Radiological Emergency Monitoring Systems in ... - OSTI.GOV

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PohjoismainenydinturvallisuustutkimusNordiskkjernesikkerhetsforskning

Nordisk karnsakerhetsforskningNordic nuclear safety research

NKS-28ISBN 87-7893-079-0

Radiological Emergency MonitoringSystems in the Nordic and Baltic Sea

Countries

LennartDevel!Swedish Radiation Protection institute

Bent LauritzenRis0 National Laboratory, Denmark

February 2001

Abstract

This report describes the national systems for emergency monitoring of radio-activity in the five Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway andSweden as well as in the six Baltic Sea countries, Estonia, Germany, Latvia,Lithuania, Poland and the Russian Federation. Similarities and differences re-garding strategy and equipment are shown briefly. The main feature for earlywarning is the national network of automatic gamma monitoring stations. Thisnetwork is supplemented by manual stations and/or survey teams, often meas-uring at predetermined locations. Air filter stations are used for nuclide analy-ses of particles and gases. Dose rate maps and fallout maps of ground depos-ited nuclides, e.g., cesium-137, are produced based on data from airbornemeasurements, monitoring stations, survey teams and environmental samples.Most countries describe programs for checking food contamination. Wholebody counting and organ measurements are used to determine internal con-tamination. External contamination of people, vehicles, goods etc is checkedwith survey meters and other equipment at checkpoints or as needed. Fieldmeasurements of various kinds complete the national systems. Possible futuredevelopment and planned improvement are discussed. This report is an exten-sion and update of a previous NKS report covering the Nordic countries.

Key words

Contamination; Denmark; Early warning; Emergency plans; Environmental ma-terials; Estonia; Fallout; Federal Republic of Germany; Finland; Iceland; Interna-tional cooperation; Latvia; Lithuania; Norway; Poland; Radiation monitoring;Radiation monitors; Russian Federation; Sweden

NKS-28ISBN 87-7893-079-0

Danka Services International, DSI, 2001

The report can be obtained fromNKS SecretariatP.O. Box 30DK-4000RoskildeDenmark

Phone +45 4677 4045Fax +45 4677 4046http://www.nks.orge-mail: [email protected]

PLEASE BE AWARE THATALL OF THE MISSING PAGES IN THIS DOCUMENT

WERE ORIGINALLY BLANK

Radiological Emergency MonitoringSystems in the Nordic and Baltic Sea

Countries

Joint report from the Reference Group for the Baltic Sea States onEmergency Monitoring Integrated Systems and Early Warning, WorkingGroup A, and the Nordic Nuclear Safety Research (NKS), project BOK-1.5

Edited by

Lennart Devell, Swedish Radiation Protection InstituteBent Lauritzen, Ris0 National Laboratory, Denmark

PrefaceWithin the Nordic Nuclear Safety Research (NKS) program 1990-1993, a project, BER-2,was carried out describing the methods and equipment used in the Nordic countries formeasuring fallout radionuclides. The survey thus covered Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norwayand Sweden. The final project report, "Monitoring Artificial Radioactivity in the NordicCountries", issued in 1995 (TemaNord 1995:559) included a description of methods forradiological data exchange between the Nordic countries, and methods for on-line airbornemeasurements.

In 1997, the Reference Group for the Baltic Sea States on Emergency Monitoring IntegratedSystem and Early Warning (the Reference Group) decided to update and extend the surveyalso to include the Baltic Sea countries: Estonia, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and theRussian Federation. A Working Group A within the Reference Group was established for thispurpose. With this report the Working Group A has fulfilled its task.

The present report takes its origin in the BER-2 report, and is a joint undertaking of theReference Group, Working Group A, and the NKS, project BOK-1.5. The chairman of theWorking Group A is B. Ake Persson, Swedish Radiation Protection Institute. BOK-1.5 is asubproject of the BOK-1 project, Nuclear Emergency Preparedness. The project leader forBOK-1 is Bent Lauritzen, Ris0 National Laboratory.

The aims of issuing this report are to

- account for the radiological emergency monitoring systems presently applied in theNordic and Baltic Sea countries

- describe the methods employed in emergency monitoring and the characteristics of themonitoring equipment

describe future developments in emergency monitoring in the countries

- facilitate cooperation on radiological emergency monitoring within the region, hereunderthe exchange of radiological data between the countries

- create a common basis for harmonization and improvements

The structure of the report is similar to that of the BER-2 report, with separate sectionscovering each country.. The information on each country has been provided by the countryitself through its Working Group A member(s), but is presented in a common, edited form.

Acknowledgements

The compilation of the description of emergency monitoring systems in the Nordic and BalticSea countries is jointly sponsored project between Nordic Nuclear Safety Research (NKS), theReference Group for the Baltic Sea States on Emergency Monitoring Integrated Systems andEarly Warning, and the Swedish Radiation Protection Institute / International DevelopmentCooperation Program (SSI/SIUS).

Contributions concerning emergency radiation monitoring systems; from all eleven Nordic andBaltic Sea countries are presented in the report and all authors and other contributors arehereby warmly thanked for their efforts and support in preparing informative descriptions ofthe systems in their countries which have made this compilation possible. The document

Monitoring Artificial Radioactivity in the Nordic Counties, prepared for NKS by TorkelBennerstedt, TeknoTelje with contributions from Hannu Rantanen, VTKK and Bjarne M.Mortensen, Infocom, constituted the first and basic source of information as well as the formatof presentation. Updates and contributions from other countries have been provided by KimBargholtz (Denmark), Raivo Rajamae (Estonia), Juhani Lahtinen (Finland), MatthiasZahringer (Germany), SigurQur Emil Palsson (Iceland), Vija Bute (Latvia), Stasys Motiejunasassisted by Linas Morkeliunas, Albinas Mastauskas and Gendrutis Morkunas (Lithuania),Finn Ugletveit (Norway), Andrzej Merta (Poland), Valery Chelyukanov and VyacheslavShershakov (Russian Federation), and Kjell Nyholm (Sweden).

Valuable comments and suggestions from B. Ake Persson, SSI and other members of theReference Group and the Working Group A are thankfully acknowledged, and the editors areindebted to Torkel Bennerstedt for his careful examination and criticism of the manuscript.

Table of Cor tent

1 SUMMARY 11

2 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION 14

3 DENMARK 17

3.1 NATIONAL BACKGROUND 17

3.1.1 Organizational structure 173.2 AUTOMATIC GAMMA MONITORING NETWORKS 17

3.2.1 System specifications 193.2.2 Software 193.2.3 Alarm levels 19

3.3 MANUAL GAMMA MONITORING STATIONS 19

3.4 AIR MONITORING STATIONS 2 0

3.5 AIRBORNE MEASUREMENTS 21

3.5.7 Measurements around the plume 213.5.2 Aerial gamma surveys 21

3.6 FOODSTUFFS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES 22

3.7 SURVEY TEAMS 22

3.8 CONTAMINATION MEASUREMENTS 23

3.8.1 Internal contamination 233.8.2 External contamination 23

3.9 OTHER TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS 23

3.10 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 23

4 ESTONIA 25


4.1.1 Organizational background 254.1.2 Legal basis 25

4.2 AUTOMATIC GAMMA MONITORING NETWORKS 26

4.2.1 Automatic gamma monitoring network AAM-95 2 74.2.2 Automatic gamma monitoring network PMS 28

4.3 MANUAL GAMMA MONITORING NETWORK 29

4.3.1 Manual gamma monitoring stations 29A A AIR MONITORING NETWORK 29

4.4.1 General description of the network 294.4.2 Alarm level and filter change rate 30

4.5 AIRBORNE GAMMA MEASUREMENTS 30


4.7 SURVEY TEAMS 30

5 FINLAND 31


5.2 AUTOMATIC AND MANUAL EXTERNAL DOSE RATE MONITORING STATIONS 3 5

5.2.1 STUK 355.2.2 Ministry of Interior 355.2.3 Defense Forces 35

5.2.4 Finnish Meteorological Institute 355.2.5 Routines for reporting data and transmitting alarms 355.2.6 Systems operated by nuclear power plants 38

5.3 MONITORING OF AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES 38

5.3.1 STUK 385.3.2 Finnish Meteorological Institute 405.3.3 Systems operated by nuclear power plants 405.3.4 Defense Forces 40


5.5 MONITORING OF DEPOSITED RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES 41

5.5.1 STUK 415.5.2 Finnish Meteorological Institute 415.5.3 Nuclear power plants 41

5.6 FOODSTUFF AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES 45

5.7 SURVEY TEAMS 45

5.8 CONTAMINATION 46



GERMANY 49

6.1 NATIONAL BACKGROUND 496.1.1 The German nation-wide monitoring system IMIS 49

6.2 AUTOMATIC GAMMA MONITORING NETWORKS 516.2.1 In-situ gamma spectrometry 52

6.3 SYSTEMS FOR SITE-SPECIFIC MONITORING OF NUCLEAR FACILITIES 53

6.3.1 Survey teams 536.4 AIR MONITORING STATIONS 55

6.4.1 Trace analysis program 576.4.2 Modeling 57

6.5 AIRBORNE SYSTEMS 57


6.7 DATA QUALITY CHECKS IN IMIS 576.8 CONTAMINATION MEASUREMENTS 58



ICELAND 59


7.2 AUTOMATIC GAMMA MONITORING STATION 59




7.6 SURVEY TEAMS AND LOCAL MEASUREMENTS 6 3





8 LATVIA 65


8.1.1 Organizational structure 658.1.2 Legal basis 67


8.2.1 Automatic gamma monitoring network AAM-95 698.2.2 Automatic gamma monitoring network PMS 70

8.3 MANUAL GAMMA MONITORING STATION 72


8.4.1 General 728.4.2 Specifications 728.4.3 Alarm levels and filter change rate 73

8.5 SURVEY TEAMS 73


8.7 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 74

9 LITHUANIA 75


9.1.1 Legal basis 759.1.2 Organizational structure 75

9.2 AUTOMATIC AND SEMI-AUTOMATIC GAMMA MONITORING NETWORKS 76

9.2.1 Automatic gamma monitoring network PMS 769.2.2 Automatic gamma monitoring network AAM-95 789.2.3 Semi-automatic gamma monitoring network AGIR 80

9.3 MANUAL GAMMA MONITORING NETWORKS 81

9.4 AIR MONITORING NETWORK 81

9.4.1 General description of the network 819.4.2 Alarm level 81

9.5 MEASUREMENTS OF FALLOUT RADIOACTIVITY 82

9.6 AIRBORNE GAMMA MEASUREMENTS 82

9.7 SURVEY TEAMS 82


9.9 CONTAMINATION MEASUREMENTS 84


9.10 MEASUREMENTS OF DOSES TO MEMBERS OF PUBLIC 84

9.11 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 84

10 NORWAY 85


10.2 AUTOMATIC GAMMA MONITORING STATIONS 85

10.2.1 Ionization chamber detectors 8510.2.2 Scintillation detectors 9010.2.3 Data transmission and alarm response 90

10.3 AIR MONITORING STATIONS 90



10.6 SURVEY TEAMS AND LOCAL MEASUREMENTS 9 2




11 POLAND 95


11.1.1 Legal bases 9511.1.2 Organizational structure 95


11.2.1 PMS gamma monitoring network 9911.2.2 IMWM gamma monitoring network 10011.2.3 Military and civil defense gamma monitoring networks 10111.2.4 Other types of gamma monitoring systems 101

11.3 STATIONARY GAMMA MONITORING POINTS 101

11.4 AIR MONITORING SYSTEM 101

11.4.1 The network of alarm stations 10211.4.2 The network of aerosol stations 103

11.5 AIRBORNE MEASUREMENTS 10311.5.1 High altitude air sampling 10311.5.2 Aerial surveys 104


11.7 SURVEY TEAMS 106



11.9 MONITORING OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL AT BORDERS 107


11.10.1 Monitoring of radioactive contamination of rivers and lakes 10811.10.2 Monitoring of radioactive contamination of the Baltic 108


12 RUSSIAN FEDERATION 109


12.1.1 Organizational structure 10912.2 BASIC TERRITORIAL SUBSYSTEM OF RADIATION MONITORING OF EGASKRO 110

12.2.1 Example of an automatic gamma-monitoring system 11212.3 TERRITORIAL SUBSYSTEMS OF EGASKRO 11412.4 NUCLEAR FACILITY SUBSYSTEMS OF EGASKRO 11412.5 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF MONITORING NETWORK 116

13 SWEDEN 11713.1 NATIONAL BACKGROUND 117

13.1.1 Legal basis 11713.1.2 Organizational structure 117

13.2 AUTOMATIC GAMMA MONITORING STATIONS 118

13.3 AIR MONITORING STATIONS 121


13.4.1 High altitude air sampling (not in operation presently) 12213.4.2 Aerial surveys 122

13.5 FOODSTUFFS A N D ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES 123

13.6 SURVEY TEAMS AND LOCAL MEASUREMENTS 12313.6.1 Stationary gamma monitoring points 12313.6.2 Mobile air filter stations 124



13.8 O T H E R TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS 124


14 PARTICIPANTS OF WORKING GROUP A / BOK-1.5 127

1 SummaryRadiological emergency monitoring systems comprise systems intended for early warningabout unexpected increases in the background radiation levels, and systems for mappingradioactivity in the environment, resulting from radiological accidents domestically or abroad.The Nordic and Baltic Sea countries all possess automatic early warning systems and mostcountries have established strategies, equipment and routines to map the national territoryafter fallout of radioactive material. National programs also exist for determiningcontamination levels of food, environmental samples, vehicles, goods etc., as well as anyexternal or internal contamination of people.

The major radiological threats arise from nuclear power plant inside or outside the country inquestion, while nuclear research reactors, nuclear powered naval vessels, and the general useof radioactive materials constitute other radiological threats. The situation in this respect is notidentical for the countries covered in the region.

The national strategies and their practical applications regarding the various types ofmeasurements often coincide or turn out to be equivalent or very similar; however, in certaincases there are important differences. Some of these differences are easy to explain or justify,due to radiological differences (such as variation in normal background radiation levels orradon concentrations) and different nuclear threat pictures. Others, however, reflectdifferences in national organizations, available equipment, experience or historic developmentof procedures and equipment.

Automatic gamma monitoring stations form the most important part of the national earlywarning system. They constitute a fast, sensitive and reliable method for total gammameasurements. The stations monitor the total gamma radiation level on the ground, and mayalso detect a passing radioactive cloud, thus providing early warning as well as radiation databoth under normal circumstances and in the acute phase and later stages of emergencysituations. All countries possess automatic gamma monitoring networks. However, thenumber of stations varies greatly between the countries (see Table 1), with Finland, Germanyand the Russian Federation having large numbers of stations. The national automatic gammamonitoring networks are described with respect to the type(s) of detector(s) used, dynamicrange, polling periods, radon compensation, and alarm criteria. In some cases, semi-automaticor manual stations supplement the automatic networks.

High-resolution measurements of airborne activity using air filter stations are made in allcountries. High volume sampling stations, with or without on-line detectors, can detect traceamounts of activity and allow for radionuclide specific analysis of sampled aerosols. As in thecase of gamma stations the number of filter stations varies from country to country. Thenational programs include combinations of stationary and mobile units; low, high and ultrahigh volume air samplers; equipment for measuring aerosols and/or gaseous iodine, xenon,etc.

Most countries have programs or plans for survey teams and local measurements atpredetermined points to get fast and detailed information on local dose rates. Several countrieshave a program for airborne fallout mapping. Mobile gamma monitoring stations and/or airfilter stations are used or planned to supplement the stationary network.

Field measurements of the following types can be made in areas of special interest in mostcountries: Gamma spectrometry, total gamma measurements, gamma analysis of air filters,

11

alpha and/or beta measurements. In addition, extensive programs exist for field and/orlaboratory analysis of environmental and food samples.

External contamination checks (gamma, beta/gamma, or alpha) of people, vehicles, buildingsetc. may be performed whenever needed. Ordinary survey meters are used in most instances;more sophisticated equipment, however, is available, should the need arise.

Whole body counters for making nuclide-specific measurements of internal contaminationlevels are available in several countries. In many countries, some hospitals and otherinstitutions are equipped and staffed to detect and assess internal contamination by means oforgan measurements or analysis of urine samples. In Table 1, the available radiometricequipment and systems in the Nordic and Baltic Sea countries are summarized.

The development of radiological emergency monitoring systems in the region has beenadvanced by bilateral and international cooperation. Future development to a large extentdepends on continued international cooperation, especially for promoting exchange ofmonitoring data and the development of comprehensive decision support systems.

12

Table 1. Available radiometric equipment and systems in the Nordic and Baltic Sea Countries.

Available radiometric equipment and systems in the Nordic

Gamma monitoring;UUtVJlilWLlV

Gamma monitoring;manual or semiautomatic

Survey teams

Aerosol sampling stations

Aerosol on-line monitoring

Airborne measurements;mapping

Airborne measurements;sampling

Environmental sampling

Food sampling

Field gamma spectrometry

Contamination checks ofcars, goods

Whole body counters

Denmark

11

0

yes

l a )

0

yes

no

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

Estonia

11

' 3

yes

3

1

no

no

yes

no

Finland

298

150

yes

31

15

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

and Baltic

Germany

2150

yes

5b)

51

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

Sea Countries.

Iceland

1

O c )

yesd)

1

0

no

no

yes

yes

no

yes

no

Latvia

16

0

yes

3

yes

no

no

yes

yes

yes

yes

no

Lithuania

14

74

yes

1

1

no

no

no

Norway

22

no

yes

7

0

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

Poland

20

36

yes

19

8

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

Russ. Fed.

152

1255

yes

40

0

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

Sweden

37

yes

5

0

yes

no

yes-

yes

yes

yes

yes

a) 1 on standby

b) High-volume samplers

c) 2 stations planned

d) Organized as needed

13

2 Background and introductionWhen a nuclear accident has occurred and radioactive fallout is expected or has already takenplace, authorities both in the country of origin and in neighboring countries need fast andreliable information on the accident and its consequences. Information on the location andcharacteristics of the fallout is required to assess the radiological impact of the accident and tofacilitate an adequate response to the accident. To this purpose, an emergency monitoringsystem with established strategies, equipment and routines must be in place.

The threats from nuclear accidents differ in the various countries of the region. The mostserious nuclear threat with cross-border implications is the presence of nuclear reactors ofvarious kinds. Some countries in the region, Finland, Germany, Lithuania, the RussianFederation and Sweden, have nuclear power plants, and several countries in the region possesssmaller research reactors. Other nuclear threats arise from nuclear powered naval vessels orsubmarines, and from nuclear powered satellites. Production, transportation, use, and disposalof radioactive materials constitute potential local nuclear hazards. Finally, an intentionallyharmful use of radioactive material may pose a nuclear threat to all countries.

A national system for radiological emergency monitoring should be devised to deal with allof, or at least with the more serious of such nuclear threats. However, differences are observedwithin the region, in part reflecting differences in conceived nuclear threats, e.g., type ofnuclear hazards and distance to these, but also in emergency response organizations, availableequipment, experience and historic development. Expectations to information received fromother countries may also play a role when monitoring for accidents abroad. The nationalsystems are under constant development and most countries cooperate internationally, e.g.,within the European Union research programs. Several countries plan to implement theRODOS or ARGOS decision support systems.

In general, radiological emergency monitoring serves two purposes, to warn of anyunexpected increase in radiation level, and to provide an overview of the radiation andcontamination levels. While the first part may signal that a nuclear or radiological accidenthas occurred, the second part is needed to provide data or normal background levels before anaccident and to assess the environmental impact after an accident. Also, long time series ofradiological monitoring will provide a basis for understanding transport processes in theenvironment and help improve dose assessments through radioecological modeling.

Automatic gamma monitoring stations form the most important part of the national earlywarning systems. They provide on-line information and constitute a fast, sensitive and reliablemethod for total gamma measurements. Under normal circumstances the stations monitorgamma radiation levels on the ground, but may also detect a passing radioactive cloud, thusproviding early warning. Generally speaking, the smaller the number of stations per unit area,the more important their location, in order to create an optimal coverage of the nationalterritory.

Air filter stations provide another means for early warning. Air is continuously drawn througha filter for a predetermined period, after which the filter is sent to a laboratory for nuclidespecific analysis of the sampled aerosols. Some filter systems are provided with on-linedetectors, which can be used in the early warning system. Some filter systems are highvolume sampling and are therefore very sensitive and can measure traces of enhanced activity.

14

As part of the nuclear emergency preparedness systems in the region, equipment and facilitiesexist for external contamination checks (gamma, beta/gamma, or alpha) of people, vehicles,buildings, etc., using ordinary survey meters or more sophisticated equipment. Whole bodycounters for making individual, nuclide specific measurements of internal contaminationlevels are available in several countries. In many countries, some hospitals and otherinstitutions are equipped and staffed to detect and assess internal contamination by means oforgan measurements or analysis of excretion samples.

To assess the long-term effects of radioactive contaminants, the monitoring systems includemeasurements of air, ground, water, and foodstuff contamination levels. There are alsonational programs for determining contamination levels of environmental samples, vehicles,goods etc., as well as any external or internal contamination of people. Following fallout ofradioactive material airborne and car-borne gamma/ray surveys will allow for a mapping ofdose rate levels and concentrations of ground deposited radionuclides, such as 137Cs. Thenuclide composition of the fallout can be determined from high-resolution gammaspectrometry and alpha/beta-measurements on environmental sampdes and air filters.

The organizations involved in radiological monitoring comprise governmental agencies,regulatory bodies, universities, research laboratories, hospitals, military and civil defenseunits, police and local communities.

In this report, the radiological emergency monitoring systems of the Nordic and Baltic Seacountries are described. For each country, the national background is presented, includinglegal basis and the organizations involved. The radiological monitoring systems are described,with an account of methods and equipment used. Future development and plans forimprovement are discussed when relevant.

Radiation data and other relevant information can be exchanged fairly easily between thecountries, when and as agreed by the involved parties. Within the European UnionRadioactivity Data Exchange Platform (EURDEP) cooperation, monitoring data areexchanged by use of e-mail via the Joint Research Center Ispra in Italy. Under the Council ofBaltic Sea States (CBSS), an agreement has been made on exchange of monitoring data, bywhich readings of gamma radiation levels from other countries may be accessed by the use offtp. The CBSS agreement has not yet been ratified, however. Nordic and Baltic Sea countriesparticipating in the two systems of data exchange are listed in Table 2.

15

Table 2. National participation in regional systems for exchange of monitoring data.

Country

Denmark

Finland

Estonia

Germany

Iceland

Latvia

Lithuania

Norway

Poland

Russian Federation

Sweden

EURDEP

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

CBSS

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

16

3 Denmark

3.1 National backgroundThe Danish Emergency Management Agency (DEMA) is responsible for emergency planningand organization aiming at monitoring the radiological situation, alerting the relevantorganization in the event of an emergency and taking other measures necessary to minimizedoses and other risks to the population. DEMA has the operative command of the emergencypreparedness organization, and acts as coordinator vis-a-vis other participating organizations.

The basic domestic nuclear threats are represented by three closed research reactors at Ris0(Feb. 2001) and the waste management program. The external threats are mainly due tonuclear power reactors.

3.1.1 Organizational structure

Ministry of the Interior - Danish Emergency Management Agency(Beredskabsstyrelsen)

The Danish Emergency Management Agency is responsible for solving the tasks stated in theDanish Preparedness Act. In addition to this the Danish Emergency Management Agencysolves tasks as a consequence of the Safety and Environmental Protection (NuclearInstallations etc.) Act, the Shelters Act and the regulations for the Hospital Preparedness.

Ministry of Health - National Institute of Radiation Hygiene (Statens Institut forStralehygiejne, SIS)

The National Institute of Radiation Hygiene is the radiation protection authority in Denmark.The main tasks of the institute are control and inspection of radioactive sources and X-rayinstallations, dose measurements, emergency preparedness planning, education andinformation.

Ministry of Research and Information Technology - Ris0 National Laboratory

Ris0 National Laboratory undertakes research in the fields of natural science and technology,in order to provide Danish society with new opportunities for technological development.Ris0 has a special responsibility for consolidating the Danish knowledge base for consultationon nuclear matters;.

3.2 Automatic gamma monitoring networksIn Denmark a nationwide automatic gamma-monitoring system for early warning wasdeveloped and installed after the Chernobyl accident. The Danish Emergency ManagementAgency (DEMA) is the owner of the system and Ris0 National Laboratory is the operator ofthe system. The network consists of 11 stations distributed evenly over the country (Fig. DK-1).

The stations are designed to

• firstly, measure the current dose rate• secondly, differentiate between 'man-made' causes of increased readings on the one hand

and increased radon concentrations and other natural causes of variations in thebackground level on the other

17

Fig. DK-1. The 11 automatic gamma-monitoring stations in Denmark.

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^ . DK-2. Viewing the data on the server.The specially designed microcomputer at the stations continuously stores the data until theservers at Ris0 or DEMA call the stations for collecting the data (a check is performed toensure that the servers have collected the same data).

18

The servers (with Windows NT) collecting the data also perform the data processing. Byusing the least squares fit of standard gamma-ray spectra the measured gamma spectra aredivided into the contributionirom normal background, a contribution from radon and acontribution from the remaining, each contribution given as dose rate. The results are plottedon the screen as shown in Fig. DK-2.

At Ris0 and DEMA the monitoring stations are supervised around the clock by the healthphysicist or officer on duty. All supervising personnel have access to the measured data at alltime from a portable PC, which can be connected to the servers at DEMA and Ris0 forviewing the data. If necessary, health physicists at SIS can be consulted.

3.2.1 System specifications

In Fig. DK-3 a sketch of the stations is seen. The system consist of a Nal(Tl) scintillationdetector with spectrometer, an Reuter-Stokes ionization chamber RSS-1012 (measuring range0.01 mSv - 0.1 Sv), and a microcomputer. In addition, a rain gauge (the rain gauge registerseach 0.1 mm of precipitation) and a thermometer are placed at each station. Inside the hutcontaining the equipment climate control is placed.

3.2.2 Software

The central servers used to collect data from the stations are Windows NT servers. Thesoftware used on the servers is similar to the software running on the PMS (PermanentMonitoring Station) servers installed in the Baltic countries, Poland and Russia (the PMSsystems in these countries are sponsored by the Danish Emergency Management Agency). Ascreen dump of the software used for viewing the data on the server is seen in Fig. DK-2.

On the 11 monitoring stations specially made software for the microprocessor is running.

3.2.3 Alarm levels

An alarm occurs when the system registers a dose rate higher than predefined thresholdsspecific for each station. Dose rate thresholds have been defined for

• Normal Background• Radon in equilibrium• Radon in disequilibrium• Remaining• Readings from the ionization chamber

3.3 Manuall gamma monitoring stationsIn Denmark no manual gamma monitoring stations are present.

19

Nal detector &spectrometer

' Ionization3 Chamber

Thermometer -i

CcnliulProcessing

' I'nil

ClimateControl

Fig. DK-3. The Danish Monitoring Station.

Telephone net

tRain Gauge

3.4 Air monitoring stationsContinuous measurements of airborne activity are performed at Ris0 using a high-volumesampler with a capacity of 0.3 m3/s per m2 filter. The filter is changed weekly under normalconditions or as often as required. The Ris0 station also measures gaseous iodine, noble gasesand precipitation.

A similar station is situated on the island of Bornholm (the easternmost part of Denmark). Inthe event of an emergency or when otherwise called for, the air filter station on Bornholm canbe started at short notice (within a couple of hours). The station is placed in barracksbelonging to the Danish Emergency Center. The filters are brought to Ris0 for measurementswith high-resolution detectors.

Specifications:

Filters: 6 glass fiber filtersFilter size: 56 cm x 48 cmFlow rate: 300 m3/h per filterDetection limit: < 1.5 /xBq/m3 (for Cs-137 weekly sampling)Filter change rate: Once per week

20

3.5 Airborne measurements

3.5.1 Measurements around the plume

In the event of an accident at one of the Swedish nuclear power plants at Barseback andRinghals, Air Force rescue helicopters can be alerted at short notice (15 minutes) to fly towardand around the nuclear power plants in search of airborne radioactive material. In the event ofan accident at one of the German nuclear power plants flight schedules will be planneddepending on the v/eather conditions (wind toward Denmark). A total of three helicopters arealways available for rescue operations at sea, but in the event of a nuclear emergencyradiation monitoring missions have top priority.

The helicopters are; alerted when a General Alert is declared at Barseback or Ringhals. Theyare under command of the Rescue Coordination Center in Jutland, and they report currentlyon VHF radio to DEMA's Command Center and to their base.

3.5.2 Aerial gamma surveys

After a passage of a plume and if radioactive material has been deposited on the groundairborne gamma ray surveys are performed with the aim of mapping the total external doserate to the population caused by the deposition. At an early stage after the passage it is mostlikely only possible to map the total dose rate (using large volume Nal(Tl)-detectors). In somecases a few dominant isotopes may be identified (e.g.,l 11). After a few days it will bepossible to assess dose contributions from specific deposited nuclides on the ground.

The detection limit; of the system is verified to be 2-5 kBq/m2 Cs-137 equal to the amount ofdeposited Cs-137 in Denmark after the Chernobyl accident. However, if the deposition is amixture of several gamma-emitting nuclides it is almost impossible to distinguish between thedifferent nuclides, thus reducing the detection limit for specific nuclides.

The Danish Emergency Management Agency is the owner of two airborne gamma-raydetector systems. The detectors used are arrays of four 41 Nal(Tl) crystals (a total of 16 1).The detectors are installed in Fennec Helicopters operated by the Danish Army. Specialmounting equipment has been developed for easy mounting. A total number of 12 Fennechelicopters are available (the helicopters are identical, i.e., it is possible to mount theequipment in all helicopters). Using a survey altitude of 300 feet and a survey speed of 100-150 km/h, the sampling time is Is.

The Danish Emergency Management Agency in cooperation with the Technical University ofDenmark (Department of Automation) operates the airborne systems.

Specifications:

16 1 NaI(Tl)-detector GPX-1024 (Exploranium)Multichannel analyzer GR-820 (Exploranium)GPS and DGPSNavigation indicator with variable sensitivityRadar altimeterStandard Pentium 233 MHz PC

21

3.6 Foodstuffs and environmental samples

The sampling process is planned and carried out by the central emergency organization incooperation with the National Food Agency. Measurements are made by Ris0 and SIS. Inaddition to its own facilities SIS has contracted eleven laboratories at universities, hospitalsetc. to analyze environmental and food samples, using mainly germanium detectors but alsoNaI(Tl) detectors in the event of an emergency.

3.7 Survey teams

The six Emergency Center units (three in Jutland, two on Zealand and one on Bornholm) canat short notice (15 minutes) alert a total of 39 survey teams to monitor along selected roads.The teams are equipped with handheld gamma dose rate meters, maps showing measuringpoints, radio equipment and dosimeters.

The M/87 dose rate meters are Geiger Miiller tubes with a detection range of 0.05 jU-Sv/h to10 Sv/h (gamma energy range 50 keV - 3 MeV; beta energy > 250 keV). The teams haveprecise instructions how to measure the dose rate in order to have comparable measurementsthroughout the country. The teams report to the Emergency Center units over the radio foreach 3-4 measurements and the reports are relayed to DEMA's command center (EMACC) byfax or datalink.

A total of 1600 measuring points covering about 5000 km of Danish roads are marked on themaps.

In emergency situations measuring teams are available in a number of the biggercommunities. They report through the nearest Emergency Center barracks, and the data aretransferred to the EMACC. The teams measure at different locations depending on theaccident situation. The measurements are controlled by the EMACC. The teams use the M/87dose rate meter and other equipment.

Police stations in North Zealand (a total number of 12 stations) are equipped with gammadose rate meters. The stations are instructed to read their instruments in the event of aBarseback accident. They report to the EMACC on the telephone.

SIS may deploy one or two survey teams. Their cars will be equipped with standard surveymeters, including a portable plastic scintillation instrument (calibrated for dose ratemeasurements).

Ris0 can muster ten special car patrols. They measure gamma dose rates 1 m above ground(using a shield, first under and then over the detector to determine whether the plume haspassed). Soil and vegetation samples are collected on demand. Air concentrations of nuclidescan be roughly estimated by means of a mobile air sampler.

DEMA is the owner of a mobile gamma spectrometer system consisting of a 41 Nal(Tl)-detector with a 512 channel analyzer. The system measures spectra with a sampling time of 1-2 seconds and uses differential GPS (DGPS) for the precise determination of the position foreach measurement. The mobile unit is also equipped with a small handheld 3" Na(Tl)detector.

22

3.8 Contamination measurements

3.8.1 Internal contamination

The University Hospital and Ris0 operate whole body counters. The University Hospital usesa scanning Nal(Tl) detector, whereas Ris0 uses a germanium detector for chair geometrymeasurements. Staff and equipment for organ measurements are available at ten hospitalinstitutions around the country.

Nal(Tl) and germanium detectors are available at SIS, Ris0 and ten hospitals for evaluatingsamples of body fluids, urine, excreta etc. In addition DEMA has equipped each of the tenhospital departments with an alpha monitor. Other types of equipment normally found atnuclear medicine and similar departments will also be used when needed.

3.8.2 External contamination

Checks for external beta and gamma emitting contamination may be performed by DEMA,SIS, defense forces and others, using most types of modern portable equipment. The tenhospital institutions capable of performing internal contamination measurements are alsoequipped to allow checks for external contamination, including alpha emitters.

In the event of contamination outside Danish territory, checkpoints manned by emergencymonitoring teams can be established at border stations, ferry harbors etc. to measurecontamination of vehicles, trains and deck cargo.

3.9 Other types of measurements

The Danish Navy Command (SOK) has at its disposal ships equipped with a gammamonitoring system. It consists of two detectors located in the open air and four inside the ship.All detectors are monitored from a central unit with a digital display, giving dose rate readingsin Gy/h. The location of the ship and radiation data are continuously reported to SOK.

Water samples may be collected from the ships and sent to SIS for analysis.

3.10 Future development

An HP Portable germanium detector is planned to be included in the car-borne/airborneequipment.

23

4 Estonia

4.1 National backgroundThe Estonian environmental radiation monitoring system is designed to detect releases fromforeign sources. Large-scale releases from the most important potential domestic source,Paldiski nuclear waste facility, is estimated to be improbable. However, other potentialdomestic radiological hazards are represented by the waste depositories in Tammiku andSillamae, together with lost radiation sources.

Due to the small area of the Estonian territory the main strategy for establishing a nationalmonitoring network is to install modern automatic stations in the border areas and first of allin such sites which will potentially be exposed to releases from nuclear reactors in neighborcountries. To obtain necessary radiological information for the whole country in a case of realradioactive fallout a number of automatic stations are installed in the interior parts of thecountry and manual permanently working network consisting of three stations has beenestablished. These two networks have gathered a lot of information about the backgroundlevel of total gamma radiation for the country.

Additionally, airborne activity is monitored in larger Estonian towns to provide valuableinformation for decision-makers about the concentration of radioactive gases and particles inthe atmosphere. Operational surveys of surface contamination after a radioactive plume haspassed is planned to be carried out by means of a mobile unit.

4.1.1 Organizational background

According to the Estonian Radiation Act, the main responsibility for organizing radioactivitymonitoring and alerting other organizations in case of an radiological emergency is held bythe Estonian Radiation Protection Center (ERPC), a subordinate organization in the Ministryof Environment. The Estonian Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (EMHI) isresponsible for technical service of the monitoring networks and for providing meteorologicalinformation for assessment of the situation in the event of early warning alert. Responsibilityfor emergency planning, for decision-making of countermeasures and for providinginformation to the public in an emergency is held by the Estonian Rescue Board, anorganization subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior.

4.1.2 Legal basis

The structure and organizational responsibility scheme are based on the following legal acts,

• Estonian Radiation Act• Citizen Protection Act• Extraordinary Situation Act• Rescue Act• Convention of Early Notification in a Nuclear Accident• Baltic Sea States Arrangements on Regular Exchange of Radiation Monitoring Data and

other Information of Radiological Significance

25

4.2 Automatic gamma monitoring networks

The automatic network in Estonia consists of two independent sub-networks which areserviced by their own server using specific software but the information from all stations isalso processed by a central software in the main information server. All radiologicalinformation is stored in the common PMS database. Radiological data are transferred throughpublic telephone networks, at normal monitoring once per day, to the dialing servers in theERPC. The locations of both types of measurement stations are presented in Fig. EE-1.

The older sub-network is the area radiation monitoring system AAM-95 that includes fourautomatic local stations. The local stations of this system are able to measure the totalenvironmental gamma dose rate and send the data to the server situated in the ERPC. Afterdetecting a value above the pre-set alarm level, the stations send an alarm message to the sameserver.

The newer part of the countrywide network consists of seven PMS stations. These are fullyautomatic stations of a new generation, which measure the total gamma dose rate as well asgamma spectra. The latter feature makes it possible to discriminate between an increase in thedose rate caused by natural activity and by contamination by artificial radionuclides. Thestations analyze the dose rates from five different sets of isotopes for which independentalarm levels are preset, providing early warning even in the case of very low levels ofatmospheric contamination. Like the AAM-95 system, the PMS stations are able to generatean alarm message at increased dose rate level and send it to ERPC.

- PMS station ^ L A T V I A^ Manual

measurement

Fig. EE-1. Locations of gamma dose rate measurement stations and airfiitering stations inEstonia.

26

The alarm messages are stored in the main dialing server and will be distributed through theInternet service to GSM phones and local area computer networks to call for duty specialistsaround the clock. Measurement integration time and interval lengths for data sampling areseparately adjustable for each station from the ERPC. The real radiological data measured areused for modeling and prognoses of dispersion of the radioactive plume using special ARGOSsoftware.

4.2.1 Automatic gamma monitoring network AAM-95

General description

The system is designed for general area radiation monitoring purposes containing localautomatic stations, which are connected to the main server via the public telephone network.The local automatic station consists of a RADOS type GM tube detector, portable radiometertype RD-02 and a connection box with modem (Fig. EE-2). Due to security problems allstations are installed in meteorological monitoring stations and detectors are arranged on theroofs about 3-6 meters above the ground. All data measured are displayed on the RD-02 andthe latest 864 dose rate values are stored in the device memory. The; local stationautomatically sends an alarm message. The system software installed in the main server sendsquestions to the stations, stores original measurement data for one year, enables graphicalpresentation of data and calculates accumulated doses.

Alarm settings

Though it is possible to set eight different dose rate alarm levels in routine monitoring innormal situations only one level is set. It has the value 0.3 (iSv/h for all stations, which isabout three times higher than the mean natural background level. This relatively high value isset to prevent fault alarms due to abrupt changes of radon concentration in the loweratmosphere.

Another alarm criterion is defined for the difference in the gamma dose accumulated duringthe last 24 hours and the previous day. The alarm value is set to 1 uSv for all stations.

GM tubeRD-02L

In-build electronics

Connectionbox

\

PowersupplyUPS

\\

Modem

Micro-computer

Publictelephonenetwork

Main serverin the ERPC

Fig. EE-2. Block diagram of automatic area monitoring system AAM-95.

27

Communication mode

In the AAM-95 system the minimum measuring integration time is set to 5 minutes and themeasuring interval to 15 minutes. This means that the station gives 96 measured values perday. In normal routine monitoring the station polling interval is 24 hours and, when needed,the dialing interval can be changed separately for each station from the server.

4.2.2 Automatic gamma monitoring network PMS

General description

The system consists of automatic measuring stations and a dialing server that gathers data andtransmits them to the main information server where all data are stored (Fig. EE-3). In alllocal stations detector boxes are installed on the ground (in Tallinn about 2 m above ground).Each station has two detectors of different type. For general information about radiationbackground it is equipped with the RD-02L type GM tube. The second detector is a 3"Nal(Tl) scintillator unit connected to a 256 channel analyzer. Thus, it is possible to monitorspecific radiation levels caused by different natural and artificial isotopes. As informationabout temperature and rain at the site is very important in the analysis of radiological data,each station is equipped with gauges to measure these parameters as well.

The local station contains a powerful PC allowing all data to be stored and spectrum analysisto be performed to check the dose rate levels in the specific windows and give an alarm whenthe pre-set level is exceeded. The radiation information is temporally well differentiated, asthe total dose rate is measured every minute and gamma spectrum every 10 minutes.

Alarm levels

The system software allows alarm levels to be set for the total gamma dose rate and separatelyfor dose components caused by natural radionuclides such as radon (in equilibrium and dis-equilibrium with daughter isotopes) and normal background (calculated from the spectra), andby artificial sources. The alarm values are as follows:

• Total gamma dose rate 200 nSv/h• Dose rate from radon (equilibrium) 200 nSv/h• Dose rate from radon (dis-equilibrium) 200 nSv/h• Dose rate from normal background 200 nSv/h• Dose rate from artificial sources 95 nSv/h

Communication mode

In routine monitoring the dialing server picks data once per day and transfers them to the maindata base in which data will be stored for at least one year.

If a station detects a dose rate value above the pre-set alarm level, the station immediatelycalls the server and the message will be distributed via Internet or through a computer networkto the corresponding specialists on duty.

28

RD-02Ldetector

Voltagesupply

Nal-scintillationcounter Central

Computer inERPC

Voltagesupply

512channelanalyzer

Temperaturegauge

Modem

Computer Modem

Public telephonenetwork

Testequipment Climate

control

Rain intensitymonitor

Fig. EE-3. Block diagram ofPMS gamma monitoring station.

4.3 Manual gamma monitoring networkIn addition to the automatic stations manual measurements of gamma dose rate are organizedin nine sites, mainly in the inner parts of the country (Fig. EE-1). In normal situations, thedose rate is measured eight times per day by means of radiometers with distance detectors anddata obtained are input into daily database and transferred via computer connection to theinformation server in the ERPC. In the event of abnormally high dose rate values, the personperforming the measurement in the station will call the responsible officer in the ERPC andthe measurement intervals will be shortened as required by the situation.

4.3.1 Manual gamma monitoring stations

In the stations for manual measurement RDA-31 radiometers with GMP-31 detector are used.In a normal radiological situation a reading is made every three hours at the height of about1 m above the ground.

The alarm level is the same as for automatic stations of the AAM-95 system: 0.3 u,Sv/h. If areading exceeds that level, the person on duty will inform the ERPC in Tallinn.

4.4 Air monitoring network

4.4.1 General description of the network

In Estonia three air filtering stations are installed (Fig. EE-1) which are placed in themeteorological stations in the vicinity of the larger cities. The oldest filter station located nearTallinn at the Harku site was designed and constructed in 1994 in a local small technologicalbureau. Its design is very simple, it does not have a gauge for permanently measuring the airflow and calculating the air volume filtered. The filtering capability was determined onceduring the initial installation and its value was estimated at about 1500 m3/h. It was designed

29

to sample only air particles using the Petryanof type filtering material which has insufficientadsorption ability for small aerosol particles. Because this disadvantage the isotope datameasured on filters from this site are used with caution.

In late 1996 the modern air filter station Snow White JL 900 was installed for detecting, asearly as possible, air contamination in the event of a nuclear accident at the Leningrad NuclearPower Plant. Gamma spectra of glass fiber and activated charcoal filters from this station areanalyzed by a large volume HPGe detector. In 1997 a smaller air filter station The HunterJl 150 was installed in Toravere, in the southeastern part of Estonia.

4.4.2 Alarm level and filter change rate

The filter station Snow White has a GM type detector placed just above the filter frameenabling it to check the radiation level in the surrounding air. The gamma detector belongs tothe radiation monitoring station of the AAM-95 system described above. As radioactiveisotopes bound to air particles are concentrated on the filter, the reading from the detectorincreases. Still, these data are valuable for very early detection of the radionuclideconcentration increase in the atmosphere. For this purpose, the alarm level for the station is setto 0.3 u.Sv/h, above which the radiation monitoring station calls up the AAM-95 server inERPC.

In all filter stations the filters for air particles are sampled for one week and impregnatedcharcoal filters (sampling organic iodides) for one month. Radiometrical measurements offilters are performed in the analytical laboratory of ERPC in Tallinn. In the event ofradiological threat, indicated by the concentration of artificial isotopes above 10 uBq/m3 inthe air, the filter change frequency will be increased depending on the situation.

4.5 Airborne gamma measurements

At the moment Estonia does not have an aircraft equipped with a spectrometer with a largervolume Nal(Tl) detector to perform gamma mapping of contaminated areas.


The sampling program of environmental samples is planned and carried out by the ERPC. Theresponsibility for food sampling is laid on the Veterinary and Food Inspection reporting to theministry of agriculture. All analytical work is done in the radiometric laboratory of the ERPC.

4.7 Survey teams

For mapping of contaminated areas the ERPC has at its disposal a mobile laboratory equippedwith a large volume (4 1) Nal detector, a spectrometric unit, a mobile ARGOS workstation anda GPS system as well as portable gamma spectrometers for manual measurements outside thelaboratory vehicle.

30

5 Finland

5.1 National backgroundIn states of emergency, the Finnish Ministry of the Interior (Sisaasiainministerio, SM) directscivil defense operations. If necessary, an emergency radiation-monitoring organization is setup. The monitoring of external radiation is then led from sheltered command centers, andspecial sheltered laboratories are brought into use. Decisions on measures concerning civilprotection, rescue services and emergency management are the responsibility of the Ministryof the Interior.

The Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (Sateilyturvakeskus, STUK) collects allinformation concerning the accident situation and environmental monitoring results. STUK isalso the international contact point in Finland, receiving and sending notifications in the eventof radiological or nuclear accidents, in accordance with the IAEA convention and bilateralagreements with the Nordic countries, Russia, Germany, Estonia and Ukraine.

STUK assesses the importance of the situation to the radiation safety of the population,environment and the society, and makes a prediction of the development of the situation.STUK gives responsible authorities recommendations for necessary protective measures. Inaddition, STUK shall advise, e.g., the industry, trade, transport and customs authoritiesregarding the mitigation of harmful effects. STUK disseminates information about thesituation, radiation levels and radiological consequences to domestic and foreign counterpartsand to the media.

STUK is the central authority and research institute of the national radiological monitoringorganization. It carries out a wide range of environmental radiation measurements, samplingand laboratory analyses. The reporting level of STUK is defined as any unusual observation ofenvironmental radioactivity.

Other important radiation monitoring organizations include the Defense Forces(Puolustusvoimat, PV) and the Finnish Meteorological Institute (Ilmatieteen laitos, FMI). TheDefense Forces is a cooperation authority, which gives assistance on request to the otherauthorities. FMI has the meteorological expertise and also performs some radiationmonitoring. In addition, the Seismological Institute of the University of Helsinki (Helsinginyliopiston Seismologian laitos) takes part in the national radiation monitoring system byreporting to other authorities possible nuclear explosions and earthquakes near nuclearfacilities.

The types of measurements carried out before and after a fallout and the organizationsresponsible for these measurements are summarized in Table FI-1. The Finnish countrywidemonitoring system is presented schematically in Fig. FI-1.

The Finnish monitoring system is designed to detect releases originating from foreign anddomestic sources. Among the latter, the following possible sources are the most important:

• Two nuclear power plants (Loviisa and Olkiluoto), each with two reactor units• One research reactor (Espoo)

The external dose-rate (gamma) monitoring system in Finland is extensive, consistingcurrently of STUK's automatic network of some 290 automatic stations, FMI's eight stations

31

and about 150 manual monitoring stations operated by local authorities and the DefenseForces. The number of manual stations is continuously decreasing, partly because of upgradesto the system and partly because radiation measurement activities at some monitoring siteshave been completely terminated.

In addition to the gamma-monitoring stations in the Finnish territory, there are monitoringstations in Kola and Sosnovyy Bor, Russia, which are also connected to the Finnishmonitoring system. On the Kola Peninsula there are six stations which at present are notoperating. However, there is an on-going project for establishing 17 new monitoring stationsaround the Kola nuclear power plant.

STUKRadiation and NuclearSafety Authority

Defense Staff FinnishMeteorologicalInstitute

SeismologicalInstitute (Univ. ofHelsinki)

AutomaticNetwork,Local Authorities

MilitaryCommandHeadquarters

MonitoringStations

MonitoringStations

MonitoringStations

MonitoringStations

Fig. Fl-1. Schematic presentation of the structure of the countrywide monitoring system. Thetask of the Seismological Institute of the University of Helsinki is to inform other radiationmonitoring authorities of all observed nuclear detonations and seismic events.

32

Table FI-1. Measurement services in Finland.

Organization/Type of measurements STUK SM PV FMI GTK HYRL Lab NPP

Automatic gammamonitoring stations

Stations monitoringairborne activity

- gamma- beta

Airborne measurements- external gamma- air filters

Field measurements- gamma analysis- total gamma- air filter gamma analysis- beta- alpha

Laboratory sample analysis- gamma- beta(Sr)

- alpha (Pu)

Whole body counting

External contamination

xxxxx

xxX

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

STUK Radiation and Nuclear Safety AuthoritySM Ministry oi' the Interior (including provincial state offices and organizations)PV Defense ForcesFMI Finnish Meteorological InstituteGTK Geological Survey of FinlandHYRL Radiochemical Laboratory, University of HelsinkiLab Local laboratoriesNPP Finnish nuclear power plants

33

In the surroundings of the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant there are currently 24 automaticstations (one of them mobile), established in cooperation with Danish authorities.

An important part of the Finnish radiation monitoring system is USVA, the national radiationmonitoring information system (Fig. FI-2). It controls the automatic dose-rate monitoringnetwork, includes a data base for all radiation-related measurement results and serves as a toolfor creating, maintaining and presenting an overall view of the current radiation situation.

Substations controlled through telephone network

Data from outside STUK,FMI's meteorological data,data from abroad

Data forothercountries

AAMmonitoringstations

MIILU1- control ofmonitoringnetwork

-alarm handling

TIKU- auxiliarycomputer

STUK'sremote userservice

Remote users(STUK's officers on duty)

Public: telephoneI network

STUK'sfirewall system

KARPAASI- auxiliarycomputer

WEITIKKA- rad. situation- database- WWW services

KULT1- Extranet

services

STUK's firewall system

WWW

Users at STUK(LAN users)

connection

Non-STUK browser users

Fig. FI-2. Schematic presentation of the Finnish radiation monitoring information system(USVA). The central equipment is located in the facilities of STUK.

34

5.2 Automatic and manual external dose rate monitoring stations

5.2.1 STUK

A map showing the locations of the automatic external dose-rate (gamma) monitoringstations, based on Geiger-Mtiller (GM) tubes and operated by STUK in cooperation with localauthorities, is given in Fig. FI-3. The strategy and major goals related to the automaticnetwork are established and revised in annual agreements between STUK and SM. SM alsoallocates resources to STUK for managing the network.

The network consists of some 70 AAM central stations and about 220 substations, each ofwhich is connected to one of the central stations. Fig. FI-4 shows the structure of themonitoring system. The stations are usually placed at local rescue and fire stations. The alarmlevel is set at 400 nSv/h.

5.2.2 Ministry of Interior

Under the administrative command of SM and local authorities there are currently a few tensof manual dose-rate monitoring stations with GM type measuring equipment. Manualmonitoring is carried out mainly by municipal fire brigades and civil aviation authorities at theairports. The alarm level in manual measurements is currently 700 nSv/h.

5.2.3 Defense Forces

The Defense Forces operate an external radiation-monitoring network of 94 continuouslyoperating manual stations, based on GM counters of the type used by the Ministry of Interior.Alarms are transmitted manually via the telephone network, the alarm level being 700 nSv/h(ambient dose equivalent rate). Part of the network (some 30 stations) will be automated bythe end of 2001.

5.2.4 Finnish Meteorological Institute

FMI operates eight automatic gamma dose-rate monitoring stations (Fig. FI-5), which alsorecord rainfall intensity. Five of the stations are based on a pair of Nal(Tl) scintillationdetectors, arranged to allow for the separation of gamma emitters deposited on the ground andthose suspended in the air. Three of the stations are equipped with a single NaI(Tl) detectorand a pulse height analyzer. The detection limit for the increase (of non-natural origin) inexternal radiation levels is about 10 nSv/h in the case of wet deposition. Precipitation data arereported from about 350 weather observation stations.

5.2.5 Routine*; for reporting data and transmitting alarms

The routines for reporting measurement data and transmitting alarms from the dose-ratemonitoring networks described above are summarized in Table FI-2.

35

Fig. FI-3. Automatic external dose-rate monitoring network in Finland (the network operatedby STUK).

36

O...n detectors USVA computers (at STUK)

telephonenetwork

detector

telephonenetwork

9 lines(modems)

telephone network datanetwork

W modem

AAM95 PC USVA users

Fig. FI-4. Structural components of automatic external dose-rate monitoring system.

Table FI-2. Routines for regular reporting of measurement data and for transmitting alarmsfrom the automatic and manual external dose-rate monitoring station networks operated bySTUK, the Ministry of the Interior (SM) and the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI). Inaddition, the Defense Forces inform STUK about all abnormal observations detected withinthe military dose rate monitoring network.

Data sent to

STUK

FMI

SM and/or provincialState offices

Regional alarmcenters

(automatic AAMcentral stations)

Provincial stateoffice/ Rescuedepartment

Reporting party

Automatic monitoringstations

Manual stations and/orlocal authorities

Automatic monitoringstations

STUK

Automatic substations

Manual stations(measuring continuouslyor as requested)

What?

24-hour data

Alarms

Alarms

Measuringresults

24-hour data

Alarms

Alarms

24-hour data

Alarms

Measuringresults duringan emergency

When?

Once a day

When occur

When occur

Whenadequate

Once a day

When occur

When occur

AAM-specific setintervalsWhen occur

When asked

How?

Telephonepolling

Telephone(automatic)

Telephone

Fax,telephone

Telephonepolling


Telephone

Telephonepolling


Fax,telephone

37

5.2.6 Systems operated by nuclear power plants

The two Finnish power plants have installed automatic external dose-rate monitoringnetworks of their own. However, these networks are also integrated into the nationalmonitoring system. The stations around the power plants are situated in two rings, the radii ofwhich are approximately 1 and 5 kilometers. In Loviisa the number of detectors in the firstring is 4, and 11 in the second ring. In Olkiluoto the corresponding numbers are 5 (these fivemonitoring stations are not directly connected to the national automatic network) and 10,respectively. All detectors are GM counters of the type used in the nation-wide networkoperated by STUK.

5.3 Monitoring of airborne radioactive substancesIn Finland the monitoring of airborne radioactive substances is carried out by STUK, FMI andthe Defense Forces. There are two principal types of stations used for measuring airborneactivity:

• Continuously measuring aerosol monitoring stations with alarm capability.• Aerosol sampling stations with filter type or activated charcoal cartridges to be analyzed

in the laboratory.

The detection limits for the various types of stations are summarized in Table FI-3.

5.3.1 STUK

STUK has eight air sampling stations (Fig. FI-6). Air samples are used to determine theconcentrations of radioactive substances in air close to the ground. Airborne particles arecollected in a glass fiber filter and the filter is analyzed in the laboratories located in Helsinkiand Rovaniemi. The typical minimum detectable concentration is of the order of 0.1 - 10jU,Bq/m3 for several important fission products.

There are three types of samplers:

• The sampler located in Helsinki is fully automated: it filters radioactive substances fromthe air, monitors the filter in real-time, changes the filter, prepares the filter for on-sitehigh-resolution gamma-ray analysis, analyses the gamma-ray spectra and reports theresults on STUK's Intranet pages. The sampling period is one day and the filter ismeasured after a delay of one day using a one day counting time. The flow rate is 550m3/h.

• The flow rate of the high volume samplers in Kotka, Kajaani and Rovaniemi is 900 m3/h.The sampling period is one week.

• The flow rate of the Imatra, Jyvaskyla, Sodankyla and Ivalo samplers is 150 m3/h. Filtersare changed twice a week. Two samples are combined as a week sample in the laboratory.

All samplers except the one located in Helsinki are equipped with a charcoal cartridge in orderto collect gaseous radioactive substances. Charcoal cartridges are analyzed monthly in thelaboratory.

All samples are subjected to an immediate gamma measurement as soon as they arrive in thelaboratory. If no artificial substances are detected, a final analysis of the samples will beconducted within a couple of days.

38

FINNISH

METEOROLOGICALINSTITUTE

external gammaradiation monitoring

daily precipitationsampling

Oul anKa

_|ftyalo

Virolahti

[Helsinki

Fig. FI-5. FMFs network of external dose-rate monitoring and precipitation sampling.

39


FMI operates 14 aerosol beta-activity monitoring stations (Fig. FI-7). The filters are changedweekly. All 14 stations have an alarm system for early warning, based on beta counting GMtubes placed above the filter. The system will trigger an alarm in response to an increase inartificial beta activity of the order of 2 Bq/m3 (after a delay of some four hours). This valuecorresponds to a dose rate of about two orders of magnitude smaller than that required toactivate the external gamma dose-rate monitoring networks discussed above.

The filters from the aerosol monitoring stations and additional filters from four daily samplingstations are measured in a laboratory for alpha and beta activity. The detection limit forartificial activity after a delay of some five days is about 200 (iBq/m3. Daily aerosol samplesfrom two stations are also assayed with gamma spectrometry about one week after thesampling. Also as a routine, X-ray films are exposed to daily aerosol samples of two stationsto reveal possible hot particles.

5.3.3 Systems operated by nuclear power plants

The activity of ground-level air around the Finnish power plants is monitored on a routinebasis with four high-volume air samplers situated in the vicinity of both power plants (Fig. FI-6). Air is drawn through combined glass fiber and activated charcoal filters. These filter pairsare changed twice a month and analyzed at STUK.

When a reactor is undergoing refueling and maintenance, a supplementary air sampler isplaced near the plant in question. The collection period in this case is usually one week.

5.3.4 Defense Forces

The Defense Forces have one air sampler (of the model used by STUK) in Tampere (see Fig.FI-6). The analysis procedure is identical to that used in STUK.

Table FI-3. Detection limits for Finnish air monitoring stations.

Type of station Minimum detectable activity Remarks

STUK (Helsinki, Kotka,Rovaniemi)

STUK transportable model(other stations)

STUK nuclear power plant

0.1-0.3 uBq/m3

0.4 - 0.8 jiBq/m3

2 (iBq/m3

FMI on-line aerosol measuring Alarm level about 2 Bq/mstations

FMI sampling stations

Defense Forces

200 uBq/m3

0.4 -1 uBq/m3

Most important gammaemitters (1311,137Cs etc.)



Total beta activity

Total beta activity with 5-daydelay


40

5.4 Airborne measurementsWhen called upon, the units of the Air Force collect samples from the radioactive cloud in theupper atmosphere. The Air Force also has a system with an efficient high-purity germaniumdetector and portable spectroscopy equipment, which can be installed on a helicopter or anairplane. The system is used for mapping ground deposition and for searching for radioactivedebris after passage of a radioactive cloud.

The Geological Survey of Finland (Geologian tutkimuskeskus, GTK) has two airbornegamma-ray spectrometers equipped with Nal(Tl) detectors into total volumes of 411 and 20 1.These systems are normally used for geophysical surveys but are also ready for mapping areasafter a fallout or searching for debris after a satellite crash, for example.

5.5 Monito ring of deposited radioactive substances

5.5.1 STUK

STUK has 9 stations collecting continuously wet and dry deposition in Finland (Fig. FI-8).Samples are usually analyzed on a monthly basis, but sampling periods will be shortened ifsome indications of fresh fallout exist. Samples are usually collected at a height of one meterabove the ground. Sampling areas of the collectors are 0.05 or 0.07 m . In addition, there is apossibility to enhance the use of a few stations sampled for a long-term study on theresuspension of deposited radionuclides.

In Helsinki there is also a sampler which collects wet and dry deposition separately. Itssampling area is 0.5 m2 for both wet and dry deposition. All the samples are analyzed forgamma-emitting radionuclides and radiostrontium. When necessary, samples can also beanalyzed for alpha-emitting transuranics (Pu or Am). Detection limits for gamma-emittingradionuclides depend, among other things, on the counting time and are typically 0.5 Bq/m2.

In Rovaniemi and Helsinki there are separate samplers collecting precipitation for 3Hdeterminations, which are also usually analyzed monthly. The detection limit is 1 Bq/1.


FMI collects daily precipitation samples from two stations (Helsinki and Ivalo) with 1 m2

samplers (Fig. FI-5). The detection limit for artificial beta activity is about 2 Bq/1 (delay 3-5days).

5.5.3 Nuclear power plants

Deposited radioactive substances are also analyzed in the environments of the nuclear powerplants in Loviisa and Olkiluoto (Fig. FI-8). Four deposition collectors (wet plus dry) arelocated in the vicinity of both power plants. The sampling area of one collector is 1 m2 andthat of the others is 0.07 m2. Samples from the large sampler are analyzed at STUK monthly,while those from the others are combined into three-month samples. All the samples areanalyzed for gamma-emitting radionuclides. Samples of three months are normally alsoanalyzed for radiostrontium. If necessary, sampling periods can be shortened. At two stationsaround each power' plant there are additional samplers for 3H determinations.

41

ivalo

Imatra

KotkaLoviisa

Helsinki

/^. F/-<5̂ . Air sampler stations operated by STUK (filled squares), Defense Forces (filledcircle) and nuclear power plants (open squares).

42

FINNISH

METEOROLOGICAL

INSTITUTE

aerosol beta activitymonitoring

daily aerosolsampling

p u I an k a

Mariehamm

i:R!iwfn3«a»p^MVirolahti

Fig. FI-7. Aerosol monitoring stations operated by FMI.

43

lvalo

Imatra

KotkaLoviisa

Helsinki

. F/-S. Sampling stations for precipitation and deposition operated by STUK (filledsquares) and power plants (open squares).

44

5.6 Foodstuff and environmental samples

The Department of Research and Environmental Surveillance at ST'UK has advancedlaboratories in Helsinki and in Rovaniemi for both direct instrumental and radiochemicaldetermination of radionuclides in environmental and foodstuff samples. They are equippedwith the necessary devices for alpha, beta and gamma spectrometric measurements.

The regular food and environmental surveillance program includes milk, whole diet, drinkingand surface water. Milk samples are taken from four dairies. Gamma-emitting radionuclidesare analyzed monthly and 90Sr quarterly. The whole diet and drinking water samples arecollected twice a year in three sites. The samples represent bigger population centers andinstitutional kitchens. The samples are analyzed for gamma-emitting radionuclides and 90Sr,drinking water is also analyzed for 3H. Water samples from three large rivers are taken fourtimes per year and analyzed for gamma-emitting radionuclides and 9 Sr.

In addition, STUK has a large nation-wide program of environmental and foodchain research.Soil, vegetation, water, milk, beef, pork, reindeer meat, fish, game, wild mushrooms andberries, as well as grains, field and greenhouse vegetables and fruits are sampled and analyzedregularly.

In a large-scale, long-term radiation situation STUK establishes three regional laboratorieswhen necessary. One of these laboratories is permanently situated in Rovaniemi. In addition,there are 49 local food laboratories operated by municipal health and food authorities. Theselocal laboratories monitor gamma-emitting nuclides in food by using Nal(Tl) detectors. Theradioanalytical and sampling programs for emergency situations are under the guidance ofSTUK.

The laboratories in major towns have supplemented their equipment with gammaspectrometers using germanium detectors.

5.7 Survey teams

In radiation emergency situations STUK can initiate assessment of environmental dose ratesand fallout levels by using a special mobile laboratory and other mobile survey teams. Theequipment of the laboratory vehicle includes:

• a sensitive GM counter• a high-pressure ionization chamber• a semiconductor detector (germanium) and a portable spectroscopy system• air samplers• a GPS system and a cellular phone for transmitting data to the headquarters in real time

(also while the car is moving)

Other mobile teams may have, depending on the case, GM tubes, portable air samplers,thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) to be placed in the accident area and cellular phones fortransmitting information to STUK. Furthermore, STUK (both the headquarters in Helsinkiand the branch office in Rovaniemi) and the rescue centers in Kotka and Vantaa have specialpackages consisting of a PC with dedicated software, a GM detector, a GPS receiver and acellular phone. Dose rate levels can be seen continuously on the map and transmitted forwardin real time.

45

In the event of an accident at a domestic power plant, mobile survey teams are also dispatchedby local emergency organizations (fire brigades, rescue services, the Defense Forces, civildefense organizations, emergency organization of the power plant). The equipment is basedmainly on GM detectors, but the teams from the power plant also use air samplers and TLDdosimeters.

Both Finnish nuclear power plants have predetermined special survey routes in theirsurroundings where measurements will be performed under accident conditions. Allmunicipalities have similar plans.

5.8 Contamination


Internal contamination of radionuclides in man can be determined using whole body countingor organ measurement techniques. Internal contamination can also be estimated indirectly bymeasuring radionuclides in excreta, body fluids, inhaled air or in foodstuffs consumed.

The total number of whole body counters in Finland is four. Two are operated by STUK andtwo by the Radiochemical Laboratory of the University of Helsinki (Helsingin yliopistonRadiokemian laboratorio, HYRL). One of the whole body counters of STUK is installed in aniron room. The system uses the scanning bed technique and has four Nal(Tl) detectors andtwo high purity germanium detectors. The Nal(Tl) detectors are installed on a circular framearound the bed and the semiconductor detectors are located one above and one below the bed.The measurement method also permits the profile distribution of radionuclides in the body tobe determined. The measuring time is typically 30 minutes and the minimum detectableactivity for 134Cs and 137Cs is about 50 Bq.

The second whole body counter operated by STUK is installed in a truck. This mobile wholebody counter is provided for self sustained field measurements and is therefore also suitablefor field measurements needed in emergency situations. The background shield is made oflead and is of a shadow shield type. The measuring geometry is a modified chair geometry. Ahigh purity germanium detector is used for measurements of gamma spectra. The minimumdetectable activity for 134Cs and 137Cs is typically about 100 Bq with a measurement time of1000 seconds.

One of the whole body counters operated by HYRL is installed in an iron room and the otherin a container. The system installed in a container can be transported by a truck. Themeasuring geometry in both the systems is a chair geometry with a single Nal(Tl) detector.The background shield is of the shadow shield type and made of lead. The minimumdetectable activity for 137Cs is typically about 50 Bq with a measurement time of 1000seconds.

At the Finnish nuclear power stations there are body monitors for the determination of thecontamination level in the workers. The detection level for a one-minute measurement isseveral thousands of becquerels, and the monitors are not nuclide specific.

In Finland there are about 30 hospitals which have gamma cameras. This kind of equipment issuitable for the determination of gamma emitting radionuclides in organs, e.g., 131I in thethyroid. In addition to the whole body counters, STUK also has a monitor for determining 131I

46

in the thyroid. The system consists of a Nal(Tl) detector with a lead collimator. The minimumdetectable activity is about 500 Bq 131I.

In addition to STUK and HYRL there are some institutes in Finland, which can performmeasurements of alpha and beta emitting radionuclides in samples of excreta, urine or bodyfluids.


Surveys of external gamma and beta contamination can be carried out by STUK, the Ministryof the Interior, the Defense Forces and other authorities and organizations, using most typesof modern portable equipment.


During the next few years, the following changes in the monitoring systems and proceduresare foreseen:

• The number of manual gamma monitoring stations will decrease while that of automaticstations will increase, primarily because part of the stations operated by the DefenseForces will be made automatic. The total number of external dose-rate monitoring sites inFinland will, however, remain (approximately) at the current level.

• An automatic data exchange procedure between the automatic dose-rate monitoringnetworks of STUK and the Defense Forces will be established.

• The international cooperation within the European Union will improve and also have animpact on national radiation monitoring strategies.

• New technical means for data transfer (e.g., wireless communication) will be introducedin monitoring networks

47

6 Germany

6.1 National backgroundProtection of the public against ionizing radiation in Germany is organized and maintained atlocal, state and federal level.. Nuclear facilities are licensed by the states and both the licenseholder and the state ("Land") are responsible for site-specific monitoring (KFU). Urgentcountermeasures following a major accident in a nuclear installation with a release into theenvironment are implemented by the disaster control organization of the state. The legal basisfor site-specific surveillance is given by the federal Radiation Protection Ordinance(Strahlenschutzveiordnung, StrlSchV) and its regulation for monitoring releases from nuclearinstallations (Richtlinie zur Emissions- und Immisionsuberwachung kerntechnischer Anlagen,REI). However, implementation of the federal recommendations is the responsibility of thestate, and differences in monitoring strategies exist in different states.

On the other hand, the Federal Government operates a nation-wide monitoring andinformation system (EVIIS). The system provides competent authorities with timelyinformation on any changes in radiation levels and enables them to take appropriateprecautionary protective measures and to inform the public. The system mainly consists of anon-line network part, operated by organizations of the federal government, and a laboratorypart, conducted by the states. The legal basis is the 'Act on the Precautionary Protection of thePopulation Against Radiation Exposure' (Strahlenschutzvorsorgegesetz, StrVG).

Both KFU and IMIS were planned for different purposes and implemented by differentauthorities. Hence, differences in strategy and instrumentation were inevitable. Efforts arenow being made to harmonize strategies and to make measurement results comparable.

The measurement strategy of German radioactivity monitoring networks is mainly based onon-line monitoring at fixed sites. Thus, the site-specific background and characteristics arewell known and the systems allow for early warning. Mobile units, which go into an affectedarea upon alert, play a minor role.

The basic domestic nuclear threats are represented by 19 nuclear power reactors, 6 researchreactors and 6 other nuclear facilities. There exist also 8 foreign nuclear facilities at a distanceof less than 25km from the national border. The monitoring system also complies with theneeds for monitoring large-scale contamination originating from a far-field source.

6.1.1 The German nation-wide monitoring system IMIS

The German "Integrated Measurement and Information System" (IMIS) is part of the federalgovernment's national response plan for dealing with the consequences of large-scaleradioactive contamination of the environment. It consists of

• Five nationwide ground-based networks with fixed stations• About 25 mobile units (land vehicles for in-situ gamma spectrometry, helicopter

equipment for airborne gamma spectrometry, equipment for plume tracking by air planesand by ships)

• 43 specialized laboratories for measurements of food and of environmental samples• A data processing system of some 70 computers connected by a wide area network

(IMIS-IT)• Computer models for airborne radionuclide transport and dose predictions.

49

IMIS has two modes of operation. During routine operation, the on-line networks report oncea day to the accountable authority, the Federal Ministry for Environment, NatureConservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU). During emergency operation, reporting of the on-line systems is scheduled every 2 hours. Off-line systems report as soon as possible (asap),i.e., several times per day.

Tables DE-1 and DE-2 give an overview on the number of stations and frequency ofmeasurements of different networks in the emergency operation mode.

Table DE-1. Type of measurement and frequency of reporting of dose rate and air monitoringnetworks in emergency operation mode of IMIS.

Institution operating the sub-network

Number of stations

Type of data

Gamma dose rate

In-situ gamma-ray spectrometryof ground contamination

Federal Officefor Radiation

Protection(BfS)

2150

dose rate

2h

asap*

Federal Officefor Radiation

Protection(BfS)

12

air monitoring

GermanWeatherService

(DWD)

39

dose rate andair monitoring

BfS/IARprobes co-

located

asap

Aerosols, specific concentrationin air

Gross beta

Gross alpha

Gamma spectrum131I (gaseous)89/90Sr

Alpha spectrum

2h

2h

2h

2h

2h

2h

4h**

asap

asap

Spec. cone, in precipitation

Gamma spectrum

Alpha spectrum89/90Sr

3H

Gross beta

Precipitation rate

asap

asap

asap

asap

asap

asap

asap = as soon as possible

* Six mobile units measure at the sites of dose rate probes

** Manual sampling at 20 sites and gamma spectrometric measurement of all iodine isotopes

50

Table DE-2. Type of data and frequency of reporting of surface water monitoring networks inemergency operation mode oflMIS.

Institution operating the sub-network

Number of stationsType of DataSpec. Cont. of Surface water (Bq/1)Gross betaGross gammaGross alpha3U

Gamma spectrumAlpha spectmm

Suspended matter (Bq/kg)Gamma spectrum

Spec. Cont. of Sediment (Bq/kg)Gamma spectrum

"Federalwaterways"(Rivers)Federal Institutefor Hydrology,(BfG)40

2h2hasapasapasapasapasap

asap

asap

North Sea andBaltic Sea

Federal Maritimeand HydrographicAgency (BSH)12

2h

asapasapasapasap

asap

asap

6.2 Automatic gamma monitoring networksA network of 2150 dose rate probes equipped with Geiger-Muller counters is run by theFederal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) (cf. Fig. DE-1). The probes are installed at aheight of 1 m above grassland. Network planning seeks to minimize obstructions in thevicinity of the probes in order to facilitate a certain level of representativeness andcomparability. All probes are connected to the public telephone network via modem. Data arepolled every 48 hours in routine operation and every 2 hours during an emergency bycomputers located at six different sites of BfS. Computers communicate data via ISDN andTCP/IP. Data are checked for plausibility and consistency with data of the air monitoringnetworks at the Institute for Atmospheric Radioactivity (IAR) of BfS at Freiburg. Qualitychecked data are transmitted to the Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservationand Reactor Safety (BMU).

If, for a certain probe, three subsequent one-minute average values exceed a site-specific limit(approx. 5 standard, deviations above the median), a spontaneous message is sent to the datacenter. If two such messages come from neighboring probes at a distance of less than 30 kmand within a time interval of 1 hour, an officer on duty at the IAR data center at Freiburg isnotified to check the data.

Information on precipitation is crucial for the interpretation of dose rate data in the earlyphase of an increase. The German Weather Service monitors precipitation with weather radar.Data are updated every 30 minutes.

51

Fig. DE-1. Location of dose rate monitoring probes of the German IMIS network.

6.2.1 In-situ gamma spectrometry

At each of the 6 BfS sites that service the dose rate network, nuclide specific systems onvehicles are co-located. These mobile units are optimized for fast measurements at pre-selected representative sites of dose rate probes using high-resolution in-situ gammaspectrometers. In addition, one mobile in-situ spectrometry system is allocated to each state.Another 39 portable systems are deployed in emergency situations at DWD sites. These areoperated as fixed on-line stations and supplement the station instrumentation in order toobtain a complete understanding of the situation around the station. Measurements can also becarried out during the passage of radioactive air masses in order to assess not only depositedactivity but also air concentration of xenon isotopes. The equipment of these units is identicalto that of the mobile systems.

52

The design of the mobile units is robust in order to cope with the needs of in-fieldmeasurements. All systems are identically calibrated for freshly deposited activity on theground. Pre-existing contamination, mainly from Chernobyl fallout, is assessed by routinebackground measurements at pre-defined sites. It will be subtracted in an emergency frommeasured data giving correctly the net value of fresh soil surface contamination

6.3 Systems for site-specific monitoring of nuclear facilities

The German systems and regulations for site-specific monitoring include both on-line systems(KFU) for the permanent surveillance of in-plant and stack parameters and of the radiologicalsituation in the environment as well as sampling and measurement programs (REI) in thevicinity of a plant. Details of a typical parameter set of a KFU system are given in Table DE-3. Data are updated every 10 minutes.

Most of the KFU systems integrate environmental on-line gamma dose rate networks whichare typically operated up to distances of 10 kilometers from the plant. The basic criteria forsite selection are equal coverage (one station per 30° sector) and the distribution of thepopulation. In addition to the site-specific monitoring systems, the density of the nation-widegamma dose rate network of DVIIS (cf. Section 6.2) has been increased in the vicinity of theseGerman nuclear power plants up to a distance of 25 kilometers. Therefore, data from about 20to 40 on-line stations for gamma dose rate are available in the area up to 25 km distance froma nuclear power plant. Fig. DE-2 shows a typical distribution of gamma probes in the vicinityof a German nuclear power plant.

Each KFU system operates an atmospheric model for the diagnosis of the atmospherictransport in real time. At present, the legal requirement is a Gaussian plume model. Inaddition, Gauss puff models or Lagrangian models are operated.

The sampling and measurement programs of the REI regulations are comprised of gamma and- if required at a particular installation - neutron dose rate measurements as well as samplingand nuclide specific measurement of air, precipitation, soil, vegetation, ground water, surfacewater, sediment, drinking water, foodstuff and animal feed. The programs are specified fordifferent types of nuclear installations and distinguish between routine and emergencyoperation. In an emergency, the license holder is responsible for monitoring and sampling inthe central zone (up to 2 km radius) and the most contaminated 90° sector of the middle zone(10 km radius). The competent authorities concentrate their monitoring/sampling activities inneighboring sectors of the middle zone and in the outer zone (10 to 25 km).

6.3.1 Survey teams

In Germany, mobile survey teams consist of measuring teams and radiation detection teams.According to federal basic recommendations for disaster control in the environment ofnuclear installations, the measuring teams primarily measure the gamma dose rate and take airsamples to measure the specific activity concentration of radionuclides in air. In-situ gamma-ray spectrometers are used for measuring the soil contamination after a plume passage. Thespecialized Nuclear Emergency Service (KHG) located at Karlsruhe supports the measuringteams of the operator of a nuclear facility. Fire brigades and other disaster controlorganizations provide radiation detection teams equipped with simple and robust detectors.They support the measuring teams and take environmental samples.

53

Table DE-3. Parameters of on-line monitoring of the German KFU systems; variousparameters, which characterize the status of the plant, are also available on-line. Aparenthesis indicates that the measurement is not mandatory.

Type

Release rate

Site-specificmeteorology

Environment-al situation

Parameter

noble gases (stack)gamma dose rate (stack)1-131 activityconcentration (stack)activity concentration(aerosols, stack)air flowtemperature

activity concentration(liquid effluent)water flowactivity concentration(cooling water)water flow (coolingwater)wind direction

wind velocityair temperatureprecipitationradiation balancestandard deviation ofwind directionrelative humidityatmospheric pressuregamma dose rate

activity concentration ofair (aerosol and iodine)

Licenseholder

XXX

X

XX

X

XX

X

X

XXXXX

XX

Competentauthority

XXX

X

(X)(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)(X)(X)(X)(X)

(X)(X)X

(X)

54

Fig. DE-2. Location of dose rate monitoring probes within a 25 km distance of a Germannuclear power plant. The gray squares denote regular IMIS probes, the black squares denotethe 12 additional probes which increase the network density around the power plant. Thelocation of the KFU probes for the same power plant is indicated with rhombuses.

6.4 Air monitoring stationsTaking into account the number and the position of the nuclear power plants in Europe, thepopulation density in Germany, and the potential of diagnostic weather codes to interpolatebetween individual stations, a total number of about 50 monitoring stations is considered to berequired on the territory of Germany (cf. Fig. DE-3). At 39 stations, the German WeatherService (DWD) operates automatic on-line systems. Filter tape systems furnished with highresolution gamma spectrometers (10 m3/h) and filter tape systems furnished with gross alphaand beta counters (ABPD, 40 m3/h) measure aerosols. The minimum detectable concentrationfor 137Cs is 15 mBq/m3 on a daily average. Iodine samples are taken manually at 20 stationsand measured nuclide specifically. The detection limit is about 50 mBq/m3 for a 4-hoursample. Reporting time is daily in routine operation and every 2 hours in emergencyoperation. At each station, a probe of the dose-rate monitoring network is co-located. Inaddition, stations are equipped with fixed in-situ gamma detectors (cf. section 6.2.1).

This network is completed by additional 12 on-line stations of BfS furnished with a combinedalpha/beta-aerosol and iodine monitor.

55

Wcsterland Baltic SeaFehmarn

OArkona

North Sea

\euglobsow

'..'•-iWaldhor A \ Seehaus'eni

7 Hannover j

•Aachen \. ...

r / Bebdorf ,<~

Gcra#_Scbtniickt-

(Jk. Gr<)Bkang)cnlWr(f OffcpbacbJ '

'v.Trier..-^' • '̂ t

( / A Hocktnht'im® Xurnbcrg

Rcgensbur"

©.Stuttsan iv

UIm®\ FUrstca/cll J.-•/ \ Miinchen 9 " /"^"^

\ (Freiburg \

/ wASchaumsIand > !

VA SK

0 5') I ft) >u)

/g'. Z>£"-5. Location oflMIS air monitoring stations in Germany, run by the Federal Officefor Radiation Protection (BfS) and the German Weather Service (DWD).

56

6.4.1 Trace analysis program

High volume samplers (300-800 m3/h) are operated for measuring nuclide specific airborneactivity at 5 sites. The minimum detectable concentration for 137Cs is less than 1 (iBq/m3 forweekly samples. Xenon and Krypton samples are taken at 7 sites and analyzed at the BfSnoble gas laboratory at Freiburg. Data from these stations are considered necessary to informthe competent authorities and the public about detectable man-made radioactivity at a level farbelow any hazard.

6.4.2 Modeling

The information system of IMIS includes models for the diagnosis and prognosis ofatmospheric dispersion (trajectories, Lagrangian models with grid space of 55-60 km and of 7km respectively) as well as for the dose and the contamination of food and environmentalsamples (PARK). The operation of the automatic module of the PARK system is optimized toprocess the input of data from the automatic networks of IMIS, with an update every twohours in emergency operation mode.

6.5 Airborne systemsFive mobile measuring systems, equipped with Nal-detectors and high-resolution gammaspectrometry systems, exist at BfS sites for installation in helicopters of the Federal BorderPolice (BGS). These systems assess ground contamination in cases when a detailedcontamination profile of an affected area is needed. They will also be used for searching forlost sources, debris of nuclear powered satellites etc. In addition, an aircraft is available totake samples in the upper air. The system consists of an aerosol filter sampling unit and ahigh-resolution gamma spectrometer for analysis of the samples on board.

6.6 Foodstuffs and environmental samplesThe 43 specialized laboratories are operated to measure foodstuff, drinking water and animalfeed, but also environmental samples. The laboratory data are mostly based on analyses withhigh-resolution gamma spectrometers. Sample collection and measurement are based onpredefined standardized programs and techniques. The samples are collected at the productionsites. The laboratories have to participate in regular quality assurance programs carried out byspecialized agencies (Leitstellen). The overall capacity of the laboratories is capable ofincreasing the sampling and measurement frequency by about two orders of magnitude whenswitching from routine to emergency operation mode. For example, the number of milksamples (about 1000) routinely analyzed in Germany per year can be analyzed, if necessary,per day.

6.7 Data quality checks in IMIS

There are three levels of data checking. Firstly, each institution operating the sites isresponsible for checking its own data at a technical level. This typically comprises the checkfor status data. On a second level, data from each measuring method are checked for internalconsistency and representativeness. On a third level, data from different detection methods areinter-compared and checked for plausibility. The level 2 and level 3 quality checks areperformed by specialized agencies where data are also evaluated with respect torepresentativeness. Data having passed these three levels of quality control provide a

57

consistent and representative picture of the contamination situation and are appropriate forsubsequent evaluation.



No attempt is made at internal screening of a large number of affected persons in a nuclearemergency. Only a crosscheck is planned in emergency care centers assessing the radioiodinecontent of the thyroid. A thyroid surface dose rate of 10 p,Sv/h corresponds to a thyroid doseof 150 mSv for adults and to 1200 mSv for children.

For smaller incidents or representative measurements, there are about 45 whole body countersoperated by hospitals, nuclear power plants, research institutes etc. Routine monitoring ofoccupational exposure is the main purpose of these instruments. Hospitals and researchinstitutes are certified by a specialized agency (Leitstelle Inkorporationsiiberwachung).Instrumentation is mainly Nal detectors with additional high-resolution germanium detectorsfor nuclide identification. Excretion analysis can be performed at some of these sites but alsoat other independent laboratories certified by the Leitstelle.


In the event of a severe nuclear accident, emergency care centers will be set up upon requestby local authorities. Fire brigades and paramedics under the responsibility of the localcommunity operate the centers. Screening measurements are made with simple dose ratemeters. If necessary, additional measurements with contamination monitors allow for higherprecision.

6.9 Future developmentIn the near future, improvements and developments in the following areas are planned:

• Implementation of the recommendations of the EU Commission on the application ofarticle 36 of the Euratom Treaty (Dense/sparse network)

• Harmonization of site-specific monitoring programs (REI) and nation wide monitoring(MIS)

• Improving and enhancing national and international exchange of on-line monitoring dataand radiological information (e.g. EURDEP).

• Installation of the RODOS decision support system at the BfS in Bonn for use by thefederal government and the states in the event of a nuclear accident

58

7 Iceland

7.1 National backgroundThe Icelandic Radiation Protection Institute (IRPI, "Geislavarnir rikisins") is the competentauthority and research institute for monitoring radiation and radioactivity in foodstuffs and inthe environment. IRPI has a leading role in planning and coordinating nuclear emergencypreparedness in Iceland and in providing assessments and information to the relevantauthorities and the public.

In a radiological emergency involving an acute threat to the population the Icelandic CivilDefense (Almannavarnir rikisins) becomes the responsible authority, with IRPI taking on animportant advisory role.

IRPI is also the international contact point in Iceland, receiving and sending notifications inthe case of radiological or nuclear accidents, in accordance with the IAEA convention andbilateral agreements.

The general background level of the country (gamma dose rate) is fairly well known. It israther low due to the low concentration of natural radionuclides in the basaltic bedrock ofIceland.

The main nuclear threats are of two types:

1. Health risks due to accidents involving mobile radioactive sources, including reactors,which could cause serious contamination in a limited area.

2. Economic and societal risks due to accidents in nuclear facilities relatively far away, butwhich could cause a measurable contamination of the environment.

Iceland does not have a nuclear power program and no research reactors; there is basically nodomestic nuclear threat to the population or the environment. Nuclear facilities in othercountries are also relatively far away (900 km the closest, generally much further away).Mobile reactors (submarines, other types of naval vessels, icebreakers, satellites) represent themost important threat with possible adverse health effects. Other threats are nuclear weaponsand the transport of radioactive sources. Mobile reactors are neither in use in Iceland norcontrolled by Icelandic authorities even when close to Icelandic territory. Emergencyresponse planning for accidents involving these types of sources is therefore of general natureand not focussed on a specific location or scenario.

Nuclear accidents far away with limited health risks can however have serious economicconsequences, due to a measurable contamination of the environment. More emphasis hastherefore in recent years been put on fast exchange of information with other countries and theability to evaluate the radiological situation in Iceland and neighboring regions.

7.2 Automatic gamma monitoring stationAt present, there is but one gamma monitoring station in Iceland, located in Reykjavik, (Fig.IS-1). The station has an ionization chamber detector of the same type as used in Sweden.

The gamma station, is connected to a computer at IRPI. The reading of the gamma station canbe polled at any time from IRPI. This is done automatically a few times per day. Records of

59

the variations in radiation level are kept at IRPI. A block diagram of the gamma monitoringsystem is shown in Fig. IS-2. This system is currently (late 2000) being integrated with asystem of radiation detectors installed in air monitoring stations (described in next section).An example of the output from the gamma station is shown in Fig. IS-3. It shows the typicallylow and rather stable levels of 50 - 60 nSv/h, reflecting the low concentration of naturalradionuclides (e.g., from the uranium and thorium series) in the Icelandic rocks and soils. Thefairly low and stable radiation level makes it easier to detect abnormal increases in theselevels.

When an alarm is triggered, a signal is sent directly to IRPI. The alarm level is currently set asin Sweden (i.e., at a 300 nSv increase during the last 24 hours). During normal office hoursthe alarm will be handled routinely by the staff. After office hours an alarm will be sent to theEmergency Notification Department of the Icelandic Coast Guard and they will contact anexpert from IRPI to assess the situation. If needed, the Icelandic Civil Defense will be alerted.

7.3 Air monitoring stations

Two high-volume air samplers will be in operation in Iceland in 2001.

1. One is a 550 m3/h sampler for monitoring low level background values. The collectionperiod for each filter can be up to a month. The filter is made of synthetic fibres. Aftersampling the filter is pressed into a solid pellet and after waiting for short livedradionuclides to decay, the filter is measured in a HPGe gamma spectrometric system.

Fig. IS-1. Location of the automatic gamma monitoring station and the air monitoringstations in Reykjavik (64°05'08"N, 21°50'35"W).

60

Gamma station Air samplerAutomated air sampler

(planned 2001)

Ionizationchamber

GMtubes Flow meter

GMtubes

Flowmeter

Met.sensors HPGe

ERouter

Public telephone network

mobile phones

IRPI

Fig. IS-2. Block diagram of the Icelandic gamma monitoring system.

2. An automatic system with similar flow rate will be installed in 2',001. The filter will bechanged once per day. This station is a part of the global network of stations of theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO). The operating cycle ofthe automated air sampling station will be 24 hour sampling, 24 hour decay time and 24hour counting using an HPGe detector. Results can thus be available 48 hours after end ofsampling. If required, preliminary results can be obtained earlier, while the counting isstill ongoing.

Both samplers have the capability to have detectors monitoring radionuclides on the filtersurface during sampling. This option has already been used in the existing system to provide avery sensitive indicator of increased radionuclide concentration in air. If abnormally highlevels were reached, then notifications were sent to pagers and by fax. It is also planned toinstall radiation detectors beneath the filter in the new sampler for continuous monitoring ofthe radiation level from the filter.

61

>V)

a2S)w0Q

70 1

60-Uiii. . .• TWIMiijiliiij

50 T f ' ""'"'40 j30 -J

20 -

10-

fo ^ Qj Q> O *^C\i (V C\J t\/ f*3 &}

] 1 1 d-lill II 1^iMiri.yd.M^.,., ,^1,1 , i l W w L A .hi. , I.J

Date (day.month in year 2000)

Fig. IS-3. Typical gamma dose rate background measured in Reykjavik

This alarm system is now being updated and integrated with the gamma monitoring network.Station information and meteorological information will be included as well. The staff of IRPIcan access this information via the Internet. The staff can also access the same informationusing wireless mobile terminals via the Mobile Internet.

IRPI acts as the Icelandic National Data Center (NDC) receiving data products from theCTBTO International Monitoring System network and as the operator of the station, IRPI willhave direct access to the data it produces. This includes data from radionuclide air samplingstations spread over the globe. The data can be available 48 hours after sampling and IRPIwill have the ability to analyze the raw data from any of these stations.

Nationally and internationally produced data are thus collected and evaluated at IRPI, andmade available to staff using a secure (SSL) Web site when appropriate, accessible using theordinary Internet or the Mobile Internet via a wireless terminal. This synthesis of informationwill greatly improve the early warning system and the ability to evaluate possible threats.


In case of an emergency, available mobile equipment could be used for plume tracking.

Iceland has no equipment specially designed for airborne measurements of ground deposition.If needed, such equipment would have to be obtained from other countries.


IRPI continuously carries out measurements of food, water and vegetation samples. At itsdisposal is the following equipment for spectrometric measurements and beta analysis,

• a radiochemical laboratory• two HPGe detectors• one system of 5 low-level beta detectors

62

When necessary, the facilities at the University of Iceland in Reykjavik and University ofAkureyri as well as of the National University Hospital could be used for samplemeasurements. What this means in terms of equipment and staff can vary from time to time.

The following types of samples are collected on a routine basis and analyzed for gammaemitting radionuclides using HPGe detectors,

Foodstuffs:

• Milk from the largest dairies is monitored every month• Dry milk from the two national producers• Lamb meat during the slaughtering season in autumn• Fish and fish products (being the backbone of the national economy)

Other types of samples:

• Sea water• Fucus• Rainwater• Soil• Vegetation

Other types of foodstuffs and environmental samples are measured less frequently, but areincluded as needed.

7.6 Survey teams and local measurements

Civil defense forces and fire brigades do not carry out any type of measurements of ionizingradiation on a routine basis but can be called on to perform gamma dose rate measurements.

7.7 Contamination


Iceland has no specific systems for whole body counting, but hospitals have detectors that canbe used for this purpose. Icelandic hospitals can also perform direct organ scans, and samplesof excreta, urine and body fluids can be analyzed for radionuclides. If needed, persons whomight have been contaminated internally might be sent abroad for monitoring.

IRPI has hand held monitors which have been calibrated for estimating the concentration of I-131 in the thyroid. Similar monitors are also available at the National University Hospital andhave been used during treatment of patients with thyroid cancer.


Checks for external beta and gamma emitting contamination may be performed by IRPI anduniversity and hospital staff, using most types of modern portable equipment. Instruments foralpha contamination checks are also available at IRPI.

63


IRPI has a number of portable instruments for field measurements of total gamma dose rates.

In case of an emergency, some of the instruments may be turned into mobile automaticgamma monitoring stations. This is achieved by affixing the detector on a tripod and linking itto a data logger, a local computer and a modem. Measured data will be forwarded to IRPIover a telephone network or Internet. These stations can also be programmed to send alarmswhen called for.


• Iceland may install a few more stationary gamma stations. An automated air monitoringstation will be installed in 2001.

• Mobile gamma monitoring stations are currently (late 2000) being considered. These unitscould be transported quickly to any location. This would be very important when havingto respond to some nuclear threat far away or to threats from mobile sources near or inIcelandic territory.

64

8 Latvia

8.1 National backgroundAccording to the national legislation the regulatory bodies shall be the ministries with theirsubordinate institutions as executive and technical support organizations. The ministries mayissue requirements to their subordinate institutions and also have the right to initiate newlegislative acts. The three relevant ministries are:

- Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional DevelopmentMinistry of Interior

- Ministry of Welfare

Subordinate institutions to the ministries have executive power in supervising and they alsoparticipate in the licensing process.

There have been recent changes in the nuclear legislation and the Parliament has approved anew law on Radiation Safety and Nuclear Safety. According to this law the new regulatorybody, the Radiation Safety Center (RDC), will be established in 2001.

Latvia has one research reactor, which was decommissioned in 1998. The major radiologicalthreats are considered to be nuclear accidents outside of Latvia, from legal and illegaltransport of radioactive materials.


The scheme of nuclear regulatory bodies is as follows.

Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development

The Ministry is responsible for coordination of international cooperation, drafting legaldocuments, development of national strategies etc. Subordinate organizations of Ministry:

- Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), the main duties of the Departmentinclude drafting a national environmental protection policy and monitoring itsimplementation and observance. DEP is responsible for radiation protection and nuclearsafety in Latvia.

- Radiation and Nuclear Safety Control Division (RNSCD), which is part of StateEnvironmental Inspectorate (SEI), is the main regulatory body. RNSCD is responsible fornuclear safeguard and supervision of nuclear facilities (except medical).

- RNSCD will work until Radiation Safety Center will be established and then experts fromthis unit will be transferred to new regulatory body.

- Radiation Safety Center will have full responsibility for state supervisory system and alsoto manage radiation incidents and to consult Fire and Rescue Service in case of nuclearaccidents.

- Latvian Environmental Agency (LEA) is responsible for computer and program support ofall institutions under the Ministry as well as maintenance of the Early WarningMonitoring System of Latvia. The Latvian Environmental Agency (LEA) is the owner ofthe Automatic Gamma monitoring system and the Laboratory Department is the operatorof the system. The network consists of 16 stations distributed evenly over the country.

65

- Latvian Hydrometeorological Board (LHMB) implements state policy in the field ofhydrometeorology, carries out hydrometeorological and environmental qualityobservations, provides weather forecasts and similar information. Environmental pollutionobservation network stations carries out pollution observations in inland waters, ambientair, snow cover.

The LHB has responsibility to consult state institution regarding predictions ofmetrology condition and will participate in case of nuclear emergency as consultants.

The state enterprise "Radon" was the responsible organization for the national radioactivewaste management and the operation of the emergency decontamination unit.

The new radioactive waste management agency (RAPA) will be established in 2001. ThisAgency will be composed by former state enterprises "Radons" and "Reaktors, Ltd".RAPA will be responsible for national system of radioactive waste management, safeenclosure of research reactor, decommissioning of the reactor and emergencydecontamination activities.

Regional Environmental Boards (REB) have responsibility for local inspections in smallfacilities and assistance to SEI.

Ministry of Welfare

- Environmental Health Center (EHC) and Radiological Center (RC) are regulatory bodiesin the field of nuclear energy applications in medicine. EHC deals with all medicalapplications.

- The Radiological Center deals with X-ray applications and operates the national radiationexposure register.

- Both above mentioned institutions of the Ministry of Welfare will change their activities -the experts from them with competence in radiation safety will be transferred to theRadiation Safety Center, e.g., all supervision and control of the users. Also national TLDdosimetry services will be transferred to the Radiation Safety Center.

Latvian Food Center has responsibility for police development and implementationregarding control of food contamination.

Ministry of Interior

The Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Economy must also be mentioned here. Thesetwo ministries are responsible for the border control system; certain activities are undertakenby the Ministry of Welfare, namely the Sanitary Inspectorate. The Ministry of the Interior isresponsible for the assessment of physical protection and also manages the emergencypreparedness system.

- The State Firefighting and Rescue Service has responsibility for emergency preparedness,maintenance of the Alarm Center in case of an emergency and national planning withinthese areas.

- The border guards are responsible for preventing illicit trafficking of radioactive andnuclear materials.

66

8.1.2 Legal basis

Laws and the Cabinet of Ministers regulations

The Law on Radiation Safety and Nuclear Safety (01.12.1994, amendment 24.04.1997); newlaw is in force since 21 November 2000

The Cabinet Regulations on Protection against Ionizing Radiation (12.08.1997, amendmentsin 1997, 1998)

The Cabinet Regulations on State Accounting and Control System of Nuclear Materials(14.04.1998)

The Cabinet Regulations on Committee of Strategic Export and Import (22.01.1997), theyreplaced several previous regulations about the implementation of NSG regime in Latvia

The Cabinet Regulations on Issuance of Licenses and Permits for Activities with RadioactiveSubstances and other Sources of ionizing Radiation (20.06.1996; amendments in 1997 and1998)

The Cabinet Regulations on Medical Contraindications (17.03.1998)

The Cabinet Regulations on Control of Radioactive Contamination in Food Products(26.05.1998)

The Cabinet regulation on Safe Transportation of Radioactive Materials (28.07.1998)

8.2 Automatic gamma monitoring networksThere are two different automatic gamma-monitoring networks in operation in Latvia. Thefirst system, the Automatic Area Radiation Monitoring system AAM-95, is designed formonitoring releases from foreign and domestic sources. At present the AAM-95 systemconsists of eight local stations.

The second system, PMS, consists of GM detectors and gamma spectrometers, which arelocated at seven different places.

The central AAM-95 system is integrated in the PMS server and alerts the staff if the alarmcriteria are exceeded. The staff at LEA will then alert the staff at RNSCD, the Department ofthe Environmental Protection (DEP) and the State Firefighting and Rescue Service (SFRC) byphone, by mobile phone by short e-mail messages, fax and e-mail for decision making and forinvolving other state offices.

If an alarm occurs in the PMS network, staff from LEA, RNSCD, (SFRC) and DaugavpilsEnvironmental Board can start forecasting the spreading of radioactive material and initiateother actions. LEA has presently not staff on 24-hour duty, but it will be organized as needed.The Radiological Center (RC) has an advisory role and organizes iodine prophylaxis if neededand provides personal dosimetry for persons, who will take part in the rescue work.

The Latvian countrywide monitoring system is presented in Fig. LV-1 and in Tables LV-1,LV-2.

67

PMS: Jurrflla

[p\AM: Salaspils

PMS: Baldone

emene

Fig. LV-1. Automatic gamma monitoring networks in Latvia.

Table LV-1. Available radiometric service in Latvia.

Type of measurementStationary automatic gamma monitoring stationsManual stationsAir filter stationsPrecipitation'sSubway measuring on sitesTotal gamma analysisSR90, H3, C14 determination

Gamma spectrometry with PGE, GeLi detector

Alpha spectrometry, determination oftransuranium elementsTotal alphaEnvironmental sampling(soil, vegetation,sediments, water)Sources of radioactivity with unknown origin

Foodstuff control

15 + 1*no3

noyesyes

with liquidscintillation method

yes

yes

noyes

yesyes

OrganizationLEA

LEA, RAPA Ltd.

RNSCD, LEA, EHCLEA, EHC, REB

LEA

LEA, VDC, EHC,RMC

LEA, RMC, VDC

LEA

LEA, RMCEHC,

' GM tube over air filter in JL-900

68

Table LV-2.

LocationBaldoneBalviDaugavpilsDaugavpilsDemeneJekabpilsJurmalaRucavaLiepajaMadonaRezekneSalacgrivaSalaspilsTalsiValmieraVentspils

Latvian network of gamma monitoring stations.

Type of networkPMSPMSPMSAAM-95; JL-900AAM-95PMS;PMSAAM-95PMS:AAM-95AAM-94AAM-95AAM-95AAM-95PMSAAM-95

ID numberPMS 47PMS 33PMS32ID 19ID 11PMS 46PMS 30ID 18PMS31ID 15ID 16ID 14ID 13ID 17PMS 48ID 12

Type of detectorRD-02L; Oxford TD3X3RD-02L; Oxford TD3X3RD-02L; Oxford TD3X3RD-02L; Air filteringRD-02LRD-02L; Oxford TD3X3RD-02L; Oxford TD3X3RD-02LRD-02L; Oxford TD3X3RD-02LRD-02LRD-02LRD-02LRD-02LRD-02L; Oxford TD3X3RD-02L

RemarksGM tube; Nal(Tl)GM tube; Nal(Tl)GM tube; Nal(Tl)GM tubeGM tubeGM tube; Nal(Tl)GM tube; Nal(Tl)GM tubeGM tube; Nal(Tl)GM tubeGM tubeGM tubeGM tubeGM tubeGM tube; Nal(Tl)GM tube


General

AAM-95 is a general-purpose area radiation monitoring system, designed for use in a networkwith eight local stations. The local station measures current gamma dose rate by use of twoRados GM-tubes, RD-02L, placed at a height of 1.5 to 6 m above ground level. The localstation sends alarms and fault reports and store raw data from 864 individual measurements.Dose rate data from the detector are displayed locally too. A block diagram of the AAM-95system is given in Fig. LV-2.

Detector specification

Detector:Measurement range:Radiation detected:Energy response:

Two halogen-quenched energy compensated GM tubes0.01 nSv/h - 10 Sv/hGamma and x-rays50keV-3 MeV

Operational temperature range: -40 °C to +70°CCalibration accuracy: ± 5% of Csl37 exposure at 20°CMeasurement accuracy: ± 15% from 0.1 |iSv/h to 10 Sv/h

The measurement interval is 15 minutes.

AAM-95 software

All AAM-95 local stations are polled automatically once a day by the central computer atLEA in Jurmala. Under emergency conditions there is a possibility to change the dose ratequery interval and transmit results at request. The central computer is used for storing dataand calculating gamma radiation doses, altering probe parameters as needed, storing raw datafor two weeks and mean values from measurements for one year.

69

p-f

±

8 GM tubesRD-02L

AAM connectionbox with modem

1 GM tube RD-02L Filter; Flow meter

JL900 air filtering stationconnection box

with modem

Public telephone network

AAM Dial-upcomputer

PMS Dial-upcomputer

Phone & fax

GSM phone network

Fig. LV-2. Block diagram of AAM 95 gamma monitoring system.

Alarm and malfunction settings

The lower alarm setting corresponds to 500 nSv/h, which is five times higher than the averagenormal background level of 100 nSv/h. The program calculates doses and gives alarm if thedose exceeds 500 nSv (it is used as default for the alarm threshold by AAM-95 software). Ifthe dose of the last 24 hours exceeds the dose of the previous 24 hours by the alarm thresholdvalue, an alarm will occur.

When a detector or system develops a fault, the program displays a malfunction alarmmessage with error code. There are eleven fault codes. Malfunctions can be ruled out byrepeated polling automatically or manually. Summation of data, trends and tables are preparedautomatically.


General

The PMS system consists of seven local stations and a central monitoring server and is asurveillance tool for gamma monitoring in the environment, especially relating to nuclearemergency situations. The system is designed to be in operation at all times. The unmannedlocal stations measure various radiological data, weather and other environmental conditions.The results are stored locally. If the radiation reaches threshold levels, this will be reportedwhen the local station is checked by the server. This check is done every 10 minutes. Allmeasurement data remain stored on the local PMS Station for 3 days in a directory accessiblefrom the PMS Server, and in another directory in a compressed format for up to one month.

A block diagram of the PMS system is given in Fig. LV-3.

70

GM tubeRD-02L

Voltagesupply

Nal-scintillationcounter

Voltagesupply

512channel

Temperaturegauge

Testequipment

Local PMSComputer Modem

PMS Dial-upcomputer

Modem

Rainintensitymonitor

Fig. LV-3. Block diagram of PMS gamma monitoring station.

Specifications

For measuring gamma dose rate the GM detector Rados RD-02L is used. The dynamic rangeis 10 nSv/h - 10 Sv/h and the GM data are collected each minute. An Oxford TD 3x3 inch.Nal(Tl) detector together with a 512 channel analyzer for gamma spectrometry is also used.

The spectrometer energy setting is adjusted for giving the number of counts per second foreach of a number of pre-set energy windows, representing radon gas as radon daughters, K-40and some man-made radionuclides, such as Cs-137. The GM reading interval is every 1minute, and the Nal reading every 10 minutes. Ten-minute spectra are written as a file. Thisfile is automatically transmitted from server. At each site there is also a rain intensity gaugethat gives an impulse for every 0.1 mm of precipitation and furthennore the temperature at thestation is recorded. With fixed intervals of six hours the PMS server calls each local stationand transfer measurement data.

PMS software

The PMS server handles most communications and analyses. It is connected to the localstations by public phone lines or MEPRD computer network. The PMS software is designedto run around the clock to regularly monitor the present situation on the attached PMS localstations. The PMS software consists of several programs: PMS Dialer, PMS Database, PMSData Insertion, PMS Alarm monitoring, which should be running at all times.

71

Alarm levels

The system software allows to set alarm levels separately for the total gamma dose rate andfor dose components caused by natural radioactivity as radon, K-40, thorium and by artificialones belonging to the group "remaining". When one or more of calculated radiation doselevels exceed the following settings an alarm is triggered:

gamma dose rate level from the GM-tube exceeds 200 nSv/h- dose rate from K-40 exceeds 200 nSv/h

dose rate from thorium exceeds 200 nSv/hdose rate from radon exceeds 200 nSv/h

- dose rate from remaining exceeds 30 nSv/h

If an alarm occurs and Alarm Dial Up is enabled, the local PMS station calls the server. Theprogram can also send and display malfunction messages.

8.3 Manual gamma monitoring stationIn Latvia there is no manual gamma-monitoring network at present.


8.4.1 General

LEA operates two stations: one stationary high-volume air monitoring station JL-900 foraerosols and gaseous iodine in Daugavpils and one mobile air filter station JL-150. Undernormal conditions the filters will be sent to LEA in Jurmala weekly for gamma spectrometricanalysis. The mobile air filtering station JL-150 is used for on-site field measurements.

An environmental air filter station is located near the decommissioned Nuclear ResearchCenter (NRC) (now: State Enterprise RAP A) in Salaspils and Radioactive Waste Disposal(RWD) site in Baldone. This station is equipped with a Typhon type air-filtering device.Spectrometric analyses are carried out by RAPA and LEA. Sampling of precipitation andsubsequent radiometric analysis, which earlier was performed by Latvian HydrometerologicalBoard, is now interrupted.

8.4.2 Specifications

Air flow rate: filtercarbon

Filter type:

Filter size:

Detection limit of

SnowWiteJL900

900 m3/h12 m3/h

Whatman GF/AActivated carbon

570x460 mm

2 uBq/m3

Hunter JL150

150 m3/h12 m3/h

Whatman GF/AActivated carbon

530x285 mm

10 uBa/ m3

Typhon

1000 m3/h-

Petrianoff. -

550x550 mm

not found(for Cs-137 weekly sampling)

72

8.4.3 Alarm levels and filter change rate

Station JL900 has the alarm for early warning based on counting data of a GM-tube, placedabove the filter. The device will trigger an alarm in response to an increase of the gamma doserate to more than 500 nSv/h. The GM-tube is included into the AAM-95 monitoring networkas the ninth local detector. Alarms are transmitted automatically by use of the public phoneline.

The filters are changed once a week and once in two weeks during summer time. Whennecessary, the filters will be changed and analyzed more often.

8.5 Survey teams

In case of a nuclear accident, mobile survey team can initiate and carry out assessment ofenvironmental dose rates and fallout with cars equipped with

• 16 L NaI(Tl)-detector GPX-1024 (Exploranium)• Multichannel analyzer GR-820 (Exploranium)• GPSandDGPS• Navigation indicator with variable sensitivity• Radar altimeter• Standard 486 PC with• GM counter• Nal(Tl) scintillation detector and gamma spectrometer• Mobile air sampling unit Hunter JL150 for aerosol and iodine measurements• Personal dosimeters• Mobile ARGOS Workstation for implementation data from mobile radiation monitoring

equipment into ARGOS NT code and conversion of detailed for use in ARGOS NT• Surface contamination meters

There is a plan to increase the capacity of survey teams by technical upgrades in 2001 and2002, the Fire and Rescue Services by portable devices, which will be used for investigationsin contaminated areas, and to control emergency working conditions.


The analysis of radioactivity in foodstuffs is handled by the Environmental Health Center(EHC). The EHC organization includes laboratories in the ERB equipped with radiometers forchecking total beta, contamination.

In case of a nuclear emergency, food and environmental samples will be measured, ifrequired, in LEA, EHC, State Enterprise RAPA and Veterinary Diagnostics Center (VDC)with high-resolution gamma spectrometry.

LEA has four high-resolution gamma spectrometers, manufactured by Ortec and Canberra.One of them is portable and mobile for in-situ measurements. A Canberra Packard lowbackground liquid scintillation radiometer TRICARB and Wallac liquid scintillationradiometer GUARDIAN is available at LEA for strontium 90 analysis and in addition anOxford alfa spectrometer is used for determination of transuranium elements.

73

8.7 Future developments

• From July 2001 supervision and control in radiation safety and nuclear safety field willindependently be carried out by the state regulatory authority, the Radiation Safety Center(RSC), being supervised by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and RegionalDevelopment.

• The new Radioactive Waste Management Agency (RAPA) will be established in 2001.This Agency will be composed by former state enterprises "Radons" and "Reaktors" Ltd.RAPA will be responsible for national system of radioactive waste management, safeenclosure of research reactor, decommissioning of the reactor and emergencydecontamination activities.

• Both above mentioned institutions of the Ministry of Welfare Environmental HealthCenter (EHC) and Radiological Center (RC) will change their activities - the experts fromthem with competence in radiation safety will be transferred to the Radiation SafetyCenter. Also national TLD dosimetry services will be transferred to the Radiation SafetyCenter.

• There is a plan to increase the capacity of survey teams by technical upgrades in 2001 and2002 the State Firefighting and Rescue Services by portable devices, which will be usedfor investigations in contaminated areas and to control emergency working conditions.

74

9 Lithuania

9.1 National backgroundIgnalina Nuclear Power Plant represents the most important domestic nuclear threat. Otherpotential nuclear threats are represented by radioactive waste disposals, industrial facilitieswhere radiation sources are used and medical applications of radiation sources for diagnosticsand treatment. Loss of control over radiation sources may lead to dramatic impact on theregion.

9.1.1 Legal basis

• Law No. VIII-1019 On Radiation Protection, adopted on 12 January 1999• Law No. VIII-529 On Environmental Monitoring, adopted on 20 November 1997• National Environmental Monitoring Program, adopted by Government on 01 July 1998,

Government Protocol No. 27• Governmental Decision "General provisions on dosimetric control in the case of radiation

accident", No. 578, 1998• Draft agreement on exchange of information of radiological significance between

Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia,Sweden and the European Commission.

A number of hygiene norms adopted by the Minister of Health Care determines generalrequirements for monitoring for exposure and radioactive contamination, permissible levels ofradioactive contamination of different items, and sampling techniques,

• HN 24:1998 "Drinking water. Quality requirements and monitoring"• HN 54:1998 "Raw materials and foodstuffs. Maximum permitted levels of chemical

contaminants and radionuclides"• HN 72:1997 "Sampling methods of foodstuffs, feedingstuffs, soil and water for

determination of specific and volumetric activity of radionuclides"• HN 73:1997 "Basic standards of radiation protection"• HN 84:1998 "Maximum permitted levels of radioactive contamination of foodstuffs and

feedingstuffs following a nuclear of radiological emergency"• HN 85:1998 "Natural exposure. Standards of radiation protection"


Ministry of the Environment, Joint Research Center (JRC). The Ministry of Environment isresponsible for organization and coordination of monitoring of releases and the monitoring ofenvironment.

The Radiation Protection Center is responsible for monitoring of drinking water, foodstuffand its raw materials, building materials and all items, which may cause human exposure.

Two levels of radioactivity monitoring are provided for: National environmental monitoringand Monitoring of industrial sites.

The Ministry of Environment elaborated a National Environmental Monitoring Program. Theprogram was approved by the Government in 1998. The Program includes the monitoring of

75

air, water and soil radioactivity. The monitoring network covers the entire country. Samplesof water, soil and aerosols are taken regularly and measured in laboratories. Monitoring forradioactivity in the Baltic Sea is performed in accordance with the Recommendations of theHelsinki Commission. Measured data are transmitted to the database of the HelsinkiCommission. A network of automatic permanent gamma measuring stations is one of themost important components of the national monitoring system. Special attention is focused onthe Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant region. The measured data is transferred to the data basecomputer with the Joint Research Center (JRC) of the Ministry of Environment via thetelephone lines. If the gamma dose rate exceeds a threshold the computer is to generate analarm signal.

Industrial sites shall perform the Monitoring of Industrial Sites in accordance with permits forthe use of natural resources issued by the Ministry of Environment. Ignalina Nuclear PowerPlant performs the monitoring of radioactive effluents into air and water. Also, the nuclearpower plant controls the contamination of the nearest environment. Data on releases ofradionuclides into the environment and contamination of the environment are stored in thedatabase of the Ministry of Environment.

9.2 Automatic and semi-automatic gamma monitoring networksThere are two different automatic gamma radiation-monitoring networks in Lithuania. TheAAM-95 network has five stations (two of them will be put into operation very soon) and thePMS network has nine stations, see Fig. LT-1. The central AAM-95 computer and the PMSserver at the JRC alert the staff if the alarm criteria are exceeded. The staff at JRC will thenalert the staff in the Civil Defense Department by phone, fax, or e-mail for decision makingand for involving other state organizations. The Civil Defense department has the staff on 24-hour duty. The information also will be transferred to VATESI, the central nuclear safetyauthority.


General

The PMS system consists of nine local stations and a central monitoring server and is asurveillance tool for gamma monitoring in the environment. The system is designed to be inoperation at all times. It is a fully automatic system, which measures various radiological data,weather and environmental conditions. If the radiation reaches threshold levels, this will beautomatically reported to the main server at the JRC. Under normal conditions the PMSserver transfers the data from each station every three hours. The data from each station arestored in compressed format on the PMS server. The structure of the PMS system is shown inFig. LT-2.

Equipment

All PMS stations have GM RADOS RD-02L detectors, which measure the gamma dose rate.The dynamic range is 10 nSv/h - 10 Sv/h (the data are collected each minute). An Oxford TD3x3-inch Nal (Tl) detector together with a 512-channel analyzer for gamma spectrometry isalso used. The spectrometer energy setting is adjusted for giving the number of counts persecond for each of the pre-set energy windows. The measurement interval is set up to 10minutes. There is also a rain gauge at each station, which measures rain intensity. Threethermometers are also used at each station (at the Nal crystal, in enclosure and outdoors).

76

00 2230 2300 2400 2430 2500 .2530 2600 2630 270

NPPzonettith 5•..:'s tat ions

VILHIUS -CapitalCityUtena-Centre of

DistrictMonitoring

Stations rI ana LinaHue 1 ear'Powe:: Plant PMS

AAM-35

O AAM-35

AGIR

26l50

XcmalinaITuclear ,Power Plant

Fig. LT-1. Automatic gamma monitoring networks in Lithuania.

11

GM-tubeRD-02L

Voltagesupply

Temperaturegauge

Nal-scintilationcounter

Centralcomputer at

JRC

Voltagesupply

512 channelanalyzer

Modem

''Public telephone"•. lines

Computer Modem

Testequipment

Climatecontrol

Rainintensitymonitor

Fig, LT-2. Block diagram of the PMS gamma monitoring network.

PMS software

The PMS server handles most communications and analysis. It is connected to the localstations by public phone lines. At fixed intervals of three hours the PMS server calls eachstation and transfers local measurement data. The program can also send and displaymalfunction messages.

Alarm levels

An alarm is triggered when gamma radiation dose rate exceeds the following alarmthresholds:

• Gamma dose rate from GM tube - 200nSv/h;• Dose rate from radon daughters- 200nSv/h;• Dose rate from remaining energy windows - 50nSv/h.


General

The AAM-95 system consists of five local stations and a central computer at JRC. One ofthem is combined with air sampling equipment. It is a fully automatic system, which isdesigned to be in operation at all times. If the radiation reaches threshold levels, this will beautomatically reported to the main computer at JRC. In normal conditions the station sendsthe radiological data to the main computer every six hours. The structure of the AAM-95system is shown in Fig. LT-3.

78

GM-tubeRD-02L

Localmonitor

unit

Connection box includingmicro-computer, modemand voltage supply with

UPS

Centralcomputer at

JRC

Modem

'Public telephone'lines

[ __ — . — — — |

Fig. LT-3. Block diagram of the AAM-95 gamma-monitoring network.

Equipment

The local stations measures the current gamma dose rate by means of the GM tube RD-02Lplaced at a height of 4-10 meters above the ground. The local stations send alarms and faultreports and store raw data from 864 measurements. All the data from the detector are alsodisplayed locally too.

AAM-95 softwares

Under emergency conditions there is a possibility to change the dose rate query interval andtransfer the data on request. The main computer is used for storing and calculating gammaradiation dose rates, altering probe parameters as needed, storing raw data for two weeks andmean values from measurements for one year.

When a detector or system develops a fault, the program displays a malfunction alarmmessage and an error code. Malfunctions can be examined automatically or manually bycalling the station from the main computer.

Alarm settings

The alarm threshold is set to 200nSv/h. The program also calculates dose rates and gives analarm if the dose of the last 24 hours period exceeds 0.05 JISV. If the dose of the last 24 hoursexceeds the dose of the previous 24 hours by the alarm threshold level, an alarm will occur.

79

9.2.3 Semi-automatic gamma monitoring network AGIR

General

The AGIR semi-automatic gamma-monitoring network was designed by the LithuanianInstitute of Physics and is placed countrywide in Lithuania. The system consists of 11 localstations, which are placed in meteorological stations, and 9 stations placed in public healthcenters and their branches. The AGIR network is called "semi-automatic", because localoperators should read the data and input them manually into a local computer. Presently, it isnot possible to do this automatically. The structure of the AGIR system is shown in Fig. LT-4,and in Fig. LT-1 and LT-5, the placement of semi-automatic gamma monitoring stations isshown.

Equipment

Each AGIR station is equipped with a Nal-scintillation counter with a local monitor, whichdisplays the data of the station, a printer and a local computer with an Internet connection.

AGIR software

Data from 11 AGIR stations, presented in picture LT-1, are handled by local operators on 24-hour duty. Data readings are carried out every three hours. After that the data are entered intoa local computer. The main computer at the JRC transmits the data by an Internet connectionusing ftp.

Data from 9 AGIR stations, placed in public health centers and their branches, are transferredto the Radiation Protection Center once per month. In case of dose rates higher than alarmthreshold, the data shall be transferred immediately.

Nal-scintilationcounter

Localmonitor

unit

Voltage supply

Manual input ofdata into a localcomputer withthe internetconnection

Localcomputer

Centralcomputer at

JRC

Internet

Fig. LT-4. Block diagram of AGIR gamma monitoring network (local computer and Internetconnection is not available in 9 AGIR stations, operating in public health centers and theirbranches).

80

AGIRManual

Fig. LT-5. Manual and semi-automatic gamma monitoring networks in Lithuania.

Alarm settings

The alarm threshold level is set to 200nSv/h.

9.3 Manual gamima monitoring networks

Manual gamma monitoring is performed inn Kaunas, Klaipeda, Siauliai and Panevezysdepartments of the Radiation Protection Center, in public health centers and their branches(54 points) all around Lithuania, cf. Fig. LT-5. Radiometers SRP88, calibrated for dose ratemeasurements, and Nal(Tl) detectors of dimensions 40x40 mm2 are used. Measurements areperformed once per day and data are transferred to the Radiation Protection Center once permonth. This system enables an increase in the frequency of monitoring if necessary.

9.4 Air Monitoring Network

9.4.1 General description of the network

In 1997 the modem air filter station Snow White JL 900 was installed in Utena city fordetecting air contamination. Glass fiber and activated charcoal filters from this station areanalyzed by gamma spectrometer. The glass fiber is changed twice a week and charcoal filtersevery month.

9.4.2 Alarm level

The filter station Snow White has a GM type detector placed just above the filter frame whichenables it to check the radiation level in the surrounding air. The gamma-detector belongs tothe radiation monitoring station of the AAM-95 system described above. As radioactiveparticles are concentrated on the filter, the reading from this detector increases. These data are

81

valuable for very early detection of the activity concentration increase in the atmosphere. Forthis purpose, the alarm level for the station is set to 0.3 |J,Sv/h.

9.5 Measurements of fallout radioactivity

Atmospheric fallout is continuously collected at 5 stations (Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipeda, Utenaand Dukstas). The total beta activity of ashed samples is measured. Every quarter, gammaspectrum analyses of integrated samples is performed.

In addition precipitation is permanently collected in Vilnius. Sampler area is 0,25 m2.Samples are analyzed once per month and total beta activity is determined. This activity isnormalized for 1 m2 and 24 hours. Besides, samples of 3 months are used for determination ofSr-90 and Cs-137 concentrations. Radiochemical separation is used during analysis.

9.6 Airborne gamma measurements

At the moment Lithuania does not have an aircraft equipped with a spectrometer to performgamma mapping of contaminated areas.

9.7 Survey teams

For mapping of contaminated areas the JPC has at its disposal a mobile laboratory equippedwith large volume (4 1) Nal detector, spectrometer and GPS system as well as portable gammaspectrometers.


Food analysis is based on determination of activity of radionuclides in individual food itemsrather than in mixed diet samples because this kind of analysis can indicate whichcountermeasures should be taken in order to reduce doses. Selection of foodstuff to besampled is based on food consumption statistics. Concentrations of two long-livedradionuclides Cs-137 and Sr-90 are routinely monitored.

Samples of drinking water are controlled for naturally occurring radionuclides as well. Thefirst step of analysis is determination of gross alpha and beta activity in drinking water. Incase gross alpha activity exceeds 0.1 Bq/1 or gross beta activity exceeds 1 Bq/1, more detailedanalysis of content of radionuclides is performed.

Long lived radionuclides (Sr-90, Cs-137) in foodstuff, drinking water and soil in IgnalinaNuclear Power Plant region are monitored. For comparison, measurements of theseradionuclides are also performed in five different geographical areas at different distancesfrom Ignalina. The samples are taken up to four times per year in different seasons and givesinformation on migration of radionuclides. The frequency of sampling at 9 monitoring pointsis 105 samples of food and 144 samples of drinking water. Meat is sampled twice, milk fourtimes, fish twice, vegetables (potatoes and cabbages) once in the end of summer, cereals onceper year, soil (from the cultivated fields in which the vegetables are growing) once per year,and drinking water four times. It is possible to perform more frequent sampling after anaccident.

82

Sampling techniques are used following the Hygiene standard 72:1997 "Sampling methods offoodstuffs, water, feedingstuffs and soil for determination of specific and volumetric activityof radionuclides". Analysis of activities of radionuclides is performed taking into account aninfluence of food preparation activities such as washing, cleaning, etc.

Measurements of activity of Sr-90 are performed by Liquid Scintillation Analyzer Tri-Carb2770 manufactured by company Packard. The procedure of determination of Sr-90 is basedon measurements of activity of Y-90 after extraction of yttrium by di(2-etyl-hexyl)phosphoricacid. Cerenkov radiation is registered in a Liquid Scintillation Counter. It is applicable for allkind of samples.

In order to increase sensitivity of measurements registration of activity of Cs-137 and Cs-134is performed by low level radiometer after chemical separation in order to assure highersensitivity and lower limits of detection.

Gross alpha and beta activity in drinking water is determined by liquid scintillation countingof water sample evaporated 10 times, and by counting of ash after evaporating water todryness (monitoring gross beta together with K-40). Gamma spectrometry is performed byOxford spectrometer with Ge detector (diameter 55.5 mm, length 55.3 mm) and Elektronikaspectrometer with a Nal(Tl) detector (diameter 63 mm, length 63 mm).

In Fig. LT-6, a map of sampling locations is shown.

• PrecipitationA FoodstuffT Fish• Drinking water

Fig. LT-6. Locations of sampling of precipitation, foodstuff and drinking water.

83



Whole body counting and measurements of content of radionuclides in biological samplesdetermine activities of internally deposited radionuclides. Whole body and thyroid countersare available at Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant. The whole body counter (with a Ge(Li)detector) is used for determination of internal contamination of human lungs and body withgamma radionuclides. The counter allows detecting radionuclides with gamma energies in therange of 50 keV to 3 MeV. The range of measurable activities is 1.2 10 tol.l 107 Bq for Cs-137 in whole body, and 1.6 102 to 3.7 106 Bq for Co-60 in lungs. The range of measurableactivities of 1-131 by thyroid counter (with NaI(Tl) detector) is 3.7 103 tol.9 106 Bq.

There are two hospitals in Lithuania with gamma cameras. These cameras may be used underaccidental conditions. Bioassay measurements started in the Radiation Protection Center.Urine samples are analyzed by means of gamma spectrometry, liquid scintillation countingand measurements of gross beta activity.


Surveys of external contamination are carried by the Radiation Protection Center usingcontamination monitors.

9.10 Measurements of doses to members of public

Measurements of external exposure to public were started in 1992. The doses to members ofpublic in the Kupiskis region are compared with doses received by inhabitants of Utena,Ignalina, Zarasai regions. Dosimetry measurements are performed every 6 months for groupsof persons (80 to 100) by means of TLD. LiF detectors are used. The errors of measurementsin dose range of 10"4 to 10~2 Gy are 30%, in range of 10"2 to 10 Gy - not more than 15%.

9.11 Future developments

It is necessary to install a whole body counter since now available is rather old. Besides,problems of calibration of whole body counter shall be resolved.Another direction is creation of system of routine bioassay measurements for determination ofinternal exposure.

84

10 Norway

10.1 National backgroundThe Crisis Committee (Kriseutvalget), a committee with representatives from 5 centralauthorities on the sub-ministerial level, has been given the responsibility for planning an earlyphase response to nuclear and radiological accidents. In the later phase of an accident, thecommittee is acting as an advisory body for the responsible ministries.

The Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, NRPA, (Statens Stralevern) has the leader-ship and secretariat for this committee. In the event of an emergency, the Crisis Committeewill convene in the: facilities of NRPA. Measurements of various kinds form an integral andimportant part of this organization.

The radiological monitoring program comprises a number of different systems and techniquesinvolving a number of organizations. Various types of measurements are carried out beforeand after a fallout situation, and the organizations responsible for these measurements, aresummarized in Table NO-1.

The Norwegian monitoring system has been established to detect releases emanating from anysource, foreign or domestic. The research reactor in Hal den and the isotope-producing reactorat Kjeller represent the most important domestic nuclear threat. Nuclear powered and nuclear-armed vessels also constitute a major radiological threat. The national waste managementprogram is a less significant contribution to the total risk.

10.2 Automatic gamma monitoring stationsNorway has an automatic network of 28 gamma-monitoring sites (v/ith a total of 29 detectors)(Fig. NO-1), including one station in Verhnetulomski on the Kola peninsula. The network isused for early warning as well as for a rough mapping of the fallout following an accident.There is a higher concentration of stations in the northernmost regions of the country. Themonitoring sites and some technical data are summarized in Table NO-2.

10.2.1 lonization chamber detectors

There are eleven sites with stationary ionization chamber detectors (Reuter-Stokes), placedapproximately 3 m above the ground. These are operated by the Norwegian Institute for AirResearch (Norsk Institutt for Luftforskning, NILU) on behalf of NRPA.

Every ten seconds the local microcomputer obtains a reading from the detector. From thesereadings, 1-hour average exposure rates (expressed in [iRfti) are computed and stored. Allstations are polled by a central computer at NILU at 1-hour intervals. A block diagram of anionization chamber station is shown in Fig. NO-2A. All data are displayed locally.

Radon compensation is not possible with these stations, since no spectrometric data areavailable from them. The central computer at NILU gives an alarm when the total gammaradiation level has increased by 40 nSv/h as compared to the mean value for the last 10 days;or 400 nSv per 24 hours. The latter is computed as the difference in dose between two moving24-hour windows, covering the last 48 hours.

85

Table NO-1. Measurement services in Norway.

Type of measurements Organizations

NILU HI NRPA LORAKON Civ.Def. NGU IFE NLH FFI Armed forces


Air monitoringstations:gamma analysisAirborne measurements:- external gamma- air filters

X

X

X

X

X X

X

Field measurements:- gamma analysis- total gamma- air filter gamma analysis- beta- alpha

XX

XXXXX

XX X

X

XX

XXXXX

XX X

Laboratory sample analysis- gamma- beta (Sr)- alpha (Pu, Am)Whole body countingExternal contamination

X X XXXXX

X

X X

XXXXX

XXX

X

X

NILU Norwegian Institute for Air ResearchHI Institute of Marine ResearchNRPA Norwegian Radiation Protection AuthorityLORAKON Measurement organization of the Norwegian Food Control AuthorityCiv. Def. Directorate of Civil Defense and Emergency PlanningNLH Agriculture University of Norway

NGU Geological Survey of NorwayIFE Norwegian Institute for Energy TechnologyFFI Norwegian Defense Research Establishment

86

TO , O

Mehamn

Hammerfest,

Troms0,

Vardo

Kristiansund^.

Naustdal

Bergen

•D: ValSs>]0

Valdres

StavangfL"J Prestebakke

GrimstadBirkenes

111 lonization chamber• Spectrometer NILUA Spectrometer LORAKON

rkenesSvanvik

Verhnetulomski(Russia)

NILU

Fig. NO-1. Norwegian gamma monitoring stations.

87

Table NO-2. Norwegian gamma monitoring stations.

Location

Ny-ÅlesundMehamnHammerfestVardøVadsøÄltaKirkenesTromsøS van vikAlgevarreØverbygdHarstadBodøTustervatnHøylandetTrondheimKristiansundVålåsjøNaustdalBergenValdresNordmoenNILUVikedalPrestebakkeStavangerGrimstadBirkenes 1Birkenes 2Verhnetulomski (Kola)

Type of detector

Ion ch RSS 121ScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusScint InspectorScintSlOPlusIon ch RSS 1012ScintSlOPlusIon ch RSS 1012ScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusIon ch RSS 121Ion ch RSS 1012ScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusIon ch RSS 121Ion ch RSS 1012ScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusIon ch RSS 1012ScintSlOPlusIon ch RSS 1012Ion ch RSS 1012ScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlusIon ch RSS 1012ScintSlOPlusScintSlOPlus

Centralalarm

YesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYes

Ion ch = ionization chamber detector (Reuter-Stokes)

Scint = Nal(Tl) scintillation detectors with multichannel analyzers

Only ionization chamber stations have a separate local logger.

"Central alarms" are issued by the central computer as appropriate during the automaticpolling of the stations. These alarms could be delayed due to the one-hour time period betweenpolls.

88

NILU staffPhonesPager

Ionizationchamberdetector

Telephonenetwork

Modem

Alarm

NILUcomputer

Data or telephonenetwork

NRPA

Fig. N0-2A. Block diagram of the Norwegian ionisation chamber gamma monitoring stations andalarm response.

NILU staff(Pager)

Nal (TL)detektor

Multichannelanalyzer

Modem

Telephone network

Modem

Alarm

NILUcomputer

Data or telephonenetwork

NRPA

Fig. N0-2B. Block diagram of the Norwegian Nal(Tl) gamma spectrometric stations and alarmresponse.

89

10.2.2 Scintillation detectors

There are 18 sites with NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors for total gamma and spectrometricmeasurements (19, including the station in Verhnetulomski, Kola). The spectrometer consistsof the detector and a multichannel analyzer; but there is no separate data logger. Introductionof procedures for compensation for variations in radon concentrations makes this a verysensitive system. Very small variations in the normal background radiation level may bedetected. A block diagram of the scintillation detector stations is shown in Fig. NO-2B.

Seven of the nineteen stations are operated by NILU. The remaining twelve detectors belongto the LORAKON network and are primarily used for food analysis (see the section onFoodstuffs and Environmental Samples below). During their fairly long down time, they areput in a laboratory window and used by NILU for background surveillance.

The scintillation detector stations are not equipped with local data loggers and may not triggeran alarm themselves. These stations are automatically polled every hour by the centralcomputer at NILU. If during the polling any of the alarm criteria below should be exceeded,an alarm is sent by the NILU computer.

The following alarm criteria are applied for the scintillation detector stations:

• Increase in total gamma dose rateabove the mean value for the last 10 days > 40 nSv/h

• Increase in total gamma dose > 400 nSv for last 24 hrs• Increase in the Cs-137 window > 4 cps (counts per second)• Increase in the Cs-134 window > 4 cps• Increase in the 1-131 window > 4 cps• Dead time > 2 %

10.2.3 Data transmission and alarm response

All these stations in Norway are connected to the public telephone network via modems. Themain computer at NILU calls each station once per hour to collect the data for storage in acentral database, and alerts NILU staff in case one or more of the alarm criteria are exceeded.The station can be called from NILU and recorded data may be transmitted to NILU at anytime, regardless of the automatic polling periods. Transmitted data are stored in NILU's maincomputer for possible future evaluation.

When an alarm level has been exceeded, NILU staff is alerted from the central computer. Thisis possible on a 24-hour basis thanks to a nationwide pager system operated by the telephonecompany. A display on the pager gives information on where, when and why the alarm wastriggered. If malfunction can be ruled out directly by NILU staff, NRPA is alertedimmediately.


NRPA, operates 5 high-volume air monitoring stations for aerosols, three of which alsocapable of monitoring gaseous iodine. Under normal circumstances, weekly filters areanalyzed by gamma spectrometry. With an air flow rate of 750-900 m3/h, the aerosoldetection limit is typically 0.1-1 jiiBq/m3 for weekly samples; for quick tests it is on the orderof 1-10 juBq/m3. For gaseous iodine, the air capacity is 12-20 m3/h, and the detection limit

90

about 10 uBq/m3. hi addition, NRPA operates two mobile air monitoring stations with acapacity of 140 nv'/h for aerosols and 10 m3/h for gaseous iodine.

As part of the global monitoring network established under the Comprehensive Test BanTreaty (CTBT), a monitoring station for aerosols and noble gases is planned to be establishedat Longyearbyen, Spitsbergen during 2001. Norwegian authorities will have access to the datafrom this station.

The Norwegian Institute for Energy Technology (Institutt for Energiteknikk, IFE), operates onbehalf of the Norwegian Defense Research Establishment (Forsvarets Forskningsinstitut, FFI),four stationary air monitoring stations with an air flow rate of about 20 m3/h.

The locations of the stationary Norwegian air monitoring stations are shown in Fig. NO-3.

AS" /JO.. i

%-f Kjeller VM^S jit, , ^

^ ;.*l^steras•^Stayanger

A Low volume

• High volume

Fig. NO-3. Norwegian air sampling filter stations.

In addition, NILU operates approximately 100 stationary general air quality monitoringstations with a flow rate of approximately 1 m3/h, and six mobile stations of about the samecapacity. These stations may be used for radiometric purposes if so recommended by theCrisis Committee.

91


The resources in Norway for airborne monitoring are under restructuring in an effort toimprove the capability and minimize the costs.

The following measurement equipment is available:

Geological Survey of Norway 1 201 Nal detector

Norwegian Institute for Air Research 1161 Nal detector

Norwegian Armed Forces 2 161 Nal detectors

The Geological Survey of Norway (Norges Geologiske Unders0kelse, NGU) is doing airbornemeasurements as part of their regular work and has instrumentation and procedures forairborne mapping of radioactive fallout and search for radioactive sources. Thesemeasurements performed from rented helicopters.

The Norwegian armed forces have one set of equipment installed in a military aircraft. Theother set of equipment is presently not in use.

NILU has one set of equipment, which is presently not in operation. There are however plansto put it into operation again.

The aim of the organization is to establish 4 complete sets of equipment that could be used formonitoring from fixed wing aircraft, helicopters or cars depending on the nature of theassignment and to produce results of high quality in a timely manner for assessments andbasis for decisions to be taken.


The analysis of radioactivity in foodstuffs is the responsibility of the Norwegian Food ControlAuthority (Statens Naeringsmiddeltilsyn, SNT). For this purpose they have established 59LORAKON- laboratories, equipped with NaI(Tl) detectors and multichannel analyzers.

In the event of a nuclear emergency where high-resolution gamma spectrometry is required,food and environmental samples will be measured using germanium detector systems atNRPA, IFE and a number of other organizations.

Strontium-90 analyses of milk and other agricultural products can be performed at NRPA, IFEand Agricultural University of Norway (Norges Landbruksh0yskole, NLH), using liquidscintillation detectors or low background beta detectors.

Surface barrier detectors and appropriate procedures for nuclide specific analysis of food andenvironmental samples containing transuranic elements are available at NRPA, IFE and theNLH. The procedures require radiochemical facilities. Most common combinations of trans-uranic nuclides and materials can be analyzed.


The Norwegian civil defense organization is equipped with approximately 160 survey metersfor external gamma dose and dose rate measurements. The instruments have been distributedto local civil defense patrols for use in emergency situations. The northern part of the country

92

has been given priority. A system of predetermined survey points, time intervals andmeasurement procedures is in operation in order to establish normal background levels. Theinstruments will also be used for determining radiation levels following an accident. People,objects, vehicles, soil etc. can be checked for external contamination by applying specialprobes. Data are transmitted to the Directorate of Civil Defense and Emergency Planning(Direktoratet for Sivilt Beredskap, DSB) and the Crisis Committee.

Norwegian defense forces are equipped with about 200 instruments, basically of the sametype as those used by the civil defense. In addition to this, other authorities, organizations andcompanies throughout the country have all together about 200 survey meters.

NRPA and IFE have emergency vehicles with transportable laboratory equipment formeasurements and analysis. They can be made operational at short notice. Examples ofavailable equipment:

• germanium detector systems for in-situ and laboratory gamma measurements• Nal(Tl) detector systems• pressurized ionization chambers in vehicles• high volume air samplers• survey meters

10.7 Contamination


There are stationary whole body counters with Nal(Tl) detectors at NRPA and IFE (Kjellerand Halden). One system is of the scanning type (at NRPA); the rest (NRPA, IFE) apply chairgeometry for measurements.

Most Nal(Tl) detectors, e.g., at the LORAKON stations, and portable germanium detectorsmay be used for whole body counting in an emergency situation. Also, some hospitals haveequipment that can be used for whole body counting.

Survey meters owned by Norwegian armed forces and civil defense forces may be applied fororgan measurements (e.g., the thyroid).

NaI(Tl) and germanium detectors are available at NRPA, IFE and certain hospitals forevaluating samples of body fluids, urine, excreta etc.


Checks for external beta and gamma emitting contamination may be performed by NRPA,IFE, civil defense forces, a number of hospitals and others, using different types of modernportable equipment.


A working group established by the Crisis Committee has been reconsidering strategies andneed of resources for monitoring purposes. It has been recognized that measurements shouldnot be considered alone but need to be considered together with all the other tools being usedfor assessments and decisions.

93

To improve the performance of the nuclear emergency response organization, the followingtopics have been identified as the most cost-effective measures at present:

improved international exchange of information

improved communication systems

improved assessment procedures

improved decision support systems

improved modeling capabilities,

rather than increasing the number of monitoring equipment. The number of instruments istherefore not expected to be significantly increased in the near future. There is however areasidentified where new instruments and procedures would result in an improved national abilityto respond to nuclear or radiological accidents, and the introduction of new instrumentationand procedures are currently considered.

It has however been recognized that some equipment need to be replaced due to aging and thefact that spare parts are no longer available. For some types of measurements, this might resultin upgrading the instruments to the next generation of equipment.

94

11 Poland

11.1 National backgroundPoland, which does not itself have nuclear power plants, has 10 nuclear power plants with 25units in operation within 300 km of its borders. Some of these plants have been constructedaccording to older safety standards. The basic domestic nuclear threats are represented by

• research reactor Maria (30 MW th of power)• spent fuel interim storage facility containing about 5000 spent fuel elements• radioisotope production center and the radioactive waste facilities and installations,

all located in nuclear research center in Swierk, 20 km from Warsaw.

11.1.1 Legal ba.ses

Existing regulations:

• Decree of the Organization and scope of Activity of the Service for Measurements ofRadioactive Contamination, 1964

• Atomic Law, Act of Parliament, 1986,• Decree of the Cabinet on Scope of Activity of the National Atomic Energy Agency

(NAEA) and of the NAEA President, 1987• Agreements on cooperation between the President of NAEA and other Ministries

Convention and bilateral agreements:

• Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, 1986• Convention on Assistance in the Event of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency,

1986• Bilateral Agreements with Denmark, Norway, Austria, Ukraina, Bielorussia, Russia,

Lithuania and Slovak Republic in the field of Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection

Regulation under preparation:

• Nation-wide Emergency Preparedness, Act of Parliament• Atomic Law (new regulation), Act of Parliament


The National Atomic Energy Agency (NAEA) is the competent government competentauthority for all matters related to radiation protection and nuclear safety. According tonational legislation the President of NAEA is responsible for tasks such as

• organizing the radioactive contamination measurements• evaluating the radiation situation in the country• communication, and information exchange with internal and national organizations• public information

under both normal and as emergency conditions.

The most important bodies, from the radiation monitoring point of view, are

• the National Radiation Emergency Center (NREC) at the NAEA

95

• the Center for Radioactive Contamination Measurements (CRCM) and the LocalEmergency Center (LEC) at the Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection (CLRP) -supervised by the NAEA

The main tasks of NREC are

• collecting, analyzing and verifying data and information received from other services andinstitutions

• developing and administering databases and other computer systems needed forassessment of the radiation situation

• computer analysis and prognoses using data from meteorological services for decisionmaking in the case of radiation emergency

• implementing projects to inform the public and media about the radiation situation in thecountry in normal and emergency conditions

The main tasks of the CRCM are

• collecting and verifying the data and measuring results received from measuring stationsof the radiation monitoring system

• elaboration of unified measurement methods for stations• transmitting appropriate radiological data to the NREC• implementing the quality assurance program of the radiation measuring station

(organizing intercalibration and training courses)

The organizational structure of the radiation monitoring system is presented in Fig. PL-1.

11.2 Automatic gamma monitoring networks

The automatic gamma radiation monitoring system, Fig. PL-1, is presently underreconstruction. At present there are four gamma-monitoring networks in operation,

• network of PMS• network of meteorological stations (IMWM, Institute of Meteorology and Water

Management)• network of military stations (Ministry of National Defense)• network of civil defense stations (Ministry of Interior).

The first two networks form early warning system; radiological data are transmittedautomatically by public telephone lines to the central computer in the CRCM (located at theCLRP) connected with the computer system of the Center for Radiation Emergencies"CEZAR" in NAEA. The locations of the early warning systems are shown in Fig. PL-2.

The data from the two latter networks are reported by telex to the CRCM or to Center"CEZAR" at the request of NAEA.

96

RADIATION MONITORING AND EARLY WAITING SYSTEM

IN POLAND

NATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (NAEA)

RADIATION EMERGENCY CENTER (CEZAR)

CENTRAL LABORATORY FOR RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION (CLRP)

CENTER OF RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION MEASIJTIEMENTS (CRCM)

11 AUTOMATICSTATIONS

NAEA/CLRP

9 ALARM STATIONS

IMWM

10 AEROSOLRADIOACTIVITY

MEASURINGSTATIONS ASS-500

NAEA/CLRP

12 ALARM STATIONS

MND

25 ALARM STATIONS

CD

Early warning stationsSupporting stations (in emergency)Cooperation

49 SANITARYEPIDEMIOLOGICAL

STATIONS

19 VETERINARY ANDHYGIENE UNITS

14 CHEMICAL ANDAGRICULTURAL

STATIONS

10 WATER SUPPLY ANDSEWAGE UNITS

Fig. PL-1. Organizational structure of radiation monitoring.

97

LOCATIONS OF EARLY WARNING STATIONSINPOLAND

OLSZTYN

MIKOLAJKI

BIALYSTOK'

AO

WARSZAWA' ZIELONAGORA/ A

O

LEGNICA WROCLAW

• AO

WLODAWA

LUBLIN A O

KATOWICEO KRAKOW

OA

O ASS-500 STATIONS

SANOK

OA

PMS AUTOMATIC STATIONS

ALARM STATIONS OF IMGW

Fig. PL-2. Early warning systems in Poland.

98

11.2.1 PA/IS gamma monitoring network

General

This network consists of 11 field stations placed at regular distances close to the borders ofthe country and the; central station with the central computer server located at the CLRP inWarsaw.

The PMS system (Fig. PL-3) is designed to current measurements of:

• ambient gamma dose rate• gamma spectrum in the air, that enables to distinguish the increase of dose rate caused by

natural and artificial radionuclides.

Moreover, each field station is equipped with gauges to measure the temperature and intensityof rain. The specially designed micro-computer at the station continuously stores theradiological and meteorological data until the server at CRCM calls the stations for collectingthe data. These data are used for the evaluation and presentation in real time of the radiationsituation using special ARGOS software.

Specifications

Each station has two detectors of different type:

• a GM tube type RD-022 for measuring ambient gamma dose rate in the range of 10 nSv/h- 10 Sv/h. The data are collected each minute

• a scintillation Nal(Tl) detector (3x3") coupled to a 256 channel analyzer for measuringgamma radiation spectrum

The spectrometer is adjusted to give the number of counts per second for each of a number ofpre-set radiation energy windows representing radon gas as radon daughters; K-40 and someartificial radionuclides, such as Cs-137; the data measurement interval is set up to 10 minutes.

The rain gauge registers each 0.1 mm of precipitation.

Software

The PMS server in CRCM handles most communications and analysis of data. It is connectedto the field stations by ordinary public telephone (with modem) lines. At fixed intervals of 12hours the PMS server calls each field station and transfers measurement data to the Center forRadiation Emergencies "CEZAR" in NAEA.

Rain intensity and temperature at the stations are recorded automatically by micro-computer.

Alarm levels

An alarm occurs when the system registers:

• the total gamma dose rate (GM tube) exceeds 200 nSv/h• more than 25 cps in the residual spectrum, i.e., more than 25 cps in the spectrum after

subtraction of the contribution from K-40 and radon daughters

Values of 25 cps in the residual spectrum are equivalent to about 15 % of the normalbackground.

99

Fig. 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PMS NETWORK IN POLAND

1

]

L

GM counter

NaJ (TI)detector (3x3")

NaJtemperature

sensor

Outdoortemperature

sensor

Rain gauge

MEASURING UNIT(outdoor)

Cabinet temperaturesensor

1 Station computer

i ri 1i i

1 »VI 1"F| Modem

rir mfWatchdog

t

._

Voltagesuply

B U I L D I N G

' •PT\T

CENTRAL COMPUTERCRCM - CLRP

i

r

NREC ,,CNAI

EZAK"IA

PTN - PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORK

Fig. PL-3. The PMS early warning system.

11.2.2 1MWM gamma monitoring network

General

This network is operated by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management and consistsof 9 field stations distributed all over the country (Fig. PL-2).

All stations are connected via a meteorological communication line to the main computer inIMWM. All data are transmitted daily via a dedicated telephone line to the computer unit inCRCM.

These stations carry out

• continuous measurements of the gamma dose rate• total beta activity of 24-hour samples of air aerosols and fallout

Specifications

The standard equipment of a station is the Polish measuring device type "SAPOS-90M"consisting of

• an external probe resistant to weather conditions with a set of G-M tubes placed about 2 mabove the ground

100

• an electronic device with microcomputer and printer with input for series datatransmission (RS-232 interface)

Alarm level

The microcomputer of SAPOS-90M is equipped with an alarm function. The alarm isactivated if the gamma dose rate increases to 1.5 times of the average value of dose rate in theprevious 24-hour period.

11.2.3 Military and civil defense gamma monitoring networks

The military network consists of 11 field stations (Fig. PL-2), with the central station placedin military Center of Contamination of Army Forces.

The civil defense network consists of 25 stations (located in towns) with the central station atthe State Rescue Coordination Center in the Ministry of Interior.

All networks mentioned above are operated by military or civil defense services respectively.

All stations are equipped with SAPOS-90 M devices. The results of gamma dose rate aretransmitted to respective centers. In normal situations these data are reported weekly - by telex- in the term of written reports to the CRCM in CLRP. In an radiation emergency thesecenters can transmit data to the CRCM every 1-2 hours.

11.2.4 Other types of gamma monitoring systems

In Poland no manual gamma monitoring systems are present but 82 stations belonging to theMinistry of Health and Ministry of Agriculture, cf. Section 11.6, are equipped with portable orpocket rate meters type EKO based on GM counters. These instruments make it possible tomeasure gamma dose rate from lOnSv/h to about 100 mSv/h in the gamma energy range from100 KeV up to 2 MeV.

11.3 Stationary gamma monitoring points

Distribution of the average annual gamma dose rate due to natural and artificial radionuclidesin the area of Poland territory are determined using thermoluminescens dosimetry. Themeasurements are carried out at about 260-fixed points (Fig. PL-4); three thermoluminescentdetector sets are placed 1 m above the earth surface. The detectors are exposed in two six-month periods and the average annual gamma dose rate is evaluated.

11.4 Air monitoring system

The air monitoring (Fig. PL-2) system consists of two networks

• 9 alarm stations operated by DVIWM• 10 stations, called aerosol stations, operated by different institutions under the supervision

of CRCM at the CLRP

101

I

v\ • • • •

• • • • ' • • • /

Fig. PL-4. Position of TL-detectors for gamma monitoring in Poland.

11.4.1 The network of alarm stations

The air aerosols of 24 hour-day samples (air volume 200-300 m3) are collected on a filterplaced 2 m above the ground. Total beta activity measurements of aerosol samples areperformed twice

• immediately after collection (To)• one hour after collection (Ti)

The ratio of the results of these two measurements gives information on radioactivecontamination of air. In normal situations the ratio Ti: To is less than 0.8. Results ofmeasurements are coded and transmitted daily by the meteorological network METPAK as awritten report to the CRCM in CLRP. A specially designed computer program decodes alldata and gives daily reports of total beta contamination of the air.It has been assumed to be an emergency situation if the total beta activity of aerosolsmeasured immediately after sampling exceeds 3 Bq/m3 and during 1 hour decreases less than

102

20 percent. In such a situation the measurements are performed every two hours and theresults are transmitted immediately to the CRCM.

In addition, all alarm stations are carrying out the measurements of total beta activity offallout in daily samples.

11.4.2 The network of aerosol stations

In recent years a new system of high volume air stations of the ASS-500 type are being usedand developed for the routine environmental air monitoring. All stations are able to perform

• continuous sampling of airborne aerosols• identification and determination of particular gamma emitting isotopes in aerosol samples

The aerosols are collected on the chlorinated PVC Petrianov filter type FPP-15-1,5. Thecollection efficiency of the filter (for aerosols with diameters between 0.3 - 1.25 \xm, at linearair velocities through the filter varying from 0.25 to 4 m/s) is 96-99 percent.

The range of the air flow rate, adjusted with a special valve, is from 100 m /h to 800 m /h(average 400 m3/h). In a normal radiation situation the stations work on a weekly basis, withreplacement of the filter taking place each Monday at noon (12:00). The concentration ofparticular natural and artificial radionuclides are calculated for the end of the sampling period.

A gamma spectrometric method with germanium detectors is applied; the detection limit isfrom 0.5 to tens of /iBq/m3 for particular radionuclides and for a 7-day sampling period.

From all stations written weekly reports are transmitted by fax to the CRCM. In the event of aradiation emergency data will be transmitted every 1-2 hours.

The ASS-500 station in its basic version is not applicable for "on-line" detection of theaerosols activity deposited on the filter. For this purpose, existing stations are equipped with aspecially designed spectrometer and Nal(Tl) detector (placed over the filter). The detectionlimit for 400-500 m air filtered during 1 hour is from about 0.4 Bq/m3 for 1-131 and0.8Bq/m3forCs-137.

At present, eight stations are equipped with these devices. The spectrometers are connected tothe station computer for collection and processing of the measurement data. The results of on-line measurements are transmitted via the public telephone network to the central server inCRCM.


11.5.1 High altitude air sampling

The objective of these measurements is to provide the data on activity levels in thetroposphere and lower stratosphere, between ground level and from 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 kmaltitude. The samp] ing is now being carried out one or three times a year.

The samplers with the Petrianov filter FPP-15-1,5 are placed inside the fuel tanks of aMIG-21 airplane. A special computer program is used for calculations of air passing through

103

the filter for various levels and plane speeds. The volume of air samples ranged from about100 m3 at 15 km to about 3700 m3 at 1 km altitude.

The samples are analyzed by y-spectrometry method using a HPGe detector and a Canberra 90analyzer or by radiochemical methods (for Sr-90, Pb-210 and Ra-226).

11.5.2 Aerial surveys

In an emergency Armed Forces rescue helicopter Mi-2rs with the specially designatedmeasuring unit RL-75 can be used for mapping contaminated areas. The flying altitude is inthe range of 25-500 m. The measuring unit consists of a dose rate meter and associatedelectronics which allow the dose rate to be measured at 1 m above ground in the range of2-100 000 mSv/h.


The monitoring of radioactive contamination of the environment and foodstuffs is carried outby 82 stations (Fig. PL-5) and units belonging to the Ministry of Health and Ministry ofAgriculture.

The sampling program and measuring methods for these stations are established by theCRCM in cooperation with Radiation and Nuclear Safety Department in NAEA.

For determination of contamination of food, meat, milk, drinking water, grass, vegetables,cereals etc. total beta counting, gamma spectroscopy and radiochemical analyses are used.The frequency of sampling is in the range of four times per year for milk, to once per year forvegetables, cereals, and grass.

The results of measurements are collected by CRCM. All stations have the standardmeasuring system "SAPOS-90" equipped with

• scintillation probe with Nal(Tl) crystal (45 x 50 mm)• scintillation probe with plastic detector• protective lead castle• probe with a set of GM-counters for continuous dose rate measurements• probe with GM window counter for beta and alpha radiation measurements

In addition 38 sanitary-epidemiological stations (Fig. PL-6) have at their disposal ascintillation spectrometer with multichannel analyzer "TRISTAN-1024"; six stations areequipped with a germanium detector. Besides, all stations are equipped with portableradiometers and laboratory facilities for radiochemical analysis of the samples. Whennecessary, the specialized measuring techniques at the CRCM and research institutions can beused for sample measurements.

104

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Fig. PL-5. Locations of stations for measurement of radioactive contamination inenvironmental and foodstuffs samples in Poland.

105

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Fig. PL-6. Gamma spectrometers for measurement of radioactive contamination inenvironmental and foodstuffs samples in Poland.

11.7 Survey teamsIn a radiation emergency situation NAEA can initiate mapping of dose rates and contaminatedareas by using a special moving laboratory operated by CLRP. The main equipment of thislaboratory includes

• a portable 256 channel gamma-ray spectrometer with a Nal detector• a spectrometric unit with a large volume (41) Nal detector type GPX-256• a GR-660 software system with computer• GPS navigation system

106

Another mobile laboratory is at the disposal of the Military Institute of Chemistry andRadiometry, equipped with

• a semiconductor detector (germanium) and a portable spectroscopy system (typeINSPECTOR)

• a multichannel analyzer SNIP 204G with a Nal detector• portable monitors type FH-40G and CONTAMAT FHT 111M.

In an emergency all institutes supervised by NAEA can perform (by the local survey teams)gamma dose-rate measurements using portable GM or scintillation monitors.

11.8 Contamination


The measurements of internal contamination in man are carried out by two institutionsbelonging to the NAEA: Institute of Atomic Energy (IAE) and CLRP.

The monitoring equipment consists of

• one whole body counter (operated by IAE) with a high purity germanium detector and aNal(Tl) crystal installed in a special iron room. The system uses scanning bed and chairgeometry techniques. The measuring time (for chair geometry) is typically 20 minutes; theminimum detectable activity (MDA) for Cs-134 and Cs-137 of standard men is about40 Bq.

• two stationary units (operated by IAEA and CLRP) for monitoring radioiodine in thethyroid. Each system consist of two Nal(Tl) detectors (for 1-125 and 1-131) placed in ledcollimators. The MDA for 1-125 and 1-131 is about 20 Bq for a measuring time of15 minutes

• one mobile unit (operated by CLRP) for in-situ measurements to be used for fast screeningof population in radiological emergency and for monitoring occupationally exposedpeople. The MDA for 1-125 and 1-131 is about 30 and 60 Bq respectively

In addition, IAE and CLRP can perform measurements of alpha and beta emittingradionuclides in samples of urine.


Surveys of external gamma and beta contamination can be carried out by CLRP, IAE, defenseforces, nuclear medicine departments and others using portable monitors.

11.9 Monitoring of radioactive material at bordersBeginning in 1991, at a few border checkpoints stationary monitors for permanentmeasurements of gamma radiation levels were installed. At the end of 1999 126 such monitorswere deployed (57 at road checkpoints, 35 at railway checkpoints, 24 at airports and 10 at theharbors of the Baltic Sea) All monitors are operated by the Border Guards. The monitors aredeployed at the entrance gates and consist of

• a detection device with a Nal(Tl) detector in a lead collimator• a computerized control and signal device

107

A unit can detect a Cs-137 source of about 4.6 MBq within a distance of 5 m from thedetection device, when a vehicle is moving at a speed of 30 km/h. An alarm is activated whenthe gamma radiation exceeds twice the local background level.


11.10.1 Monitoring of radioactive contamination of rivers and lakes

Systematic measurements of concentrations of radionuclides in the two main rivers and 6lakes in different districts are carried out by the CLRP. The concentrations of Cs-137 andRa-226 are determined separately in filtrated water, suspended matter and bottom sediments.The sampling frequency is twice a year for Vistula and Odra rivers and once a year for allothers.

11.10.2 Monitoring of radioactive contamination of the Baltic

The CLRP in cooperation with the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management arecarrying out the monitoring program of the Baltic Sea, coordinated by the HelsinkiCommission. The concentration of cesium and plutonium is determined in samples of water,bottom sediments, and fish. The sampling frequency is once or twice a year.


It is being considered to equip the mobile laboratory with additional devices for radiologicalmeasurements, such as

• a high volume air sampler• a portable spectrometer with an external germanium detector and a lead castle• a portable PMS station

It is planned to install three additional PMS stations localized in the middle part of the countryin order to optimize the evaluation of the radiological situation using the ARGOS system.

The efforts continue to

• combine readings from the ASS-500 and PMS measurement devices in the integratedcomputer system

• improve the ARGOS system and instructions, making them more user-friendly foroperators who only work with the system occasionally

• establish routine data exchange between the Nordic countries on-line radiationmeasurement systems and the Polish on-line monitoring system

108

12 Russian Federation

12.1 National backgroundThe radiological monitoring network in the Russian Federation (RF) is being developedwithin the Federal program on setting up the common state system of radiological monitoringin the territory of Russia (EGASKRO).

According to the concept of development of EGASKRO a monitoring system is being built asa distributed system providing for information support for decision making at different levels:federal, regional (subjects of Russian Federation) and local. In compliance with the givenconcept the structure of EGASKRO consists of:

• a basic territorial subsystem for radiation monitoring (BTSRM) providing integration ofmonitoring data from subsystems of EGASKRO for information support for decisionmaking at federal level;

• territorial subsystems for radiation monitoring operating in the territory of a subject of RF(republic, region, etc.) and providing information support for decision making to theexecutive authority of the subject;

• departmental subsystems of radiation monitoring around nuclear facilities (NF) (as a rule -in the 30-km zone) being operated as a part of ministries and departments.

A territorial subsystem may include forces and means for the radiation monitoring of basicterritorial subsystems and departmental subsystems functioning in the territory of a subject ofRF.

From 2001, EGASKRO will be developed within the common Federal program, with aspecial purpose, «Nuclear and Radiation Safety of Russia».


Ministry of Russian Federation of Civil Defense and Emergency Situations

Responsibility includes: management and coordination of all forces and means, forming partsof the state emergency system, in accordance with the Federal plan of actions aimed at theprevention and mitigation of emergencies (including nuclear emergencies).

Health Ministry of Russia

Provides monitoring of population irradiation levels and radioactive contamination of theenvironment.

Russian Federal Slervice of Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring(Roshydromet)

Roshydromet is responsible for monitoring the radioactive contamination of the environmentin the entire territory of Russian Federation by means of common-state monitoring andlaboratory control (testing) network. Carries out general management.

Ministry of Atomic Energy of Russia

Carries out monitoring of the radiation situation on the territory of nuclear facilities, which arein operation, and sanitary zones. Provides monitoring of radioactive exposure of personnel.

109

12.2 Basic territorial subsystem of radiation monitoring of EGASKRO

At present BTSRM is being developed on the basis of common-state monitoring andlaboratory control (testing) network. The monitoring and laboratory control (testing) network,under the authority of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia, operates on the entireterritory of the country. If an emergency occurs subdivisions responsible for of monitoring ofradiation situation of the Health Ministry of Russia, Roshydromet, Agriculture Ministry andsome other ministries and departments (Ministry of Natural Resources, Forestry Ministry andothers) are included in the network. On the whole it integrates more than 40 specializedscience and research institutions and about 1000 local-level laboratories forming part ofdifferent departments. Information originating from this network is used by authorities ofMinistry of Emergency Situations for decision making in the event of an emergency.

The system of monitoring and laboratory control (testing) of Roshydromet monitors levels ofradioactive contamination of the environment - soil, air, surface waters. The systemincorporates a stationary network, consisting of 1252 hydrometeorological stations andmonitoring posts (Fig. RU-1) equipped with devices for measuring the gamma radiation doserate (GDR), 452 posts collecting samples to measure the total beta activity of atmosphericdepositions and concentrations of radioactive aerosols in the lowest atmospheric layer and 107posts collecting samples of precipitation and samples of water from main water bodies, cf.Figs. RU-5, RU-6.

About 50 laboratories carrying out analyses of gamma and beta activity and specializedsubdivisions providing operative (fast) investigation of contaminated territories in the event ofan accident at a nuclear facility are in operation. Measurements of gamma radiation dose ratecarried out at regular intervals at hydrometeorological stations and monitoring posts allowproblems of early warning (notification) in the event of a nuclear accident as well as problemsof prognosis of propagation of radioactive contamination in the environment to be resolvedusing meteorological data collected at these stations.

At the Health Ministry, monitoring of radiation safety of the population is implemented byabout 230 radiological subdivisions of territorial centers of the State Sanitary andEpidemiological Service. These subdivisions are equipped with devices to carry outradiometric, dosimetric and spectrometric investigations. Every year several hundredthousands of such investigations are performed. The content of radionuclides in foodstuff,drinking water and human environment is checked. The execution of safe keeping and the safeuse of sources of ionizing radiation is supervised as well as random monitoring of radiationdose taken by personnel of nuclear facilities and population. At especially hazardous nuclearfacilities and adjacent territories the monitoring of radiation exposure is carried out by theforces of a special medical and sanitary Service which is under the authority of the FederalBoard of Medical-biological and Extreme Problems (Health Ministry of Russia). About 100medico-sanitary posts and sanitary-epidemiological stations monitoring the radiation exposureof population in the vicinity of nuclear facilities form parts of the Service.

110

F]

- gamma-dose rate measurements

- aerosol samples are collected with filters

- aerosol samples are collected on horizontal collectors

- aerosol samples are collected with vertical collectors

- samples of precipitation and freshwater are collected to measure tritium

- samples of sea water and freshwater are collected to measure strontium-90

- Finnish stations

- Norwegian stations (installed)

" Norwegian stations (planned to be installed)

Fig. RU-1. Part of radiation monitoring and laboratory control (testing) network the north-west region of Russia.

I l l

The Radiological Monitoring Service of Agriculture Ministry of Russia includes the StateAgricultural Chemistry and Veterinary Services. The former service carries out radiationmonitoring of arable soils, plants for food and fertilizers by forces of radiological departments(over 100 centers and stations of Agricultural Chemistry Service and 7 centers of AgriculturalChemistry and Radiology Service). The latter consolidates over 80 radiological departmentsof veterinary laboratories of subjects of Russian Federation, 1200 regional and interregionallaboratories, 1500 laboratories of veterinary and sanitary expertise at market places andproduction veterinary laboratories at enterprises of processing industry and supervises theobservance of veterinary and sanitary rules in the manufacture, processing, storing andtransportation of animal produce and when farm produce is in the market. For yearssystematic radiometric measurements have been carried out at more than 1700 standard sitesand 400 standard points located on the territory of Russia. Over one million radiometric,spectrometric and radiochemical investigations and over four million measurements of thegamma radiation background are carried out annually.

12.2.1 Example of an automatic gamma-monitoring system

At the present time the systems of automatic gamma dose rate monitoring are incorporatedinto the structure of BTSRM for operative monitoring of radiation situation. The ASIGAMsystem (automated gamma dose rate monitoring system) installed around Obninsk, Kalugaregion,, may serve as an example. The system is shown if Figs. RU-25 RU-3,

The ASIGAM system is designed for continuous automatic monitoring around nuclearfacilities of the absorbed gamma dose rate in air. The network of monitoring posts of thesystem can be set up both in populated area and in the field.

The radiotelemetric system of automated gamma-monitoring ASIGAM consists of

• 7 autonomous monitoring posts (Fig. RU-2)• the central station of receiving and processing of information

The autonomous monitoring post is equipped with

• a container• a system unit (controller)• a unit of gamma radiation meters• a radio station with antenna• a storage battery

The central station is equipped with

• a radio station with antenna• a radio modem• a line-operated power supply unit• a personal computer IBM PC

The main technical features of ASIGAM system

• energy range (gamma radiation): 50 keV - 3 MeV• measurement range (air absorbed gamma dose rate): 10 nGy/h - 2,0 Gy/h• accuracy (confidence coefficient is 0.95): 30 %• frequency (reception-transmission): 165,05 MHz

112

• time of continuous operationof monitoring posts in autonomous mode:

• range of radio communication:at least 3 months

at least 30 km

Fig. RU-2. Monitoring post.

npocMorp ApHNbix nocToe panuw,uwtHoro KOHTpoaa

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/g. RU-3. ASIGAM: viewing of data collected at monitoring posts.

113

12.3 Territorial subsystems of EGASKRO

Territorial subsystems of EGASKRO are developed within the general technicalspecifications of EGASKRO. Therefore they may differ from each other in some parts butmeet the main specifications of design.

12.4 Nuclear facility subsystems of EGASKRO

At the Ministry of Atomic Energy of Russia radiation monitoring is implemented bydepartmental monitoring systems operating at all nuclear facilities of the nuclear industry. Themain tasks of these systems are

• the detection of possible leakage of radioactive materials during the technological process« monitoring of radiation dose levels in the production area• information support for activities aimed at the compliance with radiation safety standards» monitoring of releases of radioactive materials into the environment

Local outdoor dosimetry services carry out regular monitoring of levels of radioactivecontamination of the environment within sanitary zones and zones around nuclear facilities. Anumber of facilities are equipped with automated systems operating continuously to monitorthe radiation dose rate; work is proceeding on the improvement of these systems (Fig. RU-4).

At present within the TACIS Nuclear Safety Program NSP/REA 001/95 work is in progresson the introduction of the Sky LINK system as an early warning s)rstem at all Russian nuclearpower plants.

• RTSKM subsystem

Fig. RU-4. Gamma radiation monitoring system around Smolensk Nuclear Power Plant.

114

Kaliningradregion

Fig. RU-5. Monitoring posts at the European part of Russia.

115

Fig. RU-6. Aerosol sampling stations at the European part of Russia.

12.5 Future development of monitoring networkIn the near future the main direction of the development of the radiological monitoringnetwork in Russia will consist of modernization and equipment with automatic gamma doserate and spectrometric measuring devices. This will be provided within the Federal programon setting up the common state system of radiological monitoring in the territory of Russia(EGASKRO). Under this program it is planned to install devices for automatic measuringgamma dose rate at all meteorological stations engaged in the radiological monitoringnetwork in the 100 km zone around nuclear facilities.

The work performed has proven that the data exchange between radiation monitoring systemsof different agencies can be achieved within a common information environment. The systemof data collection and exchange should be built as a distributed system of databases whichwill permit reducing the volumes of data of routine measurements (no-accident case) to betransmitted between different levels (centers) of the system in real time. Using the "client-server" technology in building the system, one can receive data, if necessary, from anydatabase within the distributed system. The organization of databases by common rules is thefoundation for their use as an information base for a decision-making support system at anylevel of the distributed system.

116

13 Sweden

13.1 National backgroundThe Swedish Radiation Protection Institute (Statens Stralskyddsinsti.tut, SSI) is a governmentauthority with the task of protecting people and the environment from the harmful effects ofradiation.

SSI is responsible for coordinating activities in Sweden should an accident occur involvingradiation. Its resources can be called upon at any time of the day or mght. In the event of anuclear accident, a special emergency preparedness organization comes into operation. Earlynotification of emergencies is obtained from automatic alarm monitoring stations in Swedenand abroad and through international and bilateral agreements on early notification andexchange of information.

The basic domestic nuclear threats are the 12 nuclear power reactors at 4 sites, one of which ispermanently shut down. There is also a small research reactor. A large number of shipmentsof radioactive materials take place every year, such as spent nuclear fuel from the powerplants and radioactive substances for medical use. External threats are nuclear power reactorsabroad and ships powered by nuclear reactors.

13.1.1 Legal basis

In the Government bill 1980/81:90, issued after the Three Mile Island accident, the emergencypreparedness issues received much attention. The Parliament decided that emergency planningshall consider all types of accidents, from those with very small environmental consequencesto the most serious accidents. Furthermore, there must be a systematic training of decision-makers, organization of personnel on duty and verified telecommunication between theresponsible organizations.

The Rescue Services Ordinance (SFS 1986:1107) states that within the Inner EmergencyPlanning Zone (12-15 km from the Swedish nuclear power plants) and the RadiationMonitoring zone (extending to 50 km), it is the responsibility of the County Administration toestablish a radiological emergency plan.

SSI is responsible for giving expert advice to other central authorities, according to theRadiation Protection Ordinance (SFS 1988:293), on questions concerning radiation protectionas well as clean-up after a release of activity, and to inform the general public and media.

The Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate (Statens Karnkraftinspekti.on, SKI) is responsibleaccording to the Nuclear Activities Ordinance (SFS 1988:294) for giving technical advice toother authorities responsible for the protection of the public in the event of an accidentinvolving nuclear activities.


The 21 County Administrative Boards in Sweden are responsible for leading emergency reliefand rescue operations in connection with nuclear accidents. They are also responsible forclean-up operations after accidents involving radioactive material.

117

SSI leads and coordinates measurements of radiation on the national level and advises bothcounty administrations and pertinent central authorities such as the National FoodAdministration, the Swedish Board of Agriculture and the National Board of Health andWelfare concerning measures to minimize the radiation dose received by the population.

Many other authorities are included in the emergency preparedness organization. SKIanalyzes accident causes and estimates the source term of a possible radioactive release. TheSwedish Rescue Services Agency (SRV) supervises regional planning for rescue services andclean-up, but has no operative responsibilities.

SSI has several ways of conducting measurements and some measurements are carried out byother organizations according to agreements with SSI. SSI operates 37 automatic gamma-monitoring stations. Also the National Defense Research Establishment (TotalforsvaretsForskningsinstitut, FOI) has 5 air-sampling stations. Several universities have contracts formaking nuclide specific measurements in the event of a radiological emergency.

In addition each of the 289 communities in Sweden has a handheld gamma-monitoringinstrument. There are at least 2 to 4 predefined points within each community at whichmeasurements can be carried out.

SSI is responsible for the operation of the national emergency preparedness organization.Measurements of various kinds form an integral and important part of this organization. Theradiological monitoring program comprises a number of different systems and techniques.The Swedish Rescue Services Agency, having no operative responsibilities, does not receiveany radiation data from the monitoring systems.

The types of measurements carried out before and after a fallout and the organizationsresponsible for these measurements are summarized in Table SE-1.

The Swedish monitoring system is designed to detect releases emanating from foreign anddomestic sources. Sweden has twelve nuclear power reactors (one of which is permanentlyshut down), one research reactor, one nuclear fuel fabrication plant and a large waste handlingprogram, including several repositories and a vessel for transporting radioactive waste.

The general background radiation levels (total gamma) are well known, thanks to earlygeophysical measurements and background mapping as well as post Chernobylmeasurements.

13.2 Automatic gamma monitoring stations

Sweden has an automatic network of 37 stationary gamma-monitoring stations throughout thecountry (Fig. SE-1). The main purpose of the network is twofold,

• to give an alarm if there is a significant increase above the natural background gammaradiation level

• to give an instant overall picture of the radiation situation in Sweden

The distance between the gamma monitoring stations has been chosen to make sure that aradioactive release abroad will be detected by at least one station as it passes over Swedishterritory.

118

Table SE-1. Measurement services in Sweden.

Type of measurement_SSL

OrganizationFOT SOU NPP County Local Others


Air monitoring stationsgamma analysis

1)

Airborne measurements- external gamma

Field measurements- gamma analysis- total gamma- air filter gamma analysis-beta- alpha

Laboratory sampleanalysis- gamma- beta (Sr)- alpha (Pu)

*

***

***

**

**

**

2)

*

**

****

***

Whole body counting

SSIFOISGUNPPCountyLocalOthers

1)

2)

Swedish radiation protection instituteNatinal Defense Research EstablishmentGeological surway of SwedenSwedish nuclear power plantsGovernment of NPP CountiesCommunity organizationsUniversities, Radiation physics dep.,Studsvik etc.

Analysis performed by FOI under contractfrom SSIMeasurements performed by SGU undercontract from SSI

119

0tf

oo

©

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.37.

KatterjåkkKirunaPajalaTjåmotisÖvertorneåHemavanÄlvsbynSkellefteåUlvobergUmeåStorlienTängBredbynNjurundaIdreMoraGävle:AlundaGusts.vsforsBlomskogÖrebioSSI StockholmÅdaSkaraLandvetterEksjöVisbyRinghalsHalmstadLjungbyhedRonnebyÖlands s. uddeEverödMalmöSmygehamnSandhammarenHoburgen

Fig. SE-1. Swedish gamma monitoring stations operated by SSI.

The measuring device consists of a pressurized ionization chamber with associatedelectronics. The 41 chamber is filled with argon at a pressure of (500 kPa and placed 2.5 mabove the ground in a housing designed to withstand the conditions of the environment. Themeasuring range is 1 - 6,000,000 nSv/h ambient dose equivalent rate. The average normalbackground level in Sweden is 100 nSv/h.

The detector at each station is constantly logged by a local microcomputer, and the results arestored locally. The reading of the individual station is presented on a display as a dose ratetogether with the integrated dose during a preset time. It is also possible to show theintegrated dose for the last 24 hours and the corresponding integrated dose for the preceding24-hour period.

A modem is connected to the microcomputer. The main computer (a personal computer) atSSI in Stockholm calls each gamma station over the public network a preset number of times

120

every day (presently three times per day). The incoming data are stored in the database of theinstitute. Evaluation and presentation of registered data can be performed automatically at anytime..

The microcomputer at each station is equipped with an alarm function. It is triggeredwhenever the integrated dose for the last 24-hour period exceeds that of the previous 24-hourperiod by more than a pre-set level, presently 300 nSv. The method of two movingconsecutive 24-hour windows has been chosen to avoid false alarms from sudden changes inweather and moisture conditions. Radon related temporary dose rate; increases by 20-40 % ofthe natural background level are not infrequent, and must not be allowed to affect the alarmfunction of the station.

The pre-set alarm criterion of 300 nSv per 24 hours may be changed, individually for eachstation. This setting may be lowered when enough statistical material on unwarranted alarmshas been collected from the stations.

In the event of an alarm, the station calls a personal pager, displaying the individual code ofthe station as well as the latest registered dose rate. The radiation protection officer on dutycan then call the station and obtain more readings.

After each polling of the stations, the main computer at SSI calculates present trends andgives an alarm via the personal pager whenever needed.

13.3 Air monitoring stationsThe National Defense Research Establishment (FOI) operates a national air monitoringnetwork of five stations to detect very low levels of paniculate radionuclides in the air. (Mapin Fig. SE-2.) In the event of a large increase of radioactive particles, the system will be usedto assess the time-integrated air concentration in order to predict inhalation doses and grounddeposition. Contrary to the gamma monitoring stations, priority is given to sensitivity ratherthan rapidity.

The objective is to sample and measure ground level air. All stations collect airborne dust onfiberglass filters manufactured by FOI. Air is drawn through the filter by a high capacitycentrifugal pump at a rate of at least 1000 m3/h. The filters are sent by mail to FOI'sStockholm laboratory, where they are analyzed by high resolution gamma spectrometry in alow-background shielded chamber. The detection limit is of the order of 0.1-1 jtiBq/m3.

Under normal conditions it takes 5-10 days after the filter is removed until it has beencompletely analyzed. A quick check of the filters is always performed right after arrival byscreening them for 15 minutes in a primary measurement chamber to detect any artificialnuclides, with a detection limit of 1 mBq/m3. SSI is notified, should this limit be exceeded.

Some of the air monitoring stations are also equipped with units for sampling

• precipitation• gaseous iodine• xenon

Fig. SE-2 shows the locations of these stations.

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12 Oinea3 Sand:by berg4

Air filter

Gaseous iodines sampling

Precipitation sampling

Fig. SE-2. Air sampling stations operated by FOI under contract from SSI.


13.4.1 High altitude air sampling (not in operation presently)

The system for air monitoring includes high altitude air samplers mounted under the wings ofan Air Force aircraft. This type of aircraft is no longer in operation and it is not possible toattach the sampler to another type of aircraft.

13.4.2 Aerial surveys

Airborne spectrometric surveys are of vital importance in finding regions with high depositionwhile at the same time covering vast areas within a reasonable time span.

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In order to avoid contamination of the aircraft, instrumentation and crew, measurements areplanned to start well after the release has ceased. The aircraft can be: airborne within 48 hoursafter an alert.

The Swedish Geological Survey (Sveriges Geologiska Undersokning, SGU) has beencontracted to carry out the surveys. The flying altitude is of the order of 50-100 m. In order toget an overview of the deposition pattern, primary flight lines can be chosen with a separationof 50-100 km. A second mapping with more densely spaced flight lines may be performed ifdesired.


The National Food Administration (Statens Livsmedelsverk, SLV) is responsible for samplingand analyzing foodstuffs in Sweden. SSI is responsible for giving advice on sampling andmeasurements, as well as for checking the quality of the measurements.

Gamma spectrometric measurements authorized by SSI are performed at two governmentinstitutes, six university laboratories, Studsvik and at the nuclear power plants. Strontiumanalyses are performed at SSI. Alpha spectrometric measurements are performed mainly at auniversity institution, Studsvik and SSI.

Milk is considered the most important foodstuff to check continuously. Leafy vegetables,meat, fish, game, berries etc. are checked whenever needed.

Soil, water and vegetation samples can be measured at, e.g., SSI and a number of universityinstitutions.

A large number of Nal(Tl) and germanium detectors are available throughout the country forgamma spectrometric analysis of food and environmental samples.


13.6.1 Stationary gamma monitoring points

Each of the 289 local Environmental Health Protection Departments (Miljo- ochhalsoskyddsforvaltningar) has a survey meter for making gamma dose rate measurements atpredefined reference points every seven months. All in all there are some 900 reference pointsall over Sweden. These regular measurements are intended as an exercise as well as acollection of reference data to be used in a possible future fallout situation. In an emergency,measurements will be made at the same reference points and the data reported to theapplicable county government. The 21 county governments, in turn, will report the data toSSI. Also, each county government has two survey meters for making their ownmeasurements, as appropriate. Within approximately 24 hours after a deposition SSI has afairly good picture of the fallout situation in Sweden thanks to these local measurements.

In the event of an off-site alert or general emergency alarm following an accident at one of thefour Swedish nuclear power stations, survey teams from the local fire brigades areautomatically dispatched to predefined monitoring points to measure dose rates.Measurements will be made even during the passage of the plume, in order to determine itsdirection and to establish what areas are not affected by the release (where measures like

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sheltering can be ruled out directly). Special precautions will be taken to avoid contaminationof the equipment.

13.6.2 Mobile air filter stations

The stationary ultra high-volume air sampling stations are supplemented by a set of mobilestations that can be transported quickly to regions where additional sampling capacity isneeded. There are presently about 30 mobile air filter stations of different kinds available,operated by

• the county government in each of the four counties with nuclear power stations(low volume)

• the nuclear power stations (low volume)• FOI (high volume)• SSI (low volume)

13.7 Contamination


A total of about 20 whole body counting units are available in the country, one of themmobile. They are operated by SSI, Westinghouse ATOM, Studsvik, FOI, nuclear power plantsand a number of hospitals, universities and other organizations. Most units apply the chairgeometry, some with Nal(Tl) detectors, others with germanium detectors. The few scanningunits are equipped with Nal(Tl) detectors.

At least 60 gamma cameras at some 30 hospitals are available for checking internalcontamination in the event of an emergency. Nal(Tl) and germanium detectors are available athospitals and other organizations for evaluating samples of body fluids, urine, excreta etc.


Checks for external beta and gamma emitting contamination may be performed by SSI, FOI,local communities, nuclear power plants and others, using most types of modern portableequipment.


Spectrometric measurements must be applied in order to detect non-natural radiation levelssmaller than background variations. This can be accomplished by in-situ measurements, themost rapid spectrometric technique, since no special sample preparation is needed. Levelsdown to approximately 1/1000 of the natural background can be detected by in-situmeasurements with high-resolution germanium spectrometers.

The radionuclides may be deposited on the ground or still airborne. In the latter case, ahelicopter can be used to make measurements in the cloud.

Emergency preparedness resources for in-situ high-resolution spectrometry are available atSSI, three universities, Studsvik and FOI

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13.9 Future development• SSI is considering establishing a number of mobile automatic gamma monitoring stations,

to be used in emergencies.

• SSI has decided to buy four mobile Nal(Tl) spectrometers with GPS navigation systemsfor use in road vehicles and aircraft to determine ground deposition in the event of anemergency.

• Three of the Swedish nuclear power plants are testing a stationary network of gammamonitoring stations around the plant.

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14 Participants of Working Group A / BOK-1.5Participants of Working Group A, Monitoring Strategies and Policies and BOK-1.5,Emergency monitoring in the Nordic and Baltic Sea countries.

Kim BargholzBeredskabsstyrelsen, Nukleart KontorDatavej 16DK-3460 Birker0dDenmark

Phone +45 45 82 55 00-5218Fax +45 45 82 65 65E-mail [email protected]

VijaButeLatvian Environmental Agency2 Straumes ielaLV 2015 JurmalaLatvia

Phone +371 776 10 30Fax +371776 4162E-mail [email protected]

Valery V. ChelyukanovRussian Federal Service for Hydrometeorologyand Environmental MonitoringNovovagan'kovsky Street, 12123242, MoscowMoscow, ResgimetRussian Federation

Phone +7 095 255 24 93+7 095 252 08 08

Fax +7 095 253 94 84

Lennart DevellViggvagen 10SE-61162NykopingSweden

Phone +46 155 219 422+46 155 219 430

Fax +46 155 219 430Mobile 070-608 15 01E-mail [email protected]

Visvaldis GraverisLatvian Environmental Agency2 Straumes ielaLV 2015 JurmalaLatvia

Phone +371776 10 30Fax +37172124 40E-mail [email protected]

Bent LauritzenRis0 National LaboratoryP.O.Box 49DK-4000 RoskildeDenmark

Phone +45 46 77 49 06Fax +45 46 77 49 77E-mail [email protected]

Sigurdur M. MagnussonGeislavarnir rikisinsLaugaveg 118,IS-150 ReykjavikIceland

Phone +354 55 28 200Fax +354 55 28 202E-mail [email protected]

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Andrzej MertaNational Atomic Energy Agencyul. Krucza 36,00-921 WarsawPoland

Phone +48 22 629 8152Fax +48 22 695 98 46E-mail [email protected]

Stasys MotiejunasMinistry of Environmental ProtectionJuozapaviciaus 92600 VilniusLithuania


Raimo MustonenFinnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear SafetyP.O. Box 14, FIN-OO881 HelsinkiFinland

Phone +358 9 759 881Fax +358 9 759 884 98E-mail [email protected]

B. AkePerssonSwedish Radiation Protection InstituteSE-171 16 StockholmSweden


Raivo RajamaeEstonian Radiation Protection CentreKopli 76EE 0004 TallinnEstonia


Vyacheslav M. ShershakovFederal Environmental Emergency ResponseCentre of RoshydrometScience and Production Association "Typhoon"82, Lenin prospekt, ObninskKaluga region, 249020, Russia


Finn UgletveitNorwegian Radiation Protection AuthorityP.O.Box 55N-1345 0sterasNorway


Matthias ZahringerBundesamt fur StrahlenschutzInstitut fur Armospharische RadioaktivitatRosastrasse 9D-79098 FreiburgGermany

Phone +49 761386 6730Fax +49 893 160 3111E-mail [email protected]

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Bibliographic Data Sheet NKS-28

Title

Author(s)

Affiliation(s)

ISBN

Date

Project

No. of pages

No. of tables

No. of illustrations

Abstract

Radiological Emergency Monitoring Systems in the Nordic andBaltic Sea Countries

Lennart Devell and Bent Lauritzen (eds.)

Swedish Radiation Protection Institute, Sweden;Ris0 National Laboratory, Denmark

87-7893-079-0

February 2001

NKS/BOK-1.5

128

14

46

This report describes the national systems for emergency monitoringof radioactivity in the five Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland,Iceland, Norway and Sweden as well as in the six Baltic Seacountries, Estonia, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and theRussian Federation. Similarities and differences regarding strategyand equipment are shown briefly. The main feature for early warningis the national network of automatic gamma monitoring stations. Thisnetwork is supplemented by manual stations and/or survey teams,often measuring at predetermined locations. Air filter stations areused for nuclide analyses of particles and gases. Dose rate maps andfallout maps of ground deposited nuclides, e.g., cesium-137, areproduced based on data from airborne measurements, monitoringstations, survey teams and environmental samples. Most countriesdescribe programs for checking food contamination. Whole bodycounting and organ measurements are used to determine internalcontamination. External contamination of people, vehicles, goods etcis checked with survey meters and other equipment at checkpoints oras needed. Field measurements of various kinds complete thenational systems. Possible future development and plannedimprovement are discussed. This report is an extension and update ofa previous NKS report covering the Nordic countries.

Key words Contamination; Denmark; Early warning; Emergency plans;Environmental materials; Estonia; Fallout; Federal Republic ofGermany; Finland; Iceland; International cooperation; Latvia;Lithuania; Norway; Poland; Radiation monitoring; Radiationmonitors; Russian Federation; Sweden.

Available on request from the NKS Secretariat, P.O.Box 30, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.Phone (+45) 4677 4045, fax (+45) 4677 4046, e-mail [email protected],http://www.nks.org.

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