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Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Social differentiation and land use at an Early Iron Age “princely seat”:bioarchaeological investigations at the Glauberg (Germany)

Corina Knipper a,*, Christian Meyer a, Frauke Jacobi a, Christina Roth a, Marc Fecher a,Elisabeth Stephan b, Kristine Schatz b, Leif Hansen c, Axel Posluschny d, Bernd Höppner e,Michael Maus f, Christopher F.E. Pare g, Kurt W. Alt a

a Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Institut für Anthropologie, Colonel-Kleinmann-Weg 2, 55128 Mainz, Germanyb Landesamt für Denkmalpflege im Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart, Referat 84, Osteologie, Stromeyersdorfstraße 3, 78467 Konstanz, GermanychessenARCHÄOLOGIE, Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Hessen, Schloss Biebrich/Ostflügel, 65203 Wiesbaden, GermanydRömisch-Germanische Kommission des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Palmengartenstr. 10-12, 60325 Frankfurt/Main, GermanyeCurt-Engelhorn-Zentrum für Archäometrie gGmbH, An-Institut der Universität Tübingen, D6,3 (OG 3), 68159 Mannheim, Germanyf Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Department für Angewandte und Analytische Paläontologie, Becherweg 21,55128 Mainz, Germanyg Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Institut für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, Schönborner Hof, Schillerstr. 11, 55116 Mainz, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 13 November 2012Received in revised form22 September 2013Accepted 23 September 2013

Keywords:Central EuropeEarly Iron AgeHuman osteologyKinshipAncient DNACarbonNitrogenStrontiumOxygenStable isotopes

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: knipper@uni-mainz.de (C. Knippe

0305-4403/$ e see front matter � 2013 Elsevier Ltd.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.09.019

a b s t r a c t

Excavations at the late Hallstatt/early La Tène (6the4th century BC) “princely seat” of the Glauberg(Hesse, Germany) revealed exceptionally furnished graves in monumental mounds, simple inhumationsin associated ditches and non-normative burials of up to eight individuals in conical storage pits. Thestudy presented here addresses bioarchaeological characteristics of these burials and their implicationsfor social differentiation and the sphere of influence of the “princely seat”. It includes osteological, aDNA,and multi-isotope analyses of 27 human individuals and faunal remains. One of the outstandingly richgraves (tumulus 1/grave 1) contained the skeleton of a young man (the “prince”) who consumed a su-perior diet based on C3 plants that also included considerable amounts of animal protein. The oxygenisotope composition of his enamel is characteristic for the study area, while the strontium isotope datareflect connections beyond the near environs of the “princely seat” and a conceivable non-local origin.The individuals in the conical pits had numerous joint lesions, indicating a strenuous lifestyle. They lackevidence for maternal relationships and differ from the “prince” and other Iron Age burials due tosubstantial millet consumption and rather low shares of animal protein. Their heterogeneous strontiumisotope ratios suggest connections to the western Wetterau area, where settlements may have formedthe economic hinterland of the Glauberg hillfort. The results reflect both the role of the “princely seat” inthe wider regional context and Early Iron Age social complexity.

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1. Introduction

The increasing importance of iron metallurgy in Central Europewas of major relevance for the emergence of the Hallstatt (c. 800e450 BC) and La Tène periods (c. 450 BC e around 0) that are oftenunderstood as archaeological remains of the historically recordedCelts. Starting in the 6th/5th century BC, richly furnished burials inmonumental mounds (“princely graves”) and fortified hill-topsettlements (“princely seats”) in southern Germany, easternFrance, Switzerland, Bohemia, and Upper Austria attest the

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concentration of political power and economic wealth in the handsof a small number of privileged people, and the integration of localgroups into supra-regional federations (Eggert, 1991; Kurz, 2000).The Glauberg (Hesse, Germany), is a prime example of an Early IronAge “princely seat” (Fig. 1). The densest occupation of the plateaudates to the late Hallstatt/early La Tène period (6the4th centuryBC), when it was fortified (Baitinger, 2010). Exceptionally rich“princely graves” of the late 5th century BC as well as an almostcomplete life-sized sandstone statue (Suppl. 1), and fragments ofthree others, led to international recognition of the site (Herrmann,2002, 2008). This study investigates the human remains from theluxuriously furnished entombments, simple graves that have beenfound in the associated ditches, and from storage pits (Kegel-stumpfgruben) at two settlement locations near the hillfort. This

Fig. 1. Map of the Glauberg hillfort and tumuli, the location of the Hunzgrund and Klause II settlement sites, and rampart-ditch system with the processional way south of tumulus1. Stippled areas ¼ excavated areas; black points ¼ survey locations; light grey lines ¼ ditches; dark grey lines ¼ ramparts.

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835820

research follows up on earlier examinations that explored humanskeletal remains for indications of social ineqality (Burmeister,2000; Wahl et al., 2010).

2. Human remains in association with the early La Tènehillfort on the Glauberg

The excavations of the severely eroded tumulus 1 revealedrather poorly preserved skeletal remains of an inhumation and acremation, and tumulus 2 contained an even less well preservedinhumation. With numerous grave goods, including golden objects,items of weaponry and bronze vessels (Table 1), these burialsbelong to the most elaborate entombments of the late Hallstatt/early La Tène period (Herrmann, 2002, 2008). Close to tumulus 1,two further burials were found lying at the base of a ditch con-nected with the ring-ditch of the mound (Suppl. 2). They appear tobe regular inhumations in extended supine position, and lack gravegoods apart from a single bronze arm-ring. The stratigraphicalposition indicates that the inhumations are contemporary with thestone statue and the “princely burials” in tumulus 1. The wholecomplex is securely dated by the grave goods to the phase La TèneA, corresponding to the second half of the 5th century BC or theyears around 400 BC.

Archaeological, archaeozoological, and archaeobotanical in-vestigations in the rampart/ditch-systems around tumulus 1 and inthe environs of the Glauberg uncovered archaeological features atseveral locations which apparently do not represent an extensive“external settlement” of the hillfort, but rather several smallerfarmsteads (Hansen and Pare, 2008; Baitinger et al., 2010; Hansenand Pare, in press; Schatz, in press). At two of these locations e

the sites of Hunzgrund and Klause II e skeletal remains of 22 hu-man individuals were found (Fig. 1). They were unearthed from socalled “Kegelstumpfgruben”, inverted conical pits, which were pri-marily used for the storage of foodstuffs, and are a very commonfeature in Iron Age settlements in many parts of Europe (Suppl. 3, 4and 5). Three of the pits at Hunzgrund contained a double and twosingle burials, while six similar features at Klause II yielded threesingle, one double, as well as two mass graves of eight (feature 113)and five individuals (feature 116). The skeletons exhibit very variedbody positions including prone, supine or crouched arrangementswith stretched or bent extremities and the heads orientated indifferent directions. In most cases they lack indications of carefulplacement (Fig. 2). Two individuals (KL 113-0 and KL 113-1) werepartly disarticulated and show traces of carnivore gnawing. Isolatedbone finds indicate the presence of even more individuals at theKlause II site.

Human skeletons have repeatedly been documented in storagepits in the late Hallstatt and early La Tène periods (ca. 600e250 BC)(Müller-Scheeßel, in press; Landolt et al., 2011), but are much lesscommon than interments in supine positions with stretched ex-tremities in burial mounds or flat graves (Kurz, 1997; Lorenz, 1978).In contrast to these “regular” or “normative” burials, the intermentsin settlement pits will be referred to as “non-normative” or“informal” in the following discussion. In distinction to humanremains from settlement pits elsewhere, the dead at the Glaubergwere equipped with metal costume components or ornaments thatwere worn directly on the body (Table 1). Additional grave goodsclearly deposited with the dead were missing. Both the potteryfrom Klause II and the bronze and iron objects from Klause II andHunzgrund date to the phase La Tène A.

This study is devoted to the striking contrast between the richlyfurnished entombments in the mounds, the interments in theditches that lack elaborate grave goods, and the “non-normative”depositions in the former storage pits. It uses osteological, mito-chrondrial DNA (mt-DNA), and stable isotope analyses of strontium

and oxygen of tooth enamel, and carbon and nitrogen of bonecollagen and addresses questions concerning physical differences,age and sex categories, maternally related groups, health status,indications for increased or special physical activity, access todifferent food resources, and differences in place of birth. Suppl. 6gives an overview of the methodological background of theanalytical techniques applied, and earlier studies on skeletal re-mains from the central European Iron Age. Along with the humanteeth, enamel of domestic animals is investigated for hints ondifferent catchment areas and the sphere of influence of theGlauberg “princely seat”. The bioarchaeometric data and burialcontexts are discussed regarding the roles of the investigated in-dividuals in early Celtic society and social differentiationwithin theLa Tène A phase.

3. Investigated material

The analysed material comprises the skeletal remains of 27human individuals and a few disarticulated bones from severaldifferent features (Table 1). Due to unfavourable burial environ-ments, the bones of the two richly furnished inhumations and onecremation in the burial mounds (tumulus 1 and 2) were heavilydegraded. The skeletons of two inhumations in the ditch neartumulus 1, as well as four individuals from conical pits at Hunz-grund and 18 individuals from Klause II were much better pre-served and permitted analytical approaches in addition to acomplete osteological assessment.

Thirteen individuals from Klause II and both inhumations in theditch near tumulus 1 were selected for ancient DNA analysis(Table 1). The investigations were carried out on two different teethper individual, and only exceptionally on two or more independentbone samples.

Strontium isotope analysis was conducted on 36 enamel andeight bone samples from a total of 20 skeletons from tumulus 1, theditch as well as from the settlement pits at Hunzgrund and Klause II(Table 2). In order to disclose evidence for alterations in catchmentareas or residential changes during childhood, sampling targeted afirst molar (M1)with crown formation between birth and about thethird year of life and a third molar (M3) whose enamel mineralizesin later childhood and youth, between about seven and 14e18 yearsof age (AlQahtani et al., 2010). If these teeth were not available, afirst incisor or canine substituted for theM1 or a secondmolar (M2;crown mineralization between year 3 and 7) for the M3. For veryyoung children, deciduous teeth were sampled. Sampling ofcortical bone aimed at contributing to the characterization of thebaseline 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios (Horn and Müller-Sohnius, 1999;Price et al., 2002).

Animal teeth from archaeological features are less susceptible todiagenetic alteration (Chiaradia et al., 2003). However, the variationof their isotope ratios may reflect husbandry strategies rather thanthe biologically available strontium in the immediate vicinity of asite (Evans et al., 2007; Knipper, 2011). The faunal samplescomprised one or two teeth from seven domestic animals includingsheep/goat, pig, and cattle, as well as single teeth or bones of hare,polecat, red fox and chicken in addition to several snail shells asrepresentatives of wild species (Suppl. 7). They were derived fromconical pits and other features at the sites of Klause II and Hunz-grund which are archaeologically dated to the early La Tène period(Suppl. 3 and 4). Some specimens came from the same features asthe investigated human remains (features 114 and 116 at Klause IIand feature 4 at Hunzgrund).

Modern samples of snail shells (n ¼ 11), branch wood of beechand pine trees (n ¼ 8), foliage of maple, beech and ash trees(n ¼ 3), and ground vegetation (impatiens; n ¼ 1) complementedthe Sr isotope dataset (Suppl. 8). In order to avoid strontium

Table 1Studied human skeletal remains from the Glauberg with age and sex determinations, body position, pathological features, and results of the aDNA analyses. The individuals are identified by the number of the archaeologicalfeature from which they were recovered and a running number of individuals in each feature. Mutations in HVR I and II are displayed in comparison to the revised Cambridge Reference Sequence (rCRS, Andrews et al., 1999).Abbreviations: M¼male; F¼ female; n. d.¼ no data; OD¼ Osteochondritis dissecans;e¼ not analysed; #¼ determination of the haplogroup is based on the results of the GenoCoRe22 alone. The teeth are numbered according tothe FDI notation (Fédération Dentaire Internationale).

Individual Sex Age inyrs (ca.)

Age class Body heightin cm

Body position Grave goods/ Personalornaments

Notable pathologicallesions

aDNA samples(teeth or bone)

Haplotype HVRI(bp 16049-16401)

Haplotype HVRII(bp 50-397)

Haplo-group

TumuliT 1 / grave 1“Prince” M? 21-28 Adultas (166) Supine

(SE-NW)Gold neck-ring, gold arm-ring, 2 gold earrings, goldfinger-ring, 3 bronzearm-rings, 3 bronzefibulae, belt with bronzehook, fittings and 3hollow rings, leaf crown,iron sword withscabbard, 3 ironspearheads, 3 ironarrowheads in a quiver,shield, bronze beakedflagon

e 48 n.d. e Indet.

T 1 / grave 2 M? 30e40 Adultas e (Cremation) Bronze fibula, belt withbronze hook, fittings and2 hollow rings, 4 halves ofhollow rings, shoefittings, iron sword withscabbard, 4 spearheads,bronze spouted flagon

e e e e e

T 2 / grave 1 e 16e20 Juvenis e n.d. (SW-NE) Gold arm-ring, goldfinger-ring, bronze fibulawith gold fitting, bronzefibula, shoe fittings, ironsword with scabbard,iron spearhead, bronzebelt-hook, 3 bronzehollow rings

e e e e e

Ditch near Tumulus 1T 1 / grave 3 F 55e75 Maturitas

e Senilis(160) Supine

(W-E)Bronze arm-ring Likely edentulous;

ArthrosisFemurFemur

ambiguous e Indet.

T 1 / grave 4 e 1e1.5 Infans I e Supine(W-E)

e Porotic hyperostosis;Periostitis (tibia)

FemurFemurFemur

16224C16311C

73G 146C152C 263G315.1C

K

Hunzgrund (HU) Conical pitsHU 04-1 (SK 1) M 21e24 Adultas 165 Prone

(SE-NW)Silver wire Cutmarks left radius/ulna,

costa; Periostitis (femur/tibia); OD

e e e e

HU 19-1 (SK 2) F 30e40 Adultas 155 Deviant(NE-SW)

2 bronze arm-rings Periostitis (femur/tibia);OD

e e e e

HU 28-1 (SK 3) M 33e40 Adultas 166 “Supine”(SW-NE)

Iron arm-ring, iron belt-hook, half of an ironhollow ring

Clay-shoveler’s fractureCV7; OD

e e e e

HU 28-2 (SK 4) M 28e38 Adultas 168 “Supine”(SE-NW)

Iron pin Healed fractures (leftradius, left frontal, leftcosta); OD

e e e e

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Table 1 (continued )

Individual Sex Age inyrs (ca.)

Age class Body heightin cm

Body position Grave goods/ Personalornaments

Notable pathologicallesions

aDNA samples(teeth or bone)

Haplotype HVRI(bp 16049-16401)

Haplotype HVRII(bp 50-397)

Haplo-group

Klause II (KL) Conical pitsKL 111-1 F? 25e30 Adultas 150 “Supine” (S-N) 2 bronze arm-rings Extensive tooth caries;

Periostitis (tibia)2648

Ambiguous e H#

KL 112-1 M 25e30 Adultas 172 “Left-crouched”(N-S)

e Osteomyelitis (carpal);Periostitis (tibia, femur,sacrum); OD

2738

16129A16172C16223T16311C16391A

e I1a

KL 113-0 F? 20þ Adultasþ e Supine (SW-NE) 2 bronze arm-rings, ironbelt-hook

Carnivore gnawing e e e e

KL 113-1 F 25e35 Adultas 169 “Supine”, partlydisarticulated(S-N)

e Healed fracture (left andright parietal); Sinusitis;Periostitis (tibia);Osteomyelitis (fibula);OD; Carnivore gnawing

2738

rCRS 263G315.1C

H

KL 113-2 e 8e10 Infans II 119 Deviant (NW-SE) e Cribra orbitalia 74þ5446

16218T16298C

e V

KL 113-3 F 45e60 Maturitas 157 Right-crouched(NW-SE)

2 bronze arm-rings Extensive tooth cariesand calculus; Healedfracture (vertebra); OD

2718

16224C16311C

73G 195C 263G315.1C

K1a

KL 113-4 M 30e50 Adultas eMaturitas

170 Deviant (S-N) Bronze neck-ring Spondylolysis FemurFemur

Ambiguous e Indet.

KL 113-5 M 30e40 Adultas 170 Deviant (W-E) e OD 2747

16256T16352C

e H14a

KL 113-6 e 15e18 Juvenis 162 Prone (S-N) Bronze earring Periostitis (fibula) 271526

16092C16293G16311C

e. H11a2þT16092C

KL 113-7 e 0.5e1 Infans I 65 “Supine”(SO-NW)

e New bone formation(skull); Periostitis (tibia)

e e e e

KL “114” e 20þ Adultasþ e Disarticulatedremains

e e e e e e

KL 115-1 e 7þ Infans IIþ e Supine (NW-SE) 2 bronze arm-rings, 2bronze earrings

e e e e e

KL 116-1 M 35e45 Adultas eMaturitas

167 Supine (SW-NE) Iron fibula, bronze finger-ring

Healed fracture (leftfrontal, 2 left ribs);Periostitis (tibia); OD

4818

16224C16311C

73G 146C 152C263G 315.1C

K

KL 116-2 F 25e30 Adultas 152 Prone (S-N) Bronze arm-ring, ironbelt-hook, bronze earring

Extensive tooth caries;Tarsal coalition; OD

2717

n.d. e Indet.

KL 116-3 F 35e45 Adultas eMaturitas

147 Right-crouched(S-N)

e Calcified object e e e e

KL 116-4 e 1e2 Infans I 76 Deviant (SE-NW) e Vitamin C-Deficiency 8454

16311C e HV þT16311C!

KL 116-5 F? 40e50 Maturitas 151 “Left-crouched”(SW-NE)

Bronze earring Cribra orbitalia; OD 16?23?

16192T16256T16270T16399G

e U5a1

KL 121-1 e 3e4 Infans I e Supine (E-W) e e e e e e

KL 121-2 e 40þ Maturitasþ e Crouched?(SW-NE)

Bronze arm-ring, Bronzeearring

e e e e e

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contribution from fertilizers and to reduce the influence of mod-ern anthropogenic sources as much as possible, the samples werecollected in forests or on recently unfarmed grassland. The sam-pling locations represent the dominant geological units in theeastern Wetterau with several samples per geological entity(Suppl. 9). They were chosen to be representative for thegeological units and placed within a 5 km radius around theGlauberg (Fig. 3). However, we do not hypothesize such a limitedcatchment area for the “princely seat”, and see the modern sam-ples as indications for the biologically available strontium fromthe distinct geological entities. Complete coverage of the Wet-terau was beyond the scope of this study and is hard to achievesatisfactorily due to the extensive modern agricultural manage-ment of this area. Data evaluation therefore also consideredpublished data from the wider region and similar geological set-tings (Bentley and Knipper, 2005; Knipper, 2011; Nehlich et al.,2009; Oelze et al., 2012b).

Oxygen isotope analyses (d18Op) were carried out on thephosphate component of human tooth enamel (Table 2). Samplingof permanent second and third molars avoided the influence ofbreast feeding, which leads to an enrichment in 18O (Dupras andTocheri, 2007; Evans et al., 2012). The analyses include the“princely” inhumation from tumulus 1, all four individuals fromHunzgrund and ten individuals from Klause II. Children withoutpermanent second or third molars or premolars were not sampledfor d18Op.

Carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses were conducted oncollagen from ribs, or in a few cases from femora of 25 humansincluding the “prince” in tumulus 1, the graves in the ditch andindividuals from Hunzgrund and Klause II. The investigation issupplemented by 15 faunal bones from Klause II, including reddeer, wild boar, domestic pig, cattle, sheep/goat, horse, and dog(Suppl. 10). The sampled skeletal elements depended on avail-ability and preservation. Again, some of them were recoveredfrom the same conical pits as the human skeletons (features 111,113, 114).

4. Methods

Standard methods have been used for age and sex determina-tion of the human remains (Murail et al., 2005; Szilvássy, 1988;White and Folkens, 2005), metric evaluation (Bräuer, 1988), stat-ure estimation (Pearson’s formulae, cf. Herrmann et al., 1990) andthe diagnosis of pathological and taphonomy-derived lesions (e.g.Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín, 1998; Ortner, 2003). Themitochondrial and Y-chromosomal DNA investigations, strontiumand oxygen isotope analysis as well as carbon and nitrogen isotopeanalysis followed standard protocols. Details are given in the sup-plementary material (Suppl. 11).

5. Results

5.1. Osteological analysis

The sample consists of ninemales (7 adult, 2 adult/mature), ninefemales (4 adult, 1 adult/mature, 2 mature, 1 senile, 1 undeter-minable), seven unsexed subadults (4 infans I, 1 infans II, 2 juve-nile), and two undetermined, probably adult individuals (Table 1).The badly preserved skeleton of the “prince” (tumulus 1/grave 1)indicates a male who died at an age of approximately 21e28 years.From the other elite inhumation (tumulus 2/grave 1) only frag-ments of the dentition were available which suggest an age of 16e20 years.

Average body heights were 168 � 2 cm for the males and153 � 4 cm for the females, excluding individual KL 113-1 with an

outstanding body height of about 169 cm. Unhealed cut and stabmarks on a rib, the left ulna and the left radius of a young malefrom a “non-normative” pit burial (HU 04-1; Fig. 2A) were the onlyevidence of perimortem violence.

The human remains from the exhibited numerous joint lesions,which were probably e but maybe not exclusively e of traumaticorigin (Osteochondritis dissecans) (Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín, 1998; Ortner, 2003; Edmonds and Polousky, 2013).Osteochondritis was attested for 86% (6/7) of the male and 56% (5/9) of the female adults with sufficiently observable joint surfaces.Tentative comparison with prehistoric assemblages (Aufderheideand Rodríguez-Martín, 1998; Claassen, 1991; Jacobi et al., 2009,and our own unpublished observations) indicates that it is morecommon here than in other ancient agricultural communities inGermany. Furthermore unspecific degenerative joint diseases,minor inflammations, dental diseases and bone traumata (e.g.radius and rib fractures, spondylolysis) were present. Anothernotable injury is a “clay-shoveler’s fracture” of the seventh cer-vical vertebra of individual HU 28-1, a stress fracture that almostuniquely results from excessive shovelling activities (Knüsel et al.,1996). Furthermore, one child (KL 116-4) suffered from a probablevitamin C deficiency, evidenced by widespread new bone forma-tion on various skull bones including the sphenoid and mandible(Ortner et al., 2001). Caries frequency was higher in females(66.7%; 4/6) than in males (16.7%; 1/6). The average is in generalagreement with other Iron Age sites (e.g. Dürrnberg 46.2%,Schultz, 1978).

Successful refitting of bones from three neighbouring features atKlause II allowed the reconstruction of a temporal sequence of thefeatures 113, 114, and 118 (Suppl. 4) and revealed two separatephases of body disposal in feature 113. The mass grave feature 113was cut by the later feature 114 and bones of skeletons from 113were found distributed on the floor of this newer structure as wellas in the infill of feature 118. This indicates the immediatecontemporaneity of features 114 and 118 in direct relation to thetop layer of 113, which seems to have been re-used at the same time(Jacobi et al., 2012).

5.2. Molecular (aDNA) analysis

Ten out of 15 analysed individuals (66.7%) could be typedsuccessfully for mitochondrial DNA (Tab. 1, Suppl. 12, 13). Their Gen-oCoRe22 SNP profiles, HVR I, and HVR II sequences matched upphylogenetically, and showed no reproducible contamination, andtherefore allowed confident haplogroup assignment by comparisonto the PhyloTree.org database (phylotree build 14; van Ovenand Kayser, 2009). The sequences of these individuals are depositedin GenBank (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/;KF726382-KF726395) and don’t match the profile of any involved researcher(Suppl.12, Tab. 3). Forone individual (KL111-1), nounambiguousHVRI profile could be obtained. According to the GenoCoRe22, however,both analysed samples belong to haplogroup H.

The people of the Glauberg belong to typical modern-daycentral European haplogroups (H, HV, I, K, U5) with H and Kconstituting the largest proportion, while all others occurred onlyonce. Two skeletons shared an identical maternal lineage ofhaplogroup K (tumulus 1/grave 4 and KL 116-1) in both HVR I andII. For all other analysed individuals, including those from thesame mass graves, maternal relationship can be excluded.Although the multiplex approach targeting Y-chromosomal SNPswas especially designed to match the requirements of degradedancient DNA (Haak et al., 2010), no sufficient Y-chromosomalprofiles could be reconstructed for any of the analysed individuals.Therefore, conclusions about possible paternal relationshipsamong the individuals are impossible.

Fig. 2. Human skeletons in irregular body positions in conical pits near the Glauberg. “Hunzgrund”: A) Feature 4; B) Feature 19; C) Feature 28; “Klause II“: D) Feature 111; E) Feature112; F) Feature 116; G) Feature 113, Pl. 3; H) Feature 113, Pl. 7; J) Feature 114 (Photos: Institut für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, University of Mainz).

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835824

5.3. Strontium isotope analysis

5.3.1. Biologically available strontiumThe patchy distribution of the geological units around the

Glauberg is reflected in the heterogeneous 87Sr/86Sr ratios of themodern comparative samples (Suppl. 8, 9, Fig. 4). Foliage from thebasalt bedrock of the Glauberg plateau yielded the lowest values(0.70540 and 0.70593) followed by wood samples from the Rot-liegendes (0.70778e0.70884) and from the loess (0.70991e0.71038). A location on the Buntsandstein at the Vogelsberg foothillsyielded more radiogenic strontium (0.71133), while another fallsinto the loess range (0.71005), probably reflecting the patchy loesscoverage of the sandstones (geological map 1:25,000e5620Ortenberg). The snail shells and vegetation from the Glaubergslopes and its immediate vicinity (GLB 17.1e36.1) fall between thedescribed ranges and seem to represent variable degrees of ad-mixtures of labile strontium from the basalts, Rotliegendes, loess,and possibly an atmospheric contribution.

Bones of chicken and fox, hare teeth, and snail shells fromKlause II vary between 0.7090 and 0.7095 and overlap with thehuman bone range (0.70941e0.71008). The Iron Age snail shellsfrom Hunzgrund yielded less radiogenic strontium (around0.70840), while enamel from a polecat had the lowest Sr isotoperatio among the archaeological baseline samples (0.70682) andreflects the contribution of volcanic weathering products.

Although our sampling was restricted to forests and avoidedagricultural fields, alteration of the modern samples by atmo-spherically transported strontium of anthropogenic or geogenicorigin cannot be excluded (Evans and Tatham, 2004; LahdGeagea et al., 2008; Maurer et al., 2012). However, we foundconsiderable variation among samples from different geologicalsettings and good agreement with previously established dataranges in south and south-west Germany. This is especially thecase for the Tertiary volcanic rocks and the loess (Bentley andKnipper, 2005; Jung and Masberg, 1998; Knipper, 2011; Oelzeet al., 2012b).

Table 2Results of the isotope analyses on human teeth and bones from the Glauberg. Abbreviations: M ¼ male; F ¼ female. The teeth are numbered according to the FDI notation (Fédération Dentaire Internationale).

Ind. Sex Age inyrs (ca.)

Age class Sr samples(tooth/bone)

87Sr/86Sr �2s d18Op �1s CNsample

Collagen % C % N % C/Natom

d13C &vs. VPDB

d15N &vs. AIR

TumuliT 1/grave 1 M? 21e28 Adultas 46

480.712790.71179

0.000030.00004

e

16.9e

0.2Costa 4.1 42.2 15.3 3.2 �19.8 10.8

T 1/grave 2 M? 30e40 Adultas e e e e e e e e e e e e

T 2/grave 1 e 16e20 Juvenis e e e e e e e e e e e e

Ditch near Tumulus 1T 1/grave 3 F 55e75 Maturitas e

SenilisLeft femur 0.70973 0.00004 e e Costa 6.5 41.7 15.2 3.2 �18.5 9.4

T 1/grave 4 e 1e1.5 Infans I 36 0.71200 0.00008 e e Femur 7.2 41.9 15.3 3.2 �18.6 12.1Hunzgrund (HU) Conical pitsHU 04-1 (SK 1) M 21e24 Adultas 46

480.709060.70894

0.000020.00004

e

16.9e

0.2Costa 4.5 42.2 15.3 3.2 �18.7 9.3

HU 19-1 (SK 2) F 30e40 Adultas 3637

0.709730.71278

0.000020.00002

e

16.3e

0.1Femur 5.2 42.7 15.5 3.2 �20.0 7.9

HU 28-1(SK 3)

M 33e40 Adultas 4648

0.710540.71111

0.000050.00003

e

16.1e

0.1Costa 4.8 48.1 17.5 3.2 �19.5 8.9

HU 28-2(SK 4)

M 28e38 Adultas 3628

0.709060.71382

0.000040.00002

e

15.1e

0.2Costa 6.9 48.6 17.8 3.2 �18.6 8.5

Klause II (KL) Conical pitsKL 111-1 F? 25e30 Adultas 47

38Right tibia

0.711250.712690.70963

0.000020.000050.00003

16.217.1e

0.10.3e

Costa 8.3 46.9 16.8 3.3 �18.0 8.2

KL 112-1 M 25e30 Adultas 4648Right femur

0.712530.712000.70991

0.000030.000030.00001

e

15.5e

e

0.3e

Costa 4.6 48.9 17.9 3.2 �20.0 7.4

KL 113-0 F? 20þ Adultasþ e e e e e Right tibia 4.5 49.0 17.8 3.2 �16.5 8.8KL 113-1 F 25e35 Adultas 46

48Right femur

0.709520.711170.70978

0.000050.000030.00004

e

17.1e

e

0.1e

Costa 3.6 48.9 17.7 3.2 �17.5 8.4

KL 113-2 e 8e10 Infans II 2627

0.711250.71107

0.000030.00003

e

16.4e

0.2Costa 2.9 47.0 17.1 3.2 �17.2 8.5

KL 113-3 F 45e60 Maturitas 262818Right femur

0.709890.70763e

0.70941

0.000040.00006e

0.00004

e

e

16.4e

e

e

0.1e

Costa 3.0 45.1 16.4 3.2 �18.4 9.2

KL 113-4 M 30e50 Adultas eMaturitas

e e e e Costa 9.4 49.4 18.3 3.2 �18.0 9.3

KL 113-5 M 30e40 Adultas 3627Right femur

0.710520.710400.71008

0.000040.000060.00004

e

17.1e

e

0.1e

Costa 3.2 48.7 17.8 3.2 �19.5 8.8

KL 113-6 e 15e18 Juvenis 4648

0.712560.71262

0.000060.00006

e

16.3e

0.5Costa 2.7 47.4 17.3 3.2 �19.7 7.5

KL 113-7 e 0.5e1 Infans I 54 0.71033 0.00001 e e Costa 6.4 41.8 15.0 3.3 �14.9 12.7KL “114” e 20þ Adultasþ e e e e e Costa 13.7 48.6 17.9 3.2 �16.8 8.9KL 115-1 e 7þ Infans IIþ e e e e e e e e e e e

KL 116-1 M 35e45 Adultas eMaturitas

3648Left femur

0.711710.712470.70958

0.000020.000030.00001

e

17.0e

e

0.3e

Costa 6.6 49.8 18.3 3.2 �17.7 9.5

KL 116-2 F 25e30 Adultas 3118Right femur

0.711510.711820.70980

0.000070.000060.00004

e

16.3e

e

0.4e

Costa 2.3 48.7 17.5 3.2 �18.6 8.7

KL 116-3 F 35e45 e e e e e Right femur 1.4 41.5 14.8 3.3 �18.4 9.0

(continued on next page)

C.Knipper

etal./

Journalof

Archaeological

Science41

(2014)818

e835

825

Table

2(con

tinu

ed)

Ind.

Sex

Age

inyrs(ca.)

Age

class

Srsamples

(too

th/bon

e)

87Sr/8

6Sr

�2s

d18Op

�1s

CN

sample

Collage

n%

C%

N%

C/N

atom

d13C&

vs.V

PDB

d15N

&vs.A

IR

Adultas

e

Maturitas

KL11

6-4

e1e

2InfansI

64 260.71

021

0.70

990

0.00

007

0.00

002

e e

e e

Costa

7.5

49.0

18.0

3.2

�16.5

14.0

KL11

6-5

F?40

e50

Maturitas

33 280.71

357

0.71

073

0.00

004

0.00

003

e 16.5

e 0.1

Costa

3.8

47.7

17.6

3.2

�17.7

9.2

KL12

1-1

e3e

4InfansI

85 460.71

084

0.71

099

0.00

002

0.00

006

e e

e e

Cranium

3.7

41.6

15.0

3.2

�16.6

13.7

KL12

1-2

e40

þMaturitasþ

ee

ee

eCranium

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835826

Considering a wider area, a Sr isotope study of Neolithic burialsfrom Nieder-Mörlen near Bad Nauheim (Nehlich et al., 2009),some 20 km to the north-west, and a pig tooth from Bruchen-brücken (Bentley and Knipper, 2005), about 15 km west of theGlauberg, indicate more radiogenic biologically available Sr thanis usually found in loess locations (Bentley et al., 2004, Maureret al., 2012, Turck et al., 2012). 87Sr/86Sr ratios between 0.7120and 0.7160 have also been recorded for thermal waters andprecipitated minerals at the brines of Bad Nauheim (Loges et al.,2012).

5.3.2. Domestic animalsThe enamel 87Sr/86Sr ratios of cattle, sheep/goat, and pigs from

Klause II range from 0.70925 to 0.71212 (Suppl. 7, Fig. 4). All sixmeasurements of an M2 and an M3 of a sheep/goat (OC-GL 88;0.70959e0.70984) and of an M3 of a pig (Su-GL 91; 0.70925e0.70985) show rather little variation and overlap with the Srisotope ratios of the wild faunal samples and human bones. Incontrast, the Sr isotope ratios of two pigs (Su-GL 89: 0.71053e0.71085 and Su-GL 90: 0.71108e0.71163), and three cattle (Bo-GL86: 0.71027e0.71078; Bo-GL 85: 0.71051e0.71132; Bo-GL 87:0.71085e0.71212) are overall more radiogenic than our moderncomparative samples from locations on loess, Rotliegendes, and thebasalts, but find matching data in the Buntsandstein. Especially the87Sr/86Sr ratios of Bo-GL 85 and 87 also vary considerably withinthe same individual.

5.3.3. HumansThe human enamel exhibited even more heterogeneous

87Sr/86Sr ratios than the domestic animals, ranging from 0.70763 to0.71384 (mean: 0.71127 � 0.00137, 1s, n ¼ 36; cf. bone:0.70974 � 0.00021, n ¼ 8) with wide spectra of variation amongmales, females, and children, among burials from the same site, aswell as burials from the same pits (Table 2, Fig. 4). Eight individualsout of a total of 19 (42%) fromwhich enamel has been investigated,yielded at least one 87Sr/86Sr ratio that is more radiogenic than thearchaeological faunal data and the Sr isotope ratios of the moderncomparative samples from the near environs of the Glauberg. Theresults for both analysed teeth of eight other individuals (42%;including the infant KL 113-7with a single analysis of the deciduoustooth) are in agreement with the isotope ratios of modern vege-tation and snail shells collected from a small radius around thehillfort, but covering several distinct geological units. The intra-individual variation of Sr isotope ratios is remarkable, as in sixadult individuals the difference between 87Sr/86Sr ratios of earlyand late forming teeth exceeds 0.001.

The enamel samples of the “prince” (tumulus 1/grave 1) yielded87Sr/86Sr ratios of 0.71279 (M1) and 0.71179 (M3). These data arealso more radiogenic than both the modern comparative samplesand the archaeological faunal enamel, excluding one value obtainedfrom Bo-GL 87.

5.4. Oxygen isotope analysis

The d18Op values of the human second and third molars rangefrom 15.1 to 17.1& with an average of 16.5 � 0.6& (1 s; n ¼ 15)(Tab. 2, Suppl.14, Fig. 5). Considering the small sample size, the datadistribution indicates a group of six individuals (three males andtwo females from conical pits, and the “prince”) ranging betweend18Op ¼ 16.9 and 17.1& and a group of seven individuals (one male,four females, one child, one juvenile) ranging between 16.1 and16.5&. The males HU 28-2 and KL 121-1 yielded lower d18Op valuesof 15.1 and 15.5&. For conversion into drinking water values, weconsidered the equations (4) and (6) by Daux et al. (2008), theformula by Levinson et al. (1987), modified by Chenery et al. (2010),

Fig. 3. Geological characteristics and distribution of archaeological sites in the Wetterau. G ¼ General, U ¼ Upper, M ¼ Middle, L ¼ Lower (Geological units after: GUEK 300 Hessen(1:300,000), DEM compiled from SRTM data).

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835 827

and the classical regression equation of the “superset” of publisheddata compiled by Pollard et al. (2011b, Tab. 4) (Suppl. 14 and 15).The converted values can be appraised in comparison withweighted annual mean d18O values of precipitation recorded at theIAEA stations at Koblenz, ca. 100 km west of the Glauberg(�7.0 � 0.8& [1s] 1981e2005) and at Würzburg, ca. 90 km south-east of the Glauberg (�8.2� 0.7& [1s] 1978e2005) (IAEA, 2006) asbroad indications of the regional O isotope variability. Assumingonly a minor influence of Holocene climatic alterations on humand18Op values (Daux et al., 2005), conversion using equation 6 byDaux et al. (2008), provides the best agreement between the d18Op-values of the teeth and the isotopic composition of the regionalrainwater, with estimated d18Omw-values ranging from �10.4&(HU 28-2) to �7.3& (KL 113-1; Suppl. 15).

The d18Omw-values of HU 28-2 and KL 112-1 fall outside thedata range of two standard deviations from the weighted annualmeans of both comparative stations. In view of the uncertaintiesregarding the analytical and data conversion errors, and the dif-ficulty of making direct comparisons because of the rarity of d18Opdata from other sites, we consider all individuals from the Glau-berg, apart from these two males, to be of possible regional origin.Because the d18Op resp. d18Omw-values are, nevertheless, notexclusive to the nearer environs of the site, additional individualswho changed their place of residence may be analyticallyinvisible.

5.5. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis

The collagen yields (1.2e13.7%), carbon and nitrogen percent-ages and atomic C/N ratios (3.2e3.3) of all samples met establishedquality criteria (van Klinken, 1999; Nehlich and Richards, 2009)(Tab. 2, Suppl. 10). The faunal d13C ratios range from �23.4& (reddeer) to �20.8& (domestic pig) with an average of �22.1 � 0.9&(n ¼ 15) (Suppl. 10, Fig. 6). The faunal d15N values average6.0 � 1.1&, ranging from 4.5& (pig) to 7.9& (sheep/goat). Herbi-vores (red deer, cattle, sheep/goat, horse) have slightly loweraverage d13C values (�22.6 � 0.6&; n ¼ 8) than omnivores (wildboar, domestic pig, dog: �21.5 � 0.8&; n ¼ 7), while the averaged15N values of both groups are almost identical (herbivores:6.1 � 1.3&; omnivores: 5.9 � 0.9&).

The d13C values of the humans ranged from �20.0 to �14.9&(average:�18.2� 1.3&; n¼ 24), and d15N ratios varied between 7.4and 14.0& (average: 9.5 � 1.8; Table 2, Fig. 6). Differences betweenmales and females are marginal (d13C average male: �19.0 � 0.8&;range: �20.0 to �17.7& (n ¼ 8); average female: �18.2 � 0.9;range: �20.0 to �16.5& (n ¼ 9); d15N average male: 9.1 � 1.0&;range: 7.4e10.8&; average female: 8.8 � 0.5&; range: 7.9e9.4&).There are no significant dissimilarities between the normallydistributed data sets (KolmogoroveSmirnov test for normal dis-tribution; Student’s t-test with P-values at 0.05; d13C: p ¼ 0.09;d15N: p ¼ 0.41).

0.704

0.705

0.706

0.707

0.708

0.709

0.710

0.711

0.712

0.713

0.714

0.715

Gra

ve 1

(“Pr

ince

)G

rave

3G

rave

4

HU

04-

1 (S

K 1)

HU

19-

1 (S

K 2)

HU

28-

1 (S

K 3)

HU

28-

2 (S

K 4)

Basa

lt (o

n G

laub

erg)

Rotliegendes, v

olca

nic

rock

s, lo

ess,

mix

ture

s ne

ar G

laub

erg

Rotliegendes

(pur

e)

Loes

s (p

ure)

Buntsandstein

& lo

ess

(?)

Buntsandstein

(pur

e)

Comparative dataKlause II

KL11

3-6

KL12

1-1

KL11

6-5

KL1 1

6-4

KL11

6-2

KL1 1

6-1

KL11

3-7

KL11

3-5

K L11

3-3

KL11

3-2

KL11

3-1

KL11

2-1

KL11

1-1

Ms-

GL

160

Ml-G

L16

1M

l-GL

162

Ml-G

L16

3

Volcanic

rocks

Rotliegendes

Loess

Buntsandstein

Mollusc shell

Foliage

Wood

HunzgrundMound

1

Modern samples

from around

the Glauberg

0.716

anuaFnamuHanuaFnamuH

Bo-G

L86

.1Bo

-GL

86.2

Bo-G

L85

Bo-G

L87

OC

-GL

88.1

OC

-GL

88.2

Su-G

L89

Su-G

L91

Su-G

L90

.1Su

-GL

90.2

Le-G

154

LLe

-GL

155

Ml-G

L15

6M

l-GL

157

Ml-G

L15

8M

l-GL

159

Cn-

G15

3L

Gg-

GL

151

Gg-

GL

152

Male Female Subadult Animals Comparative samples

M1

M2/P

M3

Bone

M1/C

M2

M3

Bone

Dec. tooth

M1/I

M2

M3

Crown

Middle/whole toothBottom

Bone

Nieder-

Mörlen

Fig. 4. Results of Sr isotope analysis of tooth enamel and bone of human and faunal remains as well as modern comparative samples. The coloured bands highlight the isotoperanges of modern comparative samples from locations on volcanic rocks (green), Rotliegendes (dark pink), loess (yellow), and Buntsandstein (purple-grey). (For interpretation of thereferences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835828

The elite burial (tumulus 1/grave 1) stands out from the otheradults due to his elevated d15N value of 10.8& and relatively lowd13C ratio of �19.8&. Elevated d15N values of up to 14.0& are alsofound in breast-fed children.

6. Discussion

6.1. Osteological characteristics and their implications

While the demographic make-up of the skeletal sample fromthe Kegelstumpfgruben indicates that age and sex were not relevantcriteria for the informal burial practice, the other two burial cate-gories are too few in number to recognize any generalized de-mographic pattern. Notably, though, the two individuals from theditch near tumulus 1 represent a very young and a very old person(Table 1).

The single instance of a probable lethal injury does not suggest aviolent death of all the individuals from the Kegelstumpfgruben.Victims of a massacre should present more perimortem defenceinjuries and cranial lesions (e. g. Meyer et al., 2009). The slighttraces of infectious disease, particularly located on the tibia shafts,commonly occur in prehistoric remains, and are therefore too un-specific to be related to a pathogen or a possible cause of death. Thereconstructed chronological sequence of three neighbouring pits

containing skeletal remains suggests several interment eventsinstead of the disposal of bodies following a single mass fatality(Jacobi et al., 2012). Therefore, the variable number of skeletons perpit points to a common pattern of deposition of people who died ofvarious causes over a certain period of time. Although especially theindividuals in the mass graves seem to have died at roughly thesame time, their cause of death remains unknown. Fast-killingepidemics and other infectious diseases, which have an enormousimpact on mortality even today, especially in developing countries(Black et al., 2010), are possible causes. But neither these nor avariety of other catastrophic or accidental events would necessarilyleave any visual traces on the skeletons. Deposition of humanbodies in Kegelstumpfgruben is also known from other Early IronAge sites; but most of these were not as intensively studied as theGlauberg individuals, and no common or related cause of death hasbeen identified for them as yet (Hansen and Meyer, 2006; Hansenand Pare, 2008; Müller-Scheeßel, in press).

Most of the observed pathological alterations can be regarded ascommon among prehistoric communities (Teegen, 2006), and donot help in the further interpretation of the Glauberg site. Twodifferent lesions deserve further comment though. The clay-shov-eler’s fracture, which has an exceptionally well-known etiology(Knüsel et al., 1996) and represents an example of an ‘absolutemarker of activity’ (Meyer et al., 2011), strongly suggests that the

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835 829

affected individual HU 28-1 was involved in a shovelling andprobably a digging activity. The vast ditches and earthworks sur-rounding the Glauberg represent a likely reason why such a rarelyobserved injury is found in a man from this site.

Further evidence of repeated physical strain is the ratherfrequent occurrence of O. dissecans in the skeletons from the ‘non-normative’ pit burials. Repetitive joint trauma is the most likelyetiology (Edmonds and Polousky, 2013), and it predominantly af-fects persons with levels of activity well above the norm of a givenpopulation (Aichroth, 1971; Lindén, 1976). At present, it seems thatthe signs of physical joint overload are connected to the “non-normative” burial mode at the Glauberg, but further studies areneeded to adequately assess the true prevalence of this and otherpathological conditions in the past.

6.2. Maternal relationships

The ancient DNA analyses focused on the detection of kinship,especially among individuals of the mass graves in features 113 and116 of Klause II. The interpretation will only consider maternal re-lations, because no Y-chromosomal data could be obtained.Although five out of eight (from KL 113) and three out of fiveskeletons (from KL 116) yielded authentic endogenous mitochon-drial DNA, no shared haplotypes within these pits have beendetected. None of the adult females yielded an mtDNA profileidentical to the three children to suggest biological parenthood.

Only one adult male (KL 116-1) and a 1.0e1.5 year old child(tumulus 1/grave 4) have identical HVR I and II lineages. Eventhough this sex and age constellation excludes a motherechildrelation, other kinds of more distant maternal relationships arepossible. A more precise estimation of the likeliness of kinship bymeans of calculating haplotype frequencies is hindered by the lackof contemporary data. When compared to present-day Europeanpopulations in a database of 12.481 HVR I/II sequences, thishaplotype was found with a frequency of 1% (in-house databaseinformation). Overall, kinship can neither be further supported norbe judged unlikely based on the available data. The genetic di-versity among the successfully analysed individuals from theconical pits attests that maternal familial relations were not a cri-terion for being deposited in this manner. Moreover, whatevercaused the more-or-less simultaneous death of the people in thedouble or mass graves, it affected members of different families.

6.3. Regional catchment of the “princely seat” and human mobility

6.3.1. Domestic animal husbandry strategiesThe variation of the Sr isotope ratios of the faunal teeth reflects

fodder from geochemically distinct locations (Fig. 4). In pigs, dis-similarities among different individuals suggest that livestock wasbrought to the Glauberg from different locations. Despite thelimited sample size, some cattle exhibited more intra-individualvariation, which points to diversity in food sources and perhapsseasonally variable foddering strategies. Whether the sheep andgoats were primarily fed from local sources cannot be evaluatedbased on the very limited data set.

Overall, some domestic livestock may have been kept on loesssoils around the investigated sites, while the admittedly small dataset lacks indications for feeding on the Glauberg slopes or on thevolcanic hills of the Vogelsberg to the north-east for a long enoughtime to become manifested in the Sr isotope data. Herding in thisarea was previously suggested based on palynological data (Kreuzand Schäfer, 2008; Schäfer, 1996) but should have resulted in lessradiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratios than have been found among the ana-lysed enamel samples (Jung and Masberg, 1998). Feeding on cropsderived from substrates on Buntsandstein in the foothills of the

Vogelsberg to the east of the Glauberg may explain the higher Srisotope ratios of cattle and some pigs. However, it has to be kept inmind that this geological unit alternates very locally with loess andthe Vogelsberg basalts which are dominant further uphill(Geological map 1:25.000 e 5620 Ortenberg; Suppl. 9). It cantherefore be expected that herding in these low mountain rangesmay have led to even more isotopic variationwithin the same teethand among different animals, including values below the loessrange.

Further evidence points to interaction across the Wetterau. LateHallstatt/early La Tène settlements cluster just east of the Taunus(Posluschny, 2007) (Fig. 3), where palynological data indicate ani-mal husbandry (Stobbe, 2008), and Sr isotope analyses of humanand faunal samples produced more radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratios thanat locations in the immediate vicinity of the Glauberg (Nehlichet al., 2009; Bentley and Knipper, 2005). Acknowledging thearchaeological context of the “princely seat” with its regional af-filiations, some of the animals may have been managed by thesesettlements, which were possibly dependent on the Glauberg asthe nearest “princely seat” (Pinsker, 2002) and might havecontributed to the food supply of its inhabitants. Overall, theisotope data spectrum from the domestic animals fits well into theregional variation. It also complements results from late Hallstatt“princely” sites in south-west Germany which suggest extensiveland-use strategies and provision of the elite communities withanimals from the wider, isotopically heterogeneous hinterlands(Stephan, 2009; Stephan et al., 2012).

6.3.2. Human dietary catchment and mobilityCombining the independent information of the strontium and

oxygen isotope data on mobility and catchment areas helps un-derstand the nature of the population represented in the “informal”burials in the settlement pits and the sphere of influence of the“princely seat”. The range of d18Op values of 2& is within thevariation that can be expected for a group which obtained theirdrinking water from the same location (White et al., 2004 withfurther references). The data set lacks evidence for individuals whocame from considerably warmer or cooler areas, such as theMediterranean or the Alps. Apart from two adult men from conicalpits, the converted d18O values of all individuals are in agreementwith growing up inwhat is today central western Germany. Amongthe non-regional individuals, HU 28-2 also showed the largestdifference between Sr isotope ratios of an early and a late formingtooth and the most radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratio in a third molar. Thisunderlines his subsistence on resources from different areas andimplies residential relocation (Fig. 4).

The individuals with enamel d18Op values that are in agreementwith the regional meteorological regime cover a wide range of Srisotope compositions (Fig. 5). The two groups that are indicated bythe oxygen isotope data (cf. Suppl. 14) do not correlate with anyspecific 87Sr/86Sr ratios. Instead, both of them include individualswith enamel Sr isotope compositions that are in agreement withthe faunal and modern comparative data, but also individuals withmore radiogenic Sr isotope ratios. This contributes to the discussionof possible regional connections, for example with the westernWetterau e as proposed above for the faunal samples.

In the given archaeological context, it has to be consideredwhether the heterogeneous Sr isotope data actually mirror thepresence of people from different birth places in the region, orrather the supply of food to the “princely seat” by a network ofsettlements, or a combination of both. Pollen analyses suggestagricultural production throughout the very fertile Wetteraulandscape (Stobbe, 2008), and investigations of plant macro-remains argue for the northern annex of the Glauberg hillfort tobe a consumer site (Kreuz and Schäfer, 2008).

HU 28-2

Buntsandstein

Loess

Rotliegendes

Würzburg

Male Female Subadult

M2

M3

M2

M3

M2

M3

Koblenz

T 1 / Gr. 1KL 112-1

0.706

0.707

0.708

0.709

0.710

0.711

0.712

0.713

0.714

0.715

14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.5

87

/r

S86

rS

δ18

Op (‰ vs. VSMOW)

Fig. 5. Scatterplot of the strontium and oxygen isotope ratios (�1 s) of enamel ofhuman second and third molars. The bands that indicate the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of thegeological units near the Glauberg are based on modern comparative data and takenfrom Fig. 4. The long-term weighted annual averages of the d18O values of modernprecipitation at Würzburg and Koblenz (IAEA, 2006) show the regional oxygen isotopevariation. Dark bars indicate �1s and light bars � 2s from the long-term average. Thedashed line marks the minimal d18Op values to be expected in the covered region. Dataconversion into d18Op is based on Daux et al. (2008, Eq. (6)).

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835830

The oxygen isotope composition of the enamel of the high-status individual grave 1/tumulus 1 is in agreement with aregional upbringing. The Sr isotope ratios of his teeth, however, aremore radiogenic than our baseline data from the near environs ofthe Glauberg. As discussed for the individuals from the conical pits,this may reflect the supply of the “princely seat” from the widerarea of the Wetterau, while movement after his late childhood canalso not be excluded. Considering the supra-regional importance ofthe site, it is also conceivable that people of exceptional status fromwithin its sphere of influence had the right to be buried at thislocation. Although it seems unlikely, in this scenario, the “prince”may have resided elsewhere and his corpse may have been broughtto the Glauberg for inhumation in the monumental tumulus. Thestrontium isotope data cannot distinguish among these possiblemodes of interpretation.

6.4. Dietary reconstruction

In general, the carbon isotope ratios of the faunal collagen aretypical for herbivorous diets in ecosystems based on C3 plants(Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984). The d13C values of the cattle bones(range: �23.2 to �22.5&) are on average lower than in other IronAge assemblages (Jay and Richards, 2006 average:�21.6� 0.5&; LeHuray et al., 2006 average: �20.6 � 0.3&; Nehlich et al., 2007(2009) average: �20.6 � 0.7&) and fall into the data range thatreflects some canopy effect (Drucker et al., 2011, Noe-Nygaard et al.,2005). The on average 1.2& higher d13C value of pigs may point tomore open habitats or the contribution of fungi to their diet(Hamilton et al., 2009), which may also have been available onforest pastures. The d15N ratios of the pigs do not indicate anomnivorous diet with significant shares of animal-derivedcomponents.

The difference between the average faunal and adult humancollagen d13C values of 3.6& exceeds the typical offset of a trophiclevel shift (Bocherens and Drucker, 2003; Drucker and Henry-Gambier, 2005). This reflects consumption of food by the humanpopulation that had isotope ratios differing from those of the forageof the domestic and wild animals. Some of this discrepancy can beexplained by more open and less humid growing conditions ofhuman C3 food plants in comparison to animal fodder (Ferrio et al.,2003; Heaton, 1999) or by differences within plants (Merah et al.,2002), of which some parts may have been processed into humanfood and others used as animal fodder (Knipper et al., 2013).

Human collagen d13C values above about �18&, however, pointto the contribution of C4 plants to these individuals’ diets (Le Hurayand Schutkowski, 2005). Such values have been repeatedly recor-ded as outliers in other burial communities (Hakenbeck et al., 2010,Pollard et al., 2011a) and were occasionally found in Early Iron Agecontexts (Le Huray and Schutkowski, 2005; Le Huray et al., 2006). Apossible explanation is the consumption of millet (Hakenbeck et al.,2010), which occurs frequently among archaeobotanical assem-blages at the Glauberg and other Early Iron Age sites (Kreuz andSchäfer, 2008). Being a cultivated plant that was possibly specif-ically grown to be processed into human food, this explains theabsence of any evidence for the contribution of C4 plants to thefodder of the animals. Livestock from the Glauberg browsed habi-tats that were dominated by C3 vegetation, which also prevailedaround the site (Kreuz, 2002).

The considerable contribution of millet to the human diet setsthe skeletons from the Kegelstumpfgruben at the Glauberg, forinstance, apart from the preceding late Hallstatt (c. 600 BC) burialsin the Magdalenenberg tumulus, which is the closest comparativeassemblage currently available (Oelze et al., 2012a) (Fig. 6). Inaddition to the chronological disparity of about 200 years and thespatial distance of about 250 km, the archaeological context of the

“non-normative” inhumations at the Glauberg has to beemphasised and possible social differences should be taken intoaccount.

The average d15N value of the adults from the Glauberg is 2.9&higher than the average faunal d15N value and indicates consider-able consumption of animal-derived foodstuffs, such as meat anddairy products (Hedges and Reynard, 2007). If the human d13C dataare primarily driven by the contribution of millet to their diet, thedetected combinations of human d13C and d15N values do notnecessarily contradict the consumption of animal-based food takenfrom the analysed faunal populations. A reasonable further expla-nation for an increase in the human d15N ratios are fertilized arablesoils (Fraser et al., 2011; Hedges and Reynard, 2007). In the caseof the Glauberg, however, botanical remains of sorrel (Rumexacetosa) and pale poppy (Papaver argemone) indicate exhausted andlime-deficient rather than heavily fertilized soils in the environs ofthe sites (Stobbe and Kalis, 2002), even though it cannot be ascer-tained whether this is also representative for the Iron Age arableplots.

The average herbivore d15N values of the Glauberg and theMagdalenenberg are well comparable, even though the data fromthe Glauberg are more variable (Glauberg: 6.1 � 1.3&; n ¼ 8 e

Magdalenenberg: 5.8 � 0.4&; n ¼ 6). While this can be consideredan indication of generally similar baseline data, the significantlylower average d15N values of the adult humans from the Glaubergsuggest a diet probably poorer in meat and dairy products than atthe Magdalenenberg (Glauberg: 8.8 � 0.6&, n ¼ 17, not including

5.0

7.0

9.0

11.0

13.0

15.0

δ5

1)

RI

A.

sv

‰(

N

3.0

-24.0 -23.0 -22.0 -21.0 -20.0 -19.0 -18.0 -17.0 -16.0 -15.0 -14.0

δ13

C (‰ vs. VPDB)

C

CC

C

H

S

S

RP

P

P

P

B

B

D

Magdalenenberg

Adult individuals„Warriors“Herbivores

P

D

PigDog

R

B

Red deerWild boar

C

H

S

CattleHorseSheep/Goat

Infans IInfans IIJuvenile

Glauberg

MaleFemale

Fig. 6. Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of human and faunal remains from the Glauberg in comparison to data from burials and herbivore bones in the Hallstatt period tumulusof the Magdalenenberg (Oelze et al., 2012a,b). Comparatively high d15N values separate the “prince” from all other individuals from the Glauberg.

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835 831

the “prince”; Magdalenenberg: 9.6 � 0.8&, n ¼ 46; t-Testp < 0.001). The absence of a statistically significant difference be-tween the stable isotope ratios of males and females indicateslargely balanced access to different dietary components, but withconsiderable variation among men and women especially in theshares of millet.

Findingelevated d15N ratios inyoung childrengenerally indicatesbreast feeding (Fuller et al., 2006). While the data from the childfrom grave 4 near tumulus 1 (d13C:�18.6& and d15N: 12.1&) wouldcorrespond to nursing by amother with stable isotope ratios withinthe data spectrum found at the Glauberg and other IronAge sites (LeHuray and Schutkowski, 2005; Oelze et al., 2012a), three infantsfrom conical pits (KL 121-1, KL 116-4, KL 113-7) revealed consider-ably higher values averaging�16.0� 1.0& for d13C and 13.5� 0.7&for d15N. The d13C ratios may be explainable by substantial milletconsumption by the mothers. The d15N values, however, lie about4.7& above the average of the adult females, which is considerablyhigher than an enrichment of the heavier isotope of 2e3& that ischaracteristic for breast feeding (Nitsch et al., 2011; Fuller et al.,2006). These isotope ratios of the infants go along with the gener-ally heterogeneous collagen data at the Glauberg. Even though thecombination of millet and freshwater fish seems to be a possibleexplanation, the specific cause for this peculiarity, however, has toremain open considering the geographic location hundreds of kil-ometres away from marine resources (Barrett et al., 2011) or theEurasian steppes, where similar isotope compositions of humancollagen have been recorded (Hollund et al., 2010).

The stable isotope ratios of the collagen of the outstandingburial tumulus 1/grave 1 are clearly distinct from those of theremaining adult population. The d13C value is a typical C3-plantsignal, and lacks any evidence for millet consumption. The d15Nratio of 10.8& is almost three standard deviations higher than the

average d15N value of the remaining adult males (8.8 � 0.7; n ¼ 7).This indicates higher shares of meat/dairy products in the elite diet,well comparable to the burials that were furnished with weaponsat the Magdalenenberg (Oelze et al., 2012a). The dietary informa-tion of the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios contributes to thedifference between the “prince” and the individuals in the conicalpits and the ditches and confirms his outstanding social position.

7. Implications on the role of the “informally” buriedindividuals and the sphere of influence of the “princely seat”

The archaeological and bioarchaeometric data from the “non-normative” burials, the richly furnished interments and the faunalremains invite reflection on the social differentiation within earlyCeltic society, as well as the sphere of influence and the provi-sioning of the “princely seat”. The “non-normative” inhumationsinvestigated in this study belong to a widespread phenomenon inthe late Hallstatt and early La Tène period, but nevertheless formthe minority of burials of this time period. Apart from one possibleLa Tène A cremation in a tumulus, “normative” interments in flatcemeteries or tumuli are currently unknown from the Glauberg.

Concerning the role of the “informally” buried individuals inearly Celtic society, the archaeological and anthropological datahave rather contradictory implications. Many of the burials wereprovided with personal ornaments, such as bronze rings andbrooches (Hansen and Pare, 2008), but were denied “formal”inhumation according to the prevailing customs of the early LaTène period. The bioarchaeometric evidence suggests the existenceof “lower status” people and in general a heterogeneous popula-tion. Pathological lesions such as bone fractures (Judd and Roberts,1999) and osteoarthrosis (Sofaer Derevenski, 2000) are commonlyfound in hard-working agricultural communities. Additionally,

C. Knipper et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 41 (2014) 818e835832

certain conditions which are usually very rare, such as stress frac-tures and overloading of the joints, seem to be surprisingly prev-alent among these individuals, especially regarding the smallsample size. These observations suggest people who were undereven more physical strain than to be expected for the Iron Age inGermany (Teegen, 2006).

The collagen stable isotope data indicate an omnivorous dietwith comparatively low shares of animal-based food (cf. Le Hurayand Schutkowski, 2005; Oelze et al., 2012a) and variable and oc-casionally considerable contributions of millet, which is in latertime periods often considered a “sub-standard grain” (Killgroveand Tykot, 2013, 28, 36 with further references).

The aDNA data argue against a connection between maternaldescent and the denial of “formal” burial, or the peculiar extent ofmillet consumption. Neither the inhumation practice nor majordietary properties correlate with potential places of origin.Considering the frequently remarkable differences between87Sr/86Sr ratios of early and late forming teeth in the same in-dividuals, this is not too startling. The intra-individual variation ofthese isotopes may reflect residential relocation of these in-dividuals in their early lives. Fosterage of children has repeatedlybeen discussed for Iron Age Europe (Arnold, 2005; Karl, 2005) andthe data from the Glauberg are a possible reflection of this custom.However, the investigated human population as a whole revealedhighly variable Sr isotope compositions, whereas the oxygenisotope ratios of most of the individuals can be considered typicalfor central western Germany. This compellingly reflects a strongconnection of the “princely seat” to its hinterland. These connec-tions possibly e and certainly not exclusively e included thewestern Wetterau close to the Taunus hills, where more radiogenic87Sr/86Sr ratios prevail (Loges et al., 2012, Nehlich et al., 2009) andwhere numerous contemporary sites existed (Posluschny, 2007,2012). While a food supply from locations with diverging geolog-ical conditions is a conceivable explanation for the observed vari-ability, at least some of the skeletonsmay also represent individualswho originally grew up in settlements in the sphere of influence ofthe Glauberg and moved during their lifetime.

In summary, the denial of “regular” burial correlates withphysical and dietary properties which seem to be unusual and maybe counted as indicators for low status. Considering the heteroge-neous 87Sr/86Sr ratios as a witness of movement, the investigatedindividuals (who were probably biologically unrelated) may havedied away from their ancestral communities, away from their kinwho would normally have arranged their formal burials. Theseproperties correspond to indications for slavery (Patterson, 1982;Gronenborn, 2001), which undoubtedly existed in the EuropeanIron Age (Arnold, 1988; Taylor, 2001); slaves are indeed regarded asa potential source of the wealth of the elite (Biel, 1998; Nash Briggs,2003).

However, these characteristics are not exclusive, residentialrelocation and work under compulsion cannot be proven, and thepresence of personal ornaments (Hansen and Pare, 2008) seems toargue against this interpretation. Even though taboos may havehindered the removal of such closely worn objects from the dead orliving, the social status of these people has to remain open untilintegrative data from normative burials of the region becomeavailable (Meyer et al., 2013).

8. Conclusion

This study on human and faunal skeletal remains from theGlauberg “princely seat” demonstrates the potential of integratingarchaeological and anthropological investigations in decipheringsocial differentiation and lifestyles in the past. For instance, carbonand nitrogen isotope analyses of the “prince” (tumulus 1/grave 1)

suggest that his outstanding burial was preceded by a long-term,probably life-long, distinction from other contemporary in-dividuals. The early ages at death of both prominently furnishedindividuals supplement observations at other sites which indicatethat such lavish late Hallstatt/early La Tène burials reflect inheritednoble status rather than personal achievements (Fernández-Götzand Krausse, 2013).

The accumulation of wealth documented by the grave goods andthe immense construction work required substantial support fromthe hinterland. While the oxygen isotope data of the humans are ingeneral agreement with central western German drinking watersources, the strontium isotope ratios of human and faunal enamelwere very variable and mirror the exploitation of resources frombeyond the immediate vicinity of the hillfort. Archaeological sitedistributions (Posluschny, 2007, 2012) and earlier publishedstrontium isotope data (Bentley and Knipper, 2005; Nehlich et al.,2009) point to an inclusion of large areas of the very fertile Wet-terau in its sphere of influence. This may have involved tribute ofagricultural products to supply the “princely seat” and/or thepresence of people who grew up beyond its near environs. The“informally” buried individuals in the conical pits include bothsexes and all age groups, lack indications of maternal relationships,are frequently marked by traces of physical strain, and consumed adiet that was low in animal proteins and sometimes particularlyrich in millet. The labour of these people may have contributed tothe wealth and power of the “princely seat”. However, the apparentcontradiction between the existence of personal ornaments on theone hand, and the denial of “formal” burial and the anthropologicaldata on the other hand, preclude any final conclusions on the role ofthese people within their society.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Isabell Töpel, Michael Brauns, Sigrid Klaus,and Ernst Hegner who contributed significantly to strontiumisotope sample preparation and measurements at the Curt-Engelhorn-Centre for Archaeometry in Mannheim and theDepartment of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the Universityof Munich. Willi Dindorf conducted the C and N stable isotopeanalyses at the Department for Organic Chemistry at Mainz Uni-versity. The investigation was financially supported by the GermanResearch Foundation (Special Research Program SPP 1171) and theState Heritage Department “hessenArchäologie”. We are indebtedto three anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments onthe manuscript.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.09.019.

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Geological maps

Geologische Karte von Hessen 1:25000 (GK25).GK 25, 5619 Staden. Compiled by Motzka-Nöring, R., Hottenrott, M., Ehrenberg, K.-

H., Kowatz, G. 2006.GK 25, 5620 Ortenberg. Compiled by Ehrenberg, K.-H., Hickethier, H. 1978.GK 25, 5720 Hüttengesäss/Büdingen. Compiled by Reinach, A. von. 1899, reprint

Wiesbaden 1996.Geologische Übersichtskarte von Deutschland 1:200000 (GUEK 200)CC 6318 Frankfurt a.M. Ost. Edited by Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und

Rohstoffe. 1985.Geologische Übersichtskarte von Hessen 1:300000 (GUEK 300). Edited by Hes-

sisches Landesamt für Umwelt und Geologie. 2007.