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RECONSTRUCTING CHRISTIAN LIFEWAYS:
A bioarchaeological study of medieval
inhabitants from Portmahomack, Scotland
and Norton Priory, England.
Shirley Curtis-Summers
Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the
University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy
April 2015
“The pattern of disease or injury that affects any group of people
is never a matter of chance. It is invariable the expression of stresses
and strains to which they were exposed, a response to everything in
their environment and behaviour. It reflects their genetic inheritance,
the climate in which they lived, the soil that gave them sustenance
and the animals or plants that shared their homeland. It is influenced
by their daily occupations, their habits of diet, their choice of
dwelling and clothes, their social structure, even their folklore
and mythology.”
(Calvin Wells 1964: 17).
iii
Reconstructing Christian Lifeways: A bioarchaeological study of medieval
inhabitants from Portmahomack, Scotland and Norton Priory, England.
Shirley Curtis-Summers
Abstract
This thesis investigates lifeways of medieval Christian communities from
Portmahomack, Northeast Scotland and Norton Priory, Northwest England, to
ascertain the extent to which skeletal indicators of diet, disease or trauma reflect
religious or social influences. Osteology and palaeopathology methods on human
adult and sub-adult skeletons from Portmahomack (6th
to 17th
century) and Norton
Priory (12th
to 16th
century) was undertaken to provide evidence relating to the four
key themes proposed in this study: ‘biological or familial affinity’, ‘the living
environment’, ‘trauma and conflict’, and ‘diet and nutrition-related stresses’. Stable
carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen from adult humans from
Portmahomack (including and a sub-sample of sub-adults) and Norton Priory were
measured for dietary reconstructions. Faunal bone collagen was also analysed from
Portmahomack and Norton Priory (plus a selection of fish bones from Chester
Cathedral) to provide isotopic baselines to reconstruct human diets.
The results suggest past lifeways of Christian communities from Portmahomack and
Norton Priory can indeed be successfully reconstructed through bioarchaeology. The
evidence from this study has found that skeletal traits, alongside burial evidence, can
elucidate familial affinities, especially from Norton Priory, and that differences in
cultural and religious practices are reflected within the living environment of
ecclesiastic and lay groups. Evidence of violence, reflecting interpersonal conflict
and vulnerability was found from both Portmahomack and Norton Priory, which was
inconsistent with the role of ecclesiastic and lay communities that were expected to
follow strict Christian doctrines. Stable isotope data revealed a diachronic change in
diet at Portmahomack; no fish were consumed during the monastic period, whereas
significant amounts were consumed by layfolk in the later periods, suggesting
Christian dietary practices changed over time. The isotope data from Norton Priory
reflected a more homogeneous diet that did not change greatly over time, suggesting
conformity to the same fasting practices.
Overall, this study has demonstrated that adopting a multidisciplinary
bioarchaeological approach, integrating skeletal, chemical, archaeological, and
historical evidence, results in a powerful research tool that enables reconstructions of
medieval Christian lifeways and interpretations of religious and social influences
therein.
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like thank the Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC) for funding this
research; the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) for funding the isotope
analysis, and Historic Scotland for contributing toward the Portmahomack isotope
analysis.
I would like to give a special thank you to my primary supervisor, Jess Pearson, for
her endless motivation, guidance and invaluable comments on this thesis, and for her
support and empathy during difficult times. This thesis would have been a shadow of
its former self without her. I would also like to give special thanks to my supervisor,
Harold Mytum, for his support, advice and many helpful comments.
Many thanks to Martin Carver and Cecily Spall, for granting me access to the
Portmahomack skeletal material and for all their help and advice. Many thanks also
to Justin Garner-Lahire and the FAS Heritage team, and to Michele Cadger, Tony
Watson and the people of Portmahomack for entrusting me with such precious
material. Huge thanks also to Lynn Smith, Frank Hargrave and the Board of Trustees
from Norton Priory for granting me access to their skeletal collection and to Lynn,
for all her invaluable help along the way. Thanks also to Oxford Archaeology North
and to OR3D for supplying Norton Priory digital images and to Andrew Abram and
Robert Connolly for their expert advice.
Grateful thanks to the following people for their help throughout this research: Krish
Seetah, Sue Stallibrass, Matilda Holmes, Hannah Russ and David Orton for faunal
species identification; Angela Lamb at NERC for isotope mass spectrometry training,
Matt Grove for his advice on statistical analysis, and Simon Mays, Clark Spencer
Larsen, Jo Buckberry, Anthea Boylston, Alan Ogden and Charlotte Roberts for their
expert opinions and advice. Thanks also to Liz MacDonald at the Royal Liverpool
University Hospital Radiology Department, for x-raying some of the skeletal
material. Huge thanks also to my friends and colleagues for their help, support and
encouragement. There are too many to mention but you know who you are.
This journey has come with the usual challenges one expects during a PhD, but some
unexpected difficult times have also occurred and one source of inspiration has been
my sister Trish. Her bravery, resilience and strength have motivated me to succeed.
Throughout all of this however, the one person who has given me unconditional love
and constant support is my husband Colin. He has been with me every step of the
way, through tears, tantrums and joy, and his constant positivity has given me the
strength I never knew I had. I can never thank you enough darling, so I’ll simply say
‘I love you’ and ‘please pour me a dram!’
Shirley Curtis-Summers,
University of Liverpool, April 2015.
5
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents .................................................................................................. v
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xiii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................... xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Research Context ......................................................................................... 4
1.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses ........................................................... 5
1.4 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................... 6
Chapter 2: Historical Background: Christianity in Medieval Britain ............. 8
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Clarification of Chronology and Terminology ........................................... 9
2.3 Setting the Scene: Religious Orders in Medieval Britain ........................... 14
2.3.1 The Rule of St Columba ..................................................................... 16
2.3.2 The Rule of St Columbanus ............................................................... 16
2.3.3 The Rule of St Benedict ..................................................................... 17
2.3.3.1 The Benedictine Order ........................................................ 17
2.3.3.2 The Cistercian Order .......................................................... 19
2.3.4 The Rule of St Augustine ................................................................... 20
2.3.4.1 The Augustinian Order ....................................................... 22
2.3.4.2 The Premonstratensian Order ............................................. 23
2.4 Christianity in Medieval Britain: an Overview ........................................... 24
2.4.1 Christian Conversions in Early Medieval Britain .............................. 27
2.4.2 Christianity in Mid to Late Medieval Britain ..................................... 35
2.4.3 Christianity and the Laity in Medieval Britain .................................. 39
2.5 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 46
Chapter 3:Archaeological background ............................................................... 47
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 48
3.2 Socio-economic Background ...................................................................... 48
3.3 Archaeological Background: Portmahomack ............................................. 50
3.3.1 Burials at Portmahomack ................................................................... 52
3.3.1.1 Period 1 Burials (c.550 – c.700) ............................................ 52
3.3.1.2 Period 2 Burials (c.700 – c.800) ............................................ 53
3.3.1.3 Period 3 Burials (c.900 – c.1100) ......................................... 54
6
3.3.1.4 Period 4 Burials (c.1100 – c.1600) ........................................ 54
3.3.1.5 Period 5 Burials (c.1600 – c.1700) ........................................ 56
3.3.2 Faunal Remains at Portmahomack ..................................................... 56
3.3.3 Economic Activity at Portmahomack ................................................ 58
3.4 Archaeological Background: Norton Priory ............................................... 62
3.4.1 Historical Overview of Norton Priory................................................ 63
3.4.2 Burials at Norton Priory ..................................................................... 64
3.4.2.1 Burials in the Nave, North Aisle and West Front .................. 65
3.4.2.2 Burials in the North and South Transepts .............................. 67
3.4.2.3 Burials in the East of the Church ........................................... 68
3.4.2.4 Burials in the Cloister and Chapterhouse .............................. 69
3.4.3 Faunal Remains at Norton Priory ....................................................... 70
3.4.4 Economic Activity at Norton Priory .................................................. 73
3.5 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 75
Chapter 4:Lifeways in Medieval Britain ............................................................ 77
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 78
4.2 Health in Medieval Britain .......................................................................... 79
4.2.1 Lifestyle Factors ................................................................................. 80
4.2.2 Medicine and Surgery ........................................................................ 87
4.2.3 Disability and Impairment.................................................................. 96
4.3 Diets in Medieval Britain ............................................................................ 97
4.3.1 Diets of the Peasantry......................................................................... 99
4.3.2 Diets of Ecclesiastics.......................................................................... 106
4.4 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 113
Chapter 5: Stable Light Isotopes: Principles and Applications ....................... 114
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 115
5.2 Bone Structure, Function and Turnover ...................................................... 115
5.3 Collagen Degradation, Contamination and Integrity .................................. 119
5.3.1 Collagen Degradation......................................................................... 119
5.3.2 Collagen Contamination .................................................................... 121
5.3.3 Collagen Quality Indicators ............................................................... 121
5.4 Why Use Collagen?..................................................................................... 123
5.5 What are Isotopes? ...................................................................................... 124
5.6 Notation and Terminology .......................................................................... 124
5.7 Fractionation ............................................................................................... 125
5.8 Carbon Isotopes in Terrestrial Ecosystems ................................................. 126
5.9 Nitrogen Isotopes in Terrestrial Ecosystems .............................................. 128
5.10 Carbon and Nitrogen Trophic Level Effects ............................................... 131
5.11 Carbon Isotopes in Aquatic Ecosystems ..................................................... 133
5.12 Nitrogen Isotopes in Aquatic Ecosystems .................................................. 134
7
5.13 Previous Isotope Applications: An Overview ............................................. 135
5.14 Previous Isotope Applications: A European Perspective ............................ 136
5.15 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 137
Chapter 6: Materials and Methods ..................................................................... 139
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 140
6.2 Skeletal Materials ........................................................................................ 140
6.3 Osteology methods ...................................................................................... 141
6.3.1 Determination of Sex ......................................................................... 141
6.3.2 Age-at-Death: Categorisation............................................................. 142
6.3.3 Assessing Age-at-Death ..................................................................... 143
6.3.4 Stature Estimation .............................................................................. 146
6.3.5 Osteometric Analysis ......................................................................... 146
6.3.6 Non-metric Analysis .......................................................................... 147
6.4 Palaeopathology methods ........................................................................... 148
6.4.1 Dental Pathologies ............................................................................. 149
6.4.1.1 Dental Calculus ................................................................... 149
6.4.1.2 Dental Caries ....................................................................... 150
6.4.1.3 Dental Enamel Hypoplasia .................................................. 150
6.4.1.4 Periodontal Disease ............................................................. 151
6.4.1.5 Dental Abscesses and Granulomas ..................................... 151
6.4.1.6 Ante-mortem Tooth Loss .................................................... 152
6.4.1.7 Dental Wear ......................................................................... 152
6.4.1.8 Dental Anomalies ................................................................ 153
6.4.2 Skeletal Pathologies ........................................................................... 153
6.4.2.1 Infectious and Respiratory Diseases ................................... 153
6.4.2.1.1 Treponemal Disease ............................................. 154
6.4.2.1.2 Leprosy ................................................................. 154
6.4.2.1.3 Tuberculosis ......................................................... 155
6.4.2.1.4 Periosteal New Bone ............................................ 156
6.4.2.1.5 Sinusitis ................................................................ 156
6.4.2.1.6 Nasal Concha Bullosa........................................... 157
6.4.2.2 Metabolic Diseases .............................................................. 157
6.4.2.2.1 Rickets and Osteomalacia ..................................... 158
6.4.2.2.2 Scurvy ................................................................... 159
6.4.2.2.3 Internal Frontal Hyperostosis ............................... 159
6.4.2.2.4 Osteoporosis ......................................................... 160
6.4.2.2.5 Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis ........... 160
6.4.2.2.6 Paget’s Disease of Bone ....................................... 160
6.4.2.3 Developmental and Congenital Anomalies ......................... 161
6.4.2.4 Neoplasms ........................................................................... 162
6.4.2.5 Circulatory Disorders .......................................................... 162
6.4.2.6 Joint Diseases ...................................................................... 163
8
6.4.2.6.1 DISH ..................................................................... 164
6.4.2.6.2 Schmorl’s Nodes .................................................. 164
6.4.2.7 Fractures and Trauma-related Pathologies .......................... 165
6.4.2.8 Sharp-force Trauma ............................................................. 165
6.5 Stable Isotope Methods ............................................................................... 166
6.5.1 Human Sample Selection ................................................................... 166
6.5.2 Faunal Sample Selection .................................................................... 167
6.5.3 Sample Preparation for Isotope Analysis ........................................... 168
6.5.3.1 Demineralisation .................................................................... 169
6.5.3.2 Gelatinisation and Filtering ................................................... 170
6.5.3.3 Lyophilisation and Sample Weighing ................................... 170
6.5.4 Analysis by Mass Spectrometry ......................................................... 170
6.6 Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................... 171
6.7 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 171
Chapter 7: Results................................................................................................. 173
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 174
7.1.1 Presentation of Summary Data........................................................... 174
7.2 Osteology Results ....................................................................................... 175
7.2.1 Demographic Overview ..................................................................... 175
7.2.2 Stature Estimation .............................................................................. 181
7.2.3 Osteometric Analysis ......................................................................... 182
7.2.4 Non-metric Analysis .......................................................................... 188
7. 3 Palaeopathology Results ............................................................................. 192
7.3.1 Dental Pathologies ............................................................................. 193
7.3.1.1 Ante-mortem Tooth Loss ....................................................... 193
7.3.1.2 Dental Wear ........................................................................... 195
7.3.1.3 Dental Calculus ...................................................................... 197
7.3.1.4 Dental Enamel Hypoplasia .................................................... 199
7.3.1.5 Dental Caries ......................................................................... 200
7.3.1.6 Dental Abscesses and Granulomas ........................................ 201
7.3.1.7 Periodontal Disease ............................................................... 203
7.3.1.8 Miscellaneous Dental Pathologies and Anomalies ................ 204
7.3.2 Bone Pathologies ................................................................................ 206
7.3.3 Infectious and Respiratory Diseases .................................................. 208
7.3.3.1 Treponemal ............................................................................ 208
7.3.3.2 Leprosy .................................................................................. 208
7.3.3.3 Tuberculosis ........................................................................... 209
7.3.3.4 Periosteal New Bone ............................................................. 210
7.3.3.5 Maxillary Sinusitis ................................................................. 214
7.3.3.6 Nasal Concha Bullosa ............................................................ 214
7.3.4 Metabolic diseases ............................................................................. 215
7.3.4.1 Rickets ................................................................................... 215
9
7.3.4.2 Scurvy .................................................................................... 216
7.3.4.3 Osteoporosis .......................................................................... 216
7.3.4.4 Cribra Orbitalia ...................................................................... 217
7.3.4.5 Porotic Hyperostosis .............................................................. 218
7.3.4.6 Internal Frontal Hyperostosis ................................................ 218
7.3.4.7 Paget’s Disease of Bone ........................................................ 219
7.3.5 Developmental and Congenital Abnormalities .................................. 220
7.3.5.1 Spina Bifida Occulta .............................................................. 220
7.3.5.2 Developmental Anomalies of the Axial Skeleton ................. 221
7.3.5.3 Miscellaneous Congenital/Developmental Anomalies .......... 223
7.3.6 Neoplastic Disease ............................................................................. 224
7.3.6.1 Benign Tumours .................................................................... 224
7.3.6.2 Malignant Tumours ............................................................... 224
7.3.7 Circulatory Disorders ......................................................................... 225
7.3.7.1 Osteochondroses .................................................................... 226
7.3.7.2 Slipped femoral capital epiphysis .......................................... 226
7.3.8 Joint Diseases ..................................................................................... 227
7.3.8.1 Vertebral Body Joint Disease ................................................ 227
7.3.8.2 Vertebral Facet Joint Disease ................................................ 231
7.3.8.3 Extra-vertebral Osteoarthritis ................................................ 238
7.3.8.4 Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis .............................. 244
7.3.8.5 Ankylosing Spondylitis ......................................................... 245
7.3.8.6 Miscellaneous Joint Diseases ................................................ 246
7.3.8.7 Schmorl’s Nodes .................................................................... 247
7.3.9 Trauma ............................................................................................... 249
7.3.9.1 Fractures and Trauma-related Pathologies ............................ 250
7.3.9.2 Sharp-force Trauma ............................................................... 256
7.4 Stable Isotope Results ................................................................................. 259
7.4.1 Collagen Quality ................................................................................ 259
7.4.2 Portmahomack Isotope Results .......................................................... 260
7.4.2.1 Isotope Data: Fauna ............................................................... 260
7.4.2.1.1 Cattle (Bos) ................................................................ 262
7.4.2.1.2 Deer (Cervidae) ......................................................... 263
7.4.2.1.3 Sheep/Goat (Ovis/Capra) .......................................... 265
7.4.2.1.4 Pig (Sus) .................................................................... 266
7.4.2.1.5 Dog (Canid) .............................................................. 267
7.4.2.1.6 Marine Fish ............................................................... 268
7.4.2.1.7 Freshwater Fish ......................................................... 270
7.4.2.2 Isotope Data: Adult Humans ................................................. 271
7.4.2.2.1 Adult diets: Period 1 (c.550 – c.700) ....................... 272
7.4.2.2.2 Adult diets: Period 2-3 (c.700 – c.1100) ................... 274
7.4.2.2.3 Adult diets: Period 4 and 5 (c.1100 – c.1700) ........... 277
7.4.2.3 Isotope Data: Sub-adult Humans ........................................... 282
7.4.3 Norton Priory Isotope Results ............................................................ 286
10
7.4.3.1 Isotope Data: Fauna ............................................................... 286
7.4.3.1.1 Cattle (Bos) ................................................................ 288
7.4.3.1.2 Deer (Cervidae) ......................................................... 289
7.4.3.1.3 Sheep/Goat (Ovis/Capra) .......................................... 289
7.4.3.1.4 Pig (Sus) .................................................................... 290
7.4.3.1.5 Bear (Ursus) .............................................................. 292
7.4.3.1.6 Marine Fish ............................................................... 292
7.4.3.2 Isotope Data: Adult Humans ................................................. 293
7.4.3.2.1 Adult diets: 12th
and 13th
century .............................. 295
7.4.3.2.2 Adult diets: 14th
century ............................................ 297
7.4.3.2.3 Adult diets: 15th
century ............................................ 300
7.4.3.3 Isotope Data: Pathology Case Study ..................................... 302
7.5 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 304
Chapter 8: Discussion ........................................................................................... 307
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 308
8.2 Health and Society in Medieval Britain ...................................................... 311
8.3 Indicators of Bio-cultural or Familial Affinity............................................ 312
8.3.1 Osteometric Analysis ......................................................................... 312
8.3.2 Non-metric Analysis .......................................................................... 314
8.3.3 Congenital Anomalies ........................................................................ 316
8.4 The Living Environment ............................................................................. 317
8.4.1 Periosteal New Bone .......................................................................... 318
8.4.2 Rib Periosteal New Bone ................................................................... 319
8.4.3 Maxillary Sinusitis and Nasal Concha Bullosa .................................. 321
8.4.4 Infectious Diseases ............................................................................. 323
8.4.5 Vertebral Joint Disease ...................................................................... 327
8.4.6 Extra-vertebral Osteoarthritis ............................................................. 330
8.4.7 Schmorl’s Nodes ................................................................................ 332
8.4.8 Miscellaneous Joint Conditions: Os acromiale .................................. 333
8.4.9 Neoplasms and Circulatory Disorders ............................................... 335
8.4.10 Miscellaneous Conditions: Paget’s Disease of Bone ....................... 340
8.5 Trauma and Conflict ................................................................................... 342
8.5.1 Fractures and Dislocations ................................................................. 343
8.5.2 Sharp-force Trauma ........................................................................... 348
8.6 Diet and Nutrition-Related Stresses ............................................................ 351
8.6.1 Dental Calculus .................................................................................. 352
8.6.2 Dental Caries ...................................................................................... 353
8.6.3 Dental Enamel Hypoplasia (DEH) ..................................................... 354
8.6.4 Abscesses, Granulomas and Periodontal Disease .............................. 356
8.6.5 Dental Wear ....................................................................................... 359
8.6.6 Stature ................................................................................................ 360
8.6.7 Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH) .............................. 362
11
8.6.8 Gout .................................................................................................... 363
8.6.9 Rickets ................................................................................................ 364
8.6.10 Scurvy .............................................................................................. 366
8.6.11 Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis ....................................... 366
8.6.12 Stable Isotope Evidence of Diet ....................................................... 369
8.6.12.1 Faunal Diets ......................................................................... 369
8.6.12.2 Human Diets: Portmahomack .............................................. 375
8.6.12.3 Human Diets: Norton Priory ................................................ 381
8.6.12.4 Human Diets: Site comparisons .......................................... 384
8.7 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 391
Chapter 9: Conclusions and Further Work ....................................................... 395
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 396
9.2 Research Synthesis ...................................................................................... 396
9.2.1 Bio-cultural or Familial Affinity: Concluding Remarks .................... 396
9.2.2 The Living Environment: Concluding Remarks ................................ 397
9.2.3 Trauma and Conflict: Concluding Remarks ...................................... 399
9.2.4 Diet and Nutrition-related Stresses: Concluding Remarks ................ 400
9.3 Final Conclusion ......................................................................................... 402
9.4 Further Work ............................................................................................... 403
9.4.1 Paget’s Disease of Bone ..................................................................... 403
9.4.2 Markers of Activity ............................................................................ 404
9.4.3 Sub-adult Isotope Analysis ................................................................ 404
9.4.4 Adult Tooth Collagen Isotope Analysis ............................................. 404
9.4.5 Strontium and Oxygen Isotope Analysis ........................................... 405
References .............................................................................................................. 407