers of Foreign Affairs,

Defence, Finance, Interior, Chairman Joint Chief of Staff Committee, Chief of army

Staff, Chief of Naval staff, Chief of the Air Staff. The decisions in the NCA are taken

Page | 60

through the consensus but in case consensus doesn‘t develop then voting takes place in

the NCA. SPD is the sectariat of NCA.

―The weapons are under control of the military‘s Strategic Plans Division (SPD). During

a period of political instability last year the division boosted security at nuclear facilities

and launched a public relations offensive to counter what Pakistan regards as

scaremongering over nuclear weapon security.‖(www.dawn.com)

Pakistan has also implemented the Nuclear Regulatory Act in 2004 which is aimed at

protecting the nuclear weapons of Pakistan in safe hands. ―Pakistan‘s Export Control Act

2004 was enacted in September 2004, after four years of extensive inter-ministerial

processes starting 2000, in keeping with UNSCR Resolution 1540 which had been

adopted in April 2004. This Act is in addition to other national laws, which are applicable

to offences other than export controls. The list of such laws is part of NCA Ordinance

2007. The NCA Ordinance was promulgated to provide stronger legal cover instead of

simply an administrative authority under which the NCA was functioning since 2000.

The NCA Ordinance enhances the safety and security of Pakistan‘s nuclear programme

by providing explicit provisions with regard to physical security, investigation and

prosecution of any violation of the Ordinance and other national law included in its

schedule.‖(www.issi.org.pk)

Pakistani nuclear weapons have at least eliminated the total war and as a result India is

working on the new concepts of limited war as this can be an option in future. ―The Chief

of Army Staff unveiled the new Cold Start concept in April 2004. The goal of this

limited war strategy is to launch a retaliatory conventional strike against Pakistan before

the international community could intercede, one that would inflict significant harm on

the Pakistan Army while denying Islamabad a justification to escalate the clash to the

nuclear level.‖(2007) But still there are doubts that this doctrine may not be successful as

it depends on the thinking of Pakistan and Pakistan‘s nuclear policy has clearly define

that if the security of the state would be jeopardized it will not hesitate to use nuclear

weapons.

Conclusion:

The Nuclear programme of Pakistan has been in the safe hands and also it is the only for

the security of the state otherwise there is no greater threat to other states from Pakistan‘s

nuclear programme. India feels the heat because they have realized that Pakistan‘s

nuclear programme is India specific, and both the states have not very smooth relations

throughout their history, so the Indians felt that Pakistan‘s nuclear programme is an extra

threat to their security and that purpose from time to time they have shown the concerns

over the Pakistan‘s nuclear programme.

There are few concerns to the India and the West regarding the nuclear weapons of

Pakistan and those are:

1- The Nuclear weapons are not in the safe hands and the terrorists might get them.

2- There are no proper safeguards of nuclear weapons and the Dr. Qadeer like

networks can gain access to the nuclear weapons and can transfer the nuclear

technology to rogue states or non-state actors.

Page | 61

3- The nuclear weapons might be used by some fundamentalist elements present in

the Armed forces and the government against the India and the Western interests

in the region.

4- There are lots of chances that accidentally nuclear weapons could be used in a

war due to the miscalculation and Pakistan‘s nuclear doctrine shows that nuclear

weapons are the last resort for the security of the state. Pakistan will not want to

destroy its nuclear capability in a war and for that purpose they might use the

nuclear weapons as their first option to put a heavy cost to the enemy in a war

especially India.

These concerns has raised the voice in the West that Pakistan‘s nuclear weapons should

be taken under the custody of some strong hands and they should be eliminated or if not

possible then should come under the safeguards of the International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA), but since Pakistan is not the signatory state of the NPT and CTBT so it

is not possible for the IAEA to safeguard their nuclear facilities under the IAEA

safeguards. Pakistan on the other hand has from time to time has ensured that their

nuclear weapons are in safe hands and they have taken the measures to stop the

proliferation of the nuclear weapons. These have guaranteed that their nuclear weapons

would be in safe hands and have eliminated the Dr. Qadir Khan group and as a result DR.

Qadir Khan is under the custody of the forces so that he cannot transfer the knowledge of

knowhow of nuclear weapons.

Pakistan‘s nuclear programme is India specific and its development as well as its

technological advancement viz a viz India gives it a superiority and its delivery vehicles

such as the development of cruise missiles has given an extra comfort in the age of ABM

technology where ballistic missiles could be not a greater threat as India can counter them

with their developing ABM systems. Indo-US alliance could further strengthen

Pakistan‘s ambitions to rely more on nuclear weapons as they provides deterrence against

the superior Indian forces in terms of numbers as well as conventional forces. Pakistan‘s

nuclear programme is a guarantee card to the survivability against the Indian aggression

and will further strengthen the Pakistani pledge to continue its nuclear programme for the

sovereignty of the state.

Page | 62

References:

―South Asia‖, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia. (accessed June, 2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction.

(accessed, June 2012)

Zia Mian, Pakistan, http://www.princeton.edu/sgs/faculty-staff/zia-mian/Pakistan-

nuclear-modernization-2012.pdf (accessed, Jul,2012)

Pakistan: Nuclear Weapons Moved Around Country in Delivery Vans to Hide Their Locations

from U.S. and Indian Intelligence Agencies, see

http://cryptogon.com/?p=25884(accessed, June 2012)

JF-17 Thunder is jointly developed by China and Pakistan 2003 and in 2010 two

squadrons of JF-17 are operational in Pakistan Air Force (PAF) (accessed, June

2012)

Dr. Subhash Kapila, PAKISTAN‘S BALLISTIC MISSILE

ARSENAL: Development and Acquisition Philosophy,

http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers2%5Cpaper148.html. (accessed,

June 2012)

Ibid.

Stealth-capable cruise missile: Pakistan successfully test-fires Hatf-VII ,

http://tribune.com.pk/story/283964/pakistan-test-fires-babur-missile/. (accessed,

June 2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction.

(accessed, June 2012)

Vipin Narang, Pakistan's Nuclear Posture: Implications for South Asian Stability,

http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/19889/pakistans_nuclear_posture.h

tml. (accessed, June 2012)

According to the rule NSG does not trade with the non-members of NPT

Pervez Hoodbhoy, Pakistan‘s rush for more bombs — why?,

http://tribune.com.pk/story/328922/pakistans-rush-for-more-bombs--why/.

(accessed, June,2012)

Shamshad Ahmad, The Nuclear Subcontinent: Bringing Stability to South Asia,

http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/55222/shamshad-ahmad/the-nuclear-

subcontinent-bringing-stability-to-south-asia. (accessed June, 2012)

ASMA KHAN LONE, Indo-Pak: Nuclear Neighbours,

http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2012/Apr/16/indo-pak-nuclear-neighbours-

13.asp. (accessed June, 2012)

Dr. Subhash Kapila, PAKISTAN‘S BALLISTIC MISSILE

ARSENAL: Development and Acquisition Philosophy,

http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers2%5Cpaper148.html. (accessed,

June,2012)

Qaiser Farooq Gondal, ―Are Pakistan's nuclear weapons secure?‖,

http://communities.washingtontimes.com/neighborhood/letters-

pakistan/2011/dec/8/are-pakistans-nuclear-weapons-secure/. (accessed,

June,2012)

Page | 63

National Command Authority (Pakistan),

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Command_Authority_(Pakistan).

(accessed, June,2012)

Bare All and Be Damned ,Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 May 1994, p. 23

Bare All and Be Damned ,Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 May 1994, p. 23

Nuclear Black Markets: Pakistan, A.Q. Khan and the Rise of Proliferation

Networks, International Institute of Strategic Studies, London, 2007, pg.: 33

―Pakistan‘s nuclear weapons, safe or not?‖

http://dawn.com/2011/05/23/pakistans-nuclear-weapons-safe-or-not/. (accessed,

June,2012)

Dr. Shireen M Mazari, The threat of nuclear proliferation amongst non-state

actors in Asia, http://www.issi.org.pk/old-site/ss_Detail.php?dataId=462.

(accessed, June,2012)

For a representative view, see the comments made by a senior Indian officer

ahead of the April-May 2007 Ashwamedh wargame, ―Army‘s Wargames to Test

Reflexes Against Nuke, Bio Attacks,‖ Times of India, April 6, 2007

Page | 64

DEBT BONDAGE OF AGRICULTURE WORKERS

IN THE WAKE OF FLOODS, 2011 SINDH

Bisharat Ali Lanjwani*, Anwar ul Mustafa Shah**, Ghulam Mustafa Gaho***

Abstract

As evident in all natural disasters in the world, socially vulnerable

segment of society bears most losses caused by the calamities. For not

being able to face the severity of the situation people like agriculture

workers were the prime victims of rain followed by floods 2011 in Sindh

province of Pakistan. The floods caused major losses to infrastructure of

health, education and communication in lower part of Sindh where

majority of the people are agriculture workers. Most of the victims had no

movable valuables, which could have been exchanged for livelihood in

rain-flood emergency. Those who had some cattle and other pets could not

take with them because the only thing they could save was their family

members‘ lives. That resulted on their sole dependence on government

and aid agencies/NGOs for food and temporary shelter. These floods were

a challenge for the government and nation as whole to gauge our

capability and preparedness whether we were able to face the disasters or

not. The following article is based on our visits and observation of flood-

affected areas. Focus has been given to Mirpurkhas district for its

agriculture importance in Sindh.

Keywords: Floods, Debt bondage, Agriculture, Workers, Social

vulnerability

Introduction:

One month prolonged torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in Pakistan from

mid-August to mid-September this year. The Sindh Province was severely hit by these

rains and floods. Regarding the monsoon season, there were forecast predictions for the

year 2011 in which it was said that there would be 10% below normal rains in Sindh and

the southern parts of the country. However, the districts of southern Sindh were severely

affected by heavy rains on August10. The rains also affected the northern regions of the

province, the adjoining areas of south Punjab and northeastern Balochistan. The central

and southern districts of Sindh were the worst affected (www.iom.int).

The floodwaters devastated villages, towns and washed away access routes. It downed

power communications lines, and inflicted major damage to buildings. Many key roads

and major bridges were damaged. The prevailing socio-economic conditions along with

flood have worsened the living conditions of women, men, boys and girls residing in

these districts. Vulnerable people in general are potentially experiencing a higher risk of

disease and socio-economic disruption in addition to the challenges of limited access and

mobility.

Page | 65

These rains caused widespread breaches in the agricultural and saline water canals,

particularly in the Left Bank Outfall Drain, which exacerbated flood impact including

others in Sanghar, Mirpurkhas and Tando Mohammad Khan districts.

Outflow of the draining floodwater is compromised due to poor infrastructure and lack of

maintenance of the drainage routes. Floodwaters are likely to stagnate in most of the

affected regions for the foreseeable future (www.guardian.co.uk). These areas of Sindh

even highlight a broader truth: that Sindh, a ragged province where poor peasants toil

under powerful landlords and majority of peasants and brick kiln workers remain in debt

bondage, has long had some of the worst poverty levels in South Asia

(www.humanrights.asia). Additional to the current flooding, the areas in rural Sindh

present an extremely grim picture regarding the access to basic services and the rights of

the citizens. If we look at the development, we find wide disparities between rural and

urban Sindh. The level of human development in rural Sindh is worse than in some of the

Sub-Saharan African countries. Two out of every five of the citizens of rural Sindh live

below the poverty line (www.iom.int).

Situation of the people who have been forced to leave their homes have sought refuge on

higher ground, along roadsides and on bunds, while others are housed in public shelters.

Access to safe drinking water and health services are very difficult. With an increasing

number of people uprooted as a consequence of the situation, ensuring emergency shelter

and food for the population is critical. According to National Disaster Management

Authority (NDMA) eleven districts of southern Sindh have been badly affected by this

year prolong monsoon rain. At least 8.188 million populations have been affected that

caused 392 deaths. Besides, 746 persons were injured and 1.5 houses were damaged.

Some 694,586 people had to live in different 3,305 makeshift camps established by

government and other aid agencies. Besides, there were thousands uprooted families who

had to live under open sky with very limited eatables (www.ndma.gov.pk).

Areas and their connection with bondage:

Pakistan is the world‘s sixth most populous country with an estimated population of

177.1 million. According to recent estimates, 63 per cent of Pakistan‘s population resides

in rural areas. Agriculture constitutes the largest sector of Pakistan‘s economy. This

sector provides bread and butter to the majority of the population. Large number of

people is directly or indirectly dependent on this sector. It contributes about 24 percent of

Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It accounts for the half of the employed labour force and

it is also the largest source of foreign exchange earnings.

Sindh is the second most thickly inhabited province of Pakistan where the bulk of

population lives in the countryside with agriculture as their main source of living. The

province of Sindh employs 13.46 million people. It has 7.74 million rural and 5.72 urban

workforces. But for the majority, working arrangements in agriculture—wage work,

Page | 66

tenant farming, share cropping --are exploitative and/or yield little earnings. The

households cannot survive on agricultural income alone and the members supplement

income through non-farm manual labour or other activities.

Patterns of Agriculture Employment:

The employment in agriculture is mostly through sharecropping (50-50% and 25-75%)

contract, followed by daily wages both on verbal agreements. This contention suggests

that sharecropping system is full of faults and provides an easy room for exploitation of

Haris. Since majority of Haris in Pakistan are illiterate and socially weak, there is hardly

any concept of proper record keeping. This kind of potential and basic vulnerabilities

further push Haris to the spiral of marginalization and bondage where they have to seek

loans (Peshgi) from landlords who then keep them enslaved for generations. The menace

of bonded labour is directly proportional to the feudalism, which took strong roots in

Pakistan after division of India in 1947.

The landed aristocracy which had got huge chunks of lands from British as reward of

services they had extended to them to rule the people of the Sub-Continent, now with the

nexus of bureaucracy and military became most powerful lot. They started employing

landless people as their Haris, who as mentioned above have been at bay from basic

social facilities like education and have subsequently been victims of bondage.

Land Holdings in Sindh

Sindh has been characterized with big land holdings in the entire region resulting in

maximizing the power base of landed elite and the deprivation and exploitation of rural

souls who are mainly associated with agriculture. The unequivocal distribution of land in

Sindh has continued for more than past 60 years. Indicated in a report, ‗Social

Development in Pakistan; Annual Review 2004‘ which says at the time of inception in

Sindh eight per cent of land owners owned 55 per cent of total farm land. Moreover,

currently among other provinces, Sindh has the highest incidence of absolute

landlessness, with 26 per cent or two million households have no land, while 26 per cent

of 700,000 household possess the lowest share in land.

Agriculture Bonded Labour Prone Areas in Sindh:

Districts of Sangahr, Mirpur Khas, Umer Kot and Tharparkar have been accredited as the

most bonded labour prone districts in Sindh. In agriculture, the bonded labour is mostly

concentrated in lower areas of Sindh. The menace is wide spread in Thaparkar, Umerkot,

Mirpur Khas, Sanghar, Badin and Hyderabad. These districts, which fall under the rural

divide in Sindh, majority of people in these districts, are connected with agriculture. The

research carried out by the Asian Development Bank for the Government of Sindh, state

that there are 1.7 million landless agricultural workers (haris) and sharecroppers in five

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districts of Sindh Province (Thatta, Dadu, Badin, Mirpurkhas and Umerkot). The report

notes that most of these people are in debt bondage (Zulfiqar Shah, 2008).

Impact of 2011 Monsoon Rains and Floods on Agriculture Bonded Laborers:

The Monsoon rains of this season (2011) proved to be worst calamity in last couple of

decades in the history of Sindh. It was only last year (2010) that one of worst floods of

Pakistan‘s history affected Sindh the most by destroying infrastructure, wiping out

standing crops of worth billions of rupees, demolishing homesteads of the rural people

entirely, causing death of hundreds of people and displacing more than 7 million people

across the Province. This year‘s rains followed by floods have affected more than 8

million people in lower districts of Sindh.

Mirpur Khas

Mirpur Khas district with an area of 2.925 Sq, kilometers and with the population of 906

thousand according the 1998 population census. Mirpur Khas is one of the fertile

districts of Sindh where majority of the people are linked with agriculture. As the district

is rich in growing cotton and oil seeds so is in the prevalence of bonded labour and that

two in agriculture, which is backbone of district‘s economy. The practice of bondage is

rampant in the district, says, Majeed Sheikh a small farmer living near Mirpurkhas city.

The floods that swept across vast tracts of land also played a part in exposing the depth of

existing poverty and deprivation in Sindh. The powerful feudal families, linked with the

political and bureaucratic elite, protected their own interests at the cost of ordinary

villagers. Feudal lords are accused for diversion of floodwater or the breach of over-

flowing dams to protect their own land. This has been well documented. The surveys

conducted on the flood-affected people show that Pakistan‘s feudal system works against

people, even in times, when there is no natural disaster.

Peasants in flood-affected areas are working on land they do not own, giving between

half and two-thirds of their crops to landlords. These floods have exposed extreme cases

of debt bondage where landlords threatened the displaced peasants to not to leave the area

unless their debt is repaid. This is not new but part of practice in parts of Sindh for years

not known. The poor peasants and landless agricultural workers have been exploited in

many ways. They take loan from landowners and offer it to pay back by their work.

After they take loan, they end up tied to the land. In this way, the whole families end up

in this type of debt bondage. Thus, this system turns the peasants into an absolute poverty

(Zulfiqar Shah, 2005).

Floods, Inflation and Food Insecurity

A provincial government report based on a survey conducted with UN Children‘s Fund

(UNICEF) support has revealed a grave nutritional crisis in Sindh. According to UNICEF

the women and children of Sindh have suffered like this for thousands of years due to the

feudal system in the province, and of course the mother‘s health affects the child who has

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performed life-saving operations in the most primitive conditions across flood-hit parts of

Sindh. These floods have multiplied the food security problems in these areas and most

victims are again women and children.

Many renowned economists are afraid that due to the poor food production, inflation will

keep on soaring. They expect that in the coming months inflation will continuously rise.

Due to constant increase in the prices of essential food items, the low-income groups

would be badly affected. They fear that the frequent hikes in petro-based products would

further aggravate the situation. The overwhelming loss of domestic animals, crop lands,

and extensive damage to the infrastructure, are likely to have long-term negative effects

on food security and economic performance. Based on last years‘ experience, some

medium and long-term consequences of flooding can be projected as lost livelihoods for

farmers. Because they could not plant next season‘s crop. And a diminished food supply

is the key concern (www.csmonitor.com).

Already threatened by famine and disease, the plight of the flood-affected is being

exacerbated by the rising prices of food items. As evident everywhere in the world, risk

of price hike of basic food commodities is always inherent after any disaster. Coupled by

mismanagement and careless during and after flood response, government agencies at

district level could not help the needy people at time and left them vulnerable to the

exploiters. That resulted with harsher terms of employments from the local landlords with

less wages and financial support (www. socialistpakistan.org).

Floods raised important Questions

The floods in Sindh have exposed another long standing issue in agriculture sector that is

the legal aspect. As agriculture sector in Sindh is largely unregulated and no national or

international laws are placed. Only one provincial law, Sindh Tenancy Act 1950, is

applicable to agriculture sector. But unfortunately this law needs some amendments given

the introduction of technology used in cultivation at one place and is also not

implemented in letter and spirit. Passed 61 years ago this law defines equal share of

peasant and land owner with giving the peasant right to cultivate land. This law also

provides with the registration of peasants by revenue department of Sindh so as to

regulate the relationship among peasants and kiln workers. Civil society organizations

have been asking the government of Sindh to revise Sindh Tenancy Act 1950 continually.

In fact, after a long march of peasants in April 2009 an amendment bill draft was also

submitted to the Sindh Assembly legislators by the civil society organizations but no

tangible results have come out yet.

After the floods when thousands of peasants were displaced with their belongings

destroyed, government is announcing subsidies to agriculture sector but the beneficiaries

are landlords not peasants. Because no regulation is in place and landlords are not

compelled to share the subsidies provided by the government with peasants so it‘s more

concerning that peasants are left more vulnerable to the exploitation of landlords. This

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was reflected in our group discussions with peasants in Mirpurkhas who cried that the

landlords were not willing to waive off their loans and asking the peasants to bear the

losses caused by floods.

Advocate Bhagwandas Bheel, an activist and member of Pakistan Dalit Solidarity

Network, said that landlords have lodged FIRs on those peasants who did not want to go

back and work on same lands. In one of these cases in Umerkot, three peasants are in

lock-up.

With above facts in place and as evident in disasters all over the world, women and

children are the most victims of these floods in Sindh. Already living under poverty line

women and children of peasants have borne worse consequences of these floods right

from flooding, evacuation, camping and food and non-food items distribution by state

and non-state actors in camps or where these peasants have sort a good place to camp. In

post floods, period weaker sections of society face more difficulties and this was evident

when we observed that only women were bringing drinking water for whole family. If we

compare with men health and clothing then also women were in bad condition. During

our visit to flooded areas, we observed that women had more problems of privacy or in

regard with special needs in daily life. At least 3 million children are at risk of

malnutrition and disease, according to Save the Children. There is little realization that

Sindh has the worst rates of maternal and child under nutrition in the country as

exemplified by the nutrition surveys undertaken during the floods last year and confirmed

by the recently concluded national nutrition survey. The current floods have just

compounded a chronic emergency and underscored the importance of large-scale

preventive strategies.

Addition to that, aid and foodstuff distribution has been very poorly managed. A society

like rural Sindh divided on ethnic, religious, political and caste lines needs a clear

structural and administrative set up to deal with post disastrous relief and rehabilitation

activities. But in Sindh province National Disaster Management Authority and its

provincial and district level units have not been able to provide equal relief to most

vulnerable groups like minorities and bonded labourers. This was also seen when we met

villagers of taluka Shah Karim of district Tando Mohammad khan where flood victims

told that they had not been provided any relief/food item because government gave trucks

loaded with food and medicines to its party‘s local leaders and these leaders provided aid

to only their voters.

It is our contention that the massive displacement and disruption of these two groups of

workers as a result of floods would turn to push them further to spiral of bondage when

they will have no option but to take new loans and fall victim to the debt-bondage which

they could never be able to re-pay. Therefore, the debt would give birth to the new

generation of bonded labour in the areas. In rural Sindh, where, through a combination of

wealth and religious standing, landlord power is most pronounced, thousands of laborers

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remain in bonded labor for debts accrued by their forefathers, and are confined to their

villages to carry out hard labor till their death.

Conclusion

In conclusion we want to give the recommendations suggested by victims of floods of

2011 as following; first, the government has announced to waive off the agricultural

loans of landlords, it should also be announce publically by the government that all

loans/advances taken by the peasants must be waived off by the landlords. Second,

Government should also announce that the kiln owners must waive off debt taken by kiln

workers. Third, a thorough and full fledge research must be conducted covering all

districts of flood affected in Sindh so as to gauge the extent of social vulnerability of

workers in general and peasants and kiln workers in particular. Forth, special focus

should be given to peasants and brick kiln workers while announcing the relief and

rehabilitation programmes. Fifth, marginal groups like Hindu Dalits must be given

priority while announcing and implementing relief and rehabilitation plans. Sixth, it

should be make sure that in post-flood time landlords and brick kiln owners must not

exploit the economic and social vulnerability of these marginalized groups i.e. poor

peasants and brick kiln workers. Seventh, in post-flood time government agencies must

make it sure that landlords and brick kiln owners should pay justly to peasants and brick

kiln workers. Eighth, short term and long term livelihood should be arranged for most

vulnerable groups in affected areas so as to bar the economical vulnerability of poor

peasants and brick kiln workers. Ninth, coordination mechanism for relief and

rehabilitation should be streamline in between the different agencies working in flood-

affected areas so as to truly reach the poor peasants and brick kiln workers. Tenth,

government should revise the Minimum Wage of brick kiln workers to the level where

they can live with dignity. Eleventh, advocacy in property rights & legal advice and

sharing information on retrieval of the legal documents may be provided by the

government and non-government organizations to all vulnerable groups including

women. The concerned government officials may also be sensitized to provide these

services.

Page | 71

References:

Rapid Response Plan (2011) retrieved on 08-10-2012 from www.iom.int

Walsh, Declan (2011). Pakistan flood crisis as bad as African famines retrieved on

18-02-2012 from www.guardian.co.uk

AHRC (2011). PAKISTAN: Civil society describes Sindh's floods as 'man made'

retrieved on 22-12-2012 from www.humanrights.asia

Rapid Response Plan (2011) retrieved on 09-10-2012 from www.iom.int

National Disaster Management Authority (2011). Flood Review Donors retrieved on

08-11-2012 from www.ndma.gov.pk

Shah, Zulfiqar. (2008). Effectiveness of Interventions for the Release and

Rehabilitation of Bonded Labourers in Pakistan. PILER: Karachi. Pg, 7, 18

Shah, Zulfiqar. 2005. Analysis of Interventions in Bonded Labour in Pakistan.

PILER. Karachi. Pg, 4, 12, 23

Pakistan flood waters subside as a tide of allegation rises. (2010) retrieved on 07-18-

2012 from www.csmonitor.com

Hayat, Kamila. PAKISTAN: Absence of land reform entrenches poverty – activists.

Retrieved on 21-11-12 from http://www.irinnews.org

Social Movement Pakistan (2010). Two ‗floods‘ devastate working people and poor.

Flash floods destroy lives, soaring price inflation means poverty, retrieved on 23-11-

2012 from www. socialistpakistan.org

Page | 72

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF JUVENILE DELINQUENTS

Dr. Saima Shaikh*, Mr. Ahmed Ali Brohi**

Abstract:

The problem of delinquent personality is an outcome of un-healthy

environment. The focus will be not only on the crime but also on the causes

and the reformatory component is very much operative as Sociologist could

be this research paper will be very useful for reformation and rehabilitation

of the child delinquents. For the betterment of society, we required giving

greater attention to those children who are sufferer of social maladjustment,

delinquencies, this we can do by much care, protection morally ethically

educate and development of such juveniles could be a task.

Keywords: Juvenile Delinquency, Pakistan, Schools, Colleges.

Definitions of Juvenile Delinquency:

―Juvenile delinquency refers to the anti-social acts of children and of young people‖ As

regards the age limits, the differences exist between the limits recognized by one state

and another, corresponding to the definition given to juvenile according to one concept

and another (Manzoor-1976)

Juvenile means Boy & Girl who has not attained the age of sixteen years.

―Delinquent Juvenile‖ Means a Juvenile who has been found to have committed an

offence.

Probation officer means an officer appointed to be a probation officer or recognized as

such under section 13.

―Special home‖ means an institution established or certified by the state under section 10.

Introduction

Juvenile delinquency is international problems we cannot say that it is a problem of

Pakistani culture or eastern society, but the causes behind or circumstances are different

from society to society or class to class. Whenever any child indulge himself/herself in

some type of criminal activates, we call him/her as juvenile delinquent because of their

young age to protect these Juvenile is from becoming habitual criminals. This paper tries

to give some of the preventive measures in the shape of recommendations. But first we

also focus on causes behind this problem. This research paper consists of the

conceptional /theoretical work; secondary material has been applied to shape up the ideas

which are from my deep down heart.

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Major objectives of this paper are the rehabilitation of the offender, protection and built

up the personality by moral, mental vocational training. Orders that may be passed

regarding Juvenile delinquents.

a) Allow the Juvenile to go home after advice:

b) Direct the Juvenile to be released on probation of good conduct.

c) Make an order directing the Juvenile to be sent to a special home.

This including certain positive values in the Juvenile, the probation or parole agent has to

provide help counsel and guidance, such guideline, will solved serious personality

problems.

People who violate the law but are not legally adults may be found delinquent by Judges

in Juvenile court. Rather than being convicted of a crime, Juveniles are adjudged

delinquent. These delinquents may have committed an act that would be a crime if

committed by an adult. The designation Juvenile delinquent is also applied to those who

commit status offenses, acts such as underage drinking, running away from home, or

truancy, which are violations only because those who engage in them are below the age

of majority. (Conklin, 1992).

The Juvenile Justice System was developed in the United States late in the nineteenth

century, with the First Juvenile court established in Illinois in 1899.

The study of the delinquents has been mainly an individual study; every individual is

unique so far as his personality makeup and his dispositions are concerned whenever we

want to investigate into the determining forces of the particular type of behaviours, we

have to study the whole personality as to how his personality come to be as it is at the

present moment. So every act of an individual has a Para-Phernalia of his experiences

behind it (Conklin, 1992)

Causes behind child‘s deviant behaviour child delinquency is starts from their basic

homes and you will be surprise to find my research cause that mother‘s and sisters are

first in this delinquency, now question comes in your minds how come, the answer is

whenever son/brother doing something wrong mother/sister‘s protect and defensive even

for the fighting or as late comers at the end children no longer obey their parents and

become habitual criminals. Practically if explained that if we could place our children in

schools/colleges or at homes where social contracts would be constantly under our

observation, where meeting friends under sympathy, good will, good, cheer and co-

operation would be positive, dynamic and never wavering and then they would go far by

themselves in adopting these as their own rule of life.

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Nature of Child Delinquency in Schools Colleges: When the child came in school or

colleges level their mental level and approaches are quite mingle with life fraternities

and most of the times they seams over sensitive because of immaturity of mentally &

physically aging that‘s why criminals capture them easily and they become juvenile

delinquents. Now question also come in a mind what type of crime do we find regularly

in schools and colleges, we frequently found drug abusers, snatchers.

Class and Juvenile Delinquency: One review of studies that have examined the link

between class and Juvenile delinquency found that in Forty Four of Fifty Three Studies

that used official statistics, lower-class juveniles had higher rates of delinquency than

middle class juveniles (Conklin, 1992). Rates of Crime vary from one country to another;

by region within a country; by size of a community; from one time to another; and by

sex, age, race and class. Theories of crime causation should help us make sense of those

variations.

The boys and girls still in the preliminary stages of physical and intellectual development

than they refuse to co-operate with teachers in their efforts to keep school life simple and

studious. Parents are their worst enemies when they encourage them in adopting adult

practices and think maturely, be positive and concentrate on your career built up, when

these children came in their certain age which is between childhood and adults they are

very curious about sex and then most of the times willingly or unwillingly they have been

exploited by others; second problem in this age drug abuse is also becomes common

now-a days. When they become addicted they start the feting and then street crimes also

grow.

Institutional Treatment of Juveniles:

The Juvenile courts have themselves realized that they were not reaching all the children

who may need protective guidance, Jails as places for the treatment of Juvenile offenders

and adults have been subjected to considerable condemnation. Much of this has been self-

directed by the people who run these institutions. (Sharma, 1998)

the real work is here of teachers, they may give such lectures and advices which help

them through psychological method to encouraged to be self-reliant and recognition to

any good factors in their personality and then they can easily protect themselves from

any of the social enemy.

Impact of Sociology: Biological explanations of crime fell out of favour in early

twentieth century. During this period, criminologists become concerned about the

Sociological influences on crime, such as the neighborhood, pees group, Family life and

Social status Socio-biologists view the gene as the ultimate unit of life that controls all

human destiny. Although they believe environment and experience also have an impact

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on behaviour, their main premise is that most actions are controlled by a person‘s

―biological Machine (Larry, 2004).

Conclusion

Taking a position contrary criminologist or sociologist must not be pessimistic view

regarding these Juvenile Delinquents of the society, always treat them which optimistic

approaches; formal and Informal education gives a sense of achievement to the prisoner

which goes a long way in exercising corrective influences. Prison education must have

these components like to teach them. Religiously, morally, culturally, indicate them about

their, health social activities and above all vocational trainings with proper wage

payments latter they can utilize it. Treatment of juvenile‘s can be achieved in a number of

ways and contexts. Prevention is an advance action in terms of individual and

environmental adjustments, it includes the efforts to improve family relationship promote

better adjustments in schools and provide proper recreation on treatment basis, later

automatically speech and expression will come in valuable style. It is essential not only

for proper functioning of society but also for the development and protection of the

creative faculties of normal human beings.

Recommendations

1. Any of the child who commit a crime, we better try to give the moral

teachings and stopped him/her not to do that again ever in life.

2. Education plays a very important role in the development of personality so try to

improve their formal & informal education in schools, colleges & in universities.

3. Prevention by crime will also become easier if we provide a healthy environment.

4. Stopped doing discrimination in the homes between daughter & son child.

5. Parents in upper class try to say ―No‖ on any unhealthy need or wish of the child,

same v/s in poor family, it is the responsibility of parents to provide & fulfill the

genuine needs of the child.

6. If incidentally any of the children becomes Juvenile treatment becomes easier by

families if they schedule recreational programmes on weekly basis like outing,

gaming, hoteling etc.

7. Keep eye on a child by communities and groups could be effective in

developments of personality

8. Prepare themselves to earn for living from very young age because it gave them

maturity independency, confidence as well as it is also beneficial for family and

you will be out from extra thoughts.

9. Use your leisure time beneficially and constructively on future based.

10. Equip your personality with philosophy of life on spiritual values.

11. Don‘t be hesitant to go to clinic and took counseling if you become juvenile.

12 Handling with sophistication to Juveniles will be rapidly effective.

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13. Appoint high standard teachers/counselors in Juvenile jails for rehabilitation.

14. Release offensives more on probation instead of sending/capturing in jails.

Reference:

Bhatti, Manzoor Hussain. (1976) ―Crime Punishment Prison and Jurenile

Delinquency‖, Sirat-ud-din & Sons, Lahore, Pakistan: P.81

Conklin, E. John (1992) ―Criminology‖ 4th

Edition, Macmillan Publishing, New

York: P.143 & 145.

Conklin: Op.Cit

Conklin: Op.Cit P. 7 & 8

Sharma. S. R (1998) ―Treatment of Juvenile Delinquency in Schools‖, Omsons

Publications, New Delhi: P. 138

Siegel J. Larry. (2004) ―Criminology‖ 8th

edition, Thomson Learning. Inc,

Canada: P. 139 & 140.

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Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) on Peace and Social Justice

Dr. Farhat Naz Rahman

Abstract

Islam the very name of which means ‗peace‘ submission to the will of Allah and ladder

on which man can always keep rising morally and spiritually is at all related to

tolerance.

It is sufficient to give as evidence that one of Almighty Allah‘s names is ‗Peace‘. He,

Almighty, wants by this to remind people that He, Most High, is the source of and caller

for peace. Furthermore, the greeting exchanged among Muslims is ‗Peace, mercy and

blessings of Allah be with you‘. Likewise, Muslims finish their prayers turning their

heads to the right and then to the left, saying each time, ‗Peace and mercy of Allah be

upon you‘.

The Quran attaches great value to peace. Peace at the expense of justice is not

acceptable to the Quran. Justice is the gateway to peace. In submitting to God, according

to the Quran, we opt for peace over against war and heed the divine command to act with

justice in conversation, in business transactions and in treating others hence the concept

of justice is one of the pillars in the maintenance of both the natural and social orders.

These two issues peace and justice are not only correlated but complementary to each

other.

It is outstanding how many of the transforming initiatives in the farewell Sermon of the

Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) is steps in peacemaking.

This article intends to briefly look at the ideas of peace and justice in Islam and explore

their deeper significance in the life of a Muslim. It will also discuss and highlight the

different aspects of Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) life and deeds in respect to the peace

and social order in present scenario.

Key Words: Peace, Justice, Islam, Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H), Tolerance, Equality

Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) on Peace and Social Justice

Injustice is very widespread on this earth. There can be no peace without the firm

establishment of justice. The more you see injustice, the more you realize the importance

of establishing justice in the land. When mankind lacks guidance on how to live their

lives, the entire structure of society is damaged. Allah (swt) has sent down the Quran as

guidance for all of mankind, with all the rules and regulations we need to stay on the right

track. Islam is a complete way of life. Every rule that is good for humanity has been

ordained in the Shariah of Allah (swt). Everything we need, in order to live successfully,

can be found in the Quran. Amongst these very important divinely instructed laws is the

law of establishing justice.

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Allah says in the Quran:

―Allah commands justice, the doing of good, and liberality to kith and kin, and He

forbids all shameful deeds, and injustice and rebellion: He instructs you, that you

may receive admonition.‖ (Surah An-Nahl: 90)

Establishing justice is the law of Allah (swt). It is part of the balance which Allah has

created as justice lead to the peace in the society. The essence of justice is the recognition

that all humans are equal and it means creating harmony. Once we accept the principle of

human equality, then we need to reject all racism, nationalism, and ethnocentrism. This is

something some people find difficult to accept; but that is the one remedy leading us

towards justice and peace.

Let‘s begin from the world‘s first charter, treaty or constitution or the document of peace

called Mesaq-e-Medina when first Islamic State was established in Medina by the

Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) after Hijrat (migration from Mecca).

The Medina Charter, written and promulgated by Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) for the

multi-religious ten thousand-strong citizens of the city-state of Medina in 622 A.D is

truly a remarkable political-constitutional document. The claim made by Professor M.

Hamidullah (1968) that it was the first written constitution in the world is not without

basis. Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, written on papyrus, discovered by an American

missionary in Egypt in 1890 and published in 1891, was not a constitution (Frederic G.

Kenyon 1996).

It was an account of the constitution of the city-state of Athens. Several writings on the

conduct of ancient societies have been found, but none can be described as a constitution.

The Medina Charter is the first, and in this it paved the way the American Constitution of

1787, considered by Western authorities as "a landmark document of the Western world

… the oldest written national constitution in operation" (New Encyclopaedia Britannica

1991) by more than a thousand years! It also preceded the English feudal bill of rights,

the Magna Carter of 1215, by almost six centuries. Although the Charter consists of 47

clauses, but due to different numbering, Prof. Hamidullah counts it to be 52 (Dr.

Mohammad Hamidullah 1968).

The Constitution of Madinah which the Prophet (P.B.U.H) drew up with the multi-

religious community of Madinah, soon after his migration from Makkah, remains a

shining model for communities that venture for social justice to this day. It was an

outstanding and landmark historical document, authored and uttered by Prophet

Mohammad (PBUH). This document secured and advance cooperation and alliance

among all people of any creed, color, ethnicity, and lineage. And the spirit evidenced

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there shone into the hearts of all the followers of the Prophet (P.B.U.H). That is the

spirit of equity, tolerance and understanding. The Prophet is the advocate of the

tolerance towards the non-Muslims and considered the intolerance a great offense.

Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) was able to establish a model society based in

Madinah, on the firm foundation of universally-recognized moral principles. Among

these principles, equality and justice were given supreme importance; and this is

evident in the life and practice of the Prophet (P.B.U.H).

This agreement between the first Muslim community and the Jewish community in

Medina shows the sense of justice portrayed in the Prophet‘s (P.B.U.H) character in

dealing with minorities. It also clearly shows that the Prophet (P.B.U.H) did not spread

Islam, even in the city of Medina, by force; on the contrary, he promoted peaceful co-

existence with followers of other faiths, especially Jews and Christians.

"Let it be known, if any one (Muslim) commits injustice, insults, aggravates,

mistreats, or abuses a person of the People of the Book (protected, by the state

or an agreement), he will have to answer me (for his immoral action) on the

Day of Judgment." (Abu-Dawud).

Peace in society depends on peace within us. According to Prophet Mohammad

(P.B.U.H): we must foster the sense of justice within ourselves by creating harmony

between our emotions of anger and greed on one the hand, and our reason and intellect on

the other hand; between the physical dimension and the spiritual dimension.

A just person is one who controls his anger and his greed by the power of reasoning. This

act of controlling one‘s anger and greed by the power of reason has been described by

Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) as ‗the major jihãd‘.

The Prophet (P.B.U.H) of Islam was ahead of his times in promoting peace and justice in

society and in true sense he was the pioneer of justice and peace in the world. It would be

worthwhile to look at how he dealt with non-Muslims minorities and with the enemies

during the war time because the true worth of a society manifests when it is put under

pressure. The frequent readiness to forgive the enemy is the trait of the Prophet‘s

(P.B.U.H) character. Wherever there is wrong the Prophet (P.B.U.H) removed it by

pardon.

The Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his followers were migrated to Medina due to the

maltreatment of Quresh of Mecca where the Muslims were minority. When the torture

became unbearable he migrated to Medina, a city in northern Arabia, most of whose

inhabitants had already accepted Islam. Once he settled in Medina, the Prophet (P.B.U.H)

realized that there was a minority Jewish community in that city that had no inclination to

Page | 80

accept Islam. He met them and invited them to a pact with the Muslims so that each

religious group in Medina knew its rights and obligations as well as limitations. Some

relevant part of the charter reads as follows:

1. And verily those who will obey us from among the Jews will have help and

equality; neither shall they be oppressed nor shall any help be given against them.

2. And verily the Jews of the Banu Awf shall be considered as a community

(ummah) along with the Believers, for the Jews being their religion and for the

Muslims their religion, be one client or original member of the tribe; but

whosoever shall be guilty of oppression or violation (of treaty), shall put to

trouble none but his own person and the members of his house (ahlbayt).

3. The Jews must bear their expense and the Muslims must bear their expenses.

They help one another against those who make war against the people of this

document. Between them is good understanding, honourable dealing, and

honesty, not treachery. No one is responsible for his confederate. Help [is to be

given] to whoever is wronged.

Mesaq-e-Medina was no doubt the important document in the Muslim history as it

established rules of conduct in society and provided the Muslims a secure atmosphere in

Medina. It put an end to the prevailing anarchy and protected the life, liberty, property

and religious freedom of all people included in the accord. It created a state where equal

rights and responsibilities were truly provided for all citizens but on the other hand one

cannot ignore the significance of the Treaty of Hudaybia which placed a remarkable

document of peace in the history as it enabled the Muslims of Medina to be relieved from

pressure and fear for at least ten years from their traditional enemies in Makkah. The

Treaty brought about the moral and political victory of Islam all over Arabia

Although every aspect of the Prophet‘s (P.B.U.H) Seerat is an inspirational for the

Muslims, it is deemed necessary that the present generation understands the event of the

Truce of Hudaibiya. This is more so that the enmity is upbraiding different groups of

Muslims to create division among them and weaken them through internal disputes.

The prime example of this plot of the adversaries was the Gulf War which was originated

by them and in the end very cleverly they put the blame directly on the disputants. The

enemy derived full benefit at the cost of the warring groups. Therefore it is high time that

one study in depth the terms of the Truce of Hudaibiya and the circumstances that led to

the truce and those which followed thereafter. Some of the immediate benefits which

resulted from this treaty were that in the first place it opened the avenue of amicable

contacts between the peoples of Makkah and Medina. Traffic was opened between the

Page | 81

two cities and men separated for long from their family began to meet freely with one

another. Matters were discussed and the misunderstandings which the people of Makkah

had about the Prophet (P.B.U.H) and the Muslims came forward and were cleared. Thus

to conclude such a peace which brought such bitter enemies as the Quraish on the path of

peace and harmony was the wisest stroke of the Prophet‘s (P.B.U.H) policy.

Following the example of Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) many rulers in Muslim history

maintained peaceful and cordial relations with their non-Muslim citizens. If we were to

compare the attitude of the Muslim rulers towards the minorities living under their rule

during the nineteenth century with the attitude of the Europeans and the Americans

towards their minorities, I dare to say that the record of the Muslims would be much

better. Professor Roderic Davison, a prominent historian of the Ottoman Empire, writes,

―It might in fact have been argued that the Turks were less oppressive of their subject

people than were Prussians of the Poles, the English of the Irish, or the Americans of the

Negroes…There is evidence to show that in this period [i.e., late 19th

century], there was

emigration from independent Greece into the Ottoman Empire, since some Greeks found

the Ottoman government a more indulgent master [than their own Greek government].‖

(1963:116)

If one studies the medieval history of Europe, one will see that the only model of a

peaceful multi-cultural and multi-faith society was Spain under the Muslim rule a Spain

in which Christians, Jews and Muslims lived in peace and harmony.

Prophet Mohammad’s (P.B.U.H) Farewell Sermon

The farewell sermon was delivered on the Ninth Day of Dhul-Hijjah, 10 A.H. (632 CE)

in the ‗Uranah valley of Mount Arafat in Makkah. It was the occasion of the annual rites

of Hajj (the pilgrimage). It is also known as the Farewell Pilgrimage. It should be noted

here that this sermon was given shortly before the death of the Prophet Mohammad

(P.B.U.H) so it can be justifiably considered as His last will and testament.

The charter of the UN on Human Rights was written in the 40‘s, but the human rights in

Islam were recognized, declared and executed for over 1400 years. Every place one reads

in the farewell sermon of the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H), will find clearly the

declaration of uman rights. The Farewell message delivered by Prophet Mohammad

(P.B.U.H) is laconic and includes all points that are relevant to the present-day scenario.

This is summarized as follows:

1- Freedom to all

2- Sanctity of life, wealth and property

3- Equality of all races

4- Justice in front of the law and in front of ALLAH

5- Women‘s rights and obligations. They were to be treated as partners but not as

subjects.

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6- No exploitation or monopoly. The rich is not to be richer while the poor is to be

poorer.

7- Rights of others are to be preserved and to be delivered.

8- People are to take this declaration seriously, they are to preach it and to practice it

too, and everywhere they go or move.

9- Sanctity of Life and Property

The sanctity of life and property was pronounced clearly by the Prophet (P.B.U.H) in his

farewell speech. People are to be protected, their lives are to be preserved and their

properties are to be saved.

11. Abolition of Usury

The concept of economic exploitation is totally prohibited in Islam. Usury is a form of

economic exploitation where in the capital of wealth circulates among few hands;

therefore, Islam prohibited this type of business. Because of such economic monopoly

and exploitation in a capitalistic system, the rich will become richer and the poor will

become poorer.

12. All bloodshed in the pagan period left unavenged.

13. Rights and Duties of Man and Women.

In his farewell speech, the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) spelled out the best declaration

for women‘s rights. He demanded that the husbands should treat the wives with kindness

and gentleness. Men are to know that their women are their partners.

In short, throughout the emphasis is on building cordial social relations; between man and

wife, between individual members of the community and between all sections and classes

of the society. These directives aim at forging a mutually cordial and trustworthy

community life, ensuring peaceful co-existence among all the constituents of the society.

Social justice is distinctly the unmistakable and overarching tenor of the Sermon.

Charter of Privileges with the monks of Mount Sinai.

In 628 C.E. Prophet Mohammad‘s (P.B.U.H) granted a Charter of Privileges to the

monks of St. Catherine Monastery in Mt. Sinai. It consisted of several clauses covering

all aspects of human rights including such topics as the protection of Christians,

freedom of worship and movement, freedom to appoint their own judges and to own

and maintain their property, exemption from military service, and the right to

protection in war. The Charter which the Prophet granted to the Christian monks of

Sinai still exists. It breathes not only goodwill but actual love. He gave to the Jews of

Page | 83

Medina, so long as they were faithful to him, precisely the same treatment as to the

Muslims.

This remarkable document, the Charter of Privileges, which has been faithfully preserved

by the annalists of Islam, displays a stunning breadth of view and bounty of conception.

By it the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) secured to the Christians privileges and

protection which they did not possess even under sovereigns of their own creed; and

declared that any Muslim violating and abusing what was therein ordered, should be

regarded as a violator of God‘s testament, a transgressor of His commandments, and a

slighter of His faith.

Instructions related to neighbors and prisoners of war.

An Islamic injunction about loving and caring for a neighbor covers all kinds of

neighbors irrespective of religion:

“Worship Allah and do not associate anything with Him, and be good to the

parents and to the relatives, the orphans, the needy, the neighbour who is your

relative, the neighbour who is not your relative, the fellow traveler, the wayfarer

and the slave. Verily Allah does not love one who behaves proudly and

boastfully.” (Surah an-Nisaa, 4:36)

Even if a Muslim‘s parents are non-Muslims, Islam – the religion of monotheism–

instructs him to respect and be kind to them. Almighty Allah says in the Qur‘ãn:

“And if they [that is, your parents] insist on you to associate (an idol) with

Me… then do not obey them; however, live with them in this world kindly…”

(Surah al-Luqman, 31:15)

The Quranic instructions regarding the maintenance of justice when dealing with the

enemies is noteworthy.

“O you who believe, be maintainers of justice (and bearer of) witness for (the

sake of) Allah. Let not hatred of a people incites you to act unjustly; be just—

this is nearer to righteousness. And fear Allah surely Allah is aware of what

you do.” (Surah al-Maida, 5:8)

The first battle in the Muslim history is of significant value. It took place in the 2nd

year

Hijra between the Muslims of Medina and the polytheists of Mecca. Even though

outnumbered and ill-equipped, the Muslims defeated the Meccans and took seventy

prisoners of war.

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The norm among all societies at that time was to either kill the POWs or make them

slaves. But Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) instructed the Muslims to treat the POWs

humanely; they were brought back safely to Medina and given decent lodging in the

houses of the people who had taken them prisoners. The Qur‘ãn decreed that the POWs

must not be maltreated in any way.

Character and style of life of man can be rightly approximated when he has honor, power

and authority. The way the Prophet (P.B.U.H) dealt with the prisoners was very

revolutionary. The poor prisoners were released free; those who came from wealthy

families of Mecca were returned for a specified ransom (Fidya). (See the Qur‘ãn: Surah

Mohammad, 47:4) But the most interesting case was of those prisoners who were literate

the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) made a deal with them that they could go free if they

could teach ten Muslim children how to read and write. Even the rules of engagement

during war are also important. Whenever Muslims embarked on the minor jihãd, a

defensive jihãd, the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) had standard instructions regarding

non-combatants and also the environment: (Sayyid Mohammad Rizvi 2006)

―Do not violate the treaties.‖

―Do not kill an old person or a child or a woman.‖

―Do not cut down a tree.‖

―Neither burn down the palm-trees nor drown them with water.‖

―Do not cut down a tree bearing fruits.‖

―Do not drown the plantations.‖

―Do not poison the water of the infidels.‖ (ibid)

According to a Western biographer of Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H), Sir William Muir,

―In pursuance of Mahomet‘s commands, the citizens of Medina…received the prisoners

and treated them with much consideration. ‗Blessings be on the men of Medina‘, said one

of the prisoners in later days, ‗they made us ride, while they themselves walked, they

gave us wheaten bread to eat when there was little of it; contenting themselves with

dates.‖ (ibid)

All this was done fourteen hundred years ago; long, long before the Geneva Convention

came about.

Conclusion

The Prophet (P.B.U.H) was careful in taking all measures to avoid dispute, anger, or

other negative feelings between him and others. In fact the essence of the Quranic view

was: "Here is a Prophet living in your midst exemplifying the truth of all the earlier

scriptures. This book and this Prophet came to confirm the truth of all the revelations

before them or the truth of all revealed religions."

Page | 85

John Davenport in his book mentioned that

―The Holy Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) was the greatest pioneer of religious freedom

and tolerance. When I say it, I literally mean it, for it would take history more than 1000

years to produce anything, remotely equal to the covenant that he gave to the Christian

monks of Mount Sinai and to the Christians in general, in generosity and tolerance. By

the grace of Allah I have found the complete record of the Covenant in Christian

sources.‖ (1869:147-151)

In present era, the only solution to the warfare and conflict going on all over the world is

to adopt the morality of the Qur'an, and, like the Prophet (P.B.U.H) (peace be upon him),

never to depart from the path of justice, making no distinction between different religions

languages, or races. Humanity can attain this goal only when it would accept the

leadership of Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) as the only hope of its survival.

References:

Dr. Hamidullah, (1968) “The First Written Constitution in the World”, Lahore, Sh.

Mohammad Ashraf.

Translated by Frederic G. Kenyon, Internet. 1996 The Avalon Project.

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th Edition, 1991.

The First Written Constitution in the World, p. 9. The translation of the whole

text for A. Guillaume's Life of Mohammad is appended at the end. pp. 19-20

Davison, Roderic H., (1963) “Reform in the Ottoman Empire 1856-1876”, New

Jersey: Princeton University Press, pg.: 116.

Rizvi, Sayyid Mohammad “Justice, Peace and Prophet Mohammad”, North

American Shia Ithna-Asheri Muslim Communities (NASIMCO) 2006.

Ibid

Ibid

Davenport, John (1869) ―An apology for Mohammed and the Koran London‖:

Dryden Press. Pg.: 147-151

Page | 86

POLITICAL AFFILIATION, ACTIVISM AND IDEOLOGIES OF SINDH JOURNALISTS IN PAKISTAN

Bashir Memon

Abstract:

News media are believed to have a role in the strengthening and functioning of a

democratic political system in any society or state. Hence, the political affiliations of

news constructers (journalists) matter and deserve attention. This paper elicits and

discusses the extent to which Sindh journalists relate themselves with political parties.

For this empirical data was collected via a cross sectional survey of 576 journalists in

Sindh province, Pakistan that presents key elements of their political affiliation, like

being a member or supporter of any political party, and particularly what ideologies they

follow. Moreover, the political affiliations of the journalists have been assessed in the

context of their professional and demographic variables.

KEYWORDS: Journalists; political affiliation; ideology; registered-to-vote

INTRODUCTION

There is a significant body of media and journalism studies research which supports

the proposition that the news media play a significant role in the functioning of

democracy. The role of political journalism is especially important here. As Neveu points

out, for example, in particular it is political journalists who contribute to the production

of well-informed citizens; when well-informed citizens are enlightened and made active;

they strengthen democracy (Neveu, 2002, p. 36). This is the rationale for an obvious and

reciprocal relationship between news media and politics. However, McNair (2003, p. 12)

goes further in this regard, saying that ‗In democratic political systems, the media

function both as transmitters of political communication … and as senders of political

messages constructed by journalists‘.

Therefore on the basis of the above arguments if we realize that on the one hand

the media are significant to the functioning of democracy and on the other media workers

are the constructers of political messages for audiences, then we can recognize with

greater certainty that the political affiliations, if any, of the news media people matter, to

a considerable extent, in the profession of news production. The political affiliations of

news people deserve attention so that we may probe the effects of those affiliations

especially on their professional objectivity, which is supposed to be as one of the basic

imperatives of the journalism profession. However, before moving further we also need

to consider the idea of McNair (1998, p. 75) saying that ‗pursuit of objectivity, in other

words, does not mean freedom from political or ideological bias.‘

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In this way, this survey, because of the sensitivity of the question and privacy

concerns of the journalists, simply attempted to elicit how and to what extent the

journalist relate themselves with politics either as a member or supporter of a political

party and what ideology they follow.

METHOD

A self-completion questionnaire was administered to all accessible print and electronic

media organizations, and news agencies in Sindh province, Pakistan and all district-level

press clubs. The sampling was purposive and opportunistic with the aim to include as

many journalists as possible. Moreover the survey was inclusive of only those journalists

who were regularly employed to work for newspapers, magazines, news agencies, public

and private television and radio stations mainly with the professional role status as

reporters, sub-editors or editors. The survey was conducted by field researchers who were

to make sure that queries by respondents about questions could be answered properly and

that completed questionnaires could be safely collected. The questionnaire ranged widely

over various topics about journalists‘ careers, their, training and experience, the media

organizations they worked for, their political affiliations, their attitudes to and use of new

technologies their membership of press clubs and other organizations, educational

backgrounds, and financial and working conditions. A total of 576 journalists filled

questionnaires; and at the time of the survey, the total population of journalists in Sindh

was estimated almost 2500. However, this number of journalists is inclusive of both those

who were members of press clubs, and non-members of press clubs, working mainly at

district level and to some extent at sub-district level. Further, almost three fifths (59

percent) of the sampled journalists were surveyed at press clubs, and remaining 38 per

cent at workplaces and 3 per cent in their homes.

FINDINGS

Demographic Profile

TABLE1 Composition of journalists by demographic variables

Number Percentage (%)

Gender

Male 565 (98.1)

Female 11 (1.9)

Ethnicity/Mother language

Sindhi 405 (70.9)

Urdu 104 (18.2)

Siraiki 24 (4.2)

Other 38 (6.7)

Religion

Muslim 551 (96.7)

Hindu 14 (2.5)

Other 5 (.9)

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Level of education

School 44 (7.7)

College 163 (28.5)

University 365 (63.8)

Mode of education

As a private student 197 (36.3)

As a regular student 346 (63.7)

Name of academic institute

University of Sindh, Jamshoro 198 (54.4)

Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur 99 (27.2)

University of Karachi, Karachi 48 (13.2)

Other 19 (5.2)

Age

0-30 years (Young) 239 (42.1)

31-40 years (Mature 213 (37.5)

Over 40 years (Old) 116 (20.4)

Monthly Income

Less than 10,000 Rs. 217 (37.7)

Above 10,000 Rs. 168 (29.2)

No answer 76 (13.2)

Put (X) cross symbol 5 (.9)

Commented instead of revealing Income 110 (19.1)

See table 1 the typical Sindh journalist is male (98.1%), speaking the Sindhi language

(70.9%) and following Islam as a religion (96.7%). Academically, the majority (63.8%)

of the Sindh journalists is a university graduate, and the remaining earned their final

degree from colleges (28.5%) and schools (7.7%). About their education, additionally it

was observed that the majority (63.7%) had sought education as a regular student and the

remaining (36.3%) as a private student. Regarding the name of the academic institute, the

sampled Sindh journalists who had sought their final degree from university (365),

among them the majority (54.4%) studied from University of Sindh, Jamshoro and the

remaining from Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur (27.2%), University of Karachi

(13.2%) and other various universities (5.2%). Moreover, the first highest proportion

(42.1%) of the surveyed Sindh journalists is young - up to 30 years old -, and the second

highest proportion (37.5%) between 31 to 40 years old. In the terms of salary, the highest

proportion (37.7%) earned monthly less than 10,000 (ten thousand) PK rupees, and the

second highest proportion (33.3%) either made no answer (13.2%), put a cross symbol

(X) (0.9%), or wrote horrific comments in the questionnaire regarding their monthly

remuneration (19.1%).

Page | 89

POLITICAL AFFILIATION, ACTIVISM AND IDEOLOGY

Political affiliation

In response to the question about political affiliation (table 2) out of a total of 570 the

proportion of more than one third (35.6%) Sindh journalists were found affiliated with

some political party. However, in contrast the majority (64.4%) did not have any sort of

affiliation with political parties. In this way the journalists in Sindh, to a great extent,

resemble their professional counterparts in Korea where 64.0% (Auh, Lee, & Kang,

1998, p. 58) of the news professionals said that they had no political affiliation, and with

those in Spain where 57.0% (Canel & Pique, 1998, p. 302) also denied having any

political affiliation.

TABLE 2

Composition of journalists by political affiliation, ideology, vote registration and casting attitude

Political variables Number Percentage

Political affiliation

Yes 203 (35.6)

No 367 (64.4)

Nature of affiliation

Member 61 (30.0)

Supporter 103 (50.7)

Other 39 (19.2)

Registered to cast votes?

Yes 544 (94.9)

No 29 (5.1)

Ever cast vote?

Yes 490 (90.4)

No 52 (9.6)

Cast vote 2008 election?

Yes 402 (82.7)

No 84 (17.3)

Political ideology

Liberal 337 (59.8)

Moderate 193 (34.2)

Conservative 12 (2.1)

Other 22 (3.9)

Moreover about the political affiliation of the Sindh news people (See table 3) it was

found that on average among newsroom journalists the ratio of politically non-affiliated

journalists (32.7%) were higher than politically affiliated (30.7%); in contrast between

news-reporting the proportion of politically-affiliated journalists (70.0%) was greater

than politically not-affiliated (67.3%). In the context of the media organization type

among print journalists the proportion of politically affiliated (65.5%) was higher than

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those who were not affiliated (58.6%); whereas among the broadcast and wire-service

journalists the proportions of those who were politically not affiliated (34.1% and 7.4%

respectively) were bigger than those who were affiliated (30.5% and 3.9%).

TABLE3

Distribution of journalists by political affiliation and selected variables

Political affiliation

Selected variables Yes

(%)

No

(%)

Total

(%)

Journalist type

Newsroom 61(30.0) 120(32.7) 181(31.8)

News-reporting 142(70.0) 247(67.3) 389(68.2)

Total 203(100) 367(100) 570(100)

Organization type

Print media 133(65.5) 215(58.6) 348(61.1)

Broadcast media 62(30.5) 125(34.1) 187(32.8)

Wire-service 8(3.9) 27(7.4) 35(6.1)

Total 203(100) 367(100) 570(100)

Media language*

English 7(3.4) 51(13.9) 58(10.2)

Non-English (Sindhi/Urdu) 196(96.6) 315(86.1) 511(89.8)

Total 203(100) 366(100) 569(100)

Ideology**

Liberal 128(63.4) 207(57.8) 335(59.8)

Moderate 55(27.2) 136(38.0) 191(34.1)

Conservative 6(3.0) 6(1.7) 12(2.1)

Other 13(6.4) 9(2.5) 22(3.9)

Total 202(100) 358(100) 560(100)

Age group

Till 30 years (young) 77(38.3) 161(44.4) 238(42.2)

31-40 years (mature) 75(37.3) 136(37.5) 211(37.4)

Above 40 years (old) 49(24.4) 66(18.2) 115(20.4)

Total 201(100) 363(100) 564(100)

Education level†

School/college 86(42.8) 119(32.4) 205(36.1)

University 115(57.2) 248(67.6) 363(63.9)

Total 201(100) 367(100) 568(100)

*χ2=14.56, p=0.000, df=1

;**χ

2=11.11, p=0.011, df=3

;†χ

2=5.60, p=0.018, df=1.

In terms of media language, among English-language media news people, the

proportion of politically non-affiliated journalists (13.9%) were higher than affiliated

(3.4%); against it among non-English media journalists the proportion of politically

affiliated news people (96.6%) was greater than not-affiliated (86.1%). It was also

interesting to know that among those who were ideologically liberal, conservative and

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‗others‘ the proportions of politically affiliated journalists (63.4%, 3.0% and 6.4%

respectively) were bigger than those who were not-affiliated (57.8%, 1.7% and 2.5%

respectively). However on the contrary, among ideologically moderates the proportion of

politically not-affiliated (38.0%) was greater than affiliated ones (27.2%).

From the perspective of age, among young ones the proportion of politically-not-

affiliated news-workers (44.4%) was larger than politically-affiliated ones (38.3%). In

contrast among older age category the proportion of politically affiliated (24.4%) was

greater than not affiliated (18.2%); whereas, in the category of mature journalists the

proportions of both politically-affiliated (37.3%) and not-affiliated (37.5%) were equal.

Finally, in the perspective of education the results showed that those who were educated

at school and college level among them the proportion of politically affiliated journalists

(42.8%) was bigger than not-affiliated (32.4%). However, among the university educated

news people the proportion of politically not-affiliated journalists (67.6%) was higher

than affiliated ones (57.2%).

In summary, the findings highlighted that on average the news-reporting journalists

are more politically affiliated than newsroom workers. In media type print journalists

highly politically affiliated than their broadcast and wire-service colleagues. One of the

reasons for print journalists to be more affiliated with political parties may be, that in the

course of its evolution in the Indo-Pak sub-continent journalism has been employed as

one of the key means to mobilize the masses against colonial rule in order to achieve

independence, and therefore those who aspired to enter journalism considered it a

mission rather than just a profession. And therefore this mindset, even after independence

from the rule of English colonialism and the partition of India and Pakistan, seems to

have been kept alive among print journalists there. However, the privately-run broadcast

media are, comparatively, still a recent phenomenon in Pakistan, which have developed

and mushroomed since 2000. In addition, the development of broadcast media in private

ownership and the prevailing political environment is different from the colonial period.

Therefore, the developing broadcast media-corps seem less politically-affiliated than their

print media counterparts.

Further, it seemed that the level of political affiliation is comparatively lower among

English language media journalists than non-English language media journalists. The

findings also show that ideologically moderate journalists were less politically affiliated

than those who were ideologically liberal, conservative or ‗other‘. Moreover, the level of

political affiliation was also comparatively lesser among young age journalists than older

age ones. Finally, the findings show that the university educated journalists

comparatively have lesser inclination towards having affiliation with any political party

than those who were school/college educated. In this way these findings support the idea

that the level of education also plays a key role in enlightening the news people regarding

the ethics of their profession; as highly educated journalists seem to be detached from

political affiliation which could be a great force for higher standards of quality and

Page | 92

objectivity in the work of the news media in Sindh. In addition, as table 2 indicates,

among those who were politically affiliated, the nature of that affiliation varied. Just over

a quarter (30.0%) admitted membership in a political party; and half (50.7%) said they

were just supporters; the remainder, almost one fifth (19.2%) had ‗other‘ than these types

of political affiliations.

Political activism

1. Enfranchisement

The term political activism in the context of this study is used to distinguish between

those journalists who are registered to cast their votes in elections in Pakistan and those

who are not yet registered to vote. As table 2 indicates, out of a total of 573 journalists

above ninety percent (94.9%) responded that they were officially registered to cast a vote;

however the remaining small proportion (5.1%) was not registered.

Moreover, as table 4 shows, among newsroom journalists those who were not-

registered-to-vote (62.1%) were two times higher than those who were registered-to-vote

(30.1%). In contrast among news-reporting professionals the proportion of registered-to-

vote journalists (69.9%) was greater than those who were not-registered-to-vote (37.9%).

Further, among print journalists it was found that the proportion of registered-to-vote

(62.9%) journalists was higher than not-registered-to-vote (31.0%); on the contrary

among broadcast and wire-service journalists the proportions of not-registered-to-vote

journalists (51.7% and 17.2% respectively) were greater than those who were registered-

to-vote (31.6% and 5.5%). The findings also revealed that among young journalists the

proportion of not-registered-to-vote (79.3%) was greater than those journalists who were

registered-to-vote (40.0%). Contrarily, among mature age the proportion of registered-to-

vote news workers was bigger (38.5%) than those who were not-registered-to-vote

(20.7%). Whereas among the older age group no journalist was found not-registered-to-

vote. In summary, the findings show that news-reporting journalists were politically more

active than their newsroom colleagues. In terms of journalist type, print journalists were

comparatively more politically active than their broadcast and wire-service counterparts.

Other it was observed that the older age journalists compared to younger ones were more

politically active.

TABLE 4

Distribution of journalists by registered-to-vote and selected variables

Registered-to-Vote

Selected variables Yes

(%)

No

(%)

Total

(%)

Journalist type*

Newsroom 164(30.1) 18(62.1) 182(31.8)

News-reporting 380(69.9) 11(37.9) 391(68.2)

Total 544(100) 29(100) 573(100)

Organization type**

Print media 342(62.9) 9(31.0) 351(61.3)

Page | 93

Broadcast media 172(31.6) 15(51.7) 187(32.6)

Wire-service 30(5.5) 5(17.2) 35(6.1)

Total 544(100) 29(100) 573(100)

Age group†

Till 30 years (young) 215(40.0) 23(79.3) 238(42.0)

31-40 years (mature) 207(38.5) 6(20.7) 213(37.6)

Above 40 years (old) 116(21.6) 0(.0) 116(20.5)

Total 538(100) 29(100) 567(100)

*χ2=11.51, p=0.001, df=1

;**χ

2=14.16, p=0.001, df=2

; †χ

2=18.71, p=0.000, df=2.

2. Ever-casted-Vote or Not?

In addition to enfranchisement or disenfranchisement, further of the political

activism among Sindh journalists, according to the table 2it was found that out of a total

of 542 the majority (90.4%) reported that they had ever cast a vote in an election.

Exercising to enfranchisement at such a high level indicates that the Sindh journalists

belong to a politically ultra-active class of the society which understands the advantages

and responsibilities of electoral participation. Additionally, (see table 5) it was indicated

that among newsroom workers the proportion of those who had ever voted (26.7%) was

greatly lesser than those who had not (61.5%). Conversely, among news-reporting

professionals the proportion of those who had voted (73.3%) compared to those who had

not ever voted (38.5%) was bigger. Further, among ―young‖ journalists the proportion of

those who had ever cast a vote (38.2%) was smaller than those who had never voted

(55.8%); whereas, in contrast in the ―older‖ category the proportion of vote-casting news-

workers (23.3%) was higher than the percentage of those who had never cast a vote

(5.8%). However, among the mature age group the proportions of both those who had

ever-voted (38.4%) and not ever-voted (38.5%) were equal. Finally it was observed that

among the school/college educated ones the proportion of those who had ever-voted

(36.9%) was higher than those who had never voted (21.2%); on the contrary, among the

university educated the proportion of who had never voted (78.8%) was greater than

those who had voted (63.1%). Thus the findings indicated that on average, news-

reporting journalists are more politically ultra-active than newsroom journalists. And

political activism prevailed more among older age journalists than their younger age

colleagues. Similarly, the school/college educated journalists were found more politically

ultra-active than their university educated colleagues.

Table 5

Distribution of journalists by ever cast a vote and selected variables

Ever-cast-vote

Selected variables Yes

(%)

No

(%)

Total

(%)

Journalist type*

Newsroom 131(26.7) 32(61.5) 163(30.1)

News-reporting 359(73.3) 20(38.5) 379(69.9)

Page | 94

Total 490(100) 52(100) 542(100)

Age group**

Till 30 years (young) 185(38.2) 29(55.8) 214(39.9)

31-40 years (mature) 186(38.4) 20(38.5) 206(38.4)

Above 40 years (old) 113(23.3) 3(5.8) 116(21.6)

Total 484(100) 52(100) 536(100)

Education level†

School/college 180(36.9) 11(21.2) 191(35.4)

University 308(63.1) 41(78.8) 349(64.6)

Total 488(100) 52(100) 540(100)

*χ2=25.44, p=0.000, df=1

;**χ

2=10.32, p=0.006, df=2

; †χ

2=4.42, p=0.035, df=2.

In summary, the overall picture painted here demonstrates that the journalists in

Sindh identify themselves more as voters than as adherents of any political parties.

However, it cannot be assumed that they are free from political bias. In particular, the

substantial proportion of the journalists remains unpaid and underpaid as discussed

earlier. Therefore, they remain exposed and may be easily lured by the politicians or

political parties which always want to publicize and propagate their agendas through

journalists; because according to McCargo (2002, p. 106) power-holders offer a range of

services (including financial incentives and political protection) for journalists, who in

turn reciprocate with favorable coverage. Therefore, it is hard to say that journalists in

Sindh are completely detached from the tactic of politics because on the one hand

journalism itself is an element of politics (Schudson, 2003, p. 166) and on the other it has

been found commonly that ‗journalists are influenced by politicians, and the political

systems within which they work‘ (McNair, 1998).

Political ideologies

Regarding the political ideologies of Sindh journalists, table 2 shows that out of a total

of 576, three fifths (59.8%) were liberals, and over one third (34.2%) were moderates.

Whereas, remaining percentage (6.0%) mentioned to be conservatives (2.1%) and ‗other‘

(3.9%). In this way the majority (59.8%) of Sindh journalists who identified themselves

as liberal is consistent with Weaver and Wilhoit‘s(1986, p. 25)findings which indicated

that ‗journalists often have been characterized as social reformers who are likely to be

more left than right on the political scale.‘ Further. Weaver and Wilhoit(1986, p. 30) state

that ‗with regard to the political attitudes of U.S. journalists we find a left-leaning

tendency.‘ In other literature available regarding the political leanings of the journalists,

McMane(1998, p. 196) found that French journalists tended to place themselves both left

of centre and to the left of their organization. And in Britain, journalists are more likely to

be Labour rather than Conservative. When Henningham and Delano conducted a survey

of British journalists to find out how they planned to vote at the next general election,

57% said Labour, whereas only 6% said Conservative, (Henningham & Delano, 1998, p.

151). In addition, there is as well a left-wing positioning among journalists in Spain

(Canel & Pique, 1998, p. 302). To sum up, the findings regarding Sindh journalists

Page | 95

support the thesis that journalists everywhere, for the most part, lean more towards the

left-wing political pole rather than the right-wing political pole.

Moreover, regarding the ideology of Sindh journalists (See table 6) among

newsroom workers the proportion of moderates (42.5%) was higher than liberals (24.3%)

and conservatives (33.3%). On the contrary among news-reporting staffers the proportion

of liberals (75.7%) was greater than conservatives (66.7%) and moderates (57.5%). From

the perspective of organization type, among print media journalists compared with

moderates (58.0%) and conservatives (50.0%) the greater proportion was liberals

(62.9%). Conversely, among wire-service journalists the proportion of conservatives

(25.0%) was higher than moderates (8.3%) and liberals (4.2%). And in broadcast media

the proportion of moderates (33.7%) was bigger than liberals (32.9%) and conservatives

(25.0%). In the consideration of the media ownership type among private media

journalists the proportion of liberals (96.7%) compared with both moderates (90.2%) and

conservatives (83.3%) was bigger; whereas, among state-run media journalists the

proportion of ideologically conservative news professionals (16.7 %) was greater than

both moderates (9.8%) and liberals (3.3%).

TABLE 6

Distribution of journalists by political ideology and selected variables

Political ideology

Selected variables Liberal

(%)

Moderate

(%)

Conservative

(%)

Total

(%)

Journalist type*

Newsroom 82(24.3) 82(42.5) 4(33.3) 168(31.0)

News-reporting 255(75.7) 111(57.5) 8(66.7) 374(69.0)

Total 337(100) 193(100) 12(100) 542(100)

Organization type**

Print media 212(62.9) 112(58.0) 6(50.0) 330(60.9)

Broadcast media 111(32.9) 65(33.7) 3(25.0) 179(33.0)

Wire-service 14(4.2) 16(8.3) 3(25.0) 33(6.1)

Total 337(100) 193(100) 12(100) 542(100)

Ownership type†

Private 326(96.7) 174(90.2) 10(83.3) 510(94.1)

Government 11(3.3) 19(9.8) 2(16.7) 32(5.9)

Total 337(100) 193(100) 12(100) 542(100)

*χ2=18.94, p=0.000, df=2

;**χ

2=11.63, p=0.020, df=4

; †χ

2=12.12, p=0.002, df=2.

In summary, the findings indicate that on average newsroom workers are more

moderate, while the news-reporting journalists tend to be more liberal. The results further

reflected that on average the print media journalists are more liberal and broadcast media

journalists are more moderate; whereas the wire-service journalists follow more to

conservatism ideology. And media ownership-wise the private media journalists

Page | 96

ideologically are more liberal; whereas the state-run media news-worker is more

conservative.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Considering the thesis that news media, particularly political journalism, have a role in

the strengthening of democracy, it was attempted to assess that the political affiliation,

enfranchisement, and the ideologies followed by Sindh journalists. In the results, it was

found that the typical Sindh journalist (64.4%) is not affiliated with any political party.

However, those who were politically affiliated (35.6%, n=203) among them half (50.7%)

were supporters of any political party and just 30.0% had been members; whereas the

remaining 19.7% had affiliation of any ‗other‘ nature. Further, almost all (94.9%) were

not only enfranchised but also they had cast votes in elections. Ideologically, the typical

Sindh journalist is first liberal (59.8%) and then moderate (34.2%).

Regarding political affiliation, it was further found that news-reporting journalists

compared with newsroom workers on average were more affiliated with political parties.

Print media journalists had relatively been more affiliated than broadcast and wire-

service media journalists. The findings also show that the Sindhi and Urdu media

journalists compared with English media journalists on average had more affiliation with

political parties. Ideologically, liberal thought journalists were more politically affiliated

than conservatives. In age, it was observed that young age journalists were less politically

affiliated than older age journalists. Finally, compared with university educated

journalists the school/college educated journalists had a more political affiliation. About

enfranchisement, compared with newsroom workers the news-reporting journalists were

more enfranchised. Further, print media journalists were more enfranchised in

comparison to broadcast and wire-service media journalists. Age wise older age and

mature journalists were more enfranchised than young age journalists. In the terms of

ideologically, the newsroom journalists were more moderates; whereas news-reporting

journalists were more liberals. Moreover, print journalists were more liberal; whereas

broadcast journalists were more moderate and the wire-service journalists were more

conservative. Finally, media organization ownership wise, private media journalists were

more liberal, and the government media journalists were more conservative.

Page | 97

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Auh, T. S., Lee, C. K., & Kang, M. K. (1998). Korean Journalists in the 1990s. In

D. H. Weaver (Ed.), The Global Journalist: News People Around the World (pp.

55-69). Cresskill, N.J:: Hampton Press.

Canel, M. J., & Pique, A. M. (1998). Journalists in emerging democracies: the

case of Spain. In D. H. Weaver (Ed.), The Global Journalist: News People

Around the World (pp. 299-319). Cresskill, NJ:: Hampton Press.

Henningham , J., & Delano, A. (1998). British journalists. In D. H. Weaver (Ed.),

The Global Journalist: News People Around the World (pp. 143-160). Cresskill,

NJ:: Hampton Press.

McCargo, D. (2002). Political journalists and their sources in Thailand. In R.

Kuhn & E. Neveu (Eds.), Political Journalism: New challenges, new practices

(pp. 92-107). London: ROUTLEDGE.

McMane, A. (1998). The French journalist. In D. H. Weaver (Ed.), The Global

Journalist: News People Around the World (pp. 191-212). Cresskill, NJ::

Hampton Press.

McNair 1, B. (2003). An introduction to political communication. New York ;

London: Routledge.

McNair, B. (1998). The sociology of journalism. London: Arnold.

Neveu, E. (2002). Four generations of political journalism. In R. a. N. Kuhn, Erik

(Ed.), Political journalism: new challenges, new practices (pp. 22-43). London:

Routledge.

Schudson, M. (2003). The sociology of news. New York: Norton.

Weaver, D. H., & Wilhoit, G. C. (1986). The American journalist : a portrait of

U.S. news people and their work. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.

Page | 98

Female Victims of Murder in Sindh: Cultural Criminological Perspective

Waheed A. Abbasi*, Dr. Nabi Bakhsh Narejo**, Dr. Shamim Soomro***

Abstract

Females have increasingly been victims of murder due to cultural and

patriarchic nature of Pakistan society. This qualitative study concludes that

females belonging to poor sections of society, married and young one

become victims of violence like murder in Sindh. Criminal victimization of

females is committed by blood relatives and even by law enforcement

agencies like police and court officials. Lack of education, unawareness of

the rights and status of females further help victimization go uncontrolled.

Key words: Pakistani society, Culture, Females, Criminal Victimization.

Introduction

Pakistan counts a female as third one victim of murder and females are almost the victims

of same crime as the males. Female victimization includes physical, psychological and

social. According to the WHO statistics, one out of three females becomes the victim of

crime and violence in her life, 10 to 69% female are physically assaulted in some part of

world (Krug, 2002) and more than three, females are murdered by their intimate partner

in the United States (Pennison, 2003). One out of 348 citizens in Pakistan becomes victim

of crime every year in Pakistan, while 40% of the females were found victims of crimes

in early 1990s in Pakistan (HRCP, 2000). A survey conducted on 1000 females in Punjab

reveals that 35% of admitted females in hospitals were beaten by their husbands, 65% of

the reported cases all over Punjab died because of the infliction of injuries on them and

885 females were murdered in 1998 (HRCP, 2000). A Karachi based survey reported that

females in large proportion are put to physical victimization that also results in

psychological consequences (Fikree, 1999). Honor killing a form of murder, is committed

all over the world, Pakistan, and especially Sindh is the victimizer of the females in this

concern. More than 4000 people including females have been murdered on the pretext of

honor killing during the years of 1998 to 2004. Out of the 86 cases of murder of honor

killing, 56 were females murdered in Larkana, Sindh in 1997 (Reference).

Victimization refers to the antisocial experiences and other alternative labels imposed

justifying the victimization including accidental conditions, deliberate and neglect of the

rights and status of persons of all ages and sex. Women as wives, mothers, single parents,

lovers, co-workers, consumers and citizens suffer impact of victimization in the society.

Venues for female victimization can be public, private, street, home, institution, work

place battlefield and spaces where female is put to any form of criminal abuse and socio-

economical duress (Davies et al, 2007).

Page | 99

Victimization is divided into two types: primary and secondary victimization. Primary

victimization includes the experiences by females underwent through the source of male

perpetrators and secondary victimization includes the empathy and negligence committed

by criminal justice to the females (Wolhuter et al, 2009).

Female victimization has long cultural and religious root and is considered as private

matter of the family. Various factors trigger the problem of female victimization

especially of murder in Sindh. Historically Sindh is deemed as protector of the values and

esteem of the females but in practice, females are married to old persons and exchanged

in order to solve the family and economic problems within and outside the family. Male

is a dominant and controlling source of the family and social issues. Female is even

tortured and killed in the pretext to save the status of male and man-made values in the

society (Bettencourt, 2000, Zuhur, 2005). Feudal system further aggravates the

victimization conditions of females in Sindh. As Sindh is predominantly rural based

populated area, females are denied the rights of freedom, education and social status.

They are still treated as slaves in rural areas and some extent in the urban areas.

Victimization resulting from violence is closely related to cultural values and situational

provocation in Pakistan (Kanwar, 1989, Waheed, 2010). Understanding of criminal

behaviour and its associated result victimization can be explored in relative cultural and

social values of the society. Culture exhibits social and psychological characteristics, and

the reactions, of the individuals and groups (Carol & Ember, 1993, Wood, 2009), and has

been of much interest to criminologists (Ferrell, 2009, Anderson & Howard, 1998,

Visano, 1998).

Table1. Cases of female victimization in Sindh during 2009 to October 2010

Category of Crime against

females

Year 2009 Year Oct., 2010 Difference

Murder 288 310 +22

Honour killing 284 294 +10

Abduction/kidnapping 160 206 +46

Domestic violence 134 116 -20

Suicide 176 158 -18

Rape/gang rape 122 190 +68

Sexual assault 122 134 +12

Acid throwing 42 54 +12

Miscellaneous 407 477 +70

Total 1735 1988 +253

Source: Violence against Women Annual Report, 2009

The above table indicates that female victims of murder have increased and there is

noticeable difference of increment in the cases as +22 from the year 2009 to October

Page | 100

2010. Abduction, rape, sexual assault and honour killing cases have increased to the

considerable level, while there is decrement in suicide and domestic violence. This data

portrays little different as compare to the data of whole Pakistan, where in other

provinces domestic violence, gang rape and sexual assault is increasing while murder

cases are decreasing.

Table2. FIR Status of Female Victims/Survivors in Sindh, 2009

FIR Status Total

Registered 859

Not- Registered 665

No Information 235

Total 1762

Source: Violence against Women Annual Report, 2009

The above table shows that RIRs are registered but the maximum ratio of cases of the

female victimization are not given status of registration, the police should take efforts and

victims‘ relatives too to register the FIRs against the criminals.

Table3. Marital Status of Female Victims/Survivors in Sindh, 2009

Marital Status No. of Females

Married 998

Unmarried 634

No information 428

Total 2060

Source: Violence against Women Annual Report, 2009

Like over all Pakistan, Sindh also indicates the data that married females are victimized

in maximum number.

Table4. Age Group of Female Victims/Survivors in Sindh, 2009

Age-group No. of Females victim /survivors

00-18 years 612

19-36 years 547

37 & above years 419

No information 482

Total 9743

Source: Violence against Women Annual Report, 2009

The above table indicates that the females less than 18 years are victimized in Sindh in

maximum number while age group of 19 to 39 is also victimized to a great extent.

Page | 101

2. Purpose of the study

As the cases of female victimization especially of murder are increasing in Sindh and

females face multiple conditions of victimization in their society, so it is imperative need

of today to launch studies to explore various factors related to this matter. Murder of

young females is of serious nature and requires deep study. Main objective of this study

was to explore and gain in-depth understanding of the problem of female victimization

related to murder in cultural context. This qualitative study selects purposively the

professionals of criminal justice system who have dealt with such kind of cases and

possess significant experience, which can be beneficial to gain in-depth analysis of the

problem.

3. Methods

This study aims to investigate the problem of female victimization especially female

victims of murder in Sindh. Open ended questionnaire was filled in by 24 professionals

including police and advocates. These professionals belong to different districts of Sindh,

Karachi, Larkano and Shahdadkot.

4. Major findings: Views of the professionals

Female victimization leaves greater impact directly on children and indirectly on the

society. Female victimization results in orphanage of the children who in most of the

cases become neglected and psychological problems like trauma. Females are victimized

on many contexts; their basic rights are ignored and neglected. Females in Pakistan face

discrimination and victimization (Niaz et al, 2003) on their social, economic and cultural

basis. They may be exposed to various types of violence like murder by family members

and state agents. Professionals agree that married more than unmarried females of lower

and lower middle class are increasingly victimized and murdered in Sindh. There was

consensus on the arguments that disputes related to property and family which are valued

and triggered on petty issues in culture of Sindh, are the main causes of female

victimization, females are exchanged for the loss of the property or given in marriage

within same castes of sometimes outside, to solve the problems. Young females are given

even to older male members. It is also argued that illiteracy within females cause their

victimization. Other factors like low-esteem, no law, Sindhi traditional culture, male

dominance, poverty, outdated customs, feudal system, economical weak position of the

females cause them target of the victimization of murder in Sindh. There was consensus

on the views that victimizers and murderers of the females are blood relatives like

brother, father and sons and there is majority of life partners (husbands).

Page | 102

Females are increasingly killed because of the family disputes (HRCP, 2000).They are

denied of their rights of choice of marriage and forcibly given to unwanted males in

marriages (Niaz, 2003). Cultures where masculinity and male dominance is found

associated with values and norms, females are increasingly victimized and murdered by

direct and indirect agents like husbands in family context, community and media

(Cambell, 1985, Dobash et al, 1992). Anthropological and cross cultural studies (e. g.,

Levinson, 1989 and Counts, Brown and Cambell, 1992) reveal that social and cultural

beliefs in many nations help female victimization face multiple kind of violence

including beating, physical torture and murder. Professionals argued that fire arms, sharp

cutting instruments like dagger, axe and pistols, guns, acids are found used injuring or

killing the females. Availability of weapons in homes of Sindh province, further help

killing of the females in most of the cases. Killing of females is also executed by other

means like strangulating and suffocating. To talk about the role of the criminal justice

system, most almost all the professionals were disappointed and argued that justice

system has completely failed in doing justice to victims especially females in Sindh.

Cases are not tried in court with due justice and even FIRs are not registered against the

murderers. Over all in society of Sindh, females are ignored and cases of murder are not

disclosed to police, so there are lest chances of attention of justice to the female

victimization of murder. Though NGOs have played their little role to highlight the issue

in press and public, but in true way, justice is not done to females in Sindh. There need to

be massive change in social structure and economic structure of Sindh. Government and

law enforcement agencies must exert their role of controlling crime and education

standard must be enhanced to maximum level, positive social norms, values and customs

must be exercised without discrimination and biases. Females should be valued and

respected by the male family members and society, and criminal justice system should

play their assigned role to provide justice to the every individual of the society without

any discrimination and delay. Females are victimized on many contexts; their basic rights

are ignored and neglected. Females in Pakistan face discrimination and victimization

(Niaz et al, 2003) on their social, economic and cultural basis. They may be exposed to

various types of violence like murder by family members and state agents. Though police

is protector and safe guards of the society, but in Pakistan, it is additional structural agent

for promoting and instilling violence to females. It is argued that police possess same

patriarchal psyche and contribute to violence against females helping feudal and

dominant groups in Pakistan and Sindh, and females are killed in many cases (Iqbal, 2006

Ali, 2001, Hussain, 2006) before the presence of police, females are forcibly silenced to

bear the violence.

Page | 103

Conclusion

Female victimization cause significant damage to society. Married females when are

murdered leave their children easy prey to social ills and further victimization ensue.

Females are not respected and their rights are not considered as of males in Sindh society.

Law enforcement also contributes to the female victimization of murder as FIRs are not

registered and cases are not tried in the court, justice is not done to females. Education is

not provided to the females of Sindh because the social and feudal system. It is time that

relatives of the female victims of murder and victim survivors should know their rights

and status in society, and stand against all criminal discriminations. NGOs and

governmental organs should pay extra attention to intervene into the matter, and criminal

justice system should proceed with its due role as social and victim justice may be done

to the victims of murder in Sindh. Cultures which exhibit masculine, gender

discrimination and domination, females are increasingly victimized and killed without

consideration of their rights and respect.

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