FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

Responding to Cultural Diversity through an

Online Multicultural Sensitivity Course

for Pre-service Teachers

Shelanee Theresa P. Ruales

EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Doctoral thesis offered to obtain the degree of

Doctor of Educational Sciences (PhD)

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Orhan Agirdag

Co-supervisors: Prof. Dr. Ir. Wim Van Petegem

Prof. Dr. Josefina M. Tabudlong

2020

SUMMARY

The cultural diversity of Mindanao, Philippines, highlights the need for multiculturally

sensitive teachers in the region, as well as for teacher education that fosters such sensitivity. In the

light of scarce empirical studies on increasing multicultural sensitivity (MS) among pre-service

teachers, this dissertation examined whether and how MS can be increased in teacher education

and identified essential variables that might contribute to and clarify this process. Specifically, this

research developed a scale to measure MS, designed and developed an online course based on

Transformative Learning Theory (TLT), assessed the course’s impact, and determined the role of

course engagement and personal factors on the change in MS.

Developing the MS scale required item generation, theoretical analysis, and psychometric

analysis. These resulted in an invariant, internally consistent 28-item Likert scale with three factors

for the personal dimension (ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and intercultural stress) and two

factors for the professional dimension (exhibiting multiculturalism and monocultural orientation).

The study’s subsequent phase used the resulting scale to measure the impact of the developed

online course.

The online MS course, with selected TLT phases integrated into the course design,

followed the analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (ADDIE) model.

Experts and pre-service teachers gave the five-module course a generally high rating.

Overall MS showed a statistically significant increase, but the effect size was modest based

on Cohen’s d. However, most pre-service teachers claimed to have experienced positive change

and identified critical reflection to have influenced their change.

The study likewise studied the potential of course engagement and personal factors to

influence the course’s impact. Data showed that course engagement influenced the increase in

overall MS, while multicultural experiences, gender, and some subscales of intellectual humility

predicted the increase of specific MS subscales. That course engagement could predict MS increase

is a promising result since it implies that the course can bring about change.

Despite the limitations of the MS course in its current form, the study becomes even more

relevant because of the scarcity of literature that explicitly details how to increase MS. The study

demonstrated this relevance by showing how MS can be increased through a specially designed

course that integrates selected TLT phases and leverages online learning.

Furthermore, this study also presented insights on the convergence of multiculturalism,

teacher education, and online learning. Its theoretical contributions, along with the MS scale and

the online MS course, are practical outcomes that can be used in teacher education.

SAMENVATTING

De culturele diversiteit van Mindanao, Filippijnen, benadrukt de behoefte aan cultuursensitieve

leraren in de regio, evenals aan een lerarenopleiding die een dergelijke gevoeligheid bevordert. In het licht

van de schaarse empirische studies over het vergroten van multiculturele sensitiviteit (MS) onder leraren in

opleiding, is in dit proefschrift onderzocht of en hoe MS kan worden vergroot in de lerarenopleiding en zijn

essentiële variabelen geïdentificeerd die kunnen bijdragen aan dit proces en dit kunnen verhelderen. In het

bijzonder ontwikkelde dit onderzoek een schaal om MS te meten, ontwierp en ontwikkelde een online cursus

op basis van Transformative Learning Theory (TLT), beoordeelde de impact van de cursus, en bepaalde de

rol van de betrokkenheid bij de cursus en persoonlijke factoren op de verandering in MS.

Voor de ontwikkeling van de MS-schaal waren het genereren van items, theoretische analyse en

psychometrische analyse vereist. Dit resulteerde in een invariante, intern consistente 28-item Likert-schaal

met drie factoren voor de persoonlijke dimensie (etnocentrisme, interculturele inspanning en interculturele

stress) en twee factoren voor de professionele dimensie (het vertonen van multiculturalisme en

monoculturele oriëntatie). In de daaropvolgende fase van het onderzoek werd de resulterende schaal gebruikt

om de impact van de ontwikkelde online cursus te meten.

De online MS-cursus, met geselecteerde TLT-fasen geïntegreerd in het cursusontwerp, volgde de

analyse, het ontwerp, de ontwikkeling, de implementatie en het evaluatiemodel (AOOIE). Experts en leraren

in opleiding gaven de vijf modules over het algemeen een hoge score.

Over het algemeen vertoonde de MS een statistisch significante toename, maar de omvang van het

effect was bescheiden op basis van Cohen's d. De meeste leraren in opleiding beweerden echter een positieve

verandering te hebben meegemaakt en stelden vast dat kritische reflectie hun verandering had beïnvloed.

Er werd ook onderzocht of de betrokkenheid bij de cursus en persoonlijke factoren mogelijk van

invloed zijn op de impact van de cursus. Uit de gegevens bleek dat de cursusbetrokkenheid van invloed was

op de toename van de algemene MS, terwijl multiculturele ervaringen, geslacht en sommige subscales van

intellectuele nederigheid de toename van specifieke MS-subschalen voorspelden. Dat de betrokkenheid bij

de cursus de toename van MS zou kunnen voorspellen is een veelbelovend resultaat, aangezien het impliceert

dat de cursus verandering kan teweegbrengen.

Ondanks de beperkingen van de MS-cursus in zijn huidige vorm wordt de studie nog relevanter

gezien de schaarste aan literatuur waarin expliciet wordt aangegeven hoe MS kan worden verhoogd. De

studie toonde deze relevantie aan door te laten zien hoe MS kan worden verhoogd door middel van een

speciaal ontworpen cursus die geselecteerde TLT-fasen integreert en die gebruik maakt van online leren.

Verder bood deze studie ook inzicht in de convergentie van multiculturalisme, lerarenopleiding en

online leren. De theoretische bijdragen, samen met de ontwikkelde MS-schaal en de online MS-cursus, zijn

praktijkgerichte uitkomsten die gebruikt kunnen worden in de lerarenopleiding.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This product of 60 months’ worth of work would not have been possible if not for

several people’s help and nurturance. I want to express my sincere gratitude to the following

who were part of my journey:

— my supervisor, Prof. Orhan Agirdag, who never gave up on me when the going got

tough. There was never a time that you told me that I was bound to fail. You were very

encouraging because you saw my anxiety. Even with my many downfalls, you never forgot to

appreciate the little things that I did right. Thank you for believing that I can make it. Thank

you for patiently reading the countless drafts that I made and remained positive when I

experienced many journal rejections. Your knowledge, understanding, and support have been

of great value. I learned a lot from you, and I am grateful. But, I will not wish anymore to

become like you because it will take me seven lifetimes to achieve what you have achieved at

your age. I am fortunate to have a supervisor who has the kindest heart.

— my co-supervisor, Prof. Wim Van Petegem, to whom I am greatly indebted for

helping pave the way to my coming here — the AVLM in 2012 and my doctoral studies in

2015. Thank you for going out of your way to find me a supervisor since you could not take

me under your “engineering wings.” You spent time helping me with my scholarship

application, which was shooting for the moon, considering how competitive the IRO selection

was. When I faced great difficulty halfway through my Ph.D., I told you that I regretted doing

this Ph.D. project. You countered, saying that I might not have gotten the scholarship had I

submitted a different project. Thank you for the pep talks because you knew that I was anxious

and scared at that time. Thank you for answering my questions and reading nth versions of

what I was writing. Despite your stature, you are one of the humblest persons that I know. You

are very inspiring.

— my local supervisor in the Philippines, Prof. Josefina M. Tabudlong, for leading me

to the right persons to approach when I was developing the materials for the online course. You

even let me use your office in one of the shoots that I did and offered it again every time I

needed it. Thank you for your guidance and help, even when you were very busy then as the

college dean. Your prayers and words of encouragement helped see me through those dark

days.

— Prof. Lucia de Haene for being a member of my committee from start to finish. You

witnessed what this project went through, and you have been there to help it become better.

Thank you for signing my scholarship application when Prof. Agirdag couldn’t sign it yet at

that time.

— Prof. Jozefien de Leersnyder, Prof. Katie Goeman, and Prof. Els Consuegra, for

serving as my jury. Thank you for spending your valuable time to read my manuscript and give

comments to help me improve it.

— Prof. Jan Elen and Prof. Martin Valcke, who served as committee members during

my midterms, which had to take place thrice. It was extremely difficult. But later on, I

understood why it had to happen.

— KU Leuven, for the education and training. Never in my wildest dreams have I

imagined studying in a university that is consistently among the top 100 or even 50 universities

around the world. You inspired an ordinary person like me to strive for the outstanding.

— IRO, for the scholarship. I could never afford to study at this university, but the

opportunity that I received made it possible. Besides the chance to learn, I also got the

opportunity to go to places that I just used to see on TV, on the internet, or in books and

magazines. Thank you for extending help to academics and citizens of developing countries.

With the scholarship, my children also experienced Belgian education, which they love so

much. I am afraid that my children’s standard of what a school should be has become so high

that I found it very difficult to choose a school for them back home. The scholarship also made

it possible for my family to be complete in three straight years.

— South Mobility Travel Grants Program, for the travel grants. Plane tickets to the

Philippines are expensive, but the two grants I got made going back to the Philippines for my

data gathering less stressful for my pockets.

— the unknown person who backed out from the IRO scholarship. Back then, IRO

only grants 15 scholarships, and I was number 16 on the list. Your backing out brought me

here today. Whoever you are and wherever you are right now, I am praying for you.

— the staff of the International Office who has been assisting me from then until now.

Special mention to Dr. Ed Guzman, Mattias, and Christophe, who helped me eight years ago

when I prematurely gave birth as the AVLM training was about to finish.

— the AVLM Trainers of 2012 and the staff of LIMEL: Mart, Stijn, Bas, Maarten, Stef,

Linda, Ann, Anke, Wendy, and others whom I may have failed to recall. Know that my AVLM

experience inspired my research project. I am also grateful for the assistance that you extended

when a very unexpected event happened.

— the professors and my colleagues at ECS. I may be reticent, but I learned a lot from

the forums and seminars. The barbecues also made me appreciate Belgian hospitality. If ever

anyone of you decides to visit the Philippines, send me a message, and I’ll be glad to show you

around and have you experience Filipino hospitality.

— Rachida, for willingly and patiently translating my summaries, as well as Qian and

Anouk, for the fun conversations, your company, support, and for lending your ears when I

ranted about my doubts and fears.

— Ma’am Augie Adan-Hansen, for telling me about the AVLM training that brought

me to Leuven. The AVLM experience made me dream big, and it got me here today.

— Prof. Ruben Abucayon and Dr. Monalisa Sasing, for writing my letters of

recommendation when I applied for the scholarship. I will never know what you wrote, but it

must be good because I made the cut.

— my institution back home, the Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of

Technology (MSU-IIT), for granting me a study leave that ran for five years. I am now ready

for my return service of ten years. I am excited to go back to the classroom. I missed being a

teacher.

— the MSU-IIT College of Education Dean, Prof. Amelia Buan, for being very

supportive and getting me involved years ago with Intel Teach and WorldLinks. Having served

as a trainer for several years provided the foundation for what I did for my research.

— my colleagues at the Department of Professional Education of the College of

Education in MSU-IIT, for being supportive with the research I was doing, namely: Prof.

Ciedelle Grageda, Prof. Juliet Tero, Prof. Arlyn Alcopra, Ms. Aireen Babe Monte, Prof.

Geraldine Go, Prof. Adelfa Silor, Prof. Lowell Lucero, Prof. Rizalina Gomez, Prof. Jay-Roel

Semilla, Prof. Imelu Mordeno, Prof. Giselle Dangdang, Prof. Ronaldo Orbita, Prof. Faye

Fajardo, Prof. Rebecca Galela, and Prof. Enrico Riconalla. The send-off party that you gave

me five years ago is a memory that I keep close to my heart. I am excited to work with all of

you again.

— Prof. Jun Karren Caparoso and Prof. Vita Caparoso, who introduced and

accompanied me to meet Prof. Rabby Laviles to get free IELTS review materials. IELTS

review can be quite costly, and having the materials and reviewing on my own saved me

thousands of pesos.

— Sir Basilio Hora, for following-up on the papers and forms that I had to submit while

on leave; and Prof. Rey Etom and Prof. Osuardo Pabatang, for keeping my special orders

updated.

— my other colleagues at the College of Education in MSU-IIT who prayed for me and

sent words of encouragement: Prof. Avril Joy Ramayan, Prof. Vanessa Zabala, Prof. Joy

Magsayo, Prof. Mariliz Crelencia, Prof. Rhea Confessor, and Prof. Roxan Consolacion.

— the universities and schools who opened their doors to me and allowed me to gather

data, over a thousand pre-service teachers who participated in the research, the hundreds of

elementary and high school students involved in the photo and video shoots, the teachers and

professors interviewed for the course content, and the experts who rated the scale and the

course. Your cooperation is precious because it not only helped me finish my project but will

also help improve pre-service teacher education in the Philippines, especially in Mindanao.

— Mr. Edward Mirantes, Jr., Dr. Roberto Napiere, Jr., and Dr. Nasphia Malawani, for

assisting me to gain access to some public schools.

— Prof. Betty Gohel, for playing a huge role in my data gathering. It would have been

difficult to reach the number I was targeting if not for your help.

— Mr. Deno Japitana and Mr. Artson Acibar, for lending the books that I needed.

— Lucille Bayron, my photographer, and Allen Vic Illustrisimo, my videographer, for

being on call for three months, for being very understanding and patient when the schedule was

very erratic, for being so game when we had to ride a motorcycle for over an hour to reach the

schools in the highlands, and for ensuring that I got all the photos and videos that I needed.

— Prof. Dante Dinawanao, for responding to my requests for my online classroom and

my access concerns and for being very responsive to my queries even late at night.

— Prof. Helen Betonio, for editing my work at the early stages, and Mr. Elmer Montejo,

for editing the final manuscript. Thank you for your patience and for agreeing to work in rush

mode.

— Jewelle Villarisco, for the illustration on my thesis’ cover. Thank you for being

patient with my fickle mind and for executing what I wanted.

— the people that my family and I met in Leuven: (a) Ate Mely and Koen, for opening

your home to us; for inviting us to dine-in and sending us home with takeaways; for showering

us with yummy food and garden-fresh vegetables; for constantly checking on us; for warmly

welcoming Mama and Aunt Chita when they visited us; for making us feel like family; and for

telling us that we can always count on you. (b) Ate Leonor, for letting us dine in good

restaurants during special occasions or for no reason at all, for making us feel that we have

someone thinking of us, and for introducing us to the Filipino Catholic Community in Leuven.

(c) Tita Haydee, for making us feel like family; for the sleepovers, the jacuzzi, the good

homecooked food, the pabaons, and the joyrides; and for telling us that you were always ready

to help whenever we needed it. (d) Ate Susie, for making our fridge overflow with food for

days. (e) The FCCL and the Filipino students in Leuven, for the Masses and gatherings.

— Eileen, Ate Liza, Kat, Bev, Sheena, Kristine, Irish, Mayang, Ate Herma, Diandra,

Chicho, and Auntie Dolly, thank you for praying for me. You knew that I badly needed it.

— Manoy Randy, Guia, Chloe, Rai-rai, Juliecel, Jan-jan, Manang Mely, Jojo, and the

rest of the family in Cebu, for the prayers and assistance when we had to attend to the

paperwork for the visa application of Toper and the kids.

— the PEP (Padillas of Antipolo, Evardones of Iligan, and Padillas of Wao) Squad for

the prayers, encouragement, and fun chats. My family and I are looking forward to our get-

togethers and road trips.

— Marie Joy, for visiting my family and me twice. Thank you for buying my MacBook

and bringing it all the way from Canada so that I can save a big amount because it was way

cheaper to buy it there.

— Kaka and Len, for coming to our rescue when our resources were dwindling. Your

kind hearts helped us get through.

— Manang Neneng, Girlie, and Libeth, for taking care of Yuri and Yuan when Toper

and I could not do it ourselves because we were away. Your service was indispensable.

— Tsan-tsan, Cris, and Mikay, for the assistance with our embassy concerns and hatid-

sundo services.

— Onnah Pie and Ninoy, for helping us raise the amount that we needed, for doing the

legwork when we had forms to submit and bills to pay back home, and for looking after Yuri

and Yuan for almost a year when Toper and I could not be with them.

— Joefie and Skye, for treating Yuri and Yuan like siblings when they had to be left in

your parents’ care.

— Papa Joe and Mama Charing, for supporting my and my family’s dreams, for taking

care of Yuri and Yuan when we had to be away, for offering novenas, and for being my prayer

warriors. I am sorry for not being able to take care of you when you both badly needed it.

Hard-headed as I am, I am sorry for not obeying when you told me just to do what I can and

not sacrifice my health and well-being. Indeed, you were right, Mama and Papa — working

long hours and sleeping for a few hours gave me chronic headaches and anxiety. But I hope I

made you proud.

— Yuri and Yuan, for understanding why Nanay was not able to take very good care

of you during the past years. Thank you for understanding my mood swings, my intermittent

crying, and my difficult situation. Thank you for knowing when not to disturb me and when to

give me hugs and kisses to brighten up my days. Thank you for the little things that you did to

perk me up and for praying for me. You also had to sacrifice by going to a new school and

learning a new language so different from what you are used to. But, I know that the experience

enriched you and you were very happy with the school that you went to.

— Toper, for treating me like a queen. You made a huge sacrifice by leaving your well-

paying job and putting your career on hold to be with me on this journey. You took over roles

that I was supposed to do because you wanted me to concentrate on what I was doing. You are

an amazing father and a great husband. You have been very patient with my very difficult self.

You kept me sane. When I got angry with God and questioned why I had to go through what I

went through, you remained steadfast and told me that God would not bring us all to Leuven

and not let me get the degree; I just have to entrust everything in His hands because He knows

what is best. You are my greatest prayer warrior. If I could only share with you the title that I

get for finishing this doctorate, I would. If comes my turn to sacrifice my career for you, just

as you did yours for me, I would do so without batting an eyelash.

— Lola Metring and Lola Madre, my angels up above. Thank you for visiting me in

my dreams. It was very comforting.

— my intercessors Padre Pio and Father Damien, who helped bring miracles.

— the Almighty Father. I have gotten angry at You for not giving me what I was praying

for and even questioned Your existence so many times. But, what You wanted was to make me

realize that Your plans were better than mine and that there is a right time for everything. Your

love and power are amazing. Thank You for bringing into my life the people that I have

mentioned. All glory and honor are Yours.

Daghang Salamat!

Mindanao, para ni sa imo!

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 General Introduction

Introduction 1

Research setting 4

Theoretical background 8

Research objectives 29

Research design 29

Qualitative data collection and analysis 32

Dissertation overview 33

Chapter 2 Development and Validation of the Multicultural Sensitivity Scale

for Pre-service Teachers

Introduction 37

Defining multicultural sensitivity 40

Teacher education 40

Scales on multicultural sensitivity and related constructs 41

Methodology, data analysis, and results 43

Discussion and conclusion 51

Chapter 3 Increasing Pre-service Teachers’ Multicultural Sensitivity through

Online Learning

Introduction 55

The context 57

Transformative learning theory and its application in

online learning 57

Present study 59

Method 60

Results 66

Discussion 71

Conclusion and recommendation 74

Chapter 4 Preparing Pre-Service Teachers for Cultural Diversity:

An Analysis of Factors Influencing the Change in Multicultural Sensitivity

Introduction 77

Transformative learning theory-based online course 79

Course engagement and personal factors to be examined 80

Method 83

Analysis 86

Results 86

Discussion and conclusion 89

Chapter 5 General Discussion and Conclusion

Background 93

Main findings 95

Contributions 96

Research limitations and recommendations 97

Conclusion 99

References 101

Appendices

Appendix A 141

Data from questionnaire responses, interviews, and

focus group discussions for the development of the

multicultural sensitivity scale

Appendix B 145

Data from interviews and focus group discussions

for the development of the online course

Appendix C 148

Data from the interviews after online course implementation

Appendix D 156

Multicultural Sensitivity Scale (First Pilot)

Appendix E 160

Multicultural Sensitivity Scale (Second Pilot)

Appendix F 162

Desired learning outcomes and instructional activities

for the online course

Appendix G 172

Online Course Rubric (For Experts)

Appendix H 176

Online Course Evaluation Scale (For Pre-service Teachers)

Appendix I 178

The online course

Appendix J 183

Sample course materials

Appendix K 184

Sample activities and students’ outputs

Appendix L 187

Online Course Experience Questionnaire

Appendix M 188

Multicultural Experiences Questionnaire

Appendix N 189

Intellectual Humility Scale

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CHAPTER 1

General Introduction

1. Introduction

Cultural diversity is not a new phenomenon. People and societies face and struggle with

this reality every day. Cultural diversity can be challenging since it can bring fear, rejection,

stereotyping, intolerance, discrimination, and even violence that can imperil societies (Council

of Europe, n.d.).

Nations may differ in how they respond to cultural diversity, but one fact remains — it

cannot and should not be ignored. Differences in culture should not necessarily mean “cultural

battle” (De Charentenay, 2013) or merely tolerating differences but seeking means to resolve

problems that arise due to cultural differences (Tan, 2015). Individuals and societies have their

own sets of biases and prejudices, so one has to learn how to deal with cultural others

effectively. In the collective confrontation of cultural diversity, education plays a huge role.

Schools and the education sector can offer tremendous help in this area. Being microcosms of

society, schools should respond effectively to a culturally diverse population.

In 2015, the United Nations identified inclusive and equitable quality education as one

of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). To achieve such a goal, the international body

established the following targets: (a) ensuring equal access to education, (b) teaching

knowledge and skills needed to promote peace and appreciate cultural diversity, and (c)

increasing the supply of qualified teachers. Some view these development goals and targets as

idealistic, some even criticizing them as utopian, but education is widely accepted to be capable

of effecting societal upliftment.

While education may not solve social problems instantly, it is a potent force for social

change and a vehicle for social transformation because it can mold citizens and civic leaders

who are accepting of cultural diversity. Education is thought of as based on the ideal human

qualities imagined by the citizens to possess and the society everyone expects for the citizens

to occupy (Bridges, 2008).

Teachers play an extremely crucial role in education. They affect students’

performance (Irvine & Hawley, 2011; Liang & Zhang, 2009; Pearson, 2017; Terada, 2019)

besides influencing students’ attitudes and beliefs (Diaz-Obando, Plasencia-Cruz, & Solano-

Alvarado, 2003; Green, 2005). They help students develop empathy, respect for differences

(Yusof, Roddin, & Awang, 2015), and acceptance of diversity (Van Driel, Darmondy, &

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Kerzil, 2016). The teachers’ lack of such skills and values is detrimental since it will prevent

them from imparting those skills (Segura-Robles & Parra-González, 2019). Since teachers are

a vital force for social change (Giroux, 2011), they ought to be equipped to teach culturally

diverse students (Gayle-Evans & Michael, 2006; Hong, 2010; Rego & Nieto, 2000).

In dealing with cultural diversity, the role of pre-service teacher education should not

be deprived of attention. Teachers capable of effectively managing a culturally diverse

studentry need to begin their training and preparation for it at the pre-service level (Alismail,

2016; Forghani-Arani, Cerna, & Bannon, 2019; Oryan & Ravid, 2019). Unfortunately, many

pre-service programs fail to hone and equip teachers to work with culturally diverse students

(e.g. DeVillar & Jiang, 2012; Lehman, 2016; Zozakiewicz, 2010) — a problematic situation

because cultural diversity demands teachers who can deal with differences, and such a demand

underscores the need for teacher education that fosters multicultural sensitivity.

Multicultural sensitivity is an individual’s awareness of cultural differences and the

ability to respect these differences and respond to them appropriately. According to Hughes

and Hood (2007), it is necessary for appreciating differences and is essential in the development

of cultural competence.

Despite the importance of MS, no blueprint currently exists for how it can be developed

or increased. Strategies that have been suggested and tested include service learning, self-

reflection, structured controversy, film, and new technologies. Worth noting is the use of online

learning. Several online diversity courses and training programs have been developed and

conducted (e.g., Fehr, 2010; Kim et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2010; Othelia Lee & Bertera, 2007;

Patchen, 2012). However, the existing online courses are for developing multicultural

sensitivity in the business and health sectors (e.g. Communicaid, 2019; Hutnick & Gregory,

2008; Majumdar, Browne, Roberts, & Carpio, 2004; Young & Guo, 2016), that they seem to

be not too useful for pre-service teacher education.

This study explored the potential of online learning for increasing pre-service teachers’

multicultural sensitivity. The online mode of delivery was deemed most suitable because the

topics about MS can be sensitive to some individuals. Since the nature of online learning

requires computer-mediated communication, opportunities for interpersonal stress tend to be

lower (Mei-Chiung, Yen-Ling, & So-Jeng, 2015), thus enabling learners to address prejudice

and discrimination issues that are often difficult to deal with face-to-face. Asynchronous

interaction can help participants avoid being caught in an awkward or uncomfortable situation

or receiving a negative impression. Online learning also provides ample time for students to

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think and reflect before making a post (Curtis & Lawson, 2011 in Kelly & Papadopoulos, 2009;

Kruger, Epley, Parket, & Ng, 2005), allowing them to explore the content at their pace.

Since the aim was to facilitate change reflected in the increase in MS, concepts from

Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) were used in the course design. The primary idea of

TLT is that “one’s meaning perspective or frame of reference — structure of meanings —

changes through a process of becoming critically aware of how and why our presuppositions

have come to constrain the way we perceive, understand, and feel about our world” (Mezirow,

1990, p. 14). Unlike studies on face-to-face instruction, research on transformative learning

online is sparse (Smith, 2012). This dissertation contributes to the literature on the application

of TLT in online learning and its impact in fostering the increase of MS.

Since other factors can influence the change in MS, this research also examined

whether course engagement, gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences, and intellectual

humility predicted such a change. This aspect of the dissertation augmented the literature on

course engagement and personal factors with respect to online learning on MS.

To determine the course’s impact, the study needed a valid and reliable assessment

instrument for measuring change. Several scales for such purpose do exist currently. However,

they are specific to contexts different from that of this study’s locale, and culture-specific

factors make them unsuitable for adoption in this study. So, the researcher had to develop a

MS scale for pre- and post-testing. This scale was meant to fill the gaps that other existing

scales failed to address: purpose and context.

Carried out in Mindanao, the most culturally diverse group of islands in the Philippines,

this study was consonant with the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal of ensuring

inclusive and equitable quality education and with the Philippine government’s efforts to

preserve the nation’s ethnic diversity. The online MS course developed is a step towards

improved cultural relations in the region. While the Mindanao conflict is long-standing and

known to be difficult to address, education is believed to play a pivotal role in fostering

understanding and respect which eliminate prejudice and discrimination among culturally

diverse students. Future teachers should be prepared for such responsibility.

This study benefits both the target population and society at large because teachers are

considered to be a very strong force in effecting societal change. The online course could help

teacher education institutions produce more multiculturally sensitive teachers who promote

cultural understanding in the classroom. Their presence and activity could create ripples of

change in society. Teachers with high MS would be able to create a safe and accepting learning

environment, make students feel accepted and encouraged to stay in school, help minimize

4

structural inequality caused by marginalization, and promote equality. Furthermore, they could

help students develop a positive self-image, teach their students multiple historical

perspectives, strengthen cultural consciousness, and combat stereotypes and prejudicial

behaviors (Garcia, 2014). In addition, this study also provides insights and theoretical or

conceptual contributions about the convergence of multiculturalism, teacher education, and

online learning. Lastly, the developed MS scale and online MS course are practical outcomes

that can be used in teacher education.

2. Research Setting

In this section, the history and description of the research setting are discussed to

provide an understanding of the Philippine context, particularly that of Mindanao. The

background of the research setting will present the relevance and legitimate need of this

research considering the existing issues.

2.1. History and Cultural Diversity of Mindanao

The Philippines is home to 182 ethnolinguistic groups (Reyes, Mina, & Asis, 2017),

some of which practice distinct cultures and traditions. The Philippines’ diversity can be

attributed to its history — the pre-Malay populations, establishment of sultanates, and the

Spanish and American colonization (Boquet, 2017). Located in the southern part of the

country, Mindanao is known for its tri-people — the Moro (Muslims), the Lumad or indigenous

peoples (IPs), and the migrant Christian settlers. Lumad is the term used for the 18 or so

indigenous groups in Mindanao. The Moro people are also indigenous to Mindanao, but the

sultanates and Moro leaders do not accept the IP designation (Paredes, 2015).

The diversity of Mindanao is mainly due to the migration of people from the two other

major island groups of the Philippines — Luzon and the Visayas — whose inhabitants were

encouraged by the Spanish and American colonial governments to resettle in or migrate to

Mindanao. Scholars have varying explanations about why migration to Mindanao was

encouraged. Some scholars say that migration was encouraged to resolve the peace and order

problem in Mindanao, although not many people knew about it at that time. This resolution

intended to use the migrants as instruments to “civilize” the Moro by contagion (McKenna,

1998) since the colonizers had difficulty in conquering the Moro homeland. The migrations,

however, did not reach large-scale proportions until the 1890s (Rodil, 2010). Even after the

Philippine independence in 1946, the post-colonial government continued to encourage

migration to Mindanao, which turned the Moro and Lumad into minorities in their own

5

homeland (Paredes, 2015). Mindanao’s population is about 25 million (Philippine Statistics

Authority, 2017), and both the Moro and the Lumad comprise only around 30% of that

(Paredes, 2015).

2.2. Mindanao Conflict

The decades-long conflict in Mindanao has affected not only properties and

infrastructures but also the tri-people’s mindsets and relationships. This complex conflict is

attributed to different factors. The Moro insurgency is said to draw its ideology from the

centuries-old resistance against colonizers; thus, its roots are deep and difficult to address

(Cook & Collier, 2006). While conflicts are concentrated in Muslim-dominated areas of

Mindanao, many civilians have been displaced (Adriano & Parks, 2013). These conflicts have

influenced people’s mindsets, resulting in animosity, bias, and attitudes of discrimination. In

addition, colonialism distorted the Moro people’s image, and a similar distortion persists even

in some literature (Tan, 1995).

Although the Lumad fought for the recognition of their ancestral domains, they never

formed an armed revolutionary group. However, they seem to have created a de facto one

because some leftist groups — especially those from the hard left — used, manipulated, and

took advantage of them (Casayuran, 2019; Collas-Monsod, 2015; Nepomuceno, 2018). The

hard left’s deceit is said to have created conflict in Lumad tribes and destroyed its structure,

culture, and traditions (ReliefWeb, 2015). Moreover, Lumad communities within Moro

territories are frequently displaced and constantly experience pressure to assimilate (Paredes,

2015).

Kreuzer (2005) described Mindanao as a place of inter-clan rivalry and ethnic and

religious insurgency. These make the Mindanao conflict complex (Adam, Verbrugge, &

Vanden Boer, 2014; Hincks, 2017) and multi-layered (Adriano & Parks, 2013). The effect of

colonization, unequal distribution of resources, and poor governance led to experiences of

discrimination, cultural marginalization, and social injustices (Fisher & Gillena, 2014). Deep-

seated suspicions also exist among the tri-people (Adriano & Parks, 2013). Tan (2015) noted

that some IP groups discriminate against other IP groups, some Christians against the Moro,

some Moro against fellow Moro, and some Christians against fellow Christians in somewhat

similar fashion to the aversion of Tagalogs towards the Bisaya and vice versa, or the scorn of

one Bisaya against fellow Bisaya. Tan further said that the Philippines is divided not only

because of regional favoring but also because of Filipinos’ tendency to marginalize other

Filipinos who speak a different language or practice a different faith.

6

2.3. Cultural Diversity in the Classroom

Mindanao’s cultural diversity is what fills its classrooms with multicultural learners.

Data from the Department of Education (DepEd) show almost 2.9 million IP learners and 1.4

million Moro learners spread in about 50,000 schools across the Philippines (Hernando-

Malipot, 2019). The majority of the IP and Moro learners are in Mindanao and comprise a

huge percentage of learners in Mindanao schools — and this poses a problem. A report by the

Philippine Catholic Church’s Episcopal Commission on Indigenous Peoples and Indigenous

Peoples’ Apostolates revealed that several IP learners experienced discrimination and were

stereotyped as slow learners (de Santos, 2018). However, the comparison between ethnic

minority and majority students was based on limited available data. In the evaluation of data

disaggregation in Sustainable Development Goal 4 (i.e., ensure inclusive and equitable

education), there is no record on parity indices such as IPs and conflict-affected learners (San

Buenaventura, 2019).

The Department of Education (DepEd), which is the Philippine government agency

tasked to manage the country’s basic education system, has also been trying to respond to the

cultural diversity of Philippine classrooms (e.g., Philippines’ Response to Indigenous and

Muslim Education, Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education, Indigenous Peoples

Education). Several foreign countries and non-government organizations even assisted in

implementing some of these programs (e.g., Australian Aid).

DepEd has assured inclusiveness and promotion of cultural diversity in DepEd’s

policies (Hernando-Malipot, 2018) and expressed commitment to shaping learners who

embrace diversity and its challenges and advantages (Montemayor, 2019). In line with these,

the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers includes learner diversity as a domain

focusing on responding to learners’ cultural and religious backgrounds and dealing with

learners in difficult circumstances (such as geographic isolation and armed conflict) and

learners from indigenous groups (Department of Education, 2017). DepEd aims to address

cultural diversity in the classroom, and so, aspiring Filipino teachers must prepare themselves

to address it right from their pre-service training days.

The Commission on Higher Education, which oversees teacher education institutions,

listed multicultural literacy as one of the many topics in one prescribed teacher education

course. However, there are no clear guidelines or declarations about the extent or depth of

multicultural sensitivity that pre-service teachers are expected to acquire. In the Philippines,

especially in Mindanao, such a guideline or topic should be an important feature of the teacher

7

education curriculum. In addition, despite its importance, there are no data on Filipino pre-

service teachers’ MS and whether pre-service teacher training prepares them to possess such.

Despite the Philippines’ culturally diverse context, studies in multiculturalism or

multicultural education are not usually done or published. Only a few studies have been

published online. Some of them are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.

Carreon (2004) integrated cultural elements in the teaching of high school physics and

found no significant difference between the scores of the control group and the experimental

group in terms of conceptual understanding and attitude towards physics.

Munalim (2019) looked into English teachers’ micro-level and one university’s macro-

level practices of multicultural education. The data gathered corresponded to Banks’

dimensions of multicultural education. The finding on multiculturalism practices was excellent,

but tensions were found in other dimensions at both the macro and micro levels.

In 2012, Sarino studied the sense of awareness of multicultural education and identified

implications for institutional transformation. The respondents were school leaders, faculty,

academic support staff, local students, and foreign students. The students claimed a lack of

actual exposure to a multicultural curriculum. Because general findings revealed the

respondents’ lack of metacognitive sense of awareness of multicultural education, Sarino

recommended establishing institutional policies on multicultural education.

Navita (2014) assessed teachers’ multicultural awareness in the school environment and

found that probationary and junior teachers had higher multicultural awareness than senior and

master teachers. Navita stressed the need to conduct multicultural enhancement programs for

the teachers.

Palces, Abulencia, and Reyes (2015) described the diversity of learners in one teacher

education institution in the Philippines. They found that diversity was low, there were incidents

of conflict and discrimination due to cultural insensitivity (moderate on the racial, ethnic, and

gender aspect but rare for religion and class), and there was a moderate amount of initiatives

for multiculturalism in the university.

In their report on the collaborative, participatory process in making decisions for a

multicultural teacher education curriculum, Reyes and Harvey-Murray (2018) presented the

major contributions of the participants in the process and concluded that the bottom-up model

in creating a curriculum for a local context was feasible and desirable.

Sodusta (2019) conducted a pilot study with 49 teachers on developing a Multicultural

Education Paradigm Scale. The study found that the participants had a generally positive

8

attitude towards multicultural education but were not very aware or conscious of the theoretical

and advocacy sources of multicultural education approaches and practices.

A phenomenological case study by Wa-mbaleka (2013) identified the best practices of

a private school system of indigenous students in Mindoro, Philippines. Wa-mbaleka noted that

successful education of indigenous learners can be achieved through the use of a holistic

approach of human and community development, promotion of active citizenry, and situating

the school in or near the community. The study also identified several important challenges,

such as the conflicting cultural values of the IPs and long-term planning being not part of their

culture.

In Sicat and David’s (2016) evaluation of the math performance of IP students, one of

the tribes demonstrated performance equaling that of the mainstream students, while the other

tribe was one grade behind. Cultural adjustment was said to be one of the causes of their

performance level. An issue was also raised about language incompatibility and the materials

used for instruction, both of which reportedly made it difficult for the participants to

understand. Sicat and David recommended that the instructional materials, drills, and exercises

should be contextualized for IPs who are mainstreamed in regular schools.

Lastly, Nedal and Alcoriza’s (2018) investigation of the challenges encountered by

indigenous students in a remote and marginalized area in the Philippines found that the school

lacked materials, the classrooms were not conducive for learning, and there was no electricity.

All the aforementioned studies touch on the issue of multicultural education in one or

some other way, but none of them exclusively dealt with preparing teachers for the culturally

diverse classroom or with multicultural sensitivity.

3. Theoretical Background

This research aimed to increase pre-service teachers’ multicultural sensitivity (MS), for

which purpose an online course and a MS scale were developed. These required making

normative and theoretical choices to inform the process. The conceptual and theoretical

underpinnings of this study are discussed in this section.

This section will first discuss the different ways to manage cultural diversity and why

this study favored the multiculturalism approach, upon the tenets of which multicultural

education is anchored. Using the framework of multiculturalism, the subsequent discussion

will focus on the role of education in a culturally diverse society, and a case will be made to

justify the relevance of multicultural teacher education in preparing teachers for culturally

diverse classrooms. The author then argues for making MS a part of pre-service teacher

9

preparation because the literature shows that pedagogical knowledge and skills do not suffice

for teaching effectively in culturally diverse classrooms.

A background discussion about scale development follows. The author next discusses

the potential and viability of online learning as a method for increasing MS. After this,

discussion shifts to the application of Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) to online course

design aimed at bringing about positive change. This is then followed by a section on online

course development.

The final part of this section is devoted to other factors that influence the change in MS,

particularly course engagement and personal factors, assuming that other factors besides the

course design or technology contribute to the change in MS.

3.1. Managing Cultural Diversity

There is diversity even in the management of cultural diversity. One approach may be

effective in one context but ineffective in another. This subsection talks about the different

ways that cultural diversity in the Philippine context can be managed most effectively and

feasibly.

Multiculturalism is based on cultural relativism and embodies the idea that cultures are

unique and have the right to autonomy (Portera, 2011). As an ideal, it acknowledges the

cultural embeddedness of individuals and the inevitability of cultural diversity in societies, thus

prompting the need for intercultural dialogue on the disputes that may arise from this reality

(Parekh, 2000). Multiculturalism is also viewed to supplement the principles of liberal

democracy, since it promotes its equality ideals (Kymlicka, 1995).

Furthermore, multiculturalism has been shown to reduce prejudice (Terwilliger, Bach,

Bryan, & William, 2013), promote equality in social groups (Levin et al., 2011), encourage

individuals to exhibit a positive attitude towards cultural others (Vorauer & Sasaki, 2010), and

promote understanding of the perspectives of other groups (Apfelbaum, Pauker, Sommers, &

Ambady, 2010; Todd & Galinsky, 2012). It works towards a society where various cultural and

ethnic groups coexist and are recognized, valued, and respected (Reitz, 2009; Yoon, 2007).

Excessive tolerance towards cultural differences is not good for social cohesion, as it may breed

radicalization and marginalization of ethnic groups (Goksel, 2018).

According to de Vries (2019), multiculturalism has its share of scholarly supporters

(e.g., Kymlicka, Modood, Parekh, Patten, Shachar, and Taylor), as well as detractors and critics

(e.g., Barry, Kukathas, Scheffler, Phillips, Behabib, and Appiah). Multiculturalism is criticized

for entailing an essentialist conception of culture, favoring the minority cultural and religious

10

groups, and promoting the formation of separate parallel cultural communities rather than

integration (Mason, 2017). However, according to Meer and Modood (2011), “while advocates

of interculturalism wish to emphasize its positive qualities in terms of encouraging

communication, recognizing dynamic identities, promoting unity and challenging illiberality,

each of these qualities too are important (on occasion foundational) features of

multiculturalism” (p. 192).

Verkuyten and Yogeeswaran (2020) claim that interculturalism places significance on

intergroup contact and dialogue, identity complexity, sense of commonality, and shared

belonging. As Sze and Powell put it, “multiculturalism tends to preserve a cultural heritage,

while interculturalism acknowledges and enables cultures to have currency, to be exchanged,

to circulate, to be modified and evolve” (2008, p. 8). Goodheart (2013) pointed out that

multiculturalism emphasizes the differences among people and ignores what unites them; this

could result in fragmentation and disunity. Rattansi (2011) even insisted on the need to move

from multiculturalism to interculturalism and to draw attention to the deep interconnectedness

of cultures and how ideas of tolerance, liberty, and rationality are similar across cultures.

However, Verkuyten, Yogeeswaran, Mepham, and Sprong (2018) indicated that

multiculturalism and interculturalism can be complementary, even if research literature

suggests that interculturalism predicts more positive outcomes than multiculturalism does.

Taking the same side, Meer and Modood (2011) concluded that interculturalism is not an

updated version of multiculturalism but can be considered complementary to multiculturalism.

Verkuyten et al. (2018) also argued that multiculturalism can be a precondition for the

beneficial effects of interculturalism.

Kymlicka argued that the theories of multiculturalism are often misinterpreted (2012b).

Accounts on the state or even the death of multiculturalism are misdiagnosed and exaggerated

since modern societies are still working on recognizing and accepting ethnocultural diversity

(Kymlicka, 2010; 2019). Multiculturalism may address the need for justice for ethnic

minorities (Goksel, 2018), but that it can do so does not necessarily mean that it is solely

directed at minorities and that the majority culture is used as a basis to determine the rights and

decide on the claims of the minorities (Parekh, 2000). Rather, according to Parekh,

multiculturalism calls for accommodation of cultural differences and cultural groups and for

the proper terms of the relationship among cultural groups. “The norms governing their

respective claims, including the principles of justice, cannot be derived from one culture alone

but through an open and equal dialogue between them” (Parekh, 2000, p. 13). While post-

multiculturalists assert that multiculturalism disregards universal human rights, they fail to see

11

that multiculturalism is a human-rights-based movement working within the principles of

universal human rights and liberal-democratic constitutionalism (Kymlicka, 2010; 2019).

Multiculturalism is also often compared and contrasted with colorblindness and

assimilation. “The colorblind perspective holds that people should ignore racial and ethnic

group membership in their dealings with other people, acting as though racial and ethnic groups

do not exist” (Whitley & Kite, 2010, p. 575). Schofield likens colorblindness to the Let’s

Pretend game (1986). While multiculturalism acknowledges and values cultural diversity,

colorblindness ignores it (Celeste, Baysu, Phalet, Meeussen, & Kende, 2019). Colorblindness

is alluring since its framework for managing issues of differences is simple — if one misses

noticing it, it will no longer matter (Apfelbaum, Norton, & Sommers, 2012).

Colorblindness is said to be equalizing in nature and built on the need for fairness for

all; however, it is speculated to be easier for the majority group if they intend not to appear

prejudiced (Terwilliger, Bach, Bryan, & Williams, 2013). This implies that it is easier for one

to think of everyone as the same rather than embrace differences. Research shows that those

supporting colorblindness may lean on the dominant culture (Apfelbaum, Sommers, & Norton,

2008). As a consequence of colorblindness, people find it difficult to appreciate others, since

one does not learn anything new, and refusing to recognize the minority may cause negative

attitudes towards them since they are less valued and respected (Terwilliger, Bach, Bryan, &

Williams, 2013). Moreover, cultural differences cannot be disregarded, nor do they go away,

even when one shuts the eyes. Rather, the contrary happens — one finds it difficult to see that

being colorblind usually creates more problems than it solves (Apfelbaum, Norton, &

Sommers, 2012).

A concept that is distinct but related to the colorblind perspective is assimilation

(Neville, Lilly, Duran, Lee, & Browne, 2000; Rosenthal & Levy, 2010). With assimilation,

minorities adopt the majority culture and do not maintain their heritage culture (Celeste, Baysu,

Phalet, Meeussen, & Kende, 2019; Van Acker &Vanbeselaere, 2012). Advocates of

assimilation adhere to the idea of the existence of only one group where everyone shares the

same culture, pushing the idea that there are no intergroup differences (Parillo, 2006).

Assimilation aims to foster a common identity for the ethnic majority and minority (Celeste,

Baysu, Phalet, Meeussen, & Kende, 2019). This is evident in countries that follow an

assimilationist approach for its immigrants (Vigdor, 2011).

Assimilation can be forced or voluntary (Pauls, 2019), and it can be achieved through

such means as education or social exposure (Lash, 2018; Xie & Greenman, 2011). History

records minority groups that have assimilated into the dominant culture, but most of the

12

literature focuses on the United States (Holohan, 2012). Holohan explained that, because it

insists on only one belief system, assimilation is seen to produce less conflict — a situation

that facilitates a stabler economy, increase in social mobility, and economic opportunities for

immigrants.

Every approach to managing cultural diversity has its advantages and disadvantages.

The multiculturalist approach has been found to help improve the performance of minority

students (Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Derks, Van Laar, & Ellemers, 2007; Hoti, Heinzman,

Muller, & Buholzer, 2017) and increase school belonging (Celeste et al., 2019; Meeussen,

Otten, & Phalet, 2014). On the other hand, it can also alienate the majority group (Reitz, 2009),

promote essentialism (Mason, 2017; Wilton, Apfelbaum, & Good, 2019), and increase

stereotyping (Gutierrez & Unzueta, 2010; Ryan, Hunt, Weible, Peterson, & Casas, 2007;

Wolsko, Park, Judd, &Wittenbrink, 2000). In contrast, the studies of Flagg (1993) and Gotonda

(1995) found that those who endorsed colorblindness showed stronger stereotypes. Plaut,

Thomas, Hurd, and Romano’s (2018) review of various studies found that multiculturalism has

more positive outcomes than colorblindness, but both have similar potential for inequality.

Celeste et al. (2019) found that the achievement and belonging gaps are wider in colorblindness

and assimilation than in multiculturalism. Wilton, Alfbaum, and Good (2019) noted that

multiculturalism is usually more advantageous than colorblindness but that this is not

acceptable in all contexts and time. The endorsed diversity ideologies also differ and depend

on which one best matches a specific country’s culture and interests (Rattan & Ambady, 2013).

While one cultural diversity management approach works effectively in one context,

its effectiveness may not be true in another context. For this reason, the context of the

Philippines, specifically that of Mindanao, needs to be considered when assessing the

advantages and disadvantages of the different approaches. In this case, multiculturalism seems

to be the more feasible option. On the one hand, it is broad-spectrum; that is, its usefulness

applies not just to a few ethnic groups but to the whole country. On the other hand, the diversity

of the Philippines, including that of Mindanao, is largely due to local migration of people from

the other main islands of the archipelago and not due to foreign immigration. Diversity in the

Philippines is mainly among Filipinos themselves.

The Lumad (indigenous peoples or IPs) and the Moro originally inhabited Mindanao

until they were pushed to the peripheries and became minorities in their own homeland when

Christian settlers from Luzon and Visayas came. Disregarding the evident diversity or working

towards their assimilation into the majority group would aggravate the problem in Mindanao.

Mindanao is a deeply divided society, and there is a sense of historical injustice among its

13

minority population (McDoom & Gisselquist, 2016). The IPs want recognition of their distinct

identity and have been struggling for self-determination and the elimination of deep-seated

discrimination against them (Ty, 2010). The same can be said of the Moro people. Verkuyten

et al. pointed out that “multiculturalism is more responsive to the reality that for many

(minority) group members their ethnic, racial or faith identity continues to be very important

and central part of their sense of self, and that minority, compared to the majority, members

face unfair disadvantages and social exclusion in many domains of life” (2018, p. 516).

Moreover, multiculturalism supports relevant provisions of the Philippine Constitution that are

based on the principle of unity in diversity, that is, recognizing the importance of cultural

heritage, respecting human rights, and preserving the traditions of cultural communities.

Under multiculturalism, different identities and cultures can coexist (Yilmaz, 2016).

The differences are not considered a source of conflict but of richness (Banks & Banks, 2010).

The development of a positive attitude towards different cultures must be done in an

environment that mirrors the diversity of society. The acceptance of these differences can be

made possible through multicultural education (Fowers & Davidov, 2006; Yilmaz, 2016).

3.2. Multicultural Education

There are multiple definitions of multicultural education (Ӧzturgut, 2011). One of the

pioneers of multicultural education, James Banks, defined it as “an education for functioning

effectively in a pluralistic democratic society” (1996, p. 5). The National Association for

Multicultural Education describes it as a form of education that

advocates the belief that students and their life histories and experiences should be

placed at the center of the teaching and learning process and that pedagogy should occur

in a context that is familiar to students and that addresses multiple ways of thinking.

(2018, para. 3)

According to Sleeter (2018), multicultural education aims to combat prejudices and

discrimination and to focus on understanding, respecting, and affirming diversity. “It

challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and

accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gender,

among others) that students, their communities, and teachers reflect” (Nieto, 2004, pp. 436-

437).

Mixing people from diverse cultural backgrounds, expecting them to be respectful and

tolerant of differences, is not instinctive (Salili & Hoosain, 2001). For this reason, multicultural

education is valuable (Gay, 2003; Yilmaz, 2016; Markus & Rios, 2018) because multicultural

14

education can help develop understanding and acceptance of cultural diversity (Arnow, 2001

and Fowers & Davidov, 2006 in Yilmaz, 2016), enhance one’s capacity to interact effectively

with people of different cultural backgrounds (Kim, 2009), and teach the necessity of mutual

respect between diverse groups and not only tolerance (Koppelman, 2011). Advocates of

multicultural education assert that citizens should be able to respect and value diversity for a

diverse society to succeed (Koppelman, 2011). For this reason, Sleeter (2018) strongly

recommended that human rights and cultural diversity be made apparent in the different aspects

of education — in school policies and practices, curriculum, instruction, organizational

structure, assessment, and learning standards.

Koppelman enumerated the following as intended student outcomes of multicultural

education: (a) seeing one’s self as unique but knowing how to respect and accept others’

individuality; (b) knowing about one’s own group and being able to appreciate different

cultures; (c) being capable of intergroup dialogues; (d) being able to analyze historical and

contemporary issues, which ability leads to intelligent decisions about problems and conflicts;

and (e) being involved in activities that address social justice. Multicultural education has also

been found to help students overcome prejudice (see Bulku, 2017; Wright & Tolan, 2009; Terri,

1981). Just as importantly, multicultural education can help improve students’ academic

achievement (Banks, 1994; Gay, 1998; Nieto, 1992; Yilmaz, 2016; Zirkel, 2008).

Multicultural education is such a broad concept (Banks, 2006) that various

conceptualizations of it can exist within and across countries (Banks, 2009; Grant & Pontera,

2011, and Gundara, 2015 in Cha, Gundara, Ham, & Lee, 2017). Thus, it is important to note

that in the implementation of multicultural education, the country’s history and context are

considered to respond to local concerns (Leeman & Reid, 2006). So that it can implement

multicultural education consistently with theory, a teacher education course or program must

consider the different dimensions of multicultural education (Banks, 2006), namely,

content integration — the extent to which teachers use in their lessons examples

and content from various cultures;

knowledge construction — when teachers help students understand how

cultural assumptions influence the way knowledge is constructed;

prejudice reduction — focuses on students’ racial attitudes and how it can be

modified through teaching;

equity pedagogy — exists when teachers vary their teaching styles to ensure

achievement for all students; and

15

empowerment of school culture and social structure — involves empowering

the school’s diverse groups in terms of practices, participation, and interaction.

One can say that multicultural education aims for total school reform (Banks, 2006;

Nieto, 2004). For effective implementation of multicultural education, the reform should

include changing the attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, and actions of the school staff (Banks &

Banks, 2004; Manning & Baruth, 1996). This highlights the idea that multicultural education

involves more than just a change in content and pedagogy — it also demands a change in

attitudes and beliefs towards cultural diversity.

Multicultural education is for all learners and not only for the minorities (Banks, 2004;

May, 1999; Nieto, 1999). Thus, in this research, the target group was pre-service teachers from

the ethnic minority and ethnic majority groups. This choice mirrors the actual reality in schools,

that is, teachers cannot choose their students, and working towards improving cultural relations

is not the responsibility of the ethnic majority alone but also of the ethnic minority.

3.3. Multicultural Teacher Education

Studies have found that teachers may not be prepared to work with culturally diverse

students (Dessel, 2010; Pickett & York, 2011). Cultural diversity is often disregarded because

teachers are usually trained for one dominant culture (Yeung, 2006). Some studies provide

evidence that teachers who are able to manage cultural diversity in the classroom can help in

the academic achievement of students (Akkari & Loomis, 2012; Banks, 2004; Larke, 1990;

Nieto, 2004; Sleeter & Grant, 2003), reduce prejudice, and help students develop a more

positive attitude towards cultural others (Akkari & Loomis, 2012; Giroux & Penna, 1979;

Luciak, 2006).

Teacher education programs are responsible for helping teachers develop knowledge,

attitudes, and skills in working effectively with diverse students (Banks & Banks, 2016;

Bennet, 1995; Polat, 2009; Yurtseven & Altun, 2015). Various scholars such as Ladson-

Billings (1994), Sleeter (2005), Gorski (2009), and Krummel (2013) proposed that pre-service

teachers should learn about the aspects of diversity and multicultural education. Further,

Sharma (2005) recommended the inclusion of a balance of multicultural theory and practice in

pre-service teacher training, while Glasglow (2010) recommended integrating multicultural

thinking in the everyday curriculum. Taylor, Kumi-Yeboah, and Ringlaben (2016) found it

necessary for pre-service teachers to learn to accept student diversity in K-12 classrooms, while

Pentikainen (2016) suggested that sensitivity to differences should be learned as part of the

teacher education curriculum.

16

Zeichner and Hoeft (1996) noted that pre-service teacher education programs intended

to prepare teachers for diversity in the classroom ought to include prudent decisions about

whether related issues should be included in the curriculum, whether study and experience

should be culture-specific, whether to prioritize interaction with cultures or studying them, and

whether the program represents what it supports. On the other hand, Gay and Howard (2000)

proposed a two-part program for multicultural teacher education. The first part is for acquiring

cultural knowledge of self and others (critical cultural consciousness and cultural self-

awareness) and the second part is for developing multicultural pedagogical knowledge and

skills (i.e., multicultural classroom communications; multicultural foundations of education;

multicultural pedagogical knowledge and skills; multicultural performance appraisal; public

relations skills for culturally diverse families, groups, and communities; and multicultural

change agency). Gay and Howard also advanced the idea of separate multicultural education

courses in the teacher preparation program.

Gorski (2009) introduced a new typology of approaches to multicultural teacher

education: teaching the “other,” teaching with cultural sensitivity and tolerance, teaching with

multicultural competence, teaching in sociopolitical context, and teaching as resistance and

counter-hegemonic practice. Teaching the “other” involves studying the cultures, values,

lifestyles, and worldviews of different groups. Teaching with cultural sensitivity and tolerance

prepares pre-service teachers by letting them examine their personal biases and prejudices to

become more aware of and sensitive to diversity. Teaching with cultural competence is learning

how to implement multicultural pedagogies and curricula to meet diverse students’ needs. For

teaching in sociopolitical context, teachers examine how power, oppression, dominance,

inequity, and injustice influence schooling. Lastly, teaching in sociopolitical context is

intended to foster critical consciousness to be able to understand the scociopolitical nature of

their work.

Gibson (2004) pointed out that teacher education programs should not only address

pedagogical skills but also cultural knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes. Nieto (2004) expressed a

similar stand in asserting that becoming multicultural is not about learning a set of skills but

about transforming profoundly into one capable of empathically relating with others. Gorski

(2009) underscored the importance of being critical and frequently examining one’s prejudices,

biases, and assumptions and how these might affect one’s role as a future teacher. Engaging in

dialogue and critical engagement is one way to become multicultural (Pickett & York, 2011).

However, Tedesco (1995) affirmed that overcoming prejudice and stereotypes cannot be done

drastically and effortlessly since mentalities require more time to change compared to

17

knowledge. Moreover, strategies aiming to promote understanding and respect among different

cultures should be applied as long-term strategies.

Research literature shows that pedagogical knowledge and skills do not suffice for

effective teaching in culturally diverse classrooms. Just as important are pre-service teachers’

sensitivity to cultural differences, their ability to relate with cultural others empathically, and

their overcoming of their prejudice, stereotypes, and biases.

The next subsection will further elaborate on the concept of multicultural sensitivity as

a crucial component of pre-service teacher preparation for teaching in culturally diverse

classrooms.

3.4. Multicultural Sensitivity

Of the myriad knowledge, skills, and characteristics that pre-service teachers are

expected to possess, this study focused on multicultural sensitivity (MS).

Learning to be sensitive to cultural differences, transforming into someone able to relate

with cultural others empathically, and overcoming prejudice, stereotypes, and biases are

necessary for pre-service teacher preparation. Sensitivity entails awareness of and the ability

to understand peoples’ feelings (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.; Merriam-Webster, n.d), both of

which amount to being able to relate with others empathically. MS is a positive orientation

toward cultural others (Castro, 1998). According to studies, how teachers relate with their

learners influences learners’ academic achievement, can reduce prejudice, and can assist

students’ development of positive attitudes toward cultural others. Several scholars also

pointed out the value of MS in multicultural education or in dealing with cultural diversity in

schools (see Arizaga, Bauman, Waldo, & Castellanos, 2011; Briggs, 2014; Chen, 2011; Morris

& Mims, 1999; Pedersen & Carey, 2003; Pentikäinen, 2012).

Definitions of multicultural sensitivity are diverse, but this study’s operational

definition of it is based on the core of the definitions presented by various scholars. Thus, for

this study, multicultural sensitivity refers to individuals’ awareness of cultural differences and

their ability to respect these differences and respond to them appropriately.

The term is frequently used not only in the field of education but also in healthcare,

counseling, and business. Because of its popularity and widespread use, issues and

disagreements about its definition and usage are common. Several authors use the term

interchangeably with cultural sensitivity, intercultural sensitivity, cross-cultural competence,

cross-cultural effectiveness, cultural responsiveness, cultural awareness, and cultural skill (see

Altan, 2018; Butler, 2004; Howell, 2015; Huh, Choi, & Jun, 2015; Kim & Connelly, 2019;

18

Lutz, 2017; Olowule-Sangoseni & Jenkins-Unterberg, 2017; Resnicow, Baranowski,

Ahluwalia, & Braithwaite, 1998). Other authors consider the term interchangeable with

cultural competence, asserting that both are closely related although not synonymous (see Chen

& Starosta, 1997; Sarwari & Wahub, 217; Sharon, Emmerich, & Parekh, 2014; Ridley et al.,

1994; Whaley, 2008). Many scholars, however, consider MS to be just a part or a prerequisite

of cultural competence (Chen & Starosta, 2000; Finkbeiner, 2006; Hammer, Bennett, &

Wiseman, 2003; Lutz, 2017; Papadopoulos, 2006; Peng, Rangsipaht, & Thaipakdee, 2015).

The Center for Community Health and Development at the University of Kansas (2020,

para. 7) made conceptual distinctions among cultural knowledge, cultural awareness, cultural

sensitivity, and cultural competence. Cultural knowledge refers to knowing about some cultural

characteristics, history, values, beliefs, and behaviors of another ethnic or cultural group.

Cultural awareness is the next stage of understanding other groups — being open to the idea

of changing cultural attitudes. Cultural sensitivity is knowing that differences exist between

cultures but not assigning values to the differences (better or worse, right or wrong). Cultural

competence is a conglomeration of the three other elements and adds operational effectiveness.

The preceding analysis of the various definitions seems to suggest that cultural

competence covers a wide scope. Frawley, Russell, and Sherwood (2020) compared cultural

competence to multicultural sensitivity in that both concepts resist precise definition.

Various authors have identified components or attributes of multicultural sensitivity.

Some of these include awareness, (Ridley et al., 1994), knowledge (Foronda, 2008; Ramos,

2015; Ridley et al., 1994), responsiveness (Ramos, 2015; Segura-Robles & Parra-González,

2019), regard for cultural diversity, (Chen, 1997; Segura-Robles & Parra-González, 2019),

respect, understanding (Chen, 1997; Foronda, 2008; Garcia, 1995, as cited in Hunter & Elias,

2000; Huh, Choi, & Jun, 2015; Kim & Connelly, 2019; Kim & Jun, 2009), tailoring (Foronda,

2008), self-monitoring, non-judgment (Chen, 1997), and empathy (Chen, 1997; Huh, Choi, &

Jun, 2015).

While pre-service teachers are aware of the importance of multiculturalism, their pre-

service training does not provide enough opportunity for them to develop MS (Kim &

Connelly, 2019). Unfortunately, “teacher education often fails to encourage candidates to

expand their vision of culturally responsive pedagogy beyond academic material” (Taylor,

2010, p. 27). One issue to consider is that most pre-service teachers are from the ethnic majority

group (Cooper, 2003; Miller & Endo, 2005), and they may not be acutely aware of the struggles

of those coming from the minority group. Miller and Mikulec (2014) reported a high prevalence

of pre-service teachers’ intention to teach in their own hometown schools or similar contexts.

19

For pre-service teachers, such intentions tend to diminish the meaningfulness and significance

of culturally responsive teaching while still in pre-service training. If pre-service teachers are

not sensitive to educational inequality issues due to ethnic or cultural differences, then

providing training to enhance MS is essential (Mitchell, 2009) because MS has an impact on

the multicultural education competence of pre-service teachers (Hur, 2017), and it is a

significant predictor of multicultural teaching efficacy (Kim & Connelly, 2019).

Ridley et al. (1994) claimed that it is not clear how MS is achieved. Bennet (1986)

observed that MS acquisition is not natural, so there is a need to develop new awareness and

attitudes. Park (2009, as cited in Huh, Choi, & Jun, 2015) suggested conducting MS training

to help individuals acknowledge and accept cultural differences; change stereotypes, prejudice,

and distorted views; and form good relationships with people from another culture. This

suggestion concurs with the findings of Yurtseven and Altun (2015) on the importance of

multicultural awareness and education on improving MS. An intercultural education course

(Spinthourakis & Roussakis, 2009); an intercultural communication course (Altan, 2018);

implementation of culture-focused speaking tasks (Mighani & Moghadam, 2009); and

autobiography of self, biography of the other, and cross-cultural analysis of similarities of self

and other (Monroe & Ruan, 2018) have shown positive results for pre-service teachers.

A course that focuses on increasing pre-service teachers’ MS is relevant to the context

of Mindanao, Philippines, hence justifying the development of a MS course for the ethnic

majority and ethnic minority. Such a course emphasizes that regardless of ethnicity, all pre-

service teachers need to be prepared for culturally diverse classrooms. It also aims to offset the

negative effects of multiculturalism, such as alienation of the majority group, promotion of

essentialism, and increased stereotyping. As has been noted earlier, improving cultural

relations is not the responsibility of the ethnic majority alone but also of the ethnic minority.

A MS scale for pre- and post-testing had to be created to measure the impact of the

course developed. Measuring multicultural sensitivity is not free of issues, however. For

instance, the lack of cognitive and behavioral indicators makes MS difficult to measure (Ridley

et al., 1994). However, MS depicts attitude, which directs behavior (Hughes & Hood, 2007),

and so it can potentially be measured by measuring cognate attitudes, practices, and knowledge

(Ramos, 2015).

Another issue concerns who should be considered the authoritative or expert voice in

the evaluation of an individual’s ability to interact with cultural others (Portala & Chen, 2010).

Would self-reporting suffice, or would an objective observer be better? The research literature

is replete with reports of MS measurements and other related constructs carried out by means

20

of self-reporting instruments such as Likert scales (see Chen & Starosta, 2000; Guyton &

Wesche, 2005; Henry, 1986; Jensen, Whiting, & Chapman, 2016; Jibaja-Rusth et al., 1994;

Liang & Zhang, 2009; Pohan & Aguilar, 2001; Ponterotto, Baluch, Greig, & Rivera, 1998).

Further, the literature suggests that MS also covers one’s beliefs, and so, behavioral

observation as a way to measure a person’s MS will not suffice. The factor analysis conducted

as part of this study also affirmed this.

3.5. Scale Development

Measurement scales enable researchers to numerically assign scores to some

phenomena that cannot be directly measured, and their development needs to be hinged on a

relevant theory (DeVellis, 2012). In the absence of theories, the scale must be backed by

conceptual formulations and a definition of what the scale intends to measure.

Several authors agree that the systematic and complex process of developing a scale

(Morgado, Meireles, Neves, Amaral, & Ferreira, 2017) usually involves three steps: item

generation, theoretical analysis, and psychometric analysis (see Clark & Watson 1995;

DeVellis 2003; Nunnally, 1967; Pasquali 2010). Item generation can be deductive or inductive,

or both. The deductive method includes a review of the literature and existing scales, while the

inductive method involves gathering information from the target population through interviews

or focus group discussions. At this step, the instructions, format, and wording are also

considered. Content validity is assessed at the theoretical analysis stage. To determine whether

the scale reflects the desired construct, experts or the target population is asked to give their

opinion. The last step — psychometric analysis — helps assess construct validity, that is,

whether the scale can measure what it intends to measure. Construct validity can be assessed

through various methods, such as exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis.

The scale’s reliability is also measured by its internal consistency. Psychometric analysis needs

to be done using data from the target population with a sufficient number of samples. No

specific sample size has been unanimously agreed upon, although most scholars consider ten

as the minimum number of participants for each item of the scale, and 15 or 20 as the ideal

(Clark & Watson, 1995; DeVellis, 2012; Hair et al., 2014).

The MS scale developed for this study was a self-report, Likert-type scale since this

kind is commonly used in measuring MS and other related constructs. Other MS scales exist

currently, but these were developed in and for western countries, were not tested

psychometrically, were designed to match specific course objectives, or were administered in

a different cultural context. Development of the scale followed the three-step process of item

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generation, theoretical analysis, and psychometric analysis. Items belonging to the personal

dimension were segregated from those under the professional dimension. The invariance

between the ethnic minority and the ethnic majority was also explored. The MS scale

underwent two pilot tests to ensure reaching the appropriate number of samples needed from

the target population. The results of the factor analysis also served as bases for identifying the

topics for the online MS to be developed.

3.6. Online Learning to Increase Multicultural Sensitivity

Online learning, also known as e-learning, is defined as education over the internet and

is classified as a type of distance learning (Stern, n.d.). Activities for online learning can be

synchronous (i.e., involves the use of chat, audio, or video conferencing) or asynchronous (i.e.,

utilizes e-mail, forums, wikis, and blogs) (Ghirardini, 2011).

The internet has made it possible for one to learn without being physically present in

the classroom. The proliferation of online courses attests to the popularity of the online mode

of learning. Online courses on various topics or subjects are available for different levels of

education and for professional development. However, despite the popularity of online

learning, the extent of its effectiveness is always a source of debate.

Many studies have found that in contrast to traditional face-to-face instruction, online

or hybrid formats have statistically significant positive effects on student learning (Nguyen,

2015). On the other hand, Russel’s review of 350 studies on distance education and online

learning found that 70 percent of the studies found no significant difference in the outcomes of

face-to-face instruction and mediated instruction (1999). One analysis of empirical literature

also found no significant difference in terms of achievement, attitude, and retention between

distance/online education and face-to-face education (Bernard et al., 2004). Zhao, Lei, Yan,

Lai, and Tan (2005) found that studies published before 1998 did not show a significant

difference between distance education and face-to-face education, but studies after 1998

generally showed significant differences favoring distance education. While several studies

found positive effects of online learning (see Navarro & Shoemaker, 2000; Rovai & Jordan,

2004; Harmon & Lambrinos, 2006; Bowen & Ithaka, 2012; Denny, 2013), this cannot be

generalized across different learners, topics, and contexts. Some other studies reported mixed

and negative findings and found attendance, race/ethnicity, ability, and sex to be moderator

variables (e.g., Brown & Liedholm, 2002; Hiltz et al., 2000; Figlio, Rush, & Yin, 2010; Xu &

Jaggars, 2013).

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As has been explained earlier in this report, the MS course developed for this study was

designed for online delivery, since some topics related to cultural diversity could be sensitive

to some individuals and the affordances of online learning might help overcome some issues

that may arise if the course were conducted face-to-face. For example, concerns about receiving

a negative impression may be diminished if the interaction is not face-to-face (Brignall & Van

Valey, 2005; Ju-Yu et al., 2012). The decision to use the online platform was made with the

hope that students would be more confident to share their thoughts and that the platform would

allow everyone the same opportunity to share their ideas (Kelly & Papadopoulos, 2009). The

online mode of learning also allows students to express thoughts and feelings without seeing

the immediate reactions of others, thus eliminating the fear of outright opposition.

Asynchronous channels allow learners to think and reflect before posting anything online

(Kruger, Epley, Parket, & Ng, 2005; Curtis & Lawson, 2001 in Kelly & Papadopoulos, 2009).

The benefits and advantages of online learning took cultural issues and differences into account

when the MS course was designed and conceptualized — a consideration especially

recommended for interventions relating to sensitivity (Rimm-Kaufman, Voorhees, Snell, & La

Paro, 2003).

Some cultural diversity training programs for pre-service teachers do exist (see Moore,

2018; Kang & Hyatt, 2010; Patchen, 2012; McKnight, Hoban, & Nielsen, 2011; Fehr, 2010;

He & Cooper, 2009), but they are not specifically focused on increasing MS. Researchers

such as Lee et al. (2010); Othelia Lee and Bertera (2007); Liaw (2006); Kim, Wong, and Lee

(2018); and Fehr (2010) have also performed studies on diversity courses and training programs

that explored the use of online learning. Several studies found online discussions to be

beneficial to developing cultural competence, since the students could safely express their

opinions on sensitive topics that were usually difficult in face-to-face instruction, and they

could understand more the diverse perspectives of their classmates (see Othelia Lee & Bertera,

2007; Merryfield, 2001; Bertera & Littlefield, 2003). Merryfield (2001) found that some

participants felt that the online format hampered them from really knowing the other

participants, yet she concluded that online learning was promising for diversity training.

Goldstein Hode, Behm-Morawitz, and Hays (2018) declared similarly that not only face-to-

face diversity training can be effective but also online diversity training.

Research findings on the effectiveness of online courses varied, so the author needed

to ensure that the course could produce the change that it intended. In the case of this study,

the aim was to increase multicultural sensitivity through an online course. With this facilitated

change in mind, Jack Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory seems to be the most

23

relevant to, most suited for, and most capable of enacting positive change among pre-service

teachers. The next section discusses this theory at length and how this was incorporated in the

online MS course’s design.

3.7. Transformative Learning Theory

The chief concept of Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) is that “one’s meaning

perspective or frame of reference — structure of meanings — changes through a process of

becoming critically aware of how and why our presuppositions have come to constrain the way

we perceive, understand, and feel about our world” (Mezirow, 1990, p. 14). TLT has been

applied to some studies concerning individual change and is particularly interesting for this

research because increasing MS entails an increase in awareness and change in beliefs and

attitudes which are integral to transformative learning. For Zeichner and Melnick (1994), the

transformation of pre-service teachers’ worldviews and assumptions is just as important as their

acquisition of information and skills.

Perspective transformation often involves profound changes in self, cognitive,

emotional, somatic, and unconscious dimensions, and it poses a difficulty because deeply held

personal values and established perspectives are questioned (Mezirow, 1991). According to

Cranton (2008), since one’s view of the world is affected by one’s prejudices, stereotypes, and

belief systems, transformation can take place when one encounters an event that leads one to

question one’s belief. The transformative learning process will enable one to move beyond the

mere acquisition of facts and instead think critically by considering different viewpoints and

examining prior beliefs, assumptions, and values (Boyd & Myers, 1998).

The process of transformation involves ten phases, namely: “(1) a disorienting

dilemma, (2) self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame, (3) a critical assessment of

epistemic, sociocultural, of psychic assumptions, (4) recognition that one’s discontent and the

process of transformation are shared and that others have negotiated a similar change, (5)

exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions, (6) planning a course of action,

(7) acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans, (8) provisional trying of

new roles, (9) building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships, and

(10) a reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective”

(Mezirow, 1991, pp. 168-169). However, over the years, Mezirow’s theory has evolved, and

the transformative learning process is not seen currently as linear but recursive — the triggering

event can be one or cumulative, relationships are of primary importance, and context and

culture affect the transformative learning process (Cranton, 2008; Baumgartner, 2001; Taylor,

24

2000). A number of researchers condensed the process into three or four phases (Taylor, 2007).

Herbers (1998) condensed the phases into (a) disorienting dilemmas, (b) critical reflection, (c)

rational dialogue, and (d) action. One version included only critical reflection, discourse, and

action (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Some researchers determined that transformative

learning does not require the disorienting dilemma step (Kilgore & Bloom, 2002; Kovan &

Dirkx, 2003). There are different approaches to transformative learning (Addleman, Brazo, &

Cevallos, 2011) and it is not clear how it is used in practice and how it is assessed (Taylor &

Snyder, 2012).

Integrating phases of the TLT into the design of this study’s online MS course was

assumed to foster multicultural sensitivity, the increase of which (i.e., the impact of the MS

course) was measured using the MS Scale for Pre-service Teachers that was developed for this

purpose. Only those TLT phases deemed relevant to fostering the increase of MS (e.g.,

activating event/disorienting dilemma, critical reflection, and discourse) were considered for

inclusion in the course design.

According to Cranton, a disorienting dilemma is “an activating event that typically

exposes a discrepancy between what a person has always assumed to be true and what has just

been experienced, heard, or read” (2002, p. 66). Disorienting dilemmas are considered essential

parts of transformative learning (Laros, 2017) because they are necessary for transformation

(Saavedra, 1996). Taylor saw disorienting dilemmas as those that create a platform of readiness

for change (1994), and emotions are considered fundamental to the disorienting process (Laros,

2017). Another important component of transformative learning is critical reflection

(Henderson, 2002) in which learners critically reflect on their beliefs, convictions, and points

of view and redress their distorted beliefs because they get to delve into the basis of their

beliefs. Because of critical reflection, perspective change is experienced (Wang & Berger,

2010). Lastly, discussion or discourse will help one see alternative perspectives and validate

one’s new perspective. Mezirow (1991) said that as one communicates with other people, one

gets to see alternative perspectives which one interprets in a particular way to make them one’s

own.

Certain specific conditions facilitate transformative learning, including exploratory

discussions in which all voices are heard and situations where the learners are responsible for

their own learning, conflict, consensus-building collaboration that promotes new

interpretations from differing perspectives, reflection, self-assessment, and continuing

reflective practice (Saavedra, 1996). Some studies on fostering transformative learning in an

online environment include those by Goldstein Hode, Behm-Morawitz, and Hays (2018); Kim,

25

Wong, and Lee (2018); Killeavy and Moloney (2010); Reushle (2008); Cragg, Plotnikoff,

Hugo, and Casey (2001); and Benson, Guy, and Tallman (2001). A few of these studies found

positive results (cf. Goldstein Hode, Behm-Morawitz, & Hays, 2018; Hugo, 2018; Kim, Wong,

& Lee), while the one by McCracken and Guthrie (2011) found that technology can either

provide transformative learning or distract students.

As previously mentioned, selected phases of TLT were integrated into every module of

the course. Each module started with an activating event before the module content was

presented. Individual reflection was presented midway through the course. The course

developer ensured that included materials suited the context of Mindanao, making the course

more relevant to the pre-service teachers and hopefully leading to a more meaningful learning

process. It was important to ensure that the course would lead the pre-service teachers to

question their existing beliefs, prejudices, and stereotypes. Each module ended with a group

activity to encourage discussion or discourse with other course participants. All group outputs

were to be posted online, and the pre-service teachers were encouraged to comment on the

others’ work.

Research on fostering transformative learning in an online environment is limited

(Smith, 2012) compared to studies on face-to-face educational settings. Although for a

considerable time TLT has been applied to several online learning and diversity courses, the

number of studies about these aspects still remains meager, especially those in the Philippine

context. This dissertation’s humble contribution to knowledge will, therefore, be in this

particular lacuna — i.e., the application of TLT in online learning and the potential of a TLT-

infused online learning course in increasing multicultural sensitivity among pre-service

teachers.

3.8. Online Course Development

Several instructional design models are available for use as guides for designing an

online course. This dissertation favored the most popular of them all — the ADDIE model.

According to Molenda, the ADDIE model

is merely a colloquial term used to describe a systematic approach to instructional

development, virtually synonymous with instructional systems development (ISD). The

label seems not to have a single author, but rather to have evolved informally through

oral tradition. There is no original, fully elaborated model, just an umbrella term that

refers to a family of models that share a common underlying structure. (2003, p. 34)

26

The model’s name is an acronym formed out of the first letters of each of the five stages

of course development — analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The

analysis stage involves needs, target audience, task, and topic analysis. The design stage

includes formulating learning objectives, sequencing the order in which the objectives should

be achieved, and selecting media, instructional strategies, delivery strategies, and evaluation

strategies. The development stage encompasses content, storyboard, and courseware

development; validation; and pilot testing. The course is made available and delivered in the

implementation stage, and learners’ activities are managed and facilitated. The final stage or

evaluation is done for specific purposes or specific metrics such as students’ learning,

perceptions, and performance (Ghirardini, 2011; Branch, 2009). However, evaluation ought to

be done continuously and in combination with other stages (Watson, 1981).

The developments in instructional design resulted in several instructional system design

(ISD) models, most of which were based on the ADDIE model (Richey, Klein, & Tracey,

2011). The ADDIE model has been illustrated and interpreted in many different ways and has

not been spared of valid criticism, one of which concerns its being linear. Through the years,

however, the model has seen several iterations and has evolved.

This dissertation strictly observed all the stages embodied in the ADDIE model. The

course designed under this model was iterative — each stage was reviewed before the next

stage was begun. The course also underwent expert and student evaluation prior to

implementation.

As has already been emphasized, the course design was influenced by the

Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) perspective, as the application of TLT tenets

(especially in the activities that learner’s undergo) was assumed to increase MS. Theory

application was carried out by integrating an activating event/disorienting dilemma, critical

reflection, and discourse in the course design. These components are possible in online learning

while considering the cultural reasons for putting the course online. The computer-mediated

nature of communication in online learning reinforces participation because it reduces non-

verbal cues, gives ample time for students to contribute in the discussion, lessens pressure when

asking questions, and establishes a feeling of a safe environment to share views and question

others — all of which allow transformative learning to occur (Bradshaw, 2009; Hoskins, 2013;

Palloff & Pratt, 1999; Vonderwell, 2003).

Besides TLT elements, other elements that were important in ensuring course

effectiveness were also considered for integration into the design. Zacharias (2009) identified

some implications of different learning theories on e-learning design, including the following:

27

presentation of content in different formats; provision of individual activities, reflections, group

activities, group discussion, and relevant tasks; and organization of content into modules or

units. Zacharias also identified the following design attributes for e-learning quality that

impacts learners’ motivation to learn: web usability — navigation, learnability, accessibility,

consistency, and visual design; and instructional design — interactivity, content and resources,

media use, learning strategies design, instructional feedback, instructional assessment, and

learner guidance support. According to Ghirardini (2011), the quality of an online course can

be enhanced by learner-centered content, granularity, engaging content, interactivity, and

personalization. Similarly, Ossiannilsson and Landgren (2011) identified personalization,

flexibility, accessibility, transparency, interactiveness, participation, and productivity as

important for quality e-learning. In an online course, the learner can set the pace and is given

more time to study the materials and even repeat them (Rollin & Harrap, 2005). Utilizing text,

images, and audio can reinforce learning since information is offered in various ways and can

help meet the learners’ needs and preferences (Brett, 1995; Dalton & Strangman, 2006). Videos

can impart knowledge and skills (Cooper & Higgins, 2015; Rasi & Poikela, 2016; Taslibeyaz,

Aydemir, & Karaman, 2017) and can also change attitudes (Alldredge, Johnson, & Sanchez,

2006; Koumi, 2006; Soble, Spanierman, & Liao, 2011). Carmichael, Reid, and Karpicke (2018)

reported that the use of educational videos could stimulate course performance; positively

affect student motivation, confidence, and attitude; and encourage participation, emotional

engagement, and course engagement. They also observed that shorter videos could improve

learning outcomes and stimulate repeat usage.

Besides the aforementioned elements, the following were also considered for inclusion

in the course: presentation of course content or lesson by chunks and in different formats

(videos, slide presentations, readings); ensuring that majority of the videos will be custom-fit

for the course and context-relevant so that the pre-service teachers will find them meaningful;

forums to provide opportunities for discussion with others; learner support through an

introductory video about the online classroom, course navigation, and “how to” instructions

for course activities; provision of facilitator’s contact information and ensuring prompt

facilitator response to student inquiries; reasonable pacing of the course to ensure that the

learners had ample time to study the content and work on the activities; ensuring clarity of all

instructions; and simplifying navigation around the online learning environment.

Experts evaluated the course’s objectives, presentation, design, interaction, and

assessment, while the pre-service teachers evaluated the course’s access and navigation,

28

resources used, its activities, and deep and self-directed learning. These forms of evaluation

were carried out to improve the next iteration of the course.

3.9. Course Engagement and Personal Factors

Incorporating TLT phases in the course design was assumed to increase MS among the

participants, but the change might not necessarily be exclusively attributable to the course itself

or the technology used. Some other factors were also assumed to play a part, particularly course

engagement and personal factors, and the study also explored these possibilities. The personal

factors that were examined included gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences, and

intellectual humility.

Course engagement is considered essential to learner success in an online course

(Hampton & Pierce, 2016). For this reason, this factor was also examined in this study. Course

engagement was measured by the number of minutes that a learner spent on course content,

including watching videos, slide presentations, and reading course materials. Time spent on

individual reflections and group activities was not included because these may have been

carried out offline. Only those activities and behaviors done online were considered. This study

assumed that higher course engagement results in a greater increase in MS.

The other cluster of factors that this study also examined were personal characteristics

or attributes, specifically the following: gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences, and

intellectual humility.

Individual characteristics such as gender, racial demographics, age, or personality traits

have been documented to affect the effectiveness of an intervention (Goldstein Hode, Behm-

Morawitz, & Hays, 2018). Gender and ethnicity can influence one’s success in an online course

because of the differences in how one acts and responds to the course (Bastable, 2003; Irving

& English, 2011). The study also needed to examine whether a learner’s multicultural

experiences played a role in one’s transformation because multicultural experiences have been

found to influence one’s perceptions (Christie, Carie, Robertson, & Grainger, 2015) and predict

the development of MS (Chen et. al, 2018; Cui, 2006; Witt, 2016). Exposure to different

cultures and personal experience of discrimination during childhood also contribute to

developing higher MS (Smith, Moallem, & Sherrill, 1997). Lastly, the influence of intellectual

humility on the change in MS was also analyzed. Intellectual humility is “a nonthreatening

awareness of one’s intellectual fallibility...Such awareness should result in openness to revising

one’s viewpoints, lack of overconfidence about one’s knowledge, respect for the viewpoints of

others, and lack of threat in the face of intellectual disagreements” (Krumrei-Mancuso &

29

Rouse, 2016, p. 210). Intellectual humility has been identified to be important in transformative

learning (Charaniya, 2012). This study assumed that pre-service teachers possessing

intellectual humility are more susceptible to change.

4. Research Objectives

This dissertation examined whether and how pre-service teachers’ MS could be

increased in teacher education and identified essential variables that might contribute and

clarify this process. To achieve these dual aims, the study pursued four specific research

objects and answered their corresponding research questions, namely:

1. Research Objective 1: Develop a scale to measure MS

a. How can MS (in personal and professional contexts) be measured

among pre-service teachers in the Philippines?

b. Is the measurement of MS invariant for ethnic minority and ethnic

majority?

2. Research Objective 2: Design and develop a TLT-based online course

a. Anchoring on TLT, how is an online course that aims to increase MS

designed?

b. What is the evaluation of the experts and pre-service teachers of the

online course?

3. Research Objective 3: Assess the impact of the online course

a. Is there a significant change in the pre-service teachers’ MS after taking

the online course?

b. What is the effect size of the change in MS?

4. Research Objective 4: Determine the role of course engagement and personal

factors on the change in MS

a. Do course engagement, gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences, and

intellectual humility predict the change in MS?

5. Research Design

To attain the research goal and its specific objectives, this dissertation conducted a

mixed-methods study, a developmental study, and a quantitative study. This research was

carried out in three phases: (a) development and validation of a multicultural sensitivity scale,

(b) design and development of an online course, and (c) pilot-testing and implementation of

the online course. At some stages of the different phases of the study were collected different

30

kinds of data considered to be important not only for the development of the multicultural

sensitivity scale and the online course but also for their validation.

In the first phase, data were collected from pre-service teachers from different teacher

education institutions in Mindanao, basic education teachers, teacher educators, a masteral

student, and a distinguished international expert in quantitative social research. In the second

phase, data were collected from pre-service teachers, teacher educators, and expert evaluators.

In the last phase, pre-service teachers from Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of

Technology participated in the pilot-testing and implementation of the developed online

course.

Mixed methods for scale development were used to answer the research questions under

the first objective. The mixed method in this case was suited because the need was to develop

and test an instrument (Creswell, 1999; Galaczi & Khabbazbashi, 2016). This phase of the

research started with a review of the literature and existing scales, structured interviews and

focus group discussions (FGDs), and data gathering using open-ended questionnaires to

formulate items for the scale. The first group of items developed was evaluated based on item

wording and relevance. The items were then validated and revised. The scale was pilot-tested

on 573 pre-service teachers, and the quantitative data gathered were subjected to exploratory

factor analysis. The resulting scale was then pilot-tested on 461 pre-service teachers, and

confirmatory factor analysis was done.

The second and third phases of the research were done to attain the second and third

research objectives. Methods in developmental research were found the most suited and were

used for these phases since developmental research is “the systematic study of designing,

developing and evaluating instructional programs, processes, and products that must meet the

criteria of internal consistency and effectiveness” (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 127). The online

course was designed, developed, and evaluated, and the impact of the course on the learners

was examined. The tools used were a course evaluation rubric for experts, course evaluation

rating scale for pre-service teachers, and the multicultural sensitivity scale. Pre-service teachers

were also asked open-ended questions, and subjective data on their experiences were also

gathered. Some pre-service teachers were also interviewed.

Relative to the fourth research objective, a quantitative study was conducted to

determine the role of course engagement, gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences, and

intellectual humility on the change in MS. The pre-service teachers’ profiles were gathered,

and their online course engagement was measured by analyzing log files.

31

Figure 1. Phases of the Research

PH

AS

E 2

P

HA

SE

1

PH

AS

E 3

Interviews

FGDs

Survey

Lit. search

surveyy

Item

devt.

surveyy

Scale

eval.

surveyy

Pilot

1

EFA

sur

vey

y

Pilot

2

CFA

sur

vey

y

Analyze needs,

target users,

tasks, and topics

surveyy

Create LOs,

plan sequencing,

and strategies

(instruction,

delivery,

evaluation

surveyy

Develop

storyboard,

content, and

online learning

environment

surveyy

Online

Course

Version 1

Expert

evaluation

surveyy

Course revision

survey

y

Online

Course

Version 2

Pilot

testing

surveyy

Course

revision

surveyy

Course implementation

surveyy

Online

Course

Version 2

Online

Course

Version 3

MSS

Version 1

MSS

Version 2

MSS

Version 3

32

Scales on multicultural sensitivity, multicultural experiences, and intellectual humility

were also used to gather pertinent data. Descriptive statistics were computed, and multiple

linear regression analysis was done to identify which among the identified variables predict the

change of multicultural sensitivity.

6. Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis

Qualitative data collection and analysis are discussed in this section. These details were

intentionally left out in subsequent chapters because of the nature of the said data’s purpose for

this research.

For scale development purposes, open-ended questionnaires were administered, and

structured interviews and FGDs on MS were conducted among 70 pre-service teachers. Of

these 70 participants, 30 answered the questionnaires, and the rest were interviewed or

participated in an FGD. All of the participants were volunteers. The same set of questions were

asked in the questionnaires, interviews, and FGDs (see Appendix A). All of the questions were

in English, but during the interviews and FGDs, some participants code-switched (English-

Cebuano-Tagalog). The interviews and FGDs were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated.

Data from the questionnaires did not need translation, since all the answers were in English.

Data from the interviews and FGDs were mixed with the data from the questionnaires. Data

were analyzed with detailed reading and rereading. Relevant words, phrases, sentences, or

sections were labeled. Categories or themes were created by bringing similar responses

together. The responses that fell under each theme or category were also counted. The results

were used in creating some items for the MS scale.

The next qualitative data gathering was conducted prior to creating the online course.

FGDs were conducted for two groups — the first group composed of ten pre-service teachers

with an ethnic minority background and the second group composed of pre-service teachers

with an ethnic majority background. The interviews were conducted with five teacher

educators. All of the participants were volunteers. The FGDs and interviews were structured,

and the questions were in English (see Appendix B). The interviews and FGDs were audio-

recorded and then transcribed. Code-switching (English-Cebuano-Tagalog) responses were

translated into English. Relevant words, phrases, sentences, or sections were labeled after

careful reading and rereading. Similar responses were grouped and given a category name. The

most common responses were tallied, and those with the higher number were considered the

most important.

33

The last qualitative data gathering was done after the online course implementation.

Fourteen pre-service teachers who completed the online course provided the data, nine of

whom were purposively selected (e.g., earliest finishers, finished on the day of the deadline,

based on their course scores) and the other five of whom were volunteers. Of those interviewed,

five were from the minority group and nine from the majority group; there were four males and

ten females. The interviews were structured. All the questions were in English, and the

interviews were audio-recorded. Code-switching (English-Cebuano-Tagalog) responses were

translated into English. The same procedure for coding and analysis as in the earlier phases

was followed. The list of questions and the results can be found in Appendix C.

7. Dissertation Overview

Figure 2 illustrates the chapters of this dissertation and the research objectives. The first

chapter is the General Introduction which gives an overview of the dissertation. Chapters 2, 3,

and 4 are the empirical studies conducted and are in the format of a scientific article. Two are

published and one has been submitted in an international peer-reviewed journal. The last

chapter of this dissertation provides a general discussion and conclusion of the research

conducted.

In Chapter 1, the research setting is described to give a clear picture of the study’s

setting and background, thus justifying the need to conduct the research. The section following

such discussion focuses on the theoretical background of the study and discusses concepts

related to multiculturalism and multicultural sensitivity. Also included are discussions about

Transformative Learning Theory, scale development, and online course development and their

application in the study. Some discussion is also provided about the potential for course

engagement and personal factors to predict the change in MS. The chapter also presents the

research goals/aims, objectives, and research questions, as well as the strategies and methods

used to answer the research questions and hit the objectives. The chapter closes with an

overview of the dissertation’s organization.

Chapter 2 presents the development and validation of the multicultural sensitivity scale

for pre-service teachers. This chapter covers the first phase of the research, from item

development to pilot tests and factor analysis. The developed scale in this phase was used in

the subsequent studies. This chapter is published in Multicultural Education Review.

Chapter 3 describes the design and development of the online multicultural sensitivity

course. It presents data on the evaluation, pilot testing, and implementation of the online course.

Figure 2. Overview of the Dissertation Chapters and their Relation to the Research Objectives

Ch

ap

ter 1

: G

ener

al I

ntr

oduct

ion

Ch

ap

ter 5

: G

ener

al D

iscu

ssio

n a

nd C

oncl

usi

on

Chapter 2

Development and Validation of the

Multicultural Sensitivity Scale for Pre-service

Teachers

Chapter 3

Increasing Pre-service Teachers’ Multicultural

Sensitivity through Online Learning

Chapter 4 Preparing Pre-service Teachers for Cultural

Diversity: An Analysis of the Factors that

Influence the Change in Multicultural Sensitivity

Research Objective 1

Develop a scale to measure multicultural

sensitivity

Research Objective 2 Design and develop a

TLT-based online course

Research Objective 3 Assess the impact of the

online course

Research Objective 4 Determine the role of

course engagement and personal factors on the change in multicultural

sensitivity

34

35

This chapter answers the four research questions under research objectives 2 and 3. This

chapter is published in Education and Information Technologies.

Chapter 4 reports on the quantitative study of the factors that influence the increase of

multicultural sensitivity. The factors examined were course engagement, gender, ethnicity,

multicultural experiences, and intellectual humility. A multiple linear regression analysis (enter

method) was performed for this study. This chapter has been submitted to The Higher

Education Journal.

Chapter 5 contains the general discussion of the main findings, contributions, and

limitations of the research, as well recommendation for future studies. The chapter also ends

the dissertation with a conclusion.

37

CHAPTER 2

Development and Validation of the Multicultural Sensitivity Scale

for Pre-service Teachers

This chapter is published in Multicultural Education Review

Abstract

This study developed and validated an instrument to measure the multicultural

sensitivity among pre-service teachers. Items capturing the concept of multicultural sensitivity

were developed through literature review, open-ended questionnaires, interviews, and focus-

group discussions. The items were checked for content validity and then tested in different

teacher education institutions in Mindanao, Philippines. The 45-item 7-point Likert scale was

tested by 573 pre-service teachers and Exploratory Factor Analysis suggested a 28-item scale.

The shortened version was tested by 461 pre-service teachers. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

was conducted toverify the factor structure and results confirmed the 28- item scale composed

of three factors for the personal dimension – ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and

intercultural stress – and two factors for the professional dimension – exhibiting

multiculturalism and monocultural orientation. The scale demonstrated adequate internal

consistency and the measurement of the construct was found to be invariant for both ethnic

majority and minority.

1. Introduction

In countries with diverse cultural landscapes in which people of various traditions and

religious customs intersperse in spaces they all call their own, multicultural sensitivity (MS) is

necessary. It is important for individuals to possess multicultural sensitivity (Cha & Ham,

2014) since it can contribute to the coexistence of diverse people. However, coexistence is a

slow process (Rego & Nieto, 2000) because individuals have their own cultural perspectives

and prejudices. These prejudices are learned – people are not born with them (Anti-Defamation

League, 2013; Kinzler, 2016; Mitchell, 2013; Oxford Brookes University, 2017). Based on

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, people learn from others through observation,

imitation, and modeling. Thus, one can say that prejudice can be learned from one’s parents,

other family members, peers, and teachers. On the other hand, studies show that children’s

awareness on racial differences and expression of negative racial attitudes start at a young age

and if it is not addressed to modify the behavior, it becomes more negative and crystallized

(Aboud, 1988 & Ramsey, 1998, as cited in Banks, 2006).

38

Since teachers can influence the attitudes of students (Green, 2005), they are essential in

helping eliminate prejudice, stereotype, and discrimination. However, it is also important for

teachers to examine the ideological positions they hold to become more effective. “Before

teachers can recognize how issues such as race, religion, and social-economic inequality

influence the learning experiences and cultural realities of students, teachers must learn to

ponder on their own civic, cultural or socio-economic attachments” (Howard, 2003, as cited in

Alviar-Martin & Ho 2011, p. 128). Therefore, it is imperative for teachers to be prepared to

effectively teach students with diverse backgrounds (Rego & Nieto, 2000). Extensive

knowledge on content is not the only essential aspect to be a truly effective teacher since

integral to teaching is being mindful of the different characteristics that learners possess

(Rubio, 2009). Wilkerson (2006) even stated that as teachers’ teaching career progresses,

teachers’ dispositions are more important than knowledge and skills in effective teaching. The

key to the effectiveness of teaching are the teachers’ attitudes, values, and beliefs which are

demonstrated through verbal and non-verbal behaviours (Hachfeld et al., 2011; Jensen,

Whiting, & Chapman., 2018). Teachers can also demotivate their students if they possess

deficit-mined belief systems (Ladson–Billings, 1999). Accordingly, an important aspect in pre-

service teacher education is fostering critical values, attitudes, and beliefs (Castro, 2010) since

the need for teachers to possess MS is of primary importance (Arizaga, et al., 2005).

One of United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals is to ensure inclusive and quality

education for all (United Nations, 2015) and countries are taking strides to ensure that children

coming from diverse backgrounds will have an equal opportunity to acquire quality education.

This gives teacher education institutions the responsibility to train future teachers to effectively

teach students whose cultural backgrounds are different from theirs. Thus, the field of teacher

education will continue to face the need to prepare pre-service teachers who can effectively

teach in a multicultural setting (Milner, Flowers, Moore, Moore, & Flowers, 2003; Villegas &

Lucas, 2002; Yuan, 2018).

Several studies show that pre-service teachers lack understanding about multiculturalism

and multicultural issues (Gayle-Evans & Michael, 2006; Castro, 2010). This lack of

understanding stems from inadequate multicultural preparation and lack of interaction with

other ethnic groups or lack of meaningful experience with different cultures (Vincent, Kirby,

Deeds, & Faulkner, 2014). Notwithstanding the role of teacher education in developing cultural

competence, it is quite understudied in Asian contexts (Yuen & Grossman, 2009). Studies

conducted on multiculturalism and multicultural education were mostly done in the United

39

States that there is a need to conduct similar studies in different contexts especially in culturally

diverse countries (Agirdag, Merry, & Van Houtte, 2016) such as the Philippines.

The Philippines is home to 182 ethnolinguistic groups (Reyes, Mina, & Asis, 2017) and

110 of which are considered indigenous (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP],

2013). Of the Philippines’ population, an estimate of 14-17 million are indigenous peoples

(IPs) and 61% are in Mindanao (UNDP, 2013). Mindanao is the most culturally diverse island

in the Philippines (Solidarity Philippines Australia Network, 2002) and it is known for its tri-

people – the Moro, the IPs or Lumad, and the Christians. The Moro people have been living in

Mindanao even before Philippines was colonized by Spain. The term Lumad is used to refer to

groups that are neither Muslim or Christian (though some now profess to Islam or Christian

faith). The Lumad have also been living in Mindanao even before Spanish colonization and

they have a traditional concept of land ownership based on what their communities consider

their ancestral territories. The Christians from Luzon and Visayas (other main islands of the

Philippines) came to Mindanao because of government-sponsored resettlement programs. Due

to Christian immigration, the Moro and Lumad were outnumbered. The tri-people of Mindanao

have seen the perpetuation of cultural insensitivity and discrimination which may be due to

lack of appreciation for diversity and understanding of cultural differences. In addition to the

Mindanao issue, Filipinos tend to be regionalistic and have a strong sense of ethnic pride that

major ethnic groups contend (Palces et al., 2015). With this at hand, appreciation for diversity

and respect for cultural differences is essential to coexistence. Considering that the Philippines

is a culturally diverse country, it is quite dismal to note that studies conducted in the Philippines

on multiculturalism, multicultural sensitivity, multicultural education, and multicultural

teacher education are limited. Thus, the aim of this study is to develop and validate a MS scale

for pre-service teachers which can be utilized by teacher education institutions as a tool to

measure pre-service teachers’ MS. Since there is no existing scale that has been developed for

the Philippine context and more particularly for the tri-people of Mindanao, the development

of such scale will help assess the effectiveness or sufficiency of multicultural education courses

or trainings that teacher education institutions provide as well as explore the factor-structure of

MS. Existing MS scales were either developed in western countries, were not tested

psychometrically, were designed to match course objectives, or were administered to a sample

with a different cultural context: Hence, the significance to create one.

40

2. Defining Multicultural Sensitivity

Various definitions of MS can be found, such as “an awareness of the nuances of one’s

own and other cultures” (Public Health Service, 1992, as cited in Jibaja-Rusth et al., 1994, p.

350). Other studies defined it as “the ability to demonstrate respect for and understanding of

people of diverse cultural backgrounds, the ability to communicate effectively with people of

diverse cultural backgrounds, and the ability to work collaboratively with people of diverse

cultural backgrounds” (Garcia, 1995, as cited in Hunter & Elias, 2000, p. 552). MS is an

important concept but literature show differences on how it is defined and measured (Ramos

et al., 2015). Ramos et al. even cautioned that “if measures are developed with inappropriate

or incomplete conceptualization of cultural sensitivity, they run the risk of producing inaccurate

or misleading findings” (p.1).

In some studies, MS is used interchangeably with cross-cultural competence, cross-

cultural expertise, cross-cultural effectiveness, cultural responsiveness, cultural awareness

(Ridley et al., 1994) and even defined similarly with cultural sensitivity. According to Hughes

and Hood (2007), cultural sensitivity depicts attitude which directs behaviour while Ridley et

al. (1994) identified awareness, knowledge, and skills as its components. Similarly, Ramos et

al. (2015) states that cultural sensitivity is comprised of awareness, competence, and

responsiveness which can be measured through attitudes, practices, and knowledge. Since the

term has been defined variously, there are studies that analysed the concept of cultural

sensitivity (Foronda, 2008), clarified the definitions of cultural sensitivity and cultural

competence (Whaley, 2008), and described a model for understanding cultural sensitivity from

a public health perspective (Resnicow et al., 1998). It should be noted that cultural sensitivity

is not only used in education but also in health care and business (Foronda, 2008).

Though the term cultural sensitivity is more commonly used, the term MS will be utilized

to emphasize the multiculturality of the context which the scale is being developed for. The

core of the definitions mentioned will be used, and thus, our understanding of MS is an

individual's awareness of cultural differences, being able to respect these differences and

respond to them appropriately

3. Teacher Education

All students can learn and have the potential to succeed. This belief underscores

teachers’ responsibility regardless of their students’ race, ethnicity, or culture (Gayle-Evans &

Michael, 2006). Student performance is said to be affected by the kind of beliefs and

expectations their teachers have (Agirdag et al., 2012; Russell & Russell, 2014). Teachers,

41

being cultural workers, must therefore learn and accept their students’ cultures since it can

contribute to the improvement of students’ performance (Irvine & Hawley, 2011; Liang &

Zhang, 2009; Thomas & Kearney, 2008). Banks (2013) also claims that achievement of

minority students increases when teachers use culturally responsive pedagogy. For teachers to

effectively manage a diverse classroom, it is important that they self-examine and understand

their own worldviews (Spanierman et al., 2011). This therefore, poses a necessity for a more

effective teacher preparation that can promote the development of necessary knowledge, skills,

and sensitivity in relation to multiculturalism (Gayle-Evans & Michael, 2006; Hong, 2010).

Banks (2004) identified dimensions of multicultural education that teachers need to be

proficient: content integration, knowledge construction process, prejudice reduction, equity

pedagogy, and empowering school culture and social structure. Though Bank’s dimensions are

criticized by some scholars, it is considered the most widely used framework in the field of

multicultural education (Agirdag et al., 2016).

Research findings show significant correlation between the number of college courses

and multicultural attitudes of teacher education students (Nadelson et al., 2012), increase in

pre-service teachers awareness in multicultural issues after attending a diversity course (Gayle-

Evans & Michael, 2006), increase in multicultural efficacy after taking classes in

multiculturalism (Kwon, Kwon, & Lee, 2012 in Roh, 2015), and improvement in empathic

listening and expressive speaking in conflictual multicultural situations after participating in a

multicultural relationship enhancement program (Arizaga et al., 2005). Indeed, multicultural

education courses in teacher education programs have been found to have a positive effect on

pre-service and in-service teachers’ views (Edwards & Kuhlman, 2007; Wiggins, Follo, &

Eberly, 2007). Hence, there is a need for teacher education programs to develop teachers who

possess MS since studies have found that it can help student achievement. It is imperative that

specific measures are taken to evaluate the effectiveness of such programs or trainings as well

as determine pre-service teachers’ degree of preparedness in teaching in a diverse classroom.

4. Scales on Multicultural Sensitivity and Related Constructs

In order to help improve practices of multicultural teacher education, one needs a tool to

measure teachers’ MS, both to examine the current issues and to assess whether courses of

multicultural education are effective. This section present scales that were intendedly

developed for pre-service and in-service teachers. Some of the most common scales for a more

general population are also mentioned.

42

Scales developed for pre-service teachers are the Multicultural Teacher Dispositions

Scale (Jensen et al., 2018), Pre-service Teachers Cultural Competence Scale (Liang & Zhang,

2009), Multicultural Efficacy Scale (Guyton & Wesche, 2005), Ohio State University’s

Multicultural Teaching Scale and Multicultural Opinion Survey (1988), and Multicultural

Teaching Competency Scale (Spanierman et al., 2011). The Multicultural Teaching

Competency Scale was also intended to be used with in-service teachers. While some of the

previously mentioned scales were unidimensional, the Multicultural Teacher Dispositions

Scale exhibited a three-factor structure (meekness, social awareness, and advocacy), the Pre-

service Teachers Cultural Competence Scale a four-factor structure (personal beliefs, self-

reflection, teacher expectations, and actions to change / actions to meliorate stereotyping and

discrimination), and the Multicultural Efficacy Scale a three-factor structure (experience,

attitude, and efficacy). The scales are said to be valid and reliable, however they were

developed in a context that is different from that of the Philippines. One tool developed in the

Philippines is the Diversity and Sensitivity Tool (Palces et al., 2015). It was developed for an

exploratory study on predicting priorities of multicultural education in a teacher education

institution in the Philippines and was designed for its target respondents who are first year

students of the Philippine Normal University. The tool covered five aspects of

multiculturalism, namely: race, ethnicity, gender, religion, and class.

Measures intended for use by in-service teachers are the Multicultural Sensitivity Scale

by Ford (1979, as cited in Jibaja-Rusth et al., 1994) which was refined and tested by Jibaja-

Rusth et al. (1994), Teacher Multicultural Attitude Survey (Ponterotto et al., 1998), and

Educators’ Beliefs about Diversity (Pohan & Aguilar, 2001). Among the scales mentioned, it

was Pohan and Aguilar’s scale that showed a distinction between personal and professional

beliefs. According to Pohan and Aguilar, the two-dimensional approach is grounded on the

view that there are instances in which one’s personal beliefs are in contrast with one’s beliefs

in a professional context. The distinction between personal beliefs and professional beliefs is

not salient among scales that were developed and previously mentioned in this paper.

There were also scales developed for a more general population (other than pre-service

and in-service teachers) such as the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (Henry, 1986),

Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chen & Starosta, 2000), Munroe Multicultural Attitude Scale

Questionnaire (Munroe & Pearson, 2006), Cultural Intelligence Scale (Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh,

2008), and Intercultural Development Inventory (Hammer, 2011). However, the Cultural

Diversity Awareness Inventory was utilized by Davis and Whitner (1994, as cited in Pohan &

Aguilar, 2001) and Larke (1990) and a revised version of the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale

43

was utilized by Spinthourakis et al. (2009) in separate studies they conducted with pre-service

teachers. It is worth noting that some scales tend to be context dependent. Based on the results

of the studies conducted using Chen and Starosta’s Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, it was found

that further validation is needed when used in international contexts because there is conceptual

overlap of the scale’s factors when used in a different culture, especially with a non-western

sample (Fritz, Graf, Hentze, Mӧllenberg, & Chen, 2005; Fritz, Mӧllenberg, & Chen, 2002;

Petrović, Starčević, Chen, & Komnenić, 2015; Tamam, 2010; Wang & Zhou, 2016).

Although the Diversity and Sensitivity Tool (Palces et al., 2015) was developed in the

Philippines, the scale is composed of items that measure multicultural biases and actual level

of MS in the school campus. The purpose of the previously mentioned scale is different from

the purpose of the scale that is being developed in this study.

This study aimed to develop a MS scale for pre-service teachers in which items are

dependent on the characteristics of the population to be examined, i.e. pre-service teachers from

the culturally diverse island of Mindanao, Philippines. A distinction was made between items

on the personal dimension and professional dimension. Items under personal dimension are

those which a person perceives to be true about people and situations that they may face in

everyday life while items under the professional dimension deal with interactions in the school

setting. While the personal aspect is known to be inextricable from the professional aspect, the

same may not be true in the case of multicultural sensitivity. Thus, it is also important to find

out whether the same sensitivity is expressed in the personal dimension and in the professional

dimension. Pre-service teachers may exhibit more sensitivity in the professional dimension

since they feel that they should be more conscious on how a teacher acts or what a teacher

should do. On the other hand, pre-service teachers may express more sensitivity in the personal

dimension compared to the professional dimension due to lack of knowledge or exposure in

teaching a culturally diverse student group. Lastly, this study also aimed to develop a scale that

is valid for pre-service teachers coming from both ethnic majority and minority groups.

5. Methodology, Data Analysis, and Results

5.1. Item Development and Validation

The first step was the generation of an initial item pool in which the researchers conducted

a review of literature and existing scales on MS and similar constructs such as: Multicultural

Sensitivity Scale (Jibaja-Rusth et al., 1994), Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (Henry,

1986), Preservice Teachers’ Cultural Competence (Liang & Zhang, 2009), Teacher

Multicultural Attitude Survey (Ponterotto et al., 1998), Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chen &

44

Starosta, 2000), and Cultural Intelligence Scale (Van Dyne et al., 2008). Furthermore, to create

items that would reflect the context, open-ended questionnaires were administered, interviews

and informal focus group discussions on MS were conducted with pre-service teachers. 60

items were generated in total. There were items on ethnic minority and ethnic majority groups,

culture, religion, and language.

The second step was the evaluation of the 60 items by the researchers. Based on item

wording and direct relevance to MS, the number of items was reduced to 44. Most importantly,

a distinction was made between items for the personal dimension and professional dimension.

Though the intended respondents are pre-service teachers, it is also important to examine the

professional dimension since this will help determine how multicultural education courses can

enhance their MS.

As the third step, the items were checked for content validity by four basic education

teachers (with at least 3 years teaching experience, and one of which is an ethnic minority),

five teacher educators (one of which is also a sociologist), one Master’s student (an ethnic

minority and a graduate of teacher education), and a distinguished international expert in the

field of quantitative social science research. Aside from rating the items based on their

relevance and clarity, the evaluators were also asked to give their suggestions to improve the

scale. All the items were rated with at least “very good” hence no item was deleted. However,

some items were revised based on the suggestions given by the evaluators. The items were also

grouped according to sub concept (ethnicity, language, religion, culture / cultural diversity,

professional beliefs) and the number of positive and negative items per subset were then

balanced to control for “yes saying”. One item was also added since the majority of evaluators

suggested its addition. The resulting scale was composed of 45 items (26 for personal

dimension and 19 for professional dimension) in a seven-point Likert (see Appendix D).

5.2. First Pilot Testing Procedure and Participants

The fourth step was testing the 45-item scale with pre-service teachers at the College of

Education (CED), Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City,

Philippines. Based on the approval of the College Dean, the researchers gathered data in classes

whose professors are willing to spare time for the data gathering. The average time to complete

the scale was between 15 and 20 minutes.

Demographic information of the sample during the first pilot testing can be found in Table

1. The respondents were also asked to indicate their ethnicity and were classified as ethnic

minority and ethnic majority. Ethnic minorities are the Moros and the indigenous groups (such

45

as Subanen, Higaonon, Manobo) while the majority group are Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano,

Bisaya, Ilonggo, Waray, and the like (Clarke, 2001; Rovillos & Morales, 2002).

Table 1

Respondents Profile

Demographic

Categories

First Pilot Test Second Pilot Test

n % n %

School* MSU-IIT 573 100% - -

IMCC - - 69 15%

MSU Main - - 127 27.5%

USTSP - - 116 25.2%

BSU - - 22 4.8% CMU - - 127 27.5%

Ethnic Classification Minority 124 21.6% 170 36.9%

Majority

Missing / No answer

425

24

74.2%

4.2%

284

7

61.6%

1.5%

* MSU-IIT Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City

IMCC Iligan Medical Center College, Iligan City

MSU Main Mindanao State University (Main Campus), Marawi City

USTSP University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Cagayan de Oro City

BSU Bukidnon State University, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon

CMU Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon

5.3. Exploratory Factor Analysis

5.3.1. Data Analysis. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to

explore and identify the factor structure of the observed variables (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, &

Black, 1998; Suhr, 2002). Using MPlus (Version 7), multi-group EFA was conducted

separately for personal dimension and professional dimension. Maximum Likelihood was

utilized for factor extraction since it provides Goodness of Fit evaluation, tests statistical

significance of factor loadings, provides correlations among factors, and computes confidence

intervals (Brown, 2006). To determine the appropriate number of factors and select items to be

retained, the following were considered: (1) model fit; (2) relevance and interpretability of the

factors; (3) a minimum of four items per factor; (4) factor loadings of at least 0.40; and (5)

conceptual consistency with other items in the factor (Brown, 2006; Comrey, 1988, as cited in

Lee & Nie, 2013).

5.3.2. Results and Interpretation. From the original 26 items under personal

dimension, 12 items were deleted because the items were either cross loading or have a very

low factor loading which is below .40. The factor loading of the items retained can be found in

Table 2.

46

Results of the EFA suggested three factors for personal dimension. The first factor is

composed of five items that are mainly assess the culture of others based on the standards of

one’s own culture, thus the factor was labeled Ethnocentrism. According to Billiet, Eisinga,

and Scheepers (1996), ethnocentrism consists of a positive attitude with one’s own group and

a negative attitude towards other groups regardless of any opportunity for contact. Items under

the second factor are concerned with exerting effort to communicate, interact, and learn about

the culture of others in order to improve one’s interaction with them, thus the factor was labeled

Intercultural Effort. The third factor was labeled Intercultural Stress since the items describe

negative psychological feelings toward dealing with people from another culture. On a

theoretical basis, seven items were allowed to be correlated. Following the guidelines given by

Bowen (2014), the change of the model was theoretically justifiable, the alterations are few in

number, and the adjustments made did not greatly affect its framework. Table 3 shows the

values of the fit indices. The values of the fit indices for the first pilot show that the

recommended guidelines for model fit are satisfied. Therefore, the measurement model exhibits

a good fit. For the factor reliability, the Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha (α) per factor are shown

in Table 2. The α value is considered the most popular estimate for internal consistency or

reliability for scales (Peterson, 1994, as cited in Teo & Fan, 2013) and it shows how closely

related are the set of items as a group. In examining the α values of the three factors under the

personal dimension, all are greater than .70 which is considered acceptable.

The factor loadings of the items under the professional dimension are found in Table 2.

In the conduct of the EFA, the two-factor solution was selected based on the recommendations

found in literature. There were 14 items retained from the original 19 items. The factors under

professional dimension were labeled Exhibiting Multiculturalism and Monocultural

Orientation. The factor Exhibiting Multiculturalism deals with recognizing diversity and

fostering acceptance of others in a school environment while six items under Monocultural

Orientation lean towards ways or practices that manifest cultural and linguistic homogeneity

in the classroom. As previously mentioned, items with factor loadings of at least .40 will be

retained. EFA revealed that factor loadings of two items under Monocultural Orientation were

less than .40. However, the researchers decided to retain the items due to practical significance

and because the value is deemed acceptable considering the sample size which is 573.

According to Hair et al.’s guidelines for identifying significant factor loadings based on sample

size, a sample size of 350 is needed for a factor loading of .30 to be acceptable (1998).

Furthermore, the fit indices for professional dimension can be found in Table 3. It can be seen

that values satisfy the recommended guidelines for model fit indices, therefore, the

47

measurement models exhibit a good fit. Lastly, the Cronbach’s Alpha of the two factors found

in Table 2 show that both are within the acceptable level. While one of the α value is .68, this

is still considered acceptable (Loewenthal & Lewis, 2001; Ghazali, 2008, as cited in Mohamad,

Solaiman, Sern, & Saleh, 2015). Lastly, the means and standard deviations of the subscales are

shown in Table 4. Data in a normal distribution are more likely to fall close to the mean. The

small values of the SD mean that the results are very close in value to the mean.

5.4. Second Pilot Testing Procedure and Participants

To improve the scale’s reliability and validity, a second pilot test was conducted. The

28-item scale was utilized (see Appendix E). A sample of 461 pre-service teachers from five

schools participated in the pilot test. The researchers were only allowed to gather data on a

specific schedule the schools have set. Of the five schools, one is privately owned while the

rest are state universities. Demographic information of the sample during the second pilot

testing can be found in Table 1. Even with the reduced number of items, the average time to

complete the scale was between 15 and 20 minutes which is similar with the first pilot test.

5.5. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

5.5.1. Data Analysis. With EFA being able to identify which items should be retained,

CFA is done to confirm the factor structure of the variables (Hair et al., 1998; Suhr, 2002). A

multi-group analysis was also conducted to check group invariance between ethnic minority

and ethnic majority. A multi-group analysis is necessary since ethnic majority and ethnic

minority teachers may have different interpretations of the construct being measured. In other

words, a multi-group analysis is needed to assess whether the scale measures the same construct

across different groups.

5.5.2. Results and Interpretation. Table 2 shows the factor loadings for ethnic majority

and ethnic minority. Although differences can be found in the factor loadings, they were not

significant, as it was found that invariance did not change fit. The values of the fit indices in

Table 3 show that the measurement models exhibit a good fit. While two TLI values are .90,

this is still considered acceptable based on various literature (Bentler, 1990, as cited in Kim,

Ku, Kim, Park, & Park, 2016; Lucas-Molina, Pérez-Albéniz, Ortuño-Sierra, & Fonseca-

Pedrero, 2017). Perry, Nicholls, Clough, and Crust (2015) also mentioned in their paper that

some type two errors are created due to some researchers’ view of Hu and Bentler’s suggested

cutoffs as golden rules even when caution of using the suggested cutoff values has been

48

Table 2

Factor Loadings and Cronbach’s Alpha Values

Factor / Indicator (Item) First Pilot Test Second Pilot Test

EFA

Factor

Loading

Cronbach’s

Alpha

CFA Factor Loading

Ethnic Minority

Ethnic Majority

Invariance Cronbach’s

Alpha Ethnic

Minority

Ethnic

Majority

Personal Dimension Ethnocentrism .74 .70

I think ethnic minority groups are easily offended. .52 .63 .61 .62

I think ethnic minorities should learn to adjust to the ways of the majority. .65 .47 .49 .47

I think that the society gives too much consideration to ethnic minorities. .62 .57 .54 .57

I feel that people from my ethnic group are easier to trust than those coming from

another ethnic group.

.54 .50 .45 .53

I think ethnic minorities tend to overreact in different situations. .60 .68 .67 .69

Intercultural Effort .78 .68

I try to learn culturally appropriate ways of communicating with other ethnic groups. .72 .52 .52 .52

I exert effort in interacting with people from another ethnic group. .71 .63 .56 .65

I exert effort to learn about the culture of others. .73 .61 .51 .68

I believe that learning about the culture of others will improve my dealings with them. .53 .56 .54 .59

Intercultural Stress .72 .76

I do not like the thought of being around members of other ethnic groups. .64 .66 .62 .66

I find dealing with ethnic minorities a waste of time. .47 .68 .62 .71

I find it difficult to work well with people whose cultural background is different from

mine.

.57 .43 .41 .43

I find it stressful dealing with people from other cultures. .62 .56 .54 .58

I find it difficult to appreciate the diversity in my community. .52 .62 .59 .63

49

Continuation Table 2

Factor / Indicator (Item)

First Pilot Test Second Pilot Test

EFA

Factor

Loading

Cronbach’s

Alpha

Factor Loading

Ethnic Minority

Ethnic Majority

Invariance Cronbach’s

Alpha Ethnic

Minority

Ethnic

Majority

Professional Dimension

Exhibiting Multiculturalism .88 .80

I am willing to teach in a culturally diverse classroom. .53 .42 .43 .41

I will provide opportunities for children to share cultural differences. .69 .63 .64 .63

I will exert effort to make students understand the customs of others. .80 .76 .69 .83

I will find ways to reduce prejudice among students. .72 .46 .41 .49

I will exert effort to acknowledge the cultural practices of my students. .84 .54 .53 .55

I will make sure that the instructional materials I will use will show cultural diversity. .69 .67 .61 .71

I will ensure a culturally diverse group composition during group activities in class. .59 .64 .61 .65

I will make adjustments on my teaching methods to be able to meet the needs of a

culturally diverse student group.

.63 .46 .52 .45

Monocultural Orientation

.68

.78

I think students should avoid using their dialects in the classroom. .37 .52 .53 .53

I believe that the use of home language should be discouraged in schools. (Examples:

Cebuano, Maranao, Hiligaynon, Surigaonon, etc.)

.37 .43 .42 .44

I prefer to teach students whose culture is the same as mine. .54 .42 .40 .45

I expect that teaching about cultural diversity will create conflict in the classroom. .56 .69 .65 .74

I think schools should separate students who are ethnic minorities so as to avoid

conflict.

.54 .83 .85 .82

I think it would be difficult dealing with students’ parents coming from an ethnic

minority group.

.57 .70 .72 .68

Overall Cronbach’s Alpha .76 .84

50

Table 3

Model Fit Indices

Fit Indices First Pilot Test Second Pilot Test

Personal

Dimension

Professional

Dimension

Personal Dimension Professional Dimension

Invariance Invariance

χ2

df

χ2 / df

183.00

69

2.65

207.87

73

2.85

167.08

68

2.46

291.68

164

1.78

144.18

72

2.00

298.79

171

1.75

Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.06

Comparative Fit Index (CFI) 0.94 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.96 0.93

Tucker – Lewis Index (TLI) 0.92 0.94 0.90 0.90 0.95 0.92

Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.08

Recommended guidelines for model fit indices (Hair et al., Hu and Bentler, and Kline as cited in Lee and Nie 2013):

χ2 /df < 3; RMSEA < 0.08; CFI > 0.90; TLI > 0.90; SRMR < 0.08

51

explained. Lastly, the means and standard deviations are shown in Table 4. The values show

a normal distribution since the results fall close in value to the mean.

Table 4 Mean and Standard Deviation

First Pilot Test Second Pilot Test

Subscales M SD M SD Personal Dimension

Ethnocentrism 3.47 .99 3.43 .87 Intercultural Effort 5.37 .94 5.65 .81 Intercultural Stress 4.84 .96 4.78 1.02

Professional Dimension Exhibiting Multiculturalism 5.94 .76 5.68 .70 Monocultural Orientation 4.68 1.01 4.80 1.10

6. Discussion and Conclusion

Several studies show that teachers' MS can significantly improve students' overall

performance as well as develop positive attitude towards cultural others. While MS has direct

implication to pre-service teacher education, it is difficult to find a study conducted in the

Philippines that focuses on multicultural pre-service teacher education, thus, this study worked

towards a measurement of MS among pre-service teachers.

The Philippine Government is responsive to the needs of Lumad and Moro students. The

Department of Education has already included the Indigenous Peoples Education (IPED) and

the Madrasah Education Program (MEP) as important areas in the K to 12 Basic Education

Program. Different initiatives have also been pursued by the Philippine Government for teacher

quality reforms. However, it is difficult to conclude whether the prescribed teacher education

courses are sufficient in preparing pre-service teachers to manage culturally diverse students

since as of writing, it is difficult to find Philippine data on pre-service teachers’ degree of

preparedness in working with culturally diverse students. Therefore, this study can be an initial

groundwork towards the collection of much needed data that could help in the improvement of

multicultural pre-service teacher education.

Similar to Pohan and Aguilar’s scale on teacher’s beliefs on diversity (2001), this study

utilized the two-dimensional approach. In this study, the scale has items for personal dimension

and professional dimension. For the personal dimension, the factors identified were

ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and intercultural stress while for the professional dimension

were exhibiting multiculturalism and monocultural orientation. It should be noted that

52

multicultural awareness, beliefs, and attitudes were spread across the different factors of the

scale.

The scale reflects the indicators of MS (Garcia, 1995, as cited in Hunter & Elias, 2000)

which are the ability to respect and understand, communicate effectively, and work

collaboratively with people of diverse cultural backgrounds. The scale also reflects Banks’

dimensions of multicultural education. The factors under personal dimension reflect Banks’

‘prejudice reduction’ while those under professional dimension reflect ‘knowledge

construction, equity pedagogy, content integration, and empowering school culture and

structure’.

The scale is similar to those that exhibit a multidimensional structure such as the Cultural

Diversity Awareness Inventory, Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, Pre-service Teachers Cultural

Competence Scale, and Cultural Intelligence Scale. However, the results of this study is not

similar to the MS scale in Jibaja-Rusth et al.’s study (1994) since the measure was found to be

unidimensional.

During item development, the items were grouped according to personal dimension and

professional dimension. The number of positive and negative items per group were also

balanced to control acquiescence. Looking closely at the items that comprise the factors that

were found, it was observed that the items were in one direction. However, it can be said that

these are not artifactual factors because the items among the factors exhibit different constructs

and are substantive. Moreover, the set of items as a group are closely related based on the

Cronbach’s α per factor which is a measure for scale’s homogeneity (Walsh & Betz, 1990, as

cited in Ponterotto et al., 1998). In addition, invariance was also tested and it was found that

the measurement of the construct is the same for ethnic minority and ethnic majority.

Therefore, the construct is interpreted in a conceptually similar manner by both groups and

their responses were not dependent on their group membership. Furthermore, multiple fit

indices rather than a single fit statistic were evaluated in determining model fit in this study.

Though the scale was developed for and tested in the Philippines, the scale’s items are

generic in nature due to ethical constraints. Making the items too specific (such as naming an

ethnic group) might cross an ethical boundary or offend respondents coming from a mentioned

ethnic group. There is however an item on home languages wherein specific examples are

given. This item can still be used in a different context by replacing or removing the examples.

During item development, there were items on ethnic minority and ethnic majority

groups, culture, religion, and language. After the EFA, a total of 17 items were excluded due

to low factor loadings. The low factor loadings can be attributed to the items’ redundancy. It is

53

worth noting that all items that specifically mentioned religion were excluded. This - in the

context of Mindanao, the concept of religion and culture are tightly intertwined that separate

items are not needed.

Teacher education programs continue to face the challenge of preparing teachers who can

ensure classrooms and schools are welcoming to all children. This leads us to the question on

pre-service teachers’ MS and their capacity to work with diverse students. Teacher preparation

programs can utilize the scale to examine the MS of aspiring teachers when they begin the

teacher education program and to determine whether it is able to increase their MS. Therefore,

the scale can be useful in assessing growth in pre-service teachers’ MS. The scale is useful in

a broader context since it could encourage discussion about preparing teachers to welcome

diversity especially in countries in which multicultural situation is similar to the Philippines.

This will undoubtedly contribute to the international conversation on multicultural teacher

education.

55

CHAPTER 3

Increasing Pre-Service Teachers’ Multicultural Sensitivity through Online Learning

This chapter is published in Education and Information Technologies

Abstract

The role of pre-service teacher education is crucial in culturally diverse contexts where

conflict exists. Thus, this study examined whether pre-service teachers’ multicultural sensitivity

can be increased through a Transformative Learning Theory-based online course. The

developed course underwent expert evaluation and pilottesting before its implementation. t test

comparisons of pre- and post-tests with 97 Filipino pre-service teachers show a statistically

significant increase in overall multicultural sensitivity. While the effect size is modest based on

Cohen’s d, 84.5 percent of the pre-service teachers claimed to have experienced positive

change. All pre-service teachers who claimed to have experienced positive change identified

the individual reflection activities to have influenced their change. This study can be replicated

in other contexts. The course design can be adopted, but some of the course content has to be

contextualized. The findings of this study can inform both theory and practice on how

multicultural sensitivity can be increased and how Transformative Learning Theory can be

applied in online course design.

1. Introduction

Education can transform societies - such as change attitudes, behaviors, and the relations

between groups who had to live with conflict (UNICEF, 2011). According to UNICEF, since

education can either aggravate or reduce conflict, more attention should be given to reforms

under the education sector and how these can contribute to social transformation. “In conflict-

affected situations, education is more than service delivery because it is a means of

socialization and identity development through the transmission of knowledge, skills, values,

and attitudes across generations” (Smith, 2010, p. 1). Hence, in places experiencing conflict

such as the context of this study, education is an essential means to promote an appreciation

for cultural diversity and respect for cultural differences to help reduce conflict and foster

peaceful coexistence.

Teachers are known as agents of change. Literature has emphasized that teachers play a

significant role in helping students become open and accepting of diversity (Van Driel et al.,

2016). Pre-service teacher education is crucial since it plays a pivotal role in the success of an

educational system (Barrett et al., 2007; World Bank, 2012). Therefore, pre-service teacher

56

education should focus not only on content knowledge and methodological competencies but

also on values and attitudes that are needed for teaching in diverse classrooms.

Various studies show that pre-service teachers are not adequately prepared to teach

culturally diverse students (e.g., Chiu et al., 2017; Lambeth & Smith, 2016; Magogwe &

Ketsitlile, 2015; Skepple, 2015). Since cultural diversity calls the need for teachers who can

deal with differences, teacher education should foster multicultural sensitivity (MS). MS is an

individual’s awareness of cultural differences, being able to respect these differences and

respond to it appropriately. As Hughes and Hood (2007) said, this sensitivity is focused on the

affective elements which are important in appreciating differences and is considered a

foundation in the development of cultural competence. However, there is no exact blueprint

on how it can be developed despite that in all aspects of education, concepts of culture and

intercultural interaction permeate (Cushner & Mahon, 2009).

The use of online learning provides particular opportunities to explore whether computer-

mediated communication helps in increasing MS. Since it facilitates computer-mediated

communication, interpersonal relation stress is lower and psychological burden is avoided,

especially when the topic is sensitive in nature (Mei-Chiung et al., 2015). Asynchronous

channels allow the learners to think and reflect before posting anything online (Curtis &

Lawson, 2001 in Kelly & Papadopoulos, 2009; Kruger et al., 2005). An online learning

environment enables students to tackle sensitive issues, such as prejudice and discrimination,

that are often inhibited in a face-to-face situation (Merryfield, 2003). It can also create more

confidence among the students to share their thoughts since everyone has the same opportunity

to share their ideas (Kelly & Papadopoulos, 2009) and can promote critical thinking since

students have more time to study the content posted (Bullen, 1998; Ziegahn, 2001).

Additionally, in places with a fragile security situation, online learning can be an alternative to

classroom learning. Almost 92 percent of the online and distance education studies in

Nosignificantdifference.org show that compared to traditional education, online and distance

education is as effective, if not better (Nguyen, 2015). Various aid groups (e.g., MBZ

Foundation, Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, Sawa for Development and

Aid) saw the potential of online learning in conflict zones that they released funds for such

purpose (Gordon, 2016). Though several studies report on the positive effects of multicultural

education courses to pre-service teachers’ multicultural attitudes and views (e.g., Edwards &

Kuhlman, 2007 and Wiggins, Follo, & Eberly, 2007 in Schoorman & Bogotch, 2010; Nadelson

et al., 2012;), published studies on the use of media and technology in teaching multicultural

57

content and skills are limited. In terms of MS courses, a search online will yield courses that

are intended for individuals working in the business and health sectors.

Thus, this study aims to determine whether pre-service teachers’ MS can be increased

through an online course. An online course is developed for this purpose and the newly

designed course will be evaluated and tested. Due to the absence of a blueprint in increasing

MS, the concept of Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) is deemed helpful in the course

development since TLT’s premise focuses on change, which is the aim of the course.

2. The Context

This study is conducted in Mindanao which is one of the three main groups of islands in

the Philippines. The Philippines is home to 182 ethnolinguistic groups (Reyes, Mina, & Asis,

2017). Mindanao is considered the most diverse and is known for its tri-people - the Moro or

Muslims, Indigenous Peoples (IPs) or the Lumad, and the Christians. The existence of these

diverse groups has led to the inevitable issue of conflict on the island. Different reasons were

cited for having caused the conflict, but what is clear is that the repercussions of the conflict

are social, psychological, and cultural (Lara Jr. & Champain, 2009). These influenced the

mindsets of people which have led to biases and attitudes of discrimination. With the complex

nature of the Mindanao conflict (Adam et al., 2014; Hincks, 2017), prejudice and lack of

knowledge and MS have played a role in the development of animosities among the tri-people.

In the context of Mindanao, it is crucial that future teachers are prepared to work with

culturally diverse students. While the Philippine government is pursuing teacher quality

reforms, it is difficult to tell whether the courses prescribed for pre-service teacher training

fosters MS. Literature is sparse when it comes to Philippine research on topics related to

multiculturalism and cultural diversity. Thus, this study will not only help address the need to

increase pre-service teachers’ MS but also stimulate academic discourse on issues related to

multiculturalism and multicultural education.

3. Transformative Learning Theory and Its Application in Online Learning

In this study, the Transformative Learning Theory by Jack Mezirow is used as a

theoretical framework that guides the design and development of the online course due to its

suitability in the context of conflict and the need to increase MS. As previously mentioned, the

theory closely relates to the aim of the course, which is to bring change among pre-service

teachers. The core concept of TLT is, “one’s meaning perspective or frame of reference –

structure of meanings – changes through a process of becoming critically aware of how and

58

why our presuppositions have come to constrain the way we perceive, understand, and feel

about our world” (Mezirow, 1990, p. 14). Mezirow said that the process of transformation

involves ten phases: “ disorienting dilemma, self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame,

critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, of psychic assumptions, recognition of one’s

discontent and the process of transformation are shared and that others have negotiated a

similar change, exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions, planning a

course of action, acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans, provisional

trying of new roles, building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships,

and reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective”

(1991, p. 168 - 169). Several researchers condensed the process into three or four steps

(Herbers, 1998; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999; Taylor, 2007). Some researchers pointed out that

transformation can occur in any stage and at different speeds (Buchan, 2011) These claims are

in congruence with that of Mezirow (1991) who said that TLT is not a stage theory and its

phases are not fixed stages of development. The phases are not linear and not all are required

for transformative learning to take place (Cranton, 1994; Mezirow, 1994). With the aim of

increasing MS, the most relevant phases of TLT are to be integrated into the online MS course

that we will design: activating event or disorienting dilemma, critical reflection, and discourse.

This is based on the consideration that transformation does not always occur in the exact

sequence outlined by Mezirow and the phases can be simultaneously experienced by the

learner. According to Taylor (2000), studies on transformative learning show that

transformation is not always due to one experience but on the accumulation of situations.

According to Raikou (2018), disorienting dilemmas are “trigger events” which can be

caused by external factors (other people, life conditions) or internal factors (a discovery, an

effect of something). Dilemmas or activating events can be induced by the teacher through an

eye-opening discussion, a book, poem, or painting (Mezirow, 1990), a conversation and a

sudden insight (Raikou, 2018), or anything that triggers to assess one's thinking or perceptions

(McGonigal, 2005). Another phase of TLT that will be integrated into the course design is

critical reflection which is considered a distinctive component of transformative learning

(Henderson, 2002). Learners critically reflect on their beliefs, convictions, and points of view.

Due to critical reflection, perspective change is experienced (Wang & Berger, 2010). While

Mezirow said that his theory is centered on critical reflection, he did claim that “it is not enough

to understand intellectually the need to change the way one acts; one requires emotional

strength and an act of will in order to move forward” (1991, p. 171). While critical reflection

is the most solitary process of transformative learning, discourse is the most social aspect

59

(McGonigal, 2005). As one communicates with other people, one’s new perspective is

validated and also gets to see alternative perspectives. As Taylor (1998) said, building

relationships is essential in transformative learning.

Although transformative learning is often applied to adult learning (Taylor, 2007),

some studies applied its significance to younger undergraduate students (e.g., Brock, Florescu,

& Teran, 2012; Curran & Murray, 2008; Fullerton, 2010; Harris, Lowery-Moore, & Farrow,

2008; Kim et al., 2018). The theory has also been applied in online learning (e.g., Cranton,

2010; Forte & Blouin, 2016; Kim et al., 2018; Wansick, 2007). The setting of an online class

makes transformative learning effective because of better facilitation of learning through the

exchange of information, communication, and collaboration (Meyers, 2008). In Smith’s critical

review of literature on fostering transformative learning online, she concluded that it is possible

to promote transformative learning with “(1) deliberate attention to a strong pedagogy in the

design of the online course, (2) deliberate focus on learner-centered approach by the instructor,

(3) deliberate attention to the students’ ability to interact with one another through sustained

discussion and through the use of complex problems or issues in a safe environment, and (4)

deliberate attention to students’ ability to engage in self-reflection” (2012, p. 411).

The online course is expected to bring the pre-service teachers to recognize their

prejudices or biases, how they come to think and feel that way, and how their immediate

environment has influenced their beliefs, attitudes, or actions toward cultural others. The TLT

paradigm puts forward that learners do not only acquire new information but go through

conditions and processes. When one goes through these processes, it is most likely that revision

of perspective will take place (Cranton, 2002).

4. Present Study

Despite being a culturally diverse country, topics related to multiculturalism are quite

understudied in the Philippines. On a similar note, the role of teacher education in developing

cultural competence is understudied in Asia (Yuen & Grossman, 2009). Since most studies on

multiculturalism and multicultural education are conducted in the United States, there is a need

to conduct these studies in other culturally diverse countries (Agirdag et al., 2016). While there

are existing courses on MS, these were developed in contexts different from that of the

Philippines and were mostly intended for people working in the health and business sector.

Also, few studies have focused on how MS can be increased among pre-service teachers.

Similarly, research on fostering transformative learning in an online environment is limited

compared to face-face educational settings (Smith, 2012).

60

A distinctive characteristic of this study is that to increase MS, different perspectives are

combined – multiculturalism, TLT, and online learning. If found to be effective, the online

course developed would help teacher training institutions produce more culturally sensitive

teachers. These teachers could help promote cultural understanding in the classroom, which

would then be translated into society. In the absence of a blueprint on developing MS, this

study would help fill the gap in the literature. It can also add to the literature on how technology

can be used to teach multicultural skills and how TLT can be applied in online course design.

In this paper, the following research questions are considered: a) How is the online course

evaluated by experts and pre-service teachers? b) Did pre-service teachers’ MS increase after

taking the online course?

5. Method

5.1. Participants

The first group of participants was involved in the study before the design and

development of the online course. As part of the needs and target user analysis, two focus-

group discussions (FGDs) were conducted - the first group was composed of ten pre-service

teachers with an ethnic minority background and the second group was composed of six pre-

service teachers with an ethnic majority background. The pre-service teachers were in their last

year of pre-service teacher training. Interviews were also conducted with five teacher

educators. Participants of the FGDs and interviews were from different schools in Iligan City,

which is one of the most diverse cities in Mindanao (see Appendix B for interview questions

and results).

After the course was developed, five experts evaluated the course - three teacher

educators who are practitioners and advocators of online learning, a professor in English with

experience in developing audiovisual materials and is conducting research on culture, and a

director of the multimedia center in an open university in the Philippines.

After the expert evaluation, the course was pilot-tested by ten pre-service teachers -

four from ethnic minority groups and six from ethnic majority groups. The participants of the

pilot-test were all volunteers. Following the pilot-test was the course implementation with 144

pre-service teachers involved. The study employed a one-group pre- and post-test design. The

participants were purposively selected based on ethnicity and gender to ensure a heterogeneous

sample. Among the 144 pre-service teachers, 97 (67.36%) completed the course. This rate is

comparably high in contrast to the completion rate of MOOCs which is usually between 0.7%

and 52.1% (Jordan, 2015). There were 33 completers from the ethnic minority group and 64

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from the majority group; in terms of gender, 21 are male and 76 are female. The 47 (32.64%)

participants who were not considered as course completers were not able to finish all the

modules or failed to submit some required outputs. After the course implementation, 14

completers were interviewed and the data are included in the analysis (see Appendix C for

interview questions and results).

Participants of the pilot-testing and implementation of the course are pre-service teachers

from Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT) who are in their

first year of teacher training. They are members of the first batch of pre-service teachers who

completed K-12 education since the Philippines recently implemented this system which also

resulted in the revision of the teacher education curriculum. The age range of the participants

is 17-22.

FGDs and interviews were audio-recorded while Google Forms was used to collect data

during the expert evaluation, pilot-testing, and course implementation. All the participants of

this study signed an informed consent.

5.2. Instructional Design

The ADDIE model was used as a guide in the process of creating the MS course.

ADDIE has five stages - analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation

(Ghirardini, 2011). The entire process is not linear because a succession of iterative steps were

incorporated. Each stage was reviewed before proceeding to the next stage. It can be said that

evaluation was repeatedly done before the course implementation. (See Appendix F for

learning outcomes and activities)

5.2.1. Analysis. The goal was to increase pre-service teachers’ MS. With this, the analysis

of the needs, target users, and topics were done. As part of the needs and target user analysis,

FGDs with pre-service teachers and interviews with teacher educators were conducted. Topic

analyses then followed to ensure that it lead towards the attainment of the goal. To determine

the topics to be included in the course, we looked into the literature on multicultural education

and diversity teaching. Data from the FGDs and interviews and the factors of the MS scale

(ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, intercultural stress, exhibiting multiculturalism, and

monocultural orientation) we developed also served as guides in determining what topics to

include in the online course. The focus of the course is on cultural diversity awareness and

positive beliefs and attitudes towards people of different cultures.

5.2.2. Design. In the design stage, the desired learning outcomes or objectives were

formulated, objectives and topics were sequenced, and media, instructional strategies, and

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evaluation strategies were selected. The five modules are: discovering one’s identity, history

and diversity of the Philippines, cultural diversity in different contexts, multicultural

sensitivity, and managing student diversity. A module on discovering one’s identity was

included since it has been found that before being able to work with diverse learners, it is

important that one examines his/her identity as this can potentially impact how one deals with

his/her students (Hollins, 1996; Schmidt, 1999). Having a better understanding of oneself can

improve one’s capacity to better understand others (Böckler, Herrmann, Trautwein, Holmes,

& Singer, 2017). The module on the history of the Philippines and its diversity aims to develop

an understanding on the development and description of diversity in the Philippines. It is

expected that this will lead one to reflect on one’s beliefs and attitudes towards other ethnic

groups. As Guyton and Wesche (2005) said, consciousness of history is an aspect that

multicultural teacher education should address. A module on the cultural diversity of different

countries intends to show how cultural diversity is managed in other countries and what makes

the Philippine context different. Topics on ethnocentrism, stereotype, prejudice, and

discrimination were included and pre-service teachers are to examine their feelings and

thoughts towards people from other ethnic groups, decide how to respond to cultural

differences and certain cultural issues, as well as develop empathy towards those coming from

a different group. Lastly, a module on managing student diversity was included since it is

deemed important for pre-service teachers to realize the value of being able to effectively

manage a culturally diverse student group.

With the aim of increasing MS, activating event or disorienting dilemma, critical

reflection, and discourse were integrated into every module of the course. Each module started

with an activating event, such as, identity chart activity, polls, picture activity, forums, and a

video. In the middle part of the module, a reflection question is given. Questions such as how

they perceive and interact with cultural others and interest in teaching in a culturally diverse

classroom were asked. Since some may not be comfortable sharing their reflections, these are

to be submitted directly to the course facilitator. For discourse to take place, pre-service

teachers are to work in groups to analyze identity charts, make a position statement, discuss a

poem about diversity, create a poster or flyer, and a photo essay. All group discussions are to

be done in Google Hangouts and all the group outputs are to be posted in Padlet. There are also

forums where pre-service teachers are encouraged to comment on the posts made. There is also

a short time-pressured quiz at the end of each module. Including the group activity, each

module can be completed in four hours.

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5.2.3. Development. In this stage, the course materials (slide presentations, videos,

readings) were produced and the online classroom was prepared. The course testing by the

experts and pilot-testing by the pre-service teachers are part of this stage. Results of the tests

and feedback from the experts and pre-service teachers served as a basis for revising some

aspects of the course.

5.2.3.1. Course Materials Development and Online Classroom Preparation. The

majority of the course materials had to be developed from scratch since materials specially

made for the Philippine context are limited. The development took place for a year and a half.

The course materials were uploaded in an online classroom in the Moodle-based online

learning environment of MSU-IIT. The activities were put in place and all the necessary

instructions were indicated within the modules. An introductory video and a How-To section

were also prepared to serve as references on how to go about the different activities in the

course.

5.2.3.2. Course Testing by Experts. Experts tested the course and utilized a rubric to

evaluate it. The 23-item rubric is divided into five subscales (course objectives, course

presentation, course design, interaction, and assessment). It has three levels of descriptors

(unsatisfactory, sufficient, exemplary) for each item and were scored 1, 2, and 3 respectively

(see Appendix G). The items in the rubric were adopted/adapted from Anstey and Watson

(2018), California Community Colleges (2016), Rogers and Van Haneghan (2018), Ternus,

Palmer, and Faulk (2007), and University of Arkansas (2012). Aside from the rubric, the raters

also gave suggestions on how to improve the course. Revisions were done to the course prior

to pilot-testing.

5.2.3.3. Pilot-testing by Pre-service Teachers. Participants in the pilot-test were given a

maximum of three weeks to work on the course at their own pace. While the participants had

the option to use their personal computers or phones, they were given access to two of the

computer laboratories in the university if they found it difficult to access the course outside the

university. Participants of the pilot-test evaluated the course using a four-point Likert (see

Appendix H). This scale will be further discussed in the Evaluation section. Based on the data

from the pilot-test, revisions on the course were done before its implementation.

5.2.4. Implementation. The researchers were able to secure approval from MSU-IIT’s

Research Ethics Committee and a Special Order from the Chancellor to allow the pre-service

teachers to participate in the course implementation. Information sheets containing instructions

on how to access the course, a timeline, and a checklist were distributed to the participants.

Since the selected pre-service teachers have different class schedules, we had to visit the classes

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they were attending to give an orientation and to have the informed consent signed. For this

version, the online course was paced, that is, one module per week. Each week, a new module

was opened but the preceding modules remained accessible. Completion tracking was activated

– beside the course material or activity name is a checkbox that indicates whether the section

was completed. The restricted access feature for course materials and activities was not

activated since the participants might find it too constraining. Heterogeneous groups were

Figure 1. Sample Module

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created for the group activities and these were posted in the online classroom. The course was

facilitated by one of the authors of this paper. Figure 1 is a sample module of the course (See

Appendix I for the online course, Appendix J for sample course materials, and Appendix K for

sample activities and outputs).

5.2.5. Evaluation. To determine whether an increase in MS is found, the Multicultural

Sensitivity Scale for Pre-service Teachers (Ruales, Agirdag, & Van Petegem, 2020) was used

in the pre- and post-tests (see Appendix E). The 28-item seven-point Likert scale is composed

of five factors - ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, intercultural stress, exhibiting

multiculturalism, and monocultural orientation. Based on the given statements, respondents are

to choose (very untrue of me, untrue of me, somewhat true of me, neutral, somewhat true of

me, true of me, and very true of me) whether it best describes them or not. Items under

ethnocentrism, intercultural stress, and monocultural orientation are negatively stated and thus

are reverse coded. A higher score means more sensitivity (i.e., less or not ethnocentric) and a

lower score means low sensitivity (i.e., highly ethnocentric). This scale has adequate internal

consistency and is invariant for both ethnic majority and minority.

Participants during the implementation also evaluated the course using the same

instrument used by the pilot-group (see Appendix H). The course evaluation scale is a four-

point Likert with four subscales (access and navigation, resources, activities, and self-directed

and deep learning). Some of the items were adopted/adapted from the scale by the University

of New South Wales (2018). The respondents are to indicate their level of agreement or

disagreement (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree) with the given statements.

Aside from the Likert scale rating, pre-service teachers were also asked to identify whether

they experienced change after taking the course, aspects of the course that influenced their

change, other means of interaction with groupmates, best features of the course, difficulties

encountered, and suggestions for improvement.

One limitation of the study is that it employed a one-group pre- and post-test design.

Therefore, the degree of certainty to conclude that the treatment is responsible for the increase

in MS needs to be supported with other data. Thus, after the course, participants were asked

about their experience when they took the course and whether the online course changed them

or not. Interviews with some course completers were also conducted. Results of all the

evaluations are presented in the section that follows.

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6. Results

6.1. Research Question 1: How is the online course evaluated by experts and pre-service

teachers?

6.1.1. Course Evaluation by Experts. Table 1 shows the mean ratings of the evaluation.

Looking at the values, the course was rated high. To determine internal consistency or

reliability, Cronbach’s Alpha was computed, and the result was .746, which can be interpreted

as “good”. Inter-rater reliability was calculated using a two-way mixed, absolute agreement,

average-measures intra-class correlation coefficient to determine the degree of agreement

among the raters and the result was negative. One of the possible reasons for the negative value

can be attributed to the background of the raters. The subjective nature of the scoring process

is one of the reasons why ratings vary among individuals (Horng, Klasik, & Loeb, 2010).

Another possible reason may be due to the restricted range of the rating instrument used

(Hallgren, 2012). However, the aim of the course evaluation was to check its quality and since

no major issues were identified by the raters, revisions of the course were made. Some

questions and instructions were revised for comprehensibility, rubric descriptors for group

outputs were improved, and some presentations had to be divided for conciseness.

In general, the raters found the course to be well-designed and the course content to be

very good. They indicated that the presentation of the content and technology being used

supports the attainment of the learning objectives and therefore it could help in increasing pre-

service teachers’ MS. One of the raters explicated that “The course will validate and/or

invalidate what they have experienced, felt, think, how they would want to act, and how they

chose to act (because they have to choose what is right in the eyes of the society despite the

impulse to do otherwise). The activities allow the learner to interact with other learners and in

his/her interaction with others, one is also given the opportunity to go on a personal journey

— a journey in which one looks within and acknowledges one’s struggles in dealing with others

who he/she considers different from him/her”.

6.1.2. Course Evaluation by Pre-service Teachers. It can be seen in Table 1 that the

pre-service teachers rated the course fairly high. Looking closely at the ratings, access and

navigation consistently incurred the lowest rating while self-directed and deep learning

received the highest. The Cronbach’s Alpha for the pilot and implementation group are both

high. In terms of intra-class correlation coefficient, the value of the pilot group is considered

“poor,” while that of the implementation group is “excellent”. Similar to the expert group,

inter-rater reliability was computed using a two-way mixed, absolute agreement, average-

measures intra-class correlation coefficient.

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More than one-third of the participants in the implementation group identified the

course materials (videos and slide presentations) as the course’s best feature. This is followed

by the topics discussed, reflection activities, and online mode of learning. About one-third

encountered difficulties with internet access and less than one-fourth experienced difficulties

with time management and group activities. Some participants found working on the course

challenging because they did it in addition to their required schoolwork. Suggestions for

improvement widely vary— such as, implementing on blended mode, making course materials

downloadable, simplifying some activities, adding and reducing course materials, and

extending the time frame. Some recommended implementing the course without revision and

several suggested that all pre-service teachers should be required to take the course.

Pre-service teachers who were interviewed found the course important because it is

informative, extensively discusses the context of Mindanao, and greatly emphasizes the need

to learn to accept and respect cultural differences. They believe it can help prepare pre-service

teachers for cultural diversity in the classroom. The interviewees also found the progression of

the topics to be well-thought and found themselves able to relate with the course since it reflects

the realities that they encounter in their present context. Some also had personal experiences

that are similar to what was shown in the course —being biased, being discriminated against,

or ignored for being an ethnic minority.

All of the interviewees recommend making the online course a required component in

the teacher training. Making the course a required component for pre-service teachers would

help make them realize its importance and create more interest, thus leading the pre-service

teachers to give more time and effort working on the course. The interviewees believe that the

course can help prepare pre-service teachers in dealing with diverse students which leads to

eliminating ethnocentrism and increase of awareness on the need to understand cultural

differences. Furthermore, they found the course valuable since it showed the importance of

multicultural sensitivity not only in the classroom but in the society at large.

The majority of the interviewees suggested that in the next implementation of the course,

individual activities remain online while group activities should be face-to-face with a common

schedule set by the facilitator. Other suggestions include allowing participants to choose their

groupmates, placing subtitles and minimizing the length of some videos to 7 or 8 minutes,

making course materials downloadable, extending the time for quizzes, and setting the system

to block late submissions. A face-to-face in-depth orientation session was also recommended

to improve course implementation.

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6.2. Research Question 2. Did pre-service teachers’ MS increase after taking the online

course?

A t test was conducted to determine significant differences between pre- and post-test

MS scores. The figures in Table 2 show that with a significance level of 0.05, there was a

significant increase in the scores for MS (overall). Positive effects are found for the following:

subscales: ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and exhibiting multiculturalism. No significant

difference was found between pre- and post-test scores for intercultural stress and monocultural

orientation.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics and Reliability (Course Evaluation)

N Min Max Mean SD Cronbach’s

Alpha

Intra-class

Correlation

Coefficient

Experts .746 -.650

Objectives 5 2.33 3.00 2.800 .298

Presentation 5 2.67 3.00 2.833 .118

Design 5 2.33 3.00 2.767 .325

Interaction 5 2.60 3.00 2.760 .167

Assessment 5 2.00 3.00 2.667 .408

Grand Mean 5 2.57 3.00 2.774 .172

Pilot Group .832 .423

Access and Navigation 10 2.67 4.00 3.500 .478

Resources 10 3.33 4.00 3.733 .263

Activities 10 3.20 4.00 3.760 .310

Self-Directed and Deep Learning 10 3.00 4.00 3.800 .313

Grand Mean 10 3.19 4.00 3.719 .262

Implementation Group .929 .909

Access and Navigation 97 2.00 4.00 3.072 .574

Resources 97 1.67 4.00 3.320 .529

Activities 97 2.20 4.00 3.260 .500

Self-Directed and Deep

Learning

97 2.60 4.00 3.478 .432

Grand Mean 97 2.25 4.00 3.304 .437

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Table 2

Descriptive Statistics, Reliability Analysis, Paired Samples Test, and Effect Size

N Min Max Mean SD Cronbach’s

Alpha

Mean

Difference

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean t

Significance

(2-tailed) Cohen’s d

Ethnocentrism

Pre 97 1.60 6.60 3.984 .856 .613

.227

1.028

.104

2.173

.032

.244 Post 97 1.00 7.00 4.210 .992 .743

Intercultural Effort

Pre 97 2.25 7.00 5.833 .855 .783

.219

.875

.089

2.465

.015

.267 Post 97 3.25 7.00 6.052 .783 .779

Intercultural Stress

Pre 97 2.00 7.00 5.208 .916 .708

.066

1.016

.103

.639

.524

.068 Post 97 1.00 7.00 5.274 1.015 .793

Exhibiting Multiculturalism

Pre 97 3.63 7.00 5.871 .691 .822

.233

.710

.072

3.237

.002

.335 Post 97 3.63 7.00 6.104 .698 .865

Monocultural Orientation

Pre 97 3.17 7.00 5.182 .906 .688

-.046

1.004

.102

-.455

.650

.049 Post 97 1.00 7.00 5.136 .982 .771

Overall Multicultural Sensitivity

Pre 97 3.86 6.71 5.263 .571 .857

.160

.656

.067

2.400

.018

.258 Post 97 3.48 7.00 5.422 .660 .904

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Table 3

Subjective Data (Implementation Group)

N=97

n %

Experienced positive change 82 84.5

Questioned their attitudes and behaviors towards other ethnic groups 62 63.9

Thought about changing the way they relate or deal with other ethnic groups 31 32

Tried to act more positively towards other ethnic groups 48 49.5

Became more careful on the way they deal with other ethnic groups 45 46.4

Noticed that their group mates also questioned their own beliefs

and attitudes towards other ethnic groups

49 50.5

Influenced their Change

Polls 35 36.1

Individual / Personal Reflections 82 84.5

Group Activities 31 32

Forums 57 58.8

Lessons / Course Materials (slide presentations, videos, readings) 76 78.4

Structure of the Course 37 38.1

To determine the effect size, Cohen’s d was computed. An effect size will tell whether

the difference is significant or how substantially the pre-and post-test scores differ (Madsen,

Sayre, & McKagan, 2016). The suggested effect size values are: .2 for small, .5 for medium,

and .8 for large (Cohen, 1988). The Cohen’s d values shown in Table 2 are less than .5 and

thus interpreted as a small effect size. While a statistically significant increase in some of the

scores were found, the differences are modest based on Cohen’s d values. However, it is

actually important that in the first implementation of the course, a modest effect size was found.

Future research will determine whether the effect size differs across engagement levels.

The values in Table 3 show that 82 or 84.5 percent of the pre-service teachers claimed

to have experienced a positive change in their values, beliefs, opinions, or attitude. All of the

participants who claimed to have experienced change identified reflection as the aspect or one

of the aspects of the course that influenced their change. Lessons/course materials came in

second while forums ranked third. It can also be seen in Table 3 that only 31 participants (32%)

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see the group activities as having an influence on their change. Other experiences of the pre-

service teachers when they took the course are also shown in Table 3 (see Appendix L for the

questionnaire).

The participants who were interviewed identified the reflection activity as the most

liked activity. This is due to the reason that they were able to examine their existing beliefs and

attitudes as well as make meaning out of what they learned from the course and how it applies

to them. Some mentioned that they were comfortable with the idea that their peers will not read

their output for this activity. For the group activities, it was surprising that while difficulties

have been repeatedly mentioned, a number of the interviewees liked the said activities because

they found it interesting and had the chance to collaborate, hear different perspectives, and

even showcase the skills of the group members in creating group outputs (see Appendix C for

the interview questions and results).

Since it was not a required course for pre-service teachers in the university where the

course was implemented, several challenges were met. Even with the reminders posted in the

online classroom, a huge drop in the user statistics was observed in the second week of the

course. Certificates of completion were offered and professors supervising the pre-service

teachers assisted in the tracking of the participants' progress. Though heterogeneous groupings

were created by the researchers, the participants requested to be given the liberty to form their

groups. This was allowed by the researchers, but a maximum of seven members for each group

was set. The Google Hangouts Chat Groups created were not widely used since the participants

found it more convenient to communicate with each other through Facebook or text messaging.

While the course was designed to be purely online, the majority of the groups met face-to-face

for the group activities. On the other hand, in terms of commenting on forums and group

outputs posts, this was observed to be quite low. As one participant said, most participants may

not regularly log-in to the online classroom, thus missing the posts’ notifications. Lastly, almost

all of the messages that the course facilitator received from the course participants were

concerns regarding the groupings and group activities.

7. Discussion

This study aimed to determine whether pre-service teachers’ MS can be increased through

a Transformative Learning Theory (TLT)-based online course. This study is essential since

there is no blueprint on how to increase MS despite the need to prepare pre-service teachers to

teach culturally diverse students.

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In this study, the majority of the participants claimed to have experienced positive

change through the online course. This is consistent with the results of the pre- and post-test

scores wherein a significant difference was found in overall MS and some of the factors of MS

particularly, ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and exhibiting multiculturalism. Therefore, we

can say that integrating phases of the TLT into the design of the online course provided the

participants an experience that increased their awareness of their biases and assumptions which

brought them to question their beliefs and attitudes and thus resulted in its change. This finding

is similar to the claim of Bennett (1986) and the Waitemata District Health Board (2010). They

said that MS could increase if there is an awareness of one’s biases and assumptions as well as

a desire to change one’s attitude. Some of the participants who were interviewed claimed that

their perception towards people from other cultures changed and that they are trying to be more

understanding, accepting, and more mindful when dealing with people from other ethnic

groups to avoid offending them. Therefore, we can say that integrating selected phases of the

TLT into the design of the online course contributed to the increase in MS.

Considered a distinctive component (Henderson, 2002) and the center of TL (Mezirow,

1991), the reflection activities brought the participants to examine one’s thinking and feelings

while creating meaning based on the knowledge gained from the course and reflecting its

applicability in their personal contexts. When participants were asked about the aspect of the

course that influenced their change— reflection activities, lessons/course materials, and forums

were the top three identified. This shows the importance and impact of reflection on the

transformation of the pre-service teachers. The 82 pre-service teachers who claimed to have

experienced positive change due to the course all said that the reflection activity influenced or

was one of the activities that influenced the change. It can also be said that the online nature of

the course helped in the process of reflection since students have more time to think and reflect

before making a post, especially when they had to answer questions that are sensitive in nature.

Students were also able to go through the course materials at their own pace and have the

opportunity for more time to study the content. While each module can be finished in four

hours, only one new module per week is made available on the platform. However, students

also have the opportunity to return to the preceding modules since those remain available for

student access.

Based on the interviews and participants’ responses to open-ended questions, emotions

played a role in their transformation. Some participants mentioned experiencing feelings of

shame and guilt as they were exploring the course materials and performing the activities.

There were narratives of great empathy and emotions since they were able to associate their

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own experiences and context with what is reflected in the course. While transformation cannot

be taught (Cranton, 2002), targeting not only the cognitive but also the affective aspect helped

in bringing about transformation to the majority of the participants.

Polls, self-evaluations, forums, and a video served as activating events. However, these

were not explicitly identified to the participants as such; hence, one cannot be conclusive

whether they (as a collective) had an impact on the transformation process. Upon individually

examining these activities, it was found that these activities have influenced their change: some

respondents claimed that answering the polls and seeing its results were meaningful since it

made them reflect on their stand in some issues while analyzing the reasons why others think

differently from them; the video used for “activating event” was also identified by almost all

of the interviewed participants as the most impactful because of the message implied; and over

half of the participants identified the forums as having an influence on their change. We can,

therefore, say that the activities triggered changes in one’s beliefs and attitudes.

Almost 25 percent of the participants encountered difficulties with the group activities,

while a majority saw its importance and did not recommend their removal. Instead, participants

recommended changes for the implementation to facilitate the conduct of the activity. While

the group activities were set to be done online, the participants chose to meet face-to-face; thus,

it is impossible to analyze their discussions and instead depend on their narratives. The

interviewees expressed that the group activities allowed them to listen to the perspectives of

others, share realizations, and discuss issues. Their preference to choose who to work with

during group activities is not solely rooted in convenience to arrange meetings, but they also

felt that they would be less inhibited, more open, and comfortable in sharing their thoughts. As

Smith (2012) said, the feeling of a “safe” environment helps foster transformative learning.

While the findings are supported with the results of the T-test, Cohen’s d values indicate

that the effect size is modest. The amount of the increase in scores might have been affected

by the circumstances of the course implementation based on the pre-service teachers’

statements on the difficulties they encountered when they took the course. Since it was not a

required component of their pre-service training, commitment cannot be compelled from them.

While they may have understood the need to change, the important components of

transformation according to Mezirow (1991) which are emotional strength and act of will may

have been hampered by the necessity to finish the course since they have been chosen to

participate and were also endorsed by the university’s administration. Another notable aspect

is the possibility that the participants rated themselves too high in the pre-test. The small

Cohen’s d values should not lead to hasty conclusions that the course failed to provide a

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transformative learning experience since pre-service teachers’ accounts about their experience

say otherwise. Implementing the course with a different group would prove to be helpful.

The absence of a statistically significant change in intercultural stress and monocultural

orientation may be attributed to a lack of emphasis in the course or changes in these aspects

takes time before a significant change can be found. In the case of monocultural orientation,

participants may have rated themselves too high during the pre-test and had realizations while

and after taking the course. Monocultural orientation deals with the ways and practices that

manifest cultural and linguistic homogeneity in schools. After taking the course, they may have

felt that dealing with students in the real context is different from what they perceived. This

section of the scale may have also drawn mixed reactions because in the Philippines, mother

tongue is used as the medium of instruction from kindergarten to Grade 3 while English and

Filipino are used from Grade 4 to Grade 10. In college, English is used as the primary medium

of instruction except in specific courses.

The findings of this study show that not all phases of TLT are needed for transformation

to take place. It is possible to only integrate TLT’s most relevant phases. As Smith (2012) said,

giving attention to a strong pedagogy in the course design can help foster transformation. The

findings of this study support the statement of Cranton (2010) about the possibility of

transformative learning in an online class. However, it should be noted that the circumstance

of the course implementation may have affected the modest effect size.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations

The online MS course designed and developed in this study has a strong potential for a

transformative learning experience for pre-service teachers. The results of this study show that

transformative learning is possible through an online course and an online learning

environment can be utilized to change MS or teach multicultural skills. While it is difficult to

quantify the extent of the effect of the online environment on the increase in MS, we can

conclude that the synergy of selected course content, integration of selected phases of TLT,

and affordances of online learning fostered the increase of MS.

A higher increase is probable if the course is made a required component of the pre-

service teacher training. This will ensure commitment and effort on the pre-service teachers’

part when taking the course. It would also be beneficial if the course is implemented a semester

prior to practice teaching because it is the period in which pre-service teachers start their

classroom exposure. While there are limitations in the design and implementation of the course,

the findings of this study are useful and significant as it adds to the literature on the application

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of TLT in online course design and how to increase the MS of pre-service teachers to prepare

them for culturally diverse classrooms. In future studies, it is recommended to use randomized

control groups to control history, maturation, test effects or regression to the mean effects.

Before deploying a course online, it is important to conduct needs and target audience

analysis since the characteristics of the context may be entirely different from this study. It is

essential to consider the computer skills of the target learners and determine their access to a

computer with internet so that a schedule to use the school’s computer laboratory can be

arranged. It is advised that the course can be accessed through a smartphone (with internet)

because it is more likely that students own one. It is recommended to prepare a guide on how

to go through the course and perform the different activities. Giving a face-to-face orientation

is also helpful. There should also be consideration on the type and length of course materials,

such as, presenting information in different formats and by chunks.

While the course activities and integration of TLT may be adopted, it is essential that the

course content is tailored for the context. This will enable students to associate their own

experiences and context with what is reflected in the course. Making the course materials

downloadable is also helpful so that students can go through the content without the need to go

online, except for group activities, forums, and submitting reflections. However, with this

option, the amount of time spent studying the course content cannot be tracked. While this

course is loaded in a Moodle-based online learning environment, the use of other learning

management systems is possible. Lastly, it is of paramount importance that the course

facilitator is knowledgeable about the course and teaching online and can give prompt

feedback.

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CHAPTER 4

Preparing Pre-service Teachers for Cultural Diversity:

An Analysis of the Factors that Influence the Change in Multicultural Sensitivity

This chapter has been submitted to The Journal of Higher Education

Abstract

The growing concern that pre-service teacher training lacks emphasis on meeting the

needs of culturally diverse students led us to develop and implement an online multicultural

sensitivity (MS) course. Data from the implementation show an increase in overall MS, three

subscales of MS, and overall personal dimension of MS. Course engagement was found to have

an effect on strengthening overall MS, while multicultural experiences, gender, and some

aspects of intellectual humility predicted the increase of specific MS subscales. The results of

this study can contribute to the literature on how to prepare pre-service teachers for culturally

diverse classrooms.

1. Introduction

Multicultural sensitivity (MS) is an individual's awareness of cultural differences, being

able to respect these differences and respond to them appropriately. In contexts with high

cultural diversity, MS is important because it contributes to peaceful coexistence. While people

are not born prejudiced, this can be learned from one’s immediate environment. Since the

school is a microcosm of society, it is the best environment to develop MS. As stressed in

literature, teachers are responsible for helping students develop empathy, respect differences

(Yusof et al., 2015) and be open and accept diversity (Van Driel et al., 2016). For teachers to

transmit skills and values, it is important that teachers possess them (Segura-Robles & Parra-

González, 2019). When teachers are more accepting of their students' cultures, the performance

of students can improve (Irvine & Hawley, 2011; Liang & Zhang, 2009). However, it is not

easy for most teachers to realize that how they relate with their students and their students’

families is influenced consciously and unconsciously by their personal perspectives (Lin &

Bates, 2014).

Literature shows that many beginning teachers are not well prepared to work with

culturally diverse students (e.g. Beutel & Tangen, 2018; Marchitello & Trinidad, 2019;

Magogwe & Ketsitlile, 2015; Moloney & Saltmarsh, 2016; Yuan, 2018). The same has also

been found with pre-service teachers (e.g. DeVillar & Jiang, 2012; Lehman, 2016;

Zozakiewicz, 2010). To ensure that future teachers are able to manage culturally diverse

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students, it is essential that this is explicitly incorporated during pre-service preparation

(Alismail, 2016; Bustamante, Skidmore, Nelson, & Jones, 2016; Forghani-Arani et al.,

2019;Lin & Bates, 2014; Oryan & Ravid, 2019). Pre-service teachers who are well-prepared

to put multiculturalism into practice will become its advocates who are able to establish fairness

and social justice in their classrooms (Alismail, 2016).

Experiences with other cultures alone are inadequate in changing one’s attitude or

disposition towards cultural others (Paige & Vande Berg, 2012; Santoro, 2014; Wikan & Klein,

2017). There should be opportunities for pre-service teachers to reflect and learn about cultural

diversity and handling culturally diverse students (Forghani-Arani, 2019), as well as confront

one’s existing intercultural perspective (Hammer, 2009). Future teachers will not be able to

manage culturally diverse students if pre-service training does not prepare them to do so

(Kumar & Hamer, 2013). This shows that preparation for teaching in culturally diverse

classrooms is imperative in pre-service teacher training.

There are several cultural diversity trainings and initiatives for pre-service teachers.

These are: attendance to a multicultural conference with workshops and discussions on topics

related to diversity (Moore, 2018); utilizing multicultural narratives in a required course (Kang

& Hyatt, 2010); use of film as a tool for reflection to develop deeper understanding on diversity

issues (Patchen, 2012); through excursion, reflection, and representing new understanding

through an animated story to develop cultural diversity awareness (McKnight et al., 2011);

employing online fiction to facilitate reflection increased awareness on culturally responsive

teaching (Fehr, 2010); use of teaching cases and case-based instruction to foster culturally

responsive literacy pedagogy (Gunn, 2010); and combining autobiography, field experiences,

and field-based reflection to develop cultural awareness and competency (He & Cooper, 2009).

While the previously mentioned studies were found to have positive results, these were not

specifically focused on MS. Though there are studies that examined whether MS increased

after field experience or taking a pedagogical teacher training course (e.g. Cubukcu, 2013;

Mighani & Moghadam, 2019; Pieski, 2011; Yurtseven & Altun, 2015), these studies did not

specifically aimed at changing pre-service teachers’ MS. Most studies and trainings conducted

specifically on increasing MS are intended for the business and health sectors (e.g.

Communicaid, 2019; Hutnik & Gregory, 2008; Majumdar et al., 2004; Young & Guo, 2016).

To the authors’ knowledge, there are hardly any studies that attempted to increase pre-service

teachers’ MS through a Transformative Learning Theory (TLT)-based online course and

examined factors that predict the change. In addition, studies on multicultural sensitivity,

teaching culturally diverse students, multicultural education, and other similar topics are not

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commonly done in the Philippines despite its importance to the Philippine context. Most studies

on multiculturalism and multicultural education are done in the United States (Agirdag et al.,

2016) or only well-documented in western literature (Yuan, 2018). Similarly, when it comes

to TLT, majority are from Western contexts (John, 2016).

With the gap in the literature and the importance of MS among pre-service teachers, we

conducted this study that aims to answer the question: can a specific online course change MS

and if so, what factors predict the change? We developed an online course and implemented it

to a sample of Filipino pre-service teachers. An online course was developed because topics

related to MS (such as beliefs, religion, prejudice, and discrimination) can be sensitive for some

individuals. Strong or extreme opinions may be expressed because it can arouse thoughts and

feelings at a very personal level (University of Sheffield, 2018). If a course is online,

psychological burden is avoided and there is less stress when it comes to relating

interpersonally because communication is computer-mediated (Mei-Chiung et al., 2015). An

asynchronous online classroom affords students more time for reflection and a dist inct

condition for a potentially transformative experience related to the discussion on topics about

culture (Ziegahn, 2001).

2. TLT-based Online Course

The TLT guided the development of the course as well as the examination of the factors

that predicts the change in MS. The TLT is utilized to ground ways in changing pre-service

teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and awareness. The central idea of TLT is “one’s meaning

perspective or frame of reference – structure of meanings – changes through a process of

becoming critically aware of how and why our presuppositions have come to constrain the way

we perceive, understand, and feel about our world” (Mezirow, 1990, p. 14). In learning,

previous interpretations are used as one tries to make sense of the new or revised interpretation

of one’s experience which is then used as a guide for actions in the future (Mezirow, 1996).

Putting TLT in practice is changing learners through an experience that challenges them to

evaluate their value system and perspectives (Quinnan, 1997).

While Mezirow (1991) originally identified ten phases in the transformation process,

he later mentions that these phases are not linear and not all are necessary for transformation

to take place. There were also researchers who condensed the phases into three or four (e.g.

Herbers, 1998; Merrimam & Cafarella, 1999) and stated that a disorienting dilemma is not

necessary for transformation to take place (Kilgore & Bloom, 2002; Kovan & Dirkx, 2003).

According to Cranton, one of the leading scholars of TLT, an activating event, encouraging

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articulation of assumptions, promoting critical self-reflection, promoting openness to

alternatives, discourse, revision of assumptions and taking action based on those revisions are

strategies that foster transformative learning (2002 & 2006b). In the design of the course, we

selected the phases that were commonly identified to be the most important, that is, activating

event or disorienting dilemma, critical reflection, and discourse. These phases inspired our

design of the course activities.

The course that we have developed is composed of five modules - discovering one’s

identity, history and diversity of the Philippines, cultural diversity in different contexts,

becoming multiculturally sensitive, and managing student diversity. We created several

activities for each module, such as poll/s, forum, reflection, quiz, and group activity. The course

was loaded in the online learning environment of Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute

of Technology, Philippines. It was evaluated by experts and pilot-tested by pre-service teachers

prior to its implementation.

The course that we designed was intended for pre-service teachers coming from ethnic

minority and ethnic majority groups. We believe that the success of a “cultural relationship” is

not only in the hands of a majority group but of minority groups as well. The course is not

meant to patronize the ethnic minorities nor does it imply that there is a group that is inferior.

The course shows the diversity of the Philippines, why the Philippines is multicultural, and

emphasizes the need for respect and understanding among the ethnic groups.

While it can be found in literature that TLT can be applied in online learning (e.g.

Cranton, 2010; Forte & Blouin, 2016; Jackson & Chakraborty, 2014; Kim et al., 2018), how

the concept of TLT is used in increasing multicultural sensitivity as well as what variables

affect the increase of multicultural sensitivity is sparse. There is a need to look into

sociocultural variables (Taylor, 2007) and participants' backgrounds (Taylor & Snyder, 2012)

and its relationship to transformative learning. Thus, we have identified course engagement,

gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences, and intellectual humility as factors that we will

examine whether they influence the increase of MS.

3. Course Engagement and Personal Factors to be Examined

3.1. Course Engagement

Providing a course that aims to increase MS is not enough to bring transformation

among pre-service teachers. One needs to be engaged with the course so that transformation

may take place. Based on TLT, the learner usually checks for evidence that reinforces one’s

beliefs and perceptions at the start of the course but as the learner goes through the learning

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process, one starts to consider alternative viewpoints (Halupa, 2017). Thus, it is important that

one is willing to transform and this is evidenced with one’s engagement in the course.

Engagement is considered important for a student’s success in an online course

(Hampton & Pearce, 2016). Course engagement involves the motivation to learn and progress

through the course (Briggs, 2015). Studies suggest that males and females engage differently

in online courses (e.g. Caspi, Chajut, & Saporta, 2008; Prinsen, Volman, & Terwel, 2007;

Yaghmour, 2012). However, according to Yoo and Huang (2013), studies on gender as a

determining factor of online course engagement are inconclusive and more studies are needed.

On the other hand, strategies used in an online course are also said to encourage engagement

(Morante, Djenidi, Clark, & West, 2017). Engaged students take time to go through the course

content, perform required activities, interact with the instructor and peers, reflect on their

beliefs, assumptions, and the learning process which this research assumes will have an effect

on the increase in MS.

3.2. Gender and Ethnicity

Based on transformative learning theory, “learning is understood as the process of using

a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s

experience in order to guide future action” (Taylor, 2007, p. 173). We, therefore, assume that

how one reacts to the course content and activities may be influenced by the experiences

attached to one’s gender and ethnicity and that these aspects affect the transformation process

or change in MS.

According to Irving and English (2011), how we see the world is influenced by our

gender. Therefore, males and females may differ on how they interpret their experiences which,

as pointed out by TLT, influences one’s perception and beliefs. Differences in gender are found

to influence the way one acts and responds in a teaching-learning situation (Bastable, 2003).

Some studies also suggest that emotion plays a particular role in the transformation of females

(Irving & English, 2011). On the other hand, there are also studies that found that gender does

not predict cultural sensitivity, effectiveness, or competence (El Ganzoury, 2012; Pedersen,

2010; Steuernagel, 2014; Yuen, 2010). In terms of online learning, females are found to be

more receptive (Selwyn, 2007). Females are also said to more likely succeed in an online

learning environment because they utilize affective learning methods (McKnight-Tutein &

Thackaberry, 2011; Price, 2006). Females are also more reflective in the online environment

because they relate new knowledge to their experience to make sense of reality (Anderson &

Haddad, 2005). If females then are more reflective in an online learning environment, this has

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an impact on their learning experience since reflection is considered a very important

component of transformative learning. Thus, we expect gender to play a role in the

transformation of pre-service teachers.

We also expect ethnicity to predict the change in MS. It has been found that awareness

of differences and diversity comes early for individuals who are in a position as a minority

(Johnson-Bailey, 2012). It is common for minority youth to make ethnicity an essential aspect

of their identity thus they are more mindful of society’s negative perceptions and prejudices

towards their group which leads to increased perception of bias and discrimination (Cross &

Cross, 2008, as cited in Bonnie, Stroud, & Breiner, 2015). Since our perception is influenced

by our ethnicity (Johnson-Bailey, 2012; Seibert, Stridh-Igo, & Zimmerman, 2002), this may

play a role in the transformative learning process, thus influencing the change in MS. In terms

of online learning, ethnicity is likely to influence one’s performance in an online classroom

(Richardson, 2012). Based on the results of various studies, Richardson mentioned factors that

might be responsible such as lack of social and academic integration of ethnic minority, social

support that one receives, nature of the learning environment, and teacher expectations. A study

by Kupczynski & Brown (2014) found that differences in the performance in an online course

among ethnic groups vary for students with low grade-point average. They identified help-

seeking behavior as a factor that may have influenced the variation.

3.3. Multicultural Experiences (ME)

ME refer to one’s experiences with people whose cultural backgrounds are different

from their own. A person’s experiences are said to influence one’s perceptions (Christie et al.,

2015). The learner's experience is important since it serves as a starting point and subject matter

for transformative learning (Mezirow, 1995) and it is an important element in critical reflection

(Taylor, 1998). Based on the TLT, we assume that an individual’s ME can influence one’s

perceptions and beliefs.

Interacting with diverse groups of people can help develop cultural sensitivity and

competence (Beutel & Tangen, 2018; Southeastern University, 2017; Suk, Oh, & Im, 2018).

ME enables one to understand different perspectives from other cultures (Benet-Martinez, Lee,

& Leu, 2006; Tadmor & Tetlock, 2006). A study by Sparkman, Eidelman, and Blanchar (2017)

found a correlation between ME and greater openness and less ethnic prejudice. Empirical

evidence has shown that in terms of developing cultural competence and cultural sensitivity,

the following were found to be significant predictors: cultural encounters (Chen et. al, 2018;

Witt, 2016), frequency of interaction with people of diverse backgrounds (Cui, 2016), and

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optimal amount of interaction with native speakers are needed for students who are studying

abroad (Martinsen, 2011). However, experience alone may not change an individual. Thus we

assume that the course will help bring change to how one sees and interprets their ME which

can then materialize into the change in MS. (See Appendix M for the ME Scale)

3.4. Intellectual Humility

Intellectual humility will be one of the variables to be examined whether it predicts the

change in MS based on the consideration that it is an important aspect of transformative

learning and good interpersonal relationships (which MS is part of). This research assumes that

with intellectual humility, one will tend to be more cognizant of one’s limitations and is more

open and willing to listen to various points of view thus the likelihood that through the course,

MS will increase. As previously pointed out, an act of will is needed for transformation to take

place.

According to Krumrei-Mancuso and Rouse, intellectual humility entails being

cognizant that one’s knowledge and cognitive faculties may be constrained or flawed (2016).

They further added that it “presumably holds unique potential to promote human thriving

through tolerance of others’ ideas, collaboration, and civil discourse” (p. 209). Intellectual

humility is said to be more able to predict behaviors that involve negotiation of ideas since

general humility tends to be diluted with other domains such as modesty (Davis et al., 2016).

Charaniya (2012) identified intellectual humility as important for transformative learning since

it entails being open to different points of view and being willing to listen to different views.

Charaniya further added that a learner with intellectual humility is most likely to experience

transformation in a learning environment that fosters an opportunity to change. (See Appendix

N for the IH scale)

4. Method

4.1. Study Setting

This study was conducted in Mindanao. Mindanao is the most culturally diverse group

of islands in the Philippines. For several decades, some parts of Mindanao have been

experiencing conflict that is attributed to different factors. According to Lara and Champain

(2009), the repercussions of the complex Mindanao conflict are social, psychological, and

cultural. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination developed because the mindsets of people

have been influenced by the conflict that exists.

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Because various Filipino ethnic groups live alongside each other, MS trainings for pre-

service teachers are indeed necessary. Lack of training in MS can make one susceptible to

discriminating practices, even without really intending to be biased or culturally insensitive

(Majumdar et al., 2004). On the other hand, in contexts affected by conflict, teachers should

help ensure that education is used as a positive force (Smith, 2010).

According to Reyes and Murray-Harvey (2018), there is no teacher education

institution in the Philippines offering a multicultural education program. There are efforts

however for educating multicultural groups which are funded by international agencies but

sustainability is a problem. It is a challenge therefore for schools to promote and manage

diverse populations (Lubrica, Montemayor, Angiwan, & Capili, 2018). Looking at the policies,

standards, and guidelines for teacher education in the Philippines (Commission on Higher

Education, 2017), the mention of multicultural literacy was found in one course along with

other identified 21st century literacies. It is not very explicit at which part of the pre-service

training future teachers are prepared for culturally diverse students or when MS is taken into

consideration.

4.2. Participants and Procedure

Participants of the online course are pre-service teachers from Mindanao State

University - Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT) who are in their first year of teacher

training. Since the Philippines recently changed its basic education system, the participants

involved in this study finished senior high school and are the first to be trained under the new

teacher education curriculum. The online course is not a required component of the curriculum

thus, we sought permission from the university’s administration before implementing the

course. We were allowed to invite participants from courses whose supervisors are willing to

let their pre-service teachers participate. However, the decision to participate depended on the

willingness of the selected participant. The purpose of the study was explained and

confidentiality was guaranteed to the participants. They also signed an informed consent form.

The participants were selected on the basis of gender and ethnicity since we wanted to

ensure the heterogeneity of the course participants. The age range of the participants is 17-22.

There were 144 pre-service teachers who participated in the course but data included in the

analysis were from the 97 course completers. There were 33 completers from the ethnic

minority group and 64 from the majority group; in terms of gender, 21 are male and 76 are

female. All data were gathered online through Google Forms and then processed in SPSS.

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4.3. Measures

4.3.1. Multicultural Sensitivity. The Multicultural Sensitivity Scale for Pre-service

Teachers (Ruales, et al., 2020) was used in the pre- and post-tests. The seven-point Likert scale

has 28 items and is composed of three subscales in the personal dimension (ethnocentrism,

intercultural effort, intercultural stress) and two subscales in the professional dimension

(professional multiculturalism and professional monocultural orientation). The personal

dimension has items that measure perceptions and feelings towards people and situations in

everyday life while the professional dimension are items in the school setting. Respondents are

to identify (very untrue of me, untrue of me, somewhat true of me, neutral, somewhat true of

me, true of me, and very true of me) whether a given statement best describes them or not.

Items under ethnocentrism, intercultural stress, and monocultural orientation are negatively

stated and thus are reverse coded. A higher score means more sensitivity (i.e. less or not

ethnocentric) and a lower score means low sensitivity (i.e. highly ethnocentric). The MS scale

is invariant for both ethnic majority and minority and has been found to have adequate internal

consistency. In this study’s sample, Cronbach’s alpha for the overall MS is 0.857 in the pre-

test and 0.904 in the post-test.

4.3.2. Multicultural Experiences. Data on multicultural experiences were gathered by

asking whether one has lived in a culturally diverse neighborhood, the cultural diversity of their

friends, classmates, teachers, and people they usually interact with. The scale is a three-point

Likert with five items. Respondents are to choose among never, sometimes, and always. For

the scoring, never was given a zero, one for sometimes, and two for always. The internal

consistency of our sample is 0.721.

4.3.3. Intellectual Humility. Intellectual Humility was measured using the

Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale (Krumrei-Mancuso & Rouse, 2016). The 22-item

scale has four subscales, namely, independence of intellect and ego (IEE), openness to revising

one’s viewpoint (OROV), respect to others’ viewpoint (ROV), and lack of intellectual

overconfidence (LIO). The items are on a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree,

neither agree nor disagree, agree, and strongly agree) and respondents are to indicate the degree

in which the statement is true for them. The scale has been validated with data from multiple

independent samples. Participants of the different studies conducted consisted of White, Asian,

Hispanic, Black or African American, and multiracial men and women. Internal consistency is

sufficient to use the full scale or individual subscales. In this study, two items under the LIO

subscale were removed to improve its internal consistency. Overall, the internal consistency is

0.764.

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4.3.4. Course Engagement. Course engagement was measured by analyzing log files

and extracting the number of minutes spent working on the course content, that is, watching

videos, slide presentations, and reading course materials. We did not count the time spent

making reflection, forum, or group output posts since there is a high possibility that students

copied the questions or instructions, worked on the activity offline, and then came back online

to make the post.

5. Analysis

Descriptive statistics were computed to see the summary of the data on hand. A t test

was then done to determine whether a statistically significant increase was found between pre-

test and post-test scores. Only those with statistically significant differences were included in

the next analysis. A multiple linear regression analysis was done to determine which among

the identified variables influence the change in MS. The Enter Method was utilized. All the

variables were given equal importance and we did not hypothesize that one variable is more

important compared to the other variables. For intellectual humility, the subscales were entered

in the model, and not the overall score.

6. Results

In Table 1 are the minimum and maximum scores, means, and standard deviations of

the different variables measured in this study. It should be noted that items under

ethnocentrism, intercultural stress, and monocultural orientation are negatively stated and thus

were reverse coded - higher values would mean more sensitivity.

Table 2 shows the results of the t test. It can be seen that a statistically significant

increase was found in overall MS, overall personal dimension, ethnocentrism, intercultural

effort, and exhibiting multiculturalism. Only those with a statistically significant increase are

included in the multiple linear regression analysis.

Table 3 shows the results of the multiple linear regression analysis for overall MS and

overall personal dimension while Table 4 shows the results for the MS subscales.The post-test

score of overall MS, overall personal dimension, ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and

exhibiting multiculturalism are the outcome variables. Pre-test scores were also entered as

independent variables in the regression models.

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Table 1

Descriptive Statistics

N Min Max Mean SD

Overall Multicultural Sensitivity_Pre 97 3.86 6.71 5.263 .571

Overall Multicultural Sensitivity_Post 97 3.48 7.00 5.422 .660

Overall Personal_Pre 97 3.29 6.64 4.949 .640

Ethnocentrism 97 1.60 6.60 3.984 .856

Intercultural Effort 97 2.25 7.00 5.833 .855

Intercultural Stress 97 2.00 7.00 5.208 .916

Overall Personal_Post 97 2.60 7.00 5.173 .720

Ethnocentrism 97 1.00 7.00 4.210 .992

Intercultural Effort 97 3.25 7.00 6.052 .783

Intercultural Stress 97 1.00 7.00 5.274 1.015

Overall Professional_Pre 97 3.79 6.86 5.576 .634

Exhibiting Multiculturalism 97 3.63 7.00 5.871 .691

Monocultural Orientation 97 3.17 7.00 5.182 .906

Overall Professional_Post 97 3.79 7.00 5.689 .686

Exhibiting Multiculturalism_Post 97 3.63 7.00 6.104 .698

Monocultural Orientation_Post 97 1.00 7.00 5.136 .982

Course Engagement (in minutes) 97 23 152 65.86 28.842

Multicultural Experiences 97 1 10 7.39 2.129

Intellectual Humility 97 2.50 4.65 3.668 .364

Independence of Intellect and Ego 97 1.00 5.00 3.111 .858

Openness to Revising One’s Viewpoint 97 1.00 5.00 3.718 .604

Respect for Others’ Viewpoints 97 1.00 5.00 4.125 .484

Lack of Intellectual Overconfidence 97 2.00 5.00 3.616 .590

Table 2

t Test

Mean

Difference

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

t Sig.

(2-tailed)

Overall Multicultural Sensitivity .160 .656 .067 2.400 .018

Overall Personal .224 .732 .074 3.014 .003

Ethnocentrism .227 1.028 .104 2.173 .032

Intercultural Effort .219 .875 .089 2.465 .015

Intercultural Stress .066

.113

1.016

.702

.103

.071

.639

1.592

.524

.115 Overall Professional

Exhibiting Multiculturalism .233 .710 .072 3.237 .002

Monocultural Orientation -.046 1.004 .102 -.455 .650

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Table 3

Regression Models Predicting Overall MS and Overall Personal Dimension

Overall MS Overall Personal

B β p B β p

Pre-test .307 .265 .023 .197 .222 .030

Course Engagement .005 .202 .022 -.001 -.025 .777

Gender -.153 -.096 .276 .074 .048 .575

Ethnicity .053 .038 .675 -.103 -.077 .389

Multicultural Experiences .006 .018 .846 .059 .195 .029

Intellectual Humility

IIE .279 .363 .000 .026 .034 .720

OROV .148 .135 .216 -.179 -.169 .115

ROV .246 .181 .135 .545 .413 .001

LIO -.132 -.118 .246 .333 .307 .001

R-Square .401 .427

Adjusted R-Square .339 .368

IIE – Independence of Intellect and Ego ROV – Respect for Others’ Viewpoints

OROV – Openness to Revising One’s Viewpoint LIO – Lack of Intellectual Overconfidence

For the overall MS, 33.9% of the variance of the dependent variable (post-test score) is

explained by the pre-test score, IIE, and course engagement. All else equal, as IIE increase by

one, we expect to see a .288 increase in the MS score. Since course engagement was measured

in minutes, the result can be interpreted: as engagement increases by one minute, we expect to

see a .005 increase in the overall MS score.

36.8% of the variance of the overall personal dimension can be explained by the pre-

test score, multicultural experiences, ROV, and LIO. All else equal, we expect that as ME,

ROV, and LIO increase by one, we expect to see an increase in the score for the overall personal

dimension based on the B values of the previously mentioned variables.

In Table 4, we can see that IIE influenced change in ethnocentrism, intercultural effort,

and exhibiting multiculturalism. ROV only predicts the ethnocentrism subscale of MS. 22.9%

of the variance of ethnocentrism is also explained by the pre-test score and ME. As seen in the

table above, the beta values of ME are negative. It should be noted that items under the

ethnocentrism subscale have been reverse coded, thus a higher score means low ethnocentrism.

Therefore, we interpret the results of the regression analysis as: low ME influences the decrease

of ethnocentric thinking. Course engagement was also found to positively influence the

ethnocentrism subscale, however, its significance was a little above .05.

For intercultural effort, 20.6% of its variance is due to the pre-test score and IIE. While

32.3% of the variance of exhibiting multiculturalism can be explained by pre-test score, gender,

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multicultural experiences, IIE, and engagement. The negative beta values of gender mean that

males have a positive contribution to the dependent variable compared to females.

Table 4

Regression Models Predicting MS Subscales

Ethnocentrism Intercultural

Effort

Exhibiting

Multiculturalism

B β p B β p B β p

Pre-test .297 .256 .014 .366 .399 .000 .433 .429 .000

Course Engagement .005 .151 .112 .002 .706 .482 .005 .194 .030

Gender -.023 -.009 .920 -.209 -.110 .252 -.328 -.195 .031

Ethnicity -.076 -.036 .714 .162 .099 .323 .127 .087 .347

Multicultural Experiences -.097 -.208 .035 .025 .067 .503 .068 .030 .029

Intellectual Humility

IIE .276 .239 .016 .236 .259 .011 .193 .237 .012

OROV -.067 -.041 .735 .224 .173 .153 .172 .149 .179

ROV .551 .269 .038 -.167 -.104 .395 -.195 -.135 .232

LIO .077 .046 .654 -.171 -.129 .202 -.160 -.135 .151

R-Square .302 .280 .387 Adjusted R- Square .229 .206 .323

7. Discussion and Conclusion

This study aimed to determine whether gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences,

intellectual humility, and course engagement influence the increase in MS. To the authors’

knowledge, there are hardly any studies conducted that attempted to increase pre-service

teachers’ MS through a TLT-based online course and examined variables that predict the

change.

Pre-test scores were also entered as independent variables in the regression models and

it was found that these scores predict the change of its corresponding post-test scores. This

means that based on the pre-test score, we are able to predict the increase of the post-test score

based on the B values.

In terms of course engagement, it is interesting to find that it significantly influenced

the increase of overall MS. This shows that the course had an impact on the change among pre-

service teachers. It should be noted however that in this study, the number of minutes

considered for this variable involved watching videos, slide presentations, and reading course

materials. The time spent working on the course reflection, forums, or group outputs were not

counted since the possibility is high that students copied the questions or instructions for the

mentioned activities, worked on it offline, and logged-in the online classroom to make the post.

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As we found from the course participants, there were several groups who met face-to-face to

work on the group activities instead of the initial arrangement which is online. Thus, it is

difficult to measure what happened outside the online learning environment. However, the data

that we have is still valuable because it was able to assess the impact of the activities that we

were able to measure. It also shows that with the online nature of the course, being able to go

through the course materials at one’s own pace and having the opportunity for more time to

study the content has an influence on the change. This justifies the decision to make the course

online because of the affordances of online learning. However, in future studies, it is

recommended to support quantitative data with qualitative data. It would also be valuable that

the reflections are analyzed and scores for the group activities and quizzes will be included in

the analysis. In this case, scoring should be done by an independent rater to minimize bias.

Another variable that was found to influence overall MS was IIE which is a subscale of

intellectual humility. This variable was also found to predict ethnocentrism, intercultural effort,

and exhibiting multiculturalism. Items under IIE measure the feeling of being attacked,

insignificant, or threatened when someone disagrees with their ideas or contradicts with the

beliefs that are important to them (Krumrei-Mancuso & Rouse, 2016). With topics that are

sensitive in nature, it is important to be able to understand things objectively and not let ego

get in the way. Since the course involved exposure to content and answering questions that

may be contradictory to one’s beliefs or ideas and working with others whose perspectives may

be in contrast with one’s own, it is very important that one remains rational. This is salient in

the transformation process as described in the TLT - being able to critically reflect and consider

changing one’s problematic frames of references (Mezirow, 2003). As Mezirow mentioned,

these frames of references include cultural bias, ideologies, stereotyped attitudes, and practices.

The change in the overall personal dimension of MS was found to be influenced by

multicultural experiences and two subscales of IH. Consistent with the findings of some

studies, multicultural experiences influenced this change. Through the lens of TLT,

multicultural experiences served as a starting point and an important element of reflection

which is a distinctive component of transformative learning. While multicultural experiences

alone may not change overall MS or its dimensions, the course (through its activities) was able

to harness the pre-service teachers’ experiences in bringing change in the overall personal

dimension of MS.

The intellectual humility subscales that influenced the personal dimension of MS are

ROV and LIO. ROV involves being welcoming with different ways of thinking, being able to

respect different viewpoints, and willing to listen and being cognizant of sound points on the

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views of others while LIO is being able to recognize that one’s beliefs may be wrong, that one

is not all-knowing and can learn from others, and being able to listen to others’ perspectives

and being open that one’s opinions may be changed (Krumrei-Mancuso & Rouse, 2016). Just

like IIE, ROV and LIO are needed when sensitive topics are discussed. These are also important

when working in a group. In the course, pre-service teachers had to work in groups for some

of the activities. If one is close-minded and not willing to listen to the perspectives of others, it

would be very difficult for change to take place. As based on TLT, to understand the need to

change the way one acts, an act of will is needed (Mezirow, 1991). The same can be said for

ethnocentrism which is influenced by IIE and ROV. In redressing an ethnocentric mindset, one

should be objective and recognize that one’s assumptions and judgments may be wrong and be

open to change one’s problematic frame of reference. ME was also found to have a negative

significant relationship with ethnocentrism. This means that as ME increases, the score of the

ethnocentrism subscale decreases. As previously mentioned, a lower score means higher

ethnocentrism and a higher score means lower ethnocentrism. Meaning, the more ME one has,

the more likely ethnocentrism will increase. Based on Gordon Allport’s contact hypothesis,

conflict and prejudice could be reduced under specific conditions, which are, equal status,

common goals, cooperation, and institutional support (Whitley & Kite, 2010). Thus, the kind

of interaction is vital for one’s attitude towards other groups to improve since mere exposure

may just reinforce an ethnocentric mindset.

Change in the intercultural effort was influenced by IIE. In intercultural interactions, it

is common to encounter people whose ideas and beliefs are contradictory to what you believe

to be true. However, seeing it as a chance to learn more and understand cultural others would

bring one to exert more effort in intercultural interactions because one sees it as a means to

help improve how one interacts in culturally diverse settings.

An increase in exhibiting multiculturalism was found to be influenced by gender,

multicultural experiences, IIE, and course engagement. Contrary to the findings of previous

studies on cultural sensitivity, effectiveness, or competence (e.g. El Ganzoury, 2012; Pedersen,

2010; Steuernagel, 2014; Yuen, 2010), gender was found to predict the increase of exhibiting

multiculturalism. In this study, it was found that males have a positive contribution to the

dependent variable. For multicultural experiences, these served as the starting point of the

reflection process. These experiences helped one to realize the need for fostering a school

environment that recognizes diversity and acceptance of cultural differences. Course

engagement was also found to predict exhibiting multiculturalism. This is consistent with the

findings of a number of studies that determined the effect of engagement on student’s success

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in an online course. It means that since the course emphasized the value of multiculturalism in

schools, being engaged in the course would, therefore, influence the increase in exhibiting

multiculturalism.

In the preparation of a course that aims to enhance pre-service teachers’ MS, it is

valuable that the course reflects the context so that they will be able to relate with the course

and help them see its relevance. Being able to relate to the course can contribute to pre-service

teachers’ engagement or will help them connect with their experiences or previously acquired

knowledge. Utilizing the TLT perspective in the design of the online course is also instrumental

in bringing change since it can help provide a meaningful learning experience.

Human behavior is difficult to predict (Dhakal, 2018) and it is not clear how individuals

transform (Moore, 2005). However, even with these issues, it is important that teacher training

institutions ensure that pre-service teachers are prepared to work in culturally diverse

classrooms. The contact hypothesis states that under proper conditions, people can change their

feelings and beliefs towards others through intergroup contact (Whitley & Kite, 2010). But in

the case of teaching, it would be risky if future teachers are not prepared prior to their

immersion in culturally diverse classrooms. It is important therefore that teacher training

programs are explicit on developing pre-service teachers MS prior to classroom immersion.

In the absence of a blueprint on MS, the findings of this study will help advance our

understanding on how to change pre-service teachers’ MS. While this study may lack

randomization, it was important that heterogeneity of the sample is ensured when it comes to

gender and ethnicity because there are not a lot of males and ethnic minorities in teacher

training programs. On the other hand, the course was not a required component of the pre-

service training thus the risk with course dropouts was high. While we only analyzed data from

the course completers, it would also be helpful to look into the data of those who dropped out

of the course or were unable to finish within the given timeframe.

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CHAPTER 5

General Discussion and Conclusion

1. Background

An endorsed diversity ideology is dependent on which best matches the country’s

culture and interests (Rattan & Ambady, 2013). An approach may work well in one context,

and at the same time, it does not work in another. For the Philippine context, particularly in

Mindanao, multiculturalism is the most feasible approach because the diversity is mainly

among the Filipinos themselves. On the stance of multiculturalism, it is important to exhibit a

positive attitude towards cultural others (Vorauer & Sasaki, 2010), promote understanding of

the perspectives of other groups (Apfelbaum et al., 2010; Todd & Galinsky, 2012), and co-

exist with, recognize, value, and respect other ethnic groups (Reitz, 2009; Yoon, 2007).

Multicultural education develops an understanding and acceptance of cultural diversity

(Fowers & Davidov, 2006 in Yilmaz, 2016), teaches mutual respect between diverse groups

(Koppelman, 2011), and enhances one’s capacity to interact effectively with cultural others

(Kim, 2009). Culturally diverse classrooms need teachers who are effective and affective in

their teaching (Grant, 1995). Teachers’ attitudes and behaviors are known to affect and even

influence students (Blazar & Kraft, 2017; Ulug, Ozden, & Eryilmaz, 2011; Yilmaz, 2016).

Teachers can influence students’ attitudes and beliefs (Diaz-Obando, Plasencia-Cruz, &

Solano-Alvarado, 2003; Green, 2005), help students develop empathy, respect for differences

(Yusof, Roddin, & Awang, 2015), and acceptance of diversity (Van Driel, Darmondy, &

Kerzil, 2016).

It is the responsibility of teacher education programs to help teachers develop

knowledge, attitudes, and skills in working effectively with diverse students (Banks & Banks,

2016; Bennett 1995; Yurtseven & Altun, 2015). Pre-service teachers must be able to accept

student diversity in K-12 classrooms (Taylor et al., 2016). According to Pentikainen (2012), in

developing teacher education curriculum, being sensitive to cultural differences should be a

vital concern. Pre-service teachers should be sensitive to educational inequality issues due to

ethnic and cultural differences; thus, training on MS is essential (Mitchell, 2009). Studies show

that MS has an impact on pre-service teachers' multicultural education competence (Hur, 2017)

and is a significant predictor of multicultural teaching efficacy (Kim & Connelly, 2019).

There is no exact blueprint on how teacher education can increase MS. However, a few

scholars pointed out that this is possible. According to Bennet (1986), MS can be achieved by

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developing new awareness and attitudes. For Park (2009, as cited in Huh et al., 2015), the

training should focus on acknowledging and accepting cultural differences, changing

stereotypes, prejudice, and distorted views, and forming good relationships with cultural

others. Strategies such as service-learning, structured controversy, and the use of new

technologies have also been suggested. Worth noting is the use of online learning in some

diversity courses and training (e.g. Fehr, 2010; Kim et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2010; Othelia Lee

& Bertera, 2007; Patchen, 2012). However, courses that focus on MS were mainly for the

business and health sectors (e.g. Communicaid, 2019; Hutnik & Gregory, 2008; Majumdar et

al., 2004; Young & Guo, 2016). Since findings on the effectiveness of online courses vary, it

is important to ensure that the online MS that we develop can foster an increase in MS. We

used Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory in the course design and developed a MS

scale for the pre- and post-tests to measure the impact of the online course.

Based on the discussions above, this dissertation aimed to examine whether and how

pre-service teachers’ MS can be increased in teacher education and to identify important

variables that might contribute and clarify this process. Below are the research objectives and

research questions that addressed the aim.

Research Objective 1: Develop a scale to measure MS

How can we measure MS (in personal and professional contexts) among pre-

service teachers in the Philippines?

Is the measurement of MS invariant for ethnic minority and ethnic majority?

Research Objective 2: Design and develop a TLT-based online course

Anchoring on Transformative Learning Theory, how is an online course that

aims to increase MS designed?

What is the evaluation of the experts and pre-service teachers on the online

course?

Research Objective 3: Assess the impact of the online course

Did the pre-service teachers’ MS change after taking the online course?

What is the effect size of the change in MS?

Research Objective 4: Determine the role of course engagement and personal factors

on the change in MS

Do course engagement, gender, ethnicity, multicultural experiences, and

intellectual humility predict the change in MS?

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2. Main Findings

2.1. The MS scale

We can measure MS (in personal and professional contexts) among pre-service teachers

in the Philippines using a 28-item 7-point Likert scale composed of three factors for the

personal dimension – ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and intercultural stress – and two

factors for the professional dimension – exhibiting multiculturalism and monocultural

orientation. It can be observed that items on multicultural awareness, beliefs, and attitudes were

spread across the different factors of the scale. This scale has adequate internal consistency and

the measurement of MS was found to be invariant for ethnic majority and minority. This means

that the scale items are interpreted in a conceptually similar manner across the two groups. The

generic nature of the scale implies that it can be useful in other contexts. It can be used to

measure the MS of aspiring teachers when they start pre-service teacher training to determine

the growth of pre-service teachers’ MS.

2.2. The online course

The TLT-based online course was consistently rated “high” by the experts and pre-

service teachers (pilot and implementation group). In terms of its impact, a statistically

significant increase was found in the overall MS. If we carefully examine the increase by

subscale, the effects were positive for ethnocentrism, intercultural effort, and exhibiting

multiculturalism. There was no significant difference found for intercultural stress and

monocultural orientation. If we compare the results of the personal dimension (ethnocentrism,

intercultural effort, and intercultural stress) and professional dimension (exhibiting

multiculturalism and monocultural orientation), a significant increase was only found for the

personal dimension. Based on Cohen's d, the effect size is modest. This finding of the first

implementation is valuable because it will help us carefully examine aspects of the course that

need further improvement.

As some scholars said, online learning is promising for diversity training (Goldstein

Hode et al., 2018; Merryfield, 2001). In terms of integrating selected phases of TLT into the

course design, it can be said that critical reflection had the most impact, while activities that

aimed to foster opportunities for discourse had to be improved.

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2.3. The role of course engagement and personal factors on the change in MS

Course engagement predicted the increase in overall MS, while multicultural

experiences, gender, and some subscales of intellectual humility predicted the increase of

specific MS subscales. The result on course engagement in predicting the increase of MS is

promising since it implies that the course has the capacity to bring change. While the effect

size may be modest, the pre-service teachers claimed that they experienced positive change.

The results show that ethnicity does not predict the overall MS or its subscales.

Although ethnicity has been commonly found to influence students’ academic achievement

(Isik, Wilschut, Croiset, & Kusurkar, 2018; Thiele, Singleton, Pope, & Stanistreet, 2016),

apparently in a course that aims to change MS, this is not the case. Another surprising result is

that multicultural experiences was found to have a negative significant relationship with

ethnocentrism. This means that the more multicultural experience one has, the more likely

ethnocentrism will increase. Mere exposure to cultural others may reinforce an ethnocentric

mindset; thus, the quality of interaction is essential for improving one’s attitude. This finding

is congruent with Gordon Allport’s contact hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, only

under specific conditions can conflict and prejudice be reduced; this is when the status is equal,

and the goals are common (Whitley & Kite, 2010). The existing stereotypes may have been

enforced due to their multicultural experiences or due to the short-term aspect of the course.

Based on Allport’s theory, contact has to be intense and personal and larger positive effects

can be found if specific conditions are met. This means that the quality of interaction is essential

for improving one’s attitude.

3. Contributions

This study contributes to the multicultural teacher education literature. This study has

shed light on how MS can be increased - through a course that focuses on cultural diversity

awareness and positive beliefs and attitudes towards people of different cultures, integrating

selected phases of TLT into the course design, and taking advantage of the affordances of

online learning. It was also not particularly known whether MS can be increased in an area of

conflict such as Mindanao. However, this study has shown that it is possible to change MS of

pre-service teachers in an area of conflict. This study is useful because it shows how pre-service

teachers can be prepared to implement multicultural education or manage a culturally diverse

student group.

The findings of this study about TLT are useful for diversity trainings that aim to bring

change. Topics related to diversity can be bothersome and difficult for some because it entails

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examination of beliefs, prejudices, or attitude. Integrating selected phases of TLT is useful

because it explicitly provides opportunities for “trigger events” that sets the stage for change,

assessment of one’s perceptions, reflection on one’s beliefs, prejudices, and attitude, and

interaction with others to see alternative perspectives or validate one’s new perspective. With

TLT, one does not just acquire new information but go through conditions and processes that

helps bring change. This study also confirms the statement of Mezirow (1994) and Cranton

(1994) that not all phases of TLT are necessary for transformation to take place. This study can

also help advance understanding on how to apply TLT in online learning. The nature of an

online learning environment makes the integration of TLT phases viable. In the case of topics

on diversity which can be difficult in face-to-face situations, and an asynchronous channel can

help minimize the concern of being in an uncomfortable situation because one has time alone

to work on the course, think and reflect before interacting with others. This supports the claim

of Smith (2012) that the feeling of being in a “safe” environment fosters transformative

learning.

This study contributes to the debate on the differences between multiculturalism and

interculturalism. We find support for this claim from the scale development process that

showed items of scales developed in other contexts that can be used and cannot be used in the

Philippine context. This finding leans toward interculturalism because it shows the similarities

and differences of different contexts. The same is found when ethnicity did not influence the

change in MS. While differences may exist between the groups, there are also aspects that they

are similar. The course has shown that it can respond to the need of both the ethnic groups. Pre-

service teachers’ ethnicity varies, but the difference does not influence the result of the course.

In the Mindanaoan multicultural society, people from various groups have the same concept of

multicultural sensitivity. There is sameness in their differences. On the other hand, the majority

of the pre-service teachers grouping themselves based on ethnicity (minority and majority)

shows that multiculturalism can indeed serve as a precondition for interculturalism.

4. Research Limitations and Recommendations

This study lacks randomization in the selection of the participants during the course

implementation. Non-randomization of participants is usually criticized and in this study’s

case, non-randomization was due to access. The university where the course was implemented

allowed the conduct of the study. However, the course supervisors had to be approached to

request for permission to invite their students to participate in the research. Random sampling

is almost impossible for studies like this because it is difficult to request for participation

98

considering the amount of time participants have to spend for the research. It is also not ethical

to demand participation just to meet the random sampling requirement. The course supervisors

who gave their consent gave their class lists and from the list, we had to select participants

based on ethnicity and gender to ensure a heterogeneous sample. This was important to

consider since we aimed to examine these variables, whether they influence the increase in MS.

In relation to this limitation is that we did not have a control group. Since we needed a

heterogeneous sample, getting more participants was quite challenging because the number of

ethnic minorities and males in teacher education is quite limited. We did not want to overwhelm

the sample with the ethnic majority and females.

Another limitation is that we used a sample of pre-service teachers from one university.

While this sample may have common characteristics with the general pre-service teacher

population in Mindanao, it is possible that the generalizability of the results is limited. In future

studies, it is recommended to increase the course's accessibility to reach a wider audience and

make more generalizable results. When doing so, it is also important to train course facilitators

to handle the implementation.

While randomized control experiments are considered as the “gold standard” of causal

research designs, quasi-experimental is used when it is not logistically feasible to conduct a

randomized, controlled trial. As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the generalizability of

the results is limited. Because of the limitations of this design, individuals who plan to use this

type of design should consider adding elements to improve the design. Shadish, Cook, and

Campbell (2002) recommended the use of a double pre-test to reduce maturation and regression

threats and using a non-equivalent dependent variable to reduce threats of internal validity. In

future studies, an ethnographic and contextualized account of the participants can also be

considered since it will help us record and uncover unexpected issues, relevant experiences,

attitudes, and emotions. However, when doing such, the number of the sample have to be

reduced in order to do it effectively.

The Hawthorne Effect is also a limitation that we identified in this study. It is possible

that the behavior of the study sample has changed because they are aware that they are

participating in a research and are being closely monitored. Some may have been overzealous,

and it may have affected the validity of our results. However, in studies like this, it is ethical

that participants are made aware of their participation and asked to sign an informed consent.

Related to this concern is social desirability bias. This bias may be because the study involves

socially sensitive issues. While the participants answered the MS online, there is a possibility

99

that the respondents may have given socially acceptable answers instead of those that truly

reflect what they think or how they feel. As recommended by Grimm (2011), studies like this

may incorporate a social desirability scale.

In this study, we utilized the pre- and post-test data to examine the increase in MS. The

MS course's long-term impact cannot be accurately measured; thus, we are not aware whether

the same level of MS is maintained over time. In future research, a deeper look into the change

in MS and the effect of the online MS course can be done by gathering data from the course

completers at equally spaced time after finishing the course.

The course scores of the pre-service teachers were not included in the analysis. This

was to avoid having biased results because the researcher was the course facilitator and was

the one rating the reflections and group outputs. In future studies, it is recommended to include

the course scores in the analysis, but an independent rater should rate the outputs. With this,

the relationship between course scores, course engagement, and MS can be analyzed.

In the Philippines, especially in Mindanao, it is important that pre-service teacher

training places importance on developing MS. The course that we developed can be integrated

into a teacher education course. The pre-service teachers would be more committed to work on

the course if it is made a required component. Also, the university’s management needs to

support this undertaking because it can also affect the success of the implementation.

5. Conclusion

This research has shown that it is possible to increase pre-service teachers’ MS through

a TLT-based online course. While the available version of the course needs some improvement,

this study has shed light on how MS can be increased. This study points out the importance of

developing an intervention that is specially developed for the target population.

The MS scale and online MS course developed in this study are helpful for teacher

education. These can be used to determine how pre-service teacher education can be improved

in terms of teaching in culturally diverse classrooms. Additionally, research on the preparation

of teachers to work in multicultural settings is rare in the Philippines. Thus, this study helps in

starting to build empirical grounding on multicultural teacher education in the Philippines.

While there is no simple solution to address cultural diversity issues in society, we

consider this study a response to cultural diversity – an everyday reality we have to deal

with. Teacher education needs to take action, and equally important is that future teachers

should be willing to be transformed to better serve culturally diverse students.

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APPENDICES

141

Appendix A. Data from Questionnaire Responses, Interviews, and Focus Group

Discussions for the Development of the Multicultural Sensitivity Scale

Question 1: What is multicultural sensitivity?

Theme Frequency

1 Respects the differences / understands and knows

how to handle diversity

34

2 Sensitive towards others/ careful of one’s words

or actions

21

3 Awareness / knowledge on several cultures 16

4 Accepts others / exerts efforts to learn about the

culture of others

9

5 Not biased 7

Total 87

A total of 87 responses were tallied from 70 respondents. The reason of such is that

there were some respondents whose answers can be classified into more than one theme.

Below are some of the responses (verbatim).

● Respondent 2: It means being open to other culture aside from the ones you were used to or you belong with. It also means being not a bias to any other different cultures. It might also mean

getting to know the other cultures aside from yours.

● Respondent 8: It is understanding the diversity of people's beliefs, culture and traditions around them. It is being able to respect one another.

● Respondent 20: Multicultural sensitivity for me is understanding the diversity of people’s beliefs,

values, cultures and traditions around them. It is being able to respect one another.

● Respondent 42: The way a person becomes sensitive in different aspects of cultures, beliefs of every individual that he/she encounters. He pays respect in every person he might meet. He has gained

knowledge on how to get along and the things that he has to do based on the culture that he knew.

● Respondent 45: The ability of a person to be sensitive and careful to the different people around him that have different cultures and traditions. It is a valuable attitude that reflects the kind of respect

and understanding towards a fellow human.

2. What are the traits of people who are multiculturally sensitive and those who are not?

Multiculturally Sensitive

Trait Frequency

1 Objective (Shows good judgement) 36

2 Respectful (Behaving in such a way that shows

concern or care)

27

3 Tactful (Showing regard for the feelings others) 27

4 Fair (Does not discriminate or is not biased) 26

5 Understanding (Sympathizes with the feelings of

others)

20

6 Flexible (Can easily adapt to different

circumstances)

7

Total 147

142

Not Multiculturally Sensitive

Trait Frequency

1 Prejudiced (Possessing unfavorable feeling of

dislike or opinion even without reason)

21

2 Judgmental (Displaying an attitude of judging

others too quickly and critically)

19

3 Insensitive (Not having any concern towards the

feelings of others)

16

4 Disrespectful (Showing lack of respect of putting

others down)

14

5 Self-centered (Solely concerned on one’s own

interest and does not care about others)

7

6 Indifferent (Does not show concern of sympathy) 5

Total 82

3. Why are some people not multiculturally sensitive?

Reasons for Not Being

Multiculturally Sensitive

Frequency Sample Responses (Verbatim)

1 Insensitivity / does not

care

18 Respondent 7: They are not sensitive

enough to consider the beliefs of others

and they haven’t been oriented of what is

the meaning of multicultural sensitive.

2 Over generalizes some

instances or events

15 Respondent 24: People are not

multiculturally sensitive because they may

be overgeneralized things, like if one person of the other religion committed a

big mistake, they often generalize that

other people from that religion also

commit a big mistake like killing the people from other religion.

3 Ignorance (because of lack

of exposure or experience)

10 Respondent 29: Do not know the different

cultures or having knowledge of the practices and beliefs behind these

cultures.

4 Upbringing or influence of

parents/guardians or immediate environment

such as community,

school, or peers

7 Respondent 34: Because of the

environment they had and where they grew up that cause them to be close-

minded.

5 Experienced discrimination

4 Respondent 12: People are not multiculturally sensitive nowadays

because of many reasons. maybe that

person who is not multiculturally sensitive experienced a not so good experience,

let’s say in the issue of gays, a person will

loath gays and will stereotype that all gays possess this or that certain

characteristic.

143

6 Has difficulty adjusting

with the culture of others

3 Respondent 10: They are accustomed to

their own culture and cannot cope up with

other cultures.

7 Thinks that their culture or

values are more superior than others and that only

those that they are used to

or believe in is right.

3 Respondent 3: I think its because that they

have lived a life, living with their values

and beliefs, that they thought that the

values that is not the same with theirs is

wrong..and so they won't accept it..

8 Does not exert effort to

understand the culture of

others

2 Respondent 51: Maybe because they’re

just not allowing themselves to be open

and to understand other cultures.

9 Influence of the media 1 Respondent 36: The effect of media and

other judgmental people affects people to

be not multiculturally sensitive.

10 Does not want unity 1 Respondent 28: They don’t want to be

united with everybody to have peace.

Total 65

4. What experiences do you have on exclusion or discrimination?

Experiences on

Exclusion

Frequency Sample Responses (Verbatim)

1 One’s religion, tribe or

culture is being ridiculed

8 Respondent 30: They said Catholics

don’t value God and only go to

church during birthdays, deaths and

weddings.

Respondent 31: I have classmates

that have argued on who is the true

God, and the Muslim one insisted that

Jesus is just a prophet and Allah is

the true God.

2 Bullied because of one’s

religion, or cultural

background

6 Respondent 5: I experienced being

laughed at because I come from an

ethnic minority group and others

think that we are ignorant.

3 Stereotyped 5 Respondent 22: Our teacher thinks

that only Christians are good in

academics and they are surprised that

Maranaos can also excel in different

subjects.

4 Was refused to join a

group because one is

from the opposite gender

or has a different religion

or has a different cultural

background

3 Respondent 27: Some are within the

group by their religion or gender.

5 Receiving unfair

treatment or bias

3 Respondent 10: I experienced unfair

treatment for being different from the

majority.

144

6 Prejudiced 3 Respondent 26: As a Muslim, I feel

first being judged but when I started

to talk to non-Muslims, explain and

answer their questions about my

belief, they started to have a good

relationship to me and respect what I

believe.

7 A certain religion or

ethnicity is highlighted

while those of the others

are not

2 Respondent 23. Some teachers also

gave examples on discussion related

to religion solely on Catholic beliefs

and practices.

Total 30

145

Appendix B. Data from Interviews and Focus Group Discussions for the Development

of the Online Course

FGDs with pre-service teachers Interviews

Minority Group n = 10 Majority Group n = 6 Teacher Educators n = 5

1. How does one exhibit MS? (Responses are from pre-service teachers)

Responses Frequency

Being with people who have a different cultural background 4

Being open-minded 3

Being fair and just 2

Being flexible / learning to adopt easily 2

Avoiding prejudice 2

Avoid stereotyping 1

Being understanding 1

Avoiding favoritism / bias 1

Asking people from other ethnic groups to talk about their culture 1

Learning/researching about the culture of others 1

2. Is it easy to be multiculturally sensitive? (Responses are from pre-service teachers)

All pre-service teachers answered NO.

3. Would you prefer to teach in a classroom wherein majority of the students have a

similar cultural or ethnic background from yours? (Responses are from pre-service

teachers)

Minority Group – prefer teaching in a classroom dominated by students coming from

a similar ethnic background

Majority Group – okay for them to teach in a diverse classroom

146

4. Can you say that the pre-service teacher preparation in terms of MS is sufficient or not

sufficient? (Responses are from pre-service teachers and teacher educators)

Responses Frequency

Not sufficient 8

There should be more exposure to other cultures 3

Sufficient but needs improvement 1

Sufficient 1

There is a need to teach pre-service teachers how to deal with

discrimination and about equality

1

There is a need for more immersion 1

5. Do you think it is important to develop pre-service teachers’ MS? (Responses are from

teacher educators)

All teacher educators consider it important.

6. How can you help develop MS among pre-service teachers? (Responses are from teacher

educators) Develop or improve pre-service teachers’ knowledge on the culture of others – 3

Through immersion – 2 7. The MS Scale developed was explained to the pre-service teachers and the teacher educators. They were asked what topics they think should be tackled or discussed in order to address the factors of the scale.

MS Factors and Topics

Frequency

Ethnocentrism

About the different ethnic groups (beliefs, practices, etc.) 9

History of Mindanao 1

Intercultural Effort

History of Mindanao and Philippines, about Mindanao 3

147

Effective communication 2

Other religions and ethnic groups 2

How to deal with sensitive topics that will not offend other cultures 1

How to reduce prejudice 1

Different languages 1

Community visitation 1

Intercultural Stress

How to deal with people having a different culture or ethnic background 7

How to reduce prejudices 1

Overcoming negative experiences, such as discrimination 1

Exhibiting Multiculturalism

About different cultures and practices (esp. in Mindanao) 3

Recognizing diversity 1

Fostering acceptance 1

Differentiated instruction 1

Methods and strategies in showcasing one’s culture 1

Monocultural Orientation

Topics on sociology (about Philippine society) 1

Understanding ethnolinguistic differences 1

Language patterns to help deal with diverse learners 1

Mother tongue - based multilingual education (MTBMLE) 1

Learning in line with cultural heritage 1

Cultural orientation (different cultural practices/rituals) 1

148

Appendix C. Data from the Interviews After Online Course Implementation

Selected - 9, Volunteers - 5

Minority Group – 5, Majority Group - 9

1. How was your experience when you took the online course?

Response Frequency

Felt it was an added task on top of our required schoolwork 6

It was okay, a nice experience 4

Interesting to learn through an online course 3

Liked the completion tracking 2

Felt pressed with time, crammed 2

Found group activities problematic (do not know

groupmates, getting to choose who to work with was

better)

2

Motivated by the incentive 2

Realized the importance of being prepared to teach in a

culturally diverse classroom

1

Found it difficult at the start, thus the How To Section and

Intro Video were useful

1

Content is interesting that you do not notice time passing

by

1

Content is interesting that you do not notice time passing

by

1

2. What is the importance of the course?

Responses Frequency

Highlights the need to respect others, even those with

cultures different from yours

6

Emphasizes the need to learn to accept and embrace

cultural differences

5

Informative, speaks about the context of Mindanao 5

149

Prepares PSTs for cultural diversity in the classroom

(being fair; avoiding bias, prejudice)

2

Can help increase awareness in cultural diversity 1

Makes one realize how to deal with cultural others thus

would result to unity

1

3. What part of the course has a great impact on you? Why?

Responses Frequency

Doll test video (made me realize that children should be taught about

diversity, how to treat people different from them, stresses the influence

of environment on the mindset of children, applicable in our country

wherein usually light-skinned are considered good and beautiful while

dark-skinned are the opposite

4

Badjao video (though I used to not like them but I felt so bad of what I

saw and realize that what the woman said in the video was true that they

are humans just like us and thus should be treated the same)

3

Social experiment video in Module 3 2

Reflections (made me think deeply, express my understanding) 2

Tri-people of Mindanao 1

Embracing cultural differences 1

History of the Philippines 1

Group activity about “Crayons” because it made me appreciate the

beauty of diversity

1

Videos (in general, were striking and served as an eye-opener of issues

our society face and sometimes ignore to face)

1

Module 3 (was striking because it shows that discrimination is a reality;

despite existing laws – it still happens)

1

150

4. In what way you could relate with the course?

Responses Frequency

What I saw in the course is also what I see in my environment or

context

10

Was able to relate because of my personal experience/s:

I am biased and prejudiced which I felt was “normal” but the course

struck me)

2

Was able to relate because of my personal experience/s:

I transferred to a school where students are not used to having a

classmate or schoolmate who is a Maranao or someone wearing hijab; I

felt they treated me differently and this must be because of the bad

things they heard about Maranaos

2

Was able to relate because of my personal experience/s:

There are times I get discriminated by members from my ethnic group

because I am always with or most of my friends are from the majority

group

1

Sentiment expressed:

As a minority I have experienced attitudes of bias and forms of

discrimination. But I do not get hurt anymore because I have gotten so

used to it already.

I know of some people having experienced discrimination or bias and I

am afraid that it might happen to me as well.

1

Sentiment expressed:

I know of some people having experienced discrimination or bias and I

am afraid that it might happen to me as well.

1

5. Which part of the course that you could not relate with?

All claimed that they were able to relate with the course. The progression of the topics

was also found to be well-thought.

6. Do you think you have changed? Why do you say so?

Responses Frequency

Yes, I experienced positive change 13

Perception towards others changed. I am trying to be more

understanding of the way cultural others are

7

151

Became more aware on the need to respect others despite differences

in culture

3

I realized that I have to be mindful when dealing with people from

other cultures since we might offend them with how we act or what

we say. Having knowledge about their culture is not enough but being

mindful in our dealings.

3

Realized I have to be more open-minded and accepting of cultural

differences

2

Not totally because I consider myself as multiculturally sensitive

before I took the course

1

7. Which among the activities do you like best?

Responses Frequency

Reflection Activities

Because….

I was able to express my thoughts and

opinions – 2

I was able to make meaning out of what I learned from the

course and how it is applicable to me – 5

I was comfortable with the fact that my output will not be

posted in public – 2

5

Forums 3

Group Activities

Because…

they were interesting – 1

it was an opportunity to collaborate – 2

2

Photo Essay

Because….

it shows that people can work together inspite of

diversity – 1

it was interesting to hear different

perspectives; various skills were showcased (writer,

artist, etc.) – 1

2

152

Poster Activity 2

Reflection #5 1

Reflection about discrimination 1

Polls 1

8. Are the group activities important or not? Why do you say so?

Responses Frequency

The group activities are important 14

Because….

it is a chance to listen to the perspectives of

others

it is an opportunity to share realizations

it is an opportunity to work with people, but I

prefer to work with those that I know so I will

be more open and not inhibited to share my

thoughts

5

4

1

9. Is the course important or not important for pre-service teachers? Why do you say

so?

Responses Frequency

It is important 14

Because…

it helps prepares PSTs for diverse classrooms or

how to deal with diverse students

it opens our eyes about diversity and the need to

understand cultural differences

it highlights the importance of MS not only in the

classroom but also in the society

it helps eliminate ethnocentrism

it will work for both ethnic minority and ethnic

majority, they should take it

9

4

1

1

1

153

10. Do you think it is meaningful to include it in the curriculum?

All said yes and recommend to make it a required course for pre-service teachers. To

facilitate the conduct of group activities, majority recommended to make the individual

activities online and the group activities face-to-face.

Additional Responses: One mentioned that she experienced their teacher ignoring her

and her classmate who was also wearing a hijab. There were also two who experienced being

judged because they are Maranaos and were not wearing hijabs.

11. What is MS for you now that you have taken the course? How will you show your

MS?

Responses Frequency

Multicultural Sensitivity is…

understanding and accepting differences in culture

respecting cultural others

being careful on what to say or act so as not to offend

not being ethnocentric

treating everyone fairly, regardless of ethnicity

not being judgmental

6

5

5

3

2

1

I will show my MS by being…

open-minded

willing to change and learn to accept others who are different

from me

with people whose culture is different from mine

6

5

1

12. When you become a teacher, what activities will you create for your students in

order to develop their MS?

Responses Frequency

Sharing of cultures and beliefs (students themselves, invite resource persons,

share common words)

9

Make students work in heterogeneous groups 5

Explicitly teach MS 2

154

Involve parents 2

Examine own cultures and make them proud about it, where they come from 1

13. Was anything confusing/difficult in the course?

Responses Frequency

Group Activities (I had groupmates that I did not know, some are not

cooperating)

2

Quizzes (need to really study the content; time pressured) 1

Videos without sub-titles 1

Accessibility (issues with internet speed) 1

How to Section at the bottom, should be at the top 1

Module 5 (very new to me, must be because I am still on the first year of

teacher training)

1

Time management (had to do the course on top of my required courses or

school requirements)

1

14. What is your reaction on the group activities?

Responses Frequency

Thankful that regrouping was done and got to choose groupmates 5

It would have been easier if the design was individual activities are

online and the group activities are offline (common schedule is set

for everyone)

3

Difficult to meet at a common time online 3

Make people choose their groupmates, those they know 2

Difficult to connect with groupmates through the platform since they

are not always online

1

Groupmates were difficult to work with (attitude) 1

The activities enabled various skills to be utilized (writing, editing,

takings pics, etc.)

1

Became friends with groupmates 1

155

15. Do you have suggestions for the implementation of the online course?

Responses Frequency

Individual activities remain online and group activities should be

face-to-face with a common schedule set by the facilitator

7

Improve implementation strategy of group activities 2

Grouping by block or course 2

Extend time for timed quizzes 1

Cut some videos up to 7 or 8 minutes 1

Face-to-face orientation session and overview of modules 1

Make it a required course so that students will really work on it 1

Strict deadlines (set system to not accept late submissions) 1

Make materials downloadable 1

Students get individual notifications on their progress 1

Keep online for flexibility 1

Make offline so no problem with course access 1

16. Was there a part in the course that you felt offended?

All of the respondents answered “none” and as the respondents said it speaks of

reality, our context in Mindanao, Philippines. There were some who mentioned that seeing

the results of the poll was striking because you get to see how others think about a certain

issue.

156

Appendix D. Multicultural Sensitivity Scale (First Pilot)

Read each statement carefully and encircle the number that best describes you. Please

complete all items and respond with your first impression. Your responses will remain

confidential.

Very

untrue of

me

Untrue of

me

Somewhat

untrue of

me

Neutral

Somewhat

true of me

True of

me

Very true

of me

1 I am interested to learn about the

practices of other ethnic groups.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2 I prefer to be around people

coming from my ethnic group.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

3 I avoid making jokes that are derogatory to another ethnic

group.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

4 I think ethnic minority groups are

easily offended.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

5 I think ethnic minorities should

learn to adjust to the ways of the

majority.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

6 I think that the society gives too

much consideration to ethnic

minorities.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

7 I feel that people from my ethnic

group are easier to trust than

those coming from another ethnic

group.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8 I think ethnic minorities tend to

overreact in different situations.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

9 I do not like the thought of being around members of other ethnic

groups.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

10 I try to learn about culturally

appropriate ways of

communicating with other ethnic

groups.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

11 I exert effort in interacting with

people from another ethnic group.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

12 In conversations, I see to it that I

do not make people from other

ethnic groups feel out of place.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

13 I find dealing with ethnic

minorities a waste of time.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

157

14 I avoid using ethnic slurs.

(Examples: Moklo, Taga Tribu,

Taga Bukid, Nigro, etc.)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

15 I can easily associate with people

whose religious beliefs are

different from mine.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

16 I think that beliefs of people from

other religions are unreasonable.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

17 I get irritated when people from

other religions use their beliefs as

excuse for exemption.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

18 I think certain religious practices

should be given special

consideration.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

19 I believe that my culture is more

superior than those of others.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

20 I exert effort to learn about the

culture of others.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

21 I believe that learning about the

culture of others will improve my

dealings with them.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

22 I find it difficult to work well with

people whose cultural background

is different from mine.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

23 I respect how people from

different cultures behave.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

24 I find it stressful dealing with

people from other cultures.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

25 I find it difficult to appreciate the diversity in my community.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

26 I am comfortable dealing with

people who speak a different

dialect from mine.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

27 I think students should avoid

using their dialects in the

classroom.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

28 I believe that the use of home

language should be discouraged in

schools. (Examples: Cebuano,

Maranao, Hiligaynon, Surigaonon,

etc.)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

158

29 I prefer to teach students whose

culture is the same as mine.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

30 I am willing to teach in a

culturally diverse classroom.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

31 I will provide opportunities for

children to share cultural

differences.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

32 I will exert effort to make students

understand the customs of others.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

33 I will find ways to reduce

prejudice among students.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

34 I will exert effort to acknowledge

the cultural practices of my

students.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

35 I will make sure that the instructional materials I use will

show cultural diversity.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

36 I will ensure a culturally diverse

group composition during group

activities in class.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

37 I will provide equal opportunity

for my diverse students to attain

high achievement.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

38 I will make adjustments on my

teaching methods to be able to

meet the needs of a culturally

diverse student group.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

39 I expect that teaching about

cultural diversity will create

conflict in the classroom.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

40 I believe that all students should be made aware of cultural

diversity.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

41 I think schools should separate

students who are ethnic minorities

so as to avoid conflict.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

42 I think that students’ way of

dressing should be made to

conform to those of the majority.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

43 I believe that all students should

be required to attend catechism

classes regardless of religious

beliefs.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

159

44 I think it would be difficult

dealing with students’ parents

coming from an ethnic minority

group.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

45 I know I could easily work with a

superior whose cultural

background is different from

mine.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

160

Appendix E. Multicultural Sensitivity Scale (Second Pilot)

Read each statement carefully and encircle the number that best describes you. Please

complete all items and respond with your first impression. Your responses will remain

confidential.

Very

untrue

of me

Untrue

of me

Somewhat

untrue

of me

Neutral

Somewhat

true of me

True of

me

Very

true of

me

1 I am willing to teach in a culturally

diverse classroom. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 I try to learn about culturally appropriate ways of communicating

with other ethnic groups.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3 I think ethnic minorities should learn to

adjust to the ways of the majority. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4 I think ethnic minority groups are easily

offended. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 I think that the society gives too much

consideration to ethnic minorities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 I will make adjustments on my teaching

methods to be able to meet the needs of

a culturally diverse student group.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7 I feel that people from my ethnic group

are easier to trust than those coming

from another ethnic group.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 I will exert effort to acknowledge the

cultural practices of my students. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 I think ethnic minorities tend to

overreact in different situations. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10 I do not like the thought of being around members of other ethnic groups.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11 I will find ways to reduce prejudice

among students. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12 I exert effort in interacting with people

from another ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13 I find dealing with ethnic minorities a

waste of time. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

14 I exert effort to learn about the culture

of others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

161

15 I will ensure a culturally diverse group

composition during group activities in

class.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16 I believe that learning about the culture

of others will improve my dealings with

them.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

17 I find it difficult to work well with

people whose cultural background is

different from mine.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

18 I find it stressful dealing with people from other cultures.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19 I think schools should separate students

who are ethnic minorities so as to avoid

conflict.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20 I find it difficult to appreciate the

diversity in my community. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21 I think students should avoid using their

dialects in the classroom. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

22 I will provide opportunities for children

to share cultural differences. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

23 I believe that the use of home language

should be discouraged in schools.

(Examples: Cebuano, Maranao,

Hiligaynon, Surigaonon, etc.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

24 I prefer to teach students whose culture

is the same as mine. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

25 I think it would be difficult dealing with

students’ parents coming from an ethnic minority group.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

26 I expect that teaching about cultural

diversity will create conflict in the

classroom.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

27 I will exert effort to make students

understand the customs of others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

28 I will make sure that the instructional

materials I use will show cultural

diversity.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16

2

Appendix F. Desired Learning Outcomes and Instructional Activities for the Online Course

Needs Analysis

The Philippines is a country with broad linguistic and ethnic diversity. It is home to 110 indigenous communities and 183 languages are

spoken across the archipelagic country (United Nations Development Program, 2013; Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2016). The island group of

Mindanao, where this research is conducted, is one of the most diverse places within the Philippines. Mindanao is known for its tri-people: (1)

the Moros (i.e. muslims), (2) Lumads (i.e. indigenous people) and (3) the Christians (i.e. immigrants from Luzon and Visayas) . Mindanao’s

cultural tapestry makes it important for its inhabitants to recognize their diversity and respect their differences to enable peaceful coexistence.

It is important therefore for future teachers to be adequately prepared to teach in a multicultural classroom and for teacher preparation to foster

multicultural sensitivity during pre-service training.

The Philippine Professional Standards is composed of seven domains which teachers need to be effective and one of which is diversit y

of learners. The diversity of learners’ domain is composed of strands such as learners’ linguistic, cultural, socio-economic, and religious

backgrounds and learners from indigenous groups. In connection, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) released in 2017 the policies,

standards and guidelines (PSG) of the new teacher education. The PSG is anchored on the salient features of several relevant documents and

one of which is the PPST. However, looking into the PSG, it is difficult to tell how much exposure or training pre-service teachers receive on

multicultural education or managing culturally diverse students from the prescribed professional education and specialization courses. Thus,

having an online course that aims at increasing pre-service teachers’ multicultural sensitivity (MS) would be helpful.

An online course will be developed since it can reach a large number of audience, can be used anytime, anywhere, and can be less

threatening considering the intended topic can be quite sensitive to some. With the current teacher education curriculum in place, the online

course may serve as a supplementary material in one of the existing courses for the pre-service teachers or can be part of the activities in the

preparation of pre-service teachers prior to their deployment for practice teaching.

Currently, there is no online course or module that we are aware of that aims to increase pre-service teachers’ MS. A search online will

yield Cultural Sensitivity Training provided by Communicaid, Cultural Awareness Training by CATOnline, Culture and Cultural Competency

by Waitemata District Health Board, Indigenous Health and Cultural Competency e-Learning Series by Australasian College for Emergency

Medicine, and Clinical Cultural Competence by the Hospital for Sick Children which is affiliated with the University of Toronto. Some of the

previously mentioned trainings can be accessed for free while the others require a fee. The trainings are intended for the business and health

sector.

Focus-group discussions and interviews were conducted regarding the e-learning material that will be developed for pre-service teachers.

The first focus group was composed of 10 pre-service teachers with an ethnic minority background while the second group was composed of 6

pre-service teachers with an ethnic majority background. The interviews were conducted with five teacher educators. Participation in the focus-

group and interview was voluntary. Majority of the participants agree that pre-service teacher preparation in terms of multicultural sensitivity is

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left wanting especially being one is not easy. There were even some members in the ethnic minority group that claimed that they would prefer

to teach in a classroom dominated by students coming from a similar culture or ethnic group with theirs. In general, both the pre-service teachers

and teacher educators believe that pre-service teachers need to develop more understanding on the culture of others, learn how to be open-

minded, fair and flexible, avoid prejudice, bias, and discrimination. The in-service teachers also think that an online course to increase MS can

serve as a supplementary material in one of the required teacher education courses.

In relation to this, there is no available scale created in the Philippines could measure the MS of pre-service teachers. Availability of

such scale would have been used to examine the current issues and assess whether courses of multicultural education are effective in order to

further improve practices of multicultural teacher education. Thus, prior to the design of the online course, a Multicultural Sensitivity Scale for

Pre-Service Teachers was developed and validated. The scale was subjected to two pilot tests and results of the factor analysis suggested three

factors for personal beliefs (Ethnocentrism, Intercultural Effort, and Intercultural Stress) and two factors for professional beliefs (Exhibiting

Multiculturalism and Monocultural Orientation). Aside from available literature on multicultural education and diversity teaching, the factors

that came out will also serve as a guide in determining what topics to include in the online course.

Target Audience Analysis

The target users are pre-service teachers in Mindanao, Philippines. They are expected to be ICT literate since they have been trained on

the use of ICT-based resources as mandated for teacher education by the Commission on Higher Education. With such, schools and universities

are also expected to have computer laboratories with internet connectivity. Most schools also have WiFi internet access. However, there is no

available data on pre-service teachers’ computer ownership. However, looking at the results of the survey conducted by the Pew Research

Center, the Philippines has a 22% computer ownership (2015). This can be quite low, but there are a number of internet cafes where students

can use their computers with internet for a minimal fee. On the other hand, 61 million Filipinos access the internet using a mobile device (Camus,

2018).

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Goal, Learning Objectives, Instructional Strategies, and Assessment Tasks and Tools

Goal: To increase pre-service teachers’ multicultural sensitivity

General Objectives:

1. increase awareness on one’s self and the concept of identity

2. understand the broad Philippine cultural milieu in its historical and social perspective

3. relate with the socio-cultural context of Mindanao

4. examine cultural diversity in different contexts

5. understand multicultural sensitivity and its related concepts

6. examine one’s beliefs and attitudes towards people of other cultures

7. enhance relationships with people from various cultural groups

8. understand the conceptual repertoires of diversity and multicultural education

9. recognize the value of multicultural sensitivity in the teaching-learning process

Desired Learning Outcomes Topics Teaching and Learning Activities Learning Resources Assessment

*GO – General Objective

examine one’s identity (GO1)

explore connectedness with

others (GO1)

explain how identities are formed

(GO1)

MODULE 1.

DISCOVERING ONE’S

IDENTITY

Who am I?

The Shaping of One’s

Identity

(Adapted Activity) Students will fill out an

Identity Chart. In an online forum, they

will post their charts and share their

answers on the following questions:

What aspect of your identity are you

most proud of and why?

In what way does that aspect of your

identity influence your behavior?

Lesson on the shaping of one’s identity

1.Presentation on Identity

and Its Related Concepts

2. Video on Who am I? A

Philosophical Inquiry

3. Video on Personal

Identity

4. Reading on Aspects of

Identity and their Influence on Intentional Behavior

5. Reading on Essentialism

and Identity Politics

Post on the forum

Activating event – red text

Reflection – green text

Discourse – blue text

Lesson – black text

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identify what comproses one’s

identity (GO1)

discuss essentialist identities and

its implications (GO1)

identify issues that may arise

when identities are imposed

(GO1)

explain how one’s identity

influence one’s behavior and

decision-making (GO1)

Students will go through the identity charts

of their classmates and then answer the

reflection question: There are aspects in

your Identity Chart that are similar to the

others. What does this imply?

In their assigned chat groups, students will

discuss the question: How are we

connected? (UNESCO, 2017). Before

starting the discussion, they will go through each others’ post in the forum.

After their discussion, they are going to

create a chart that will illustrate their

connectedness. Their output will be posted

in Padlet.

Individual Reflection

Quiz

Chart

MODULE 2. LOOKING

INTO THE HISTORY AND

DIVERSITY OF THE

PHILIPPINES

Poll: “The Philippines would have been a

Muslim country if not for the intervention

of the Spaniards”. This statement makes

me feel:

a. happy b. sad c. I don’t care

(Results of the poll will be shown real

time)

1.Presentation on the

History of the Philippines

2. Presentation on the

Diversity of the Philippines

and Mindanao

3. Presentation on the Tri-

people of Mindanao

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distinguish historical conditions

that influenced the Filipino

cultural framework (GO2)

analyze the impact of

colonization to the Filipino

culture (GO2)

discuss the diversity of the

Philippines (GO2)

explain the tri-people concept in

Mindanao (GO3)

describe the tri-people of Mindanao (GO3)

analyze the ethnic relations of the

tri-people (GO3)

justify the need to improve

cultural understanding among the tri-people (GO3)

Philippine Culture in History

Diversity of the Philippines

The Filipino People

The Tri-people of

Mindanao

Moros, Indigenous

People, Christians

Ethnic Relations in Mindanao

Lesson on the history of the Philippines

Complete the statement: The impact of

colonization to the Filipino culture is…

After posting their answers, students are asked to go through the responses of their

classmates and then comment on one post

that they agree or disagree with and then

give their reasons for saying so.

Lesson on the diversity of the Philippines

Reflection Question: How do you interact

with the Moros / Lumads / Christians? Do

you find it easier to deal with people who

come from the same group as yours? Why?

Lesson on the ethnic relations in Mindanao

In their assigned group chats, students will

discuss: The conflict in Mindanao will

never be resolved unless the Moros,

Lumads, and Christians live away from

each other. After their discussion, the

group will write a three to five-sentence

position statement and post it in Padlet.

4. Video on the Bajau

Experience

5. Reading on The

Narrative of the Filipino

Nation

6. Video on the Spanish and

American Colonization 7. Video on Mindanao and

Its Tri-people

8. Video on Multicultural

Mindanao

Post on the forum

Comment on a

classmate’s post

Individual Reflection

Quiz

Position Statement

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describe the cultural diversity in

other countries countries (GO4)

compare how cultural diversity is

managed in different countries

(GO4)

analyze the similarities and

differences of cultural diversity

in the Philippines and in other

countries (GO4)

MODULE 3. CULTURAL

DIVERSITY IN

DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

Cultural Diversity in other Countries

A video about the Doll Test will be shown.

Lesson on the cultural diversity in different countries

Reflection Activity: Think about the

similarities and differences of cultural

diversity in the Philippines and in other

countries. Can you say that the situation of

being an ethnic minority in one country is

better than being in another?

The poem Crayons (Author Unknown) will

be posted: We should learn a lot from crayons;

Some are sharp,

Some are pretty,

Some are dull,

Some have weird names,

And are all different colors,

But they all have to live in the same box.

In their assigned group chats, students will

discuss the meaning of the poem and

answer the following questions: What if everyone in the world was exactly

the same? If all looked the same, talked the

same, shared the same views, practices,

and traditions, what kind of world would it

be? Do you think this would be a place

you’d want to live? Why or why not?

(Pennsylvania State University, 2004, p.

11). Group reflection will be posted in

Padlet.

1.Presentation on Cultural Diversity in Divverent

Contexts

2. Video on Racism in

Singapore

3. Video on EU Minorities

and Discrimination Survey

4. Video on Chinese

Students Fighting Racism

5. Video on Muslim Hate in

Australia – Social

Experiment

Individual Reflection

Quiz

Group Reflection

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elaborate the meaning of

multicultural sensitivity as an

important trait (GO5)

identify indicators of

multicultural sensitivity (GO5)

discuss the importance of

multicultural sensitivity (GO5)

examine one’s feelings and thoughts towards people from

other ethnic groups (GO6)

MODULE 4. MOVING

TOWARDS

MULTICULTURAL

SENSITIVITY

Multicultural Sensitivity

Pictures of people from different ethnic

groups will be shown. Students are then

asked to answer the following questions honestly:

Did you put labels on the persons that you

saw in the pictures?

On which social categories did you

categorize the persons you saw in the

pictures?

Do you have an unpleasant experience

with people coming from a similar group

as those in the pictures?

Answers will not be posted but students

will keep a copy of their answers.

Lesson on multicultural sensitivity

Based on their answers during the picture

activity, students will reflect on the following:

Why do you think you feel that way

towards a certain group?

Are your thoughts, feelings, and behavior towards those different groups of people

fair or unfair? Why?

1.Presentation on

Introduction on

Multicultural Sensitivity 2. Presentation on Concepts

Related to Multicultural

Sensitivity

3. Presentation on Effective

Communication and

Importance of Diversity

4. Video on Prejudice and

Discrimination

5. Video on Ethnocentrism

and Multicultural

Sensitivity

Individual Reflection

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differentiate stereotype,

prejudice, discrimination, and

ethnocentrism (GO5)

decide how to respond to

cultural differences and certain

cultural issues (GO7)

analyze how to minimize

ethnocentric mindset and

behavior (GO7)

identify ways how to to interact

with people from different

cultures (GO7)

discuss the importance of

diversity (GO7)

Stereotype, Prejudice,

Discrimination, and

Ethnocentrism

Importance of Cultural

Diversity

Lesson on stereotype,

prejudice, discrimination, and

ethnocentrism

Students are given this

scenario: Ongoing armed struggle in a neighboring town

brought evacuees in your city.

Since there are schoolchildren

affected, it was decided by the

city officials that they will be

accommodated in various

schools in the city. In a few

weeks, it was observed that

several incidents of

discrimination took place

among the students in your school. As student leaders, the

school administration asked for

your assistance in the said

matter. Your group was

requested to create and

distribute flyers or make

posters to be posted in the

school premises to help

alleviate the pressing problem.

Students will discuss the

scenario described above and

decide whether they will make

a flyer or a poster. Poster will

be posted in Padlet.

Quiz

Poster / Flyer

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identify the conceptual repertoirs of diversity (GO8)

analyze the instructional

consequences of the conceptual

reportoirs of diversity (GO8)

MODULE 5. MANAGING

STUDENT DIVERSITY

Conceptual Repertoires of Diversity (Milner, 2010)

Color-blindness

Cultural Conflict

Meritocracy

Deficit Conceptions

Expectations

Poll

1.The statement “I see all my

students as the same” is… a. fair b. not fair c.

cannot tell

2. Schools built exclusively for

certain ethnic groups should not

be allowed since students will

develop extremism.

a. agree b. disagree c.

cannot tell

(Results of the poll will be

shown real time)

Lesson on conceptual repertoires of diversity

Individual Reflection:

Would you like to teach a

culturally diverse student

group? Or do you have a

preference to teach in a school where majority of the students

have the same cultural

background as yours? Explain

your choice.

1. Presentation on the

Conceptual Repertoirs of Diversity

2. Presentation on Multicultural

Education and Philippine

Educational System’s Response

of Diversity

3. Video on Indigenous Peoples

Education

4. Video on Teacher’s

Multicultural Experiences

Reflection

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discuss multicultural education

(GO8)

differentiate the dimensions of

multicultural education (GO8)

distinguish strategies that are

useful when working with

culturally diverse student

groups (GO8)

analyze how to manage a

culturally diverse student group

(GO9)

realize the importance of improving students’

understanding and respect

towards others coming from a

different group or culture

(GO9)

identify programs and

initiatives that aims to make

Philippine education inclusive

and responsive to diversity

(GO9)

Multicultural Education

Definition& Dimensions

(Content Integration,

Knowledge Construction,

Prejudice Reduction, Equity

Pedagogy, and

Empowering School Culture and Social Structure)

Strategies for Working with

Culturally Diverse Student

Group

Philippine Educational

System’s Response to Diversity

Lesson on multicultural

education

In groups, students will create a photo essay that reflects the

theme "managing student

diversity". The photo essay

should develop a narrative that

paints a picture of the theme.

Output will be posted in Padlet.

Quiz

Photo Essay

Delivery Strategy

The delivery of the course will be online. The course will utilize the online learning environment of Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology,

Philippines. The MSU-IIT Online Learning Environment (MOLE) was launched in 2002, using Moodle, a course management system from an open source.

172

Appendix G. Online Course Rubric (For Experts) Items adopted / adapted from: California Community Colleges, 2016

Anstey & Gavan, 2018 University of Arkansas, 2012 Ternus, Palmer, & Faulk, 2007 Rogers & Van Haneghan, 2016

Unsatisfactory Sufficient Exemplary

Course Objectives

Clarity of Objectives Objectives do not

include demonstrable

learning outcomes.

Objectives include

demonstrable learning

outcomes.

Objectives are written

in language that is

student centered.

Alignment of Module

Objectives with

General Objectives

The modules’ learning

objectives describe

outcomes that are not

aligned with the general objectives.

The modules’ learning

objectives describe

outcomes that are

aligned with the general objectives.

All of the modules’

learning objectives

clearly describe

outcomes that are aligned with the

general objectives.

Measurable Behavioral Learning

Objectives

Learning objectives are not always

measurable,

behavioral, or

appropriate in number for the content and

time of the course.

Measurable behavioral learning objectives are

identified for the

course and some

learning objectives engage the learner in

activities of analysis

and synthesis.

Measurable behavioral learning objectives are

identified for the course

and the number is

appropriate for the content and time for the

course. A number of

learning objectives engage the learner in

activities of analysis,

synthesis, and evaluation.

Content Presentation

Course Navigation Navigation and content

flow cannot be easily determined.

Navigation and

content flow can easily be determined

by the user.

Clearly labeled tutorial

materials explain how to navigate the course

are included.

Unit-Level Chunking Content is not

presented in visibly distinct learning units

or modules.

Content is not divided into manageable

sections.

Content is presented in

visibly distinct learning units or

modules.

Content is presented in appropriate and

manageable sections.

Learning units or

modules are consistently structured

and sequenced

allowing students to better anticipate and

manage their workload.

Content is well

presented in appropriate and

manageable sections.

173

Student-Centered

Teaching

Content is presented

using only one modality.

A variety of

modalities such as text, audio, video,

images and/or

graphics are used to

create student-centered learning.

Technology is used to

emphasize student-centered learning

throughout the course.

Instructions Instructions for

working with course

content is incomplete, or non-existent.

Course design

included instructions

for learners to work with content in

meaningful ways (e.g.

instructing students to take notes during a

video, explaining the

purpose of an external resource).

Instructions are directly

embedded with the

content or activity.

Appearance In the course page and

in the course materials,

color scheme is minimal, images or

graphics are poorly

chosen and are of low quality.

In the course page and

in the course

materials, color scheme is acceptable,

images or graphics are

well chosen and are of good quality.

The appearance of the

course page and the

course materials are appealing and easy to

read, color choice is

appropriate and easy on the eyes, images and

graphics are well

chosen and are of

excellent quality.

Learning Resources Learning resources are

minimal.

Learning resources

and links exists and

are current / active.

Learning resources and

links are

comprehensive, clearly articulated, and current

/ active.

Course Design

Course Activities Relate with the

Learning Objectives

Only a few activities, readings, or projects

within the course are

related to the learning

objectives.

Activities, readings, or projects within the

course are related to

the learning

objectives.

Activities, readings, or projects within the

course are related to the

learning objectives and

are appropriate and manageable.

Instructional

Strategies

No instructional

strategies are used in the course.

Appropriate

instructional strategies are used.

Extensive and unique

instructional strategies are used to teach

knowledge and skills.

Individualized

Learning

There are no

individualized learning opportunities, such as

Individualized

learning opportunities, such as resources for

Numerous

individualized learning opportunities are

174

resources for advanced

learning.

advanced learning, are

provided.

provided throughout

the course.

Higher Order Thinking

The course does not engage learners in

higher order thinking.

In some parts of the course, the learners

engage in higher order

thinking.

Most part of the course clearly facilitates the

learners to engage in

higher order thinking.

Enhancement of

Tasks

The course acts as a

direct substitute with

no functional change

to engagement in the targeted learning

outcomes.

The course enables

functional

improvement to

engagement in the targeted learning

outcomes.

The course enhances

engagement in targeted

learning outcomes that

were once overly complex or

inconceivable through

other means.

Cognitive Presence Course design offers

limited cognitive

activities (e.g. no

exchange of ideas) for interaction treatments.

Course design offers

ample cognitive

activities such as

exploration, integration, and

resolution.

Course design offers

extensive cognitive

activities such as

exploration, integration, resolution,

and triggering events.

Interaction

Instructor-Initiated Contact

The plan for communication is

unclear or missing.

The instructor provides students with

his/her plan to engage

in regular effective contact using course

management system

communication tools

that includes expected time frames for

responses, discussion,

board posts, and feedback on

assignments and

assessments.

The instructor’s plan to engage in regular

effective contact

includes the use of a wide variety of

communication tools

that includes expected

time frames for responses, discussion,

board posts, and

feedback on assignments and

assessments.

Technology Support The instructor’s role for supporting course

technology is not

explained to the students.

The instructor’s role for supporting course

technology is

explained to students, and links to

technology support are

provided.

Links to technology support are provided

where needed

throughout the course.

Student Initiated Interaction

Students are not given opportunities to initiate

interaction.

Opportunities for student-initiated

interaction with other

students and the instructor are clearly

Student-initiated interaction contributes

to a student-centered

learning environment.

175

available and

encouraged.

Student-to-Student Interaction

Student-to-student interaction may be

present but is not a

required part of the course.

Student-to-student interaction that

reinforces course

content and learning outcomes is required

as part of the course.

Student-to-student collaboration is

designed to build

workplace skills such as teamwork,

cooperation,

negotiation, and

consensus-building.

Learning Community Communication

activities that help

build a sense of community among

learners are not

included.

The course includes

communication

activities that are designed to build a

sense of community

among learners.

The design and

facilitation of

communication activities are

responsive to the

variety of cultures and

communication styles in the learning

community.

Assessment

Authenticity There is little or no

evidence of

authenticity built into

assessments.

Assessment activities

lead to the

demonstration of

learning outcomes.

Assessments are

designed to mimic

authentic environments

to facilitate transfer.

Validity Students are evaluated

on performance

unrelated to the stated

objectives.

Assessments appear to

align with the

objectives.

Assessments match the

objectives and learners

are directed to the

appropriate objective(s) for each assessment.

Variety Assessment types are

limited to only one type of assessment

(either formative or

summative).

Both formative and

summative assessments are used.

Multiple types of

formative and summative assessments

are used (like research

project, objective test,

discussions, etc.)

176

Appendix H. Online Course Evaluation Scale (For Pre-service Teachers) Items adopted / adapted from: University of New South Wales, 2018

Items in red are researcher-made.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree Agree Strongly

Agree

Access and Navigation

1. The technical aspect of accessing the

course was easy to manage.

2. The online course was easy to navigate.

3. Access to the course materials is easy

and convenient.

Resources

1.The course materials are available in a

format that is compatible with different

systems and devices.

2. The course materials helped build my

understanding on the topics.

3. The course materials are easy to

understand.

Activities

1. The online activities encouraged me to

interact with other students and the

facilitator.

2. The online activities helped me share

my ideas.

3. The online activities made studying the

course interesting and engaging.

4. The workload for the online activities

was manageable.

5. The instructions for the different

activities are clear and easy to understand.

177

Self-Directed and Deep Learning

1. Examples from real-life situations were

used in the learning tasks and

assignments.

2. The course encouraged me to think

carefully about the topics and to form new

ideas and understanding.

3. I feel that I have developed a deep

understanding on the course topics.

4. The course has encouraged me to

manage my own learning.

5. This course helped me to develop

problem-solving skills that will be useful

for me professionally.

The best feature/s of the course is/are: The course could be improved by:

178

Appendix I. The Online Course

179

Photos by: Cille Bayron Photography

180

Image from: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/e2/74/f1/e274f1ecb37e460ce2491d87101410b6.jpg

181

Images from: https://www.mboamersfoort.nl/stage-in-het-buitenland-lopen/

bridgetmaitland.wordpress.com

182

Images from: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/03/20/national/japan-builds-on-philippine-students-

dreams/ (Upper left)

https://missionariesoftheassumption.org/projects/ (Lower left)

Cille Bayron Photography (Upper and lower right)

183

Appendix J. Sample Course Materials

Diversity of the Philippines and Mindanao slide image sources:

Crisanto Lodronio Muslim Dance from https://www.wikihow.com/Understand-Filipino-Culture (top)

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/125819383310903043/ (Lower left)

https://www.asisbiz.com/Philippines/Manila-Art-Scene.html (Middle)

http://www.bantayog.org/the-lumad-during-martial-law/ (Right)

Images from: https://steemit.com/philippines/@zam398/tri-people-of-mindanao-christians-lumads-and-muslims-

representing-diversity (Upper left)

Cille Bayron Photography and Allen Vic Illustrisimo (Middle and right side)

18

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Appendix K. Sample Activities and Students’ Outputs

18

4

18

5

18

6

187

Appendix L. Online Course Experience Questionnaire 1. Think about your experience when you took the online course. Check the statement/s that

is/are true to you.

☐ I questioned my attitude and behavior towards other ethnic groups.

☐I thought about changing the way I relate and deal with other ethnic groups.

☐I tried to act more positively towards other ethnic groups.

☐I became more careful on the way I deal with other ethnic groups.

☐I noticed that my groupmates also questioned their own beliefs and attitudes

towards other ethnic groups.

☐I do not identify with any of the statements above.

2. Since you took the online course, do you believe you have experienced a time when you

realized that your values, beliefs, or opinions changed positively?

☐ Yes ☐ No

3. What aspect of the online course influenced the change? Check all that apply.

☐ Polls

☐ Personal Reflections

☐ Group chats / group work

☐ Forums

☐ Lessons / course materials (slide presentations, videos, readings)

☐ Structure of the course

188

Appendix M. Multicultural Experiences Questionnaire For each row, check the box that is true to you.

1 I live in a culturally diverse neighborhood. Never For some time

Always

2 I have friends whose cultural / ethnic background is different from mine.

None 1-3 friends 4 or more friends

3 I have classmates whose ethnicity is different from mine.

Never Sometimes Always

4 I have teachers whose ethnicity is different from mine.

Never Sometimes Always

5 I interact with people whose culture / ethnicity is different from mine.

Never Sometimes Always

6 I travel to different regions in the Philippines. Never Sometimes Always

7 I travel out of the country. Never Sometimes Always

8 I watch / read / listen to news about other countries.

Never Sometimes Always

189

Appendix N. Intellectual Humility Scale (Krumrei-Mancuso, E.J. & Rouse, S.V., 2016)

Read each statement carefully put X in the box that corresponds with how much you agree with the statements. Please complete all items and respond with your first impression.Your responses will remain confidential.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

nor

Disagree

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1 My ideas are usually better

than other people’s ideas.

2 For the most part, others have

more to learn from me than I have to learn from them.

3 When I am really confident in a

belief, there is very little

chance that belief is wrong.

4 I’d rather rely on my own

knowledge about most topics

than turn to others for expertise.

5 On important topics, I am not

likely to be swayed by the

viewpoints of others.

6 I have at times changed

opinions that were important to

me, when someone showed me

I was wrong.

7 I am willing to change my

position on an important issue

in the face of good reasons.

8 I am open to revising my important beliefs in the face of

new information.

9 I am willing to change my opinions on the basis of

compelling reason.

10 I’m willing to change my mind

once it’s made up about an important topic.

11 I respect that there are ways of

making important decisions

190

that are different from the way

I make decisions.

12 Listening to perspectives of others seldom changes my

important opinions.

13 I welcome different ways of thinking about important

topics.

14 I can have great respect for

someone, even when we don’t see eye-to-eye on important

topics.

15 Even when I disagree with

others, I can recognize that they have sound points.

16 When someone disagrees with

ideas that are important to me, it feels as though I’m being

attacked.

17 When someone contradicts my

most important beliefs, it feels like a personal attack.

18 I tend to feel threatened when

others disagree with me on

topics that are close to my heart.

19 I can respect others, even if I

disagree with them in important ways.

20 I am willing to hear others out,

even if I disagree with them.

21 When someone disagrees with ideas that are important to me,

it makes me feel insignificant.

22 I feel small when others

disagree with me on topics that are close to my heart.