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Perceived Digital Game Realism:
A Quantitative Exploration of its Structure.
Wannes Ribbens
Centre for Media Culture and Communication Technology, K.U. Leuven
Parkstraat 45 bus 3603
B-3000 Leuven
Steven Malliet
Centre for Media, Policy and Culture, University of Antwerp
Media, Arts and Design Faculty, University College of Limburg
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Abstract
In this paper a quantitative exploration is presented of the concept of perceived digital game
realism, based upon the frameworks described by Malliet (2006) and Shapiro, Peña-Herborn, &
Hancock (2006). The concepts and categories outlined in both studies are complemented with an
additional literature study and subjected to an exploratory factor analysis. Principal axis factoring
was performed on items completed by 385 respondents whose ages ranged between 15 and 19
years. Seven factors of perceived game realism were identified: simulation, freedom of choice,
character involvement, perceptual pervasiveness, authenticity regarding subject matters,
authenticity regarding characters, and social realism. These findings are to a considerable extent
congruent with the theoretical framework.
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Perceived Digital Game Realism: A Quantitative exploration of its Structure
The relationship between the virtual worlds of digital games and the real world of everyday
life has attracted the attention of scholars for over two decades. The academic investigation of
digital games as cultural forms has produced results on subjects such as player-game
relationships (Hartmann & Vorderer, 2010; Klimmt, Schmid, Nosper, Hartmann, & Vorderer,
2006; Myers, 1984), virtual identification (Klimmt, Hefner, & Vorderer, 2009; Konijn, Bijvank,
& Bushman, 2007; Turkle, 1995; Williams, Consalvo, Caplan, & Yee, 2009), immersion
(Herrington, Reeves, & Oliver, 2007; McMahan, 2003; Murray, 1997) and agency (Frasca,
2001a; Laurel, 1993). Economists have been fascinated with the virtual economy that
characterizes MMORPG's such as World of Warcraft (Castranova, Williams, Huang, Shen,
Keegan, & Ratan, 2009), or with the possibilities for marketing or advertising these worlds offer
(Nelson, Heejo, & Yaros, 2004). From a political point of view, the impact of virtual decision-
making on real-life empowerment has been investigated and debated (Castranova, 2005; Cover,
2004; Frasca, 2001b; Laurel, 1993). Others have explained the attractions of electronic game
play in terms of mental processes wherein the player's personal identity is mapped to the
narrative or ludic reality created within a game (Grodal, 2000; Jansz, 2005).
Although many authors with backgrounds in different disciplines have empirically
investigated related constructs, the explicit study of digital game realism has mainly been
performed from a theoretical or qualitative perspective (Bell, 2003; Galloway, 2004; Juul, 2005).
As has recently been demonstrated there is a growing need for a more accurate understanding of
the subject in research that focuses on the psychological or social characteristics of electronic
game play from a quantitative point of view. Many content analyses of digital game play have
been performed, accounting for game realism as a function of the realism that is included in a
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game's graphics (Dietz, 1998; Provenzo, 1991; Smith, Lachlan, & Tamborini, 2003).
Experimental setups and survey designs have been used to investigate the difference between
realistic and unrealistic depictions of violence, and have operationalized this difference in terms
of the graphical qualities of the games that are debated (Anderson & Dill, 2000; Ivory &
Kalyanaraman, 2007). Others have pointed out that a larger framework is needed that extends
these notions to include rule-based and narratological aspects as well (Consalvo & Dutton, 2006;
Malliet, 2006). In research on digital game-based learning, these aspects have also been
forwarded as determinants of an effective gaming experience where learning outcomes such as
cognitive development are achieved (Nadolski, Hummel, van den Brink, Hoefakker, Slootmaker,
Kurvers, & Storm, 2008). Finally, a good understanding of social realism and perceptual realism
(McMahan, 2003) or of elements relating to the realism of puzzles and problems (Hung & Van
Eck, 2010) could help game developers in designing experiences that are meaningful, instructive
or engaging.
Literature Overview: Perceived Realism as a Multi-dimensional Construct
The investigation of perceived media realism does not focus on the ontological question
whether a media text is realistic, but on the socio-psychological question whether a media text is
perceived as realistic by its target audience. This is important because research suggests that user
perceptions can be better predictors of behavioral outcomes than the features of the medium
itself (Potter, Pashupati, Pekurny, Hoffman, & Davis, 2002). The construct of perceived realism
has received considerable attention from media scholars because the belief exists that it plays a
central role in the cultivation and social learning effects associated with heavy media use
(Busselle & Greenberg, 2000; Potter, 1988; Shapiro, Peña-Herborn, & Hancock, 2006).
Two published studies have been performed with respect to the dimensional structure of
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perceived game realism (Malliet, 2006; Shapiro, et al., 2006). Malliet (2006) identifies five
constituents of perceived game realism: factuality, authenticity, character involvement,
perceptual pervasiveness and digital games as a virtual experience. Shapiro et al. (2006) make
the distinction between four elements that are constitutive of the overall illusion of reality created
during digital game play: typicality, character types, character judgments and emotion. In this
section a theoretical typology of perceived game realism will be presented, based upon both
studies and an additional literature review. Six constituents will be debated: factuality,
authenticity, social realism, character involvement, perceptual pervasiveness, and simulational
realism.
Factuality
In television research ‘factuality’ has been considered a main constituent of perceived
realism for over two decades. Different authors have used different definitions and
operationalizations for this concept. Potter (1986; 1988), following Hawkins (1977), refers to the
construct as ‘magic window realism’: the belief that television provides a literal and unmediated
view upon the real world. Potter (1986; 1988) discerns another, related construct: that of
‘perceived utility’, which can be thought of as the degree to which consumers consider the
messages conveyed within a medium valuable and educational in real life. Another related
construct is that of ‘identity’: if one perceives a similarity between a fictional character and one
or more persons in real life, there is a considerable chance that one will label the representation
as true or realistic (Potter, 1988).
The common denominator in these different definitions of factuality is the literal
congruence between the diegetic world of the media screen and the real world of everyday life.
While most research on this aspect of media realism has been performed in the context of
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television research, a number of researchers have translated it to the domain of digital game
studies. Implicitly, in many investigations on the psychological effects of violent game play, the
theoretical argument has been formulated that the more a virtual act of violence resembles a real
act of violence, the more it is expected to instigate a social learning effect (Anderson, Gentile, &
Buckley, 2007; Cooper & Mackie, 1986). Explicitly, Malliet (2006) described 'factuality' as an
important contributor to a game's overall impression of reality. Especially in specific contexts
such as the army or sports, his respondents reported having a lot of confidence in the game
developers' ability to mimic the acts of a real-life sports activity or warfare situation. Shapiro et
al. (2006) point out that the detailed presentation of real-life locations and settings may
contribute to the impression of factual realism created in a digital game.
Authenticity
Although the idea of the media screen as a window upon reality constitutes one of the first
and most persistent conceptions of media realism, many authors have recognized the need to
study the subject from a larger perspective. Dorr (1983), for instance, points out that very often
the construction of a real life-like media environment is not a prime concern to the producers of
televised fiction. Similarly, Hawkins (1977) argues that the spectators of a television show
usually do not expect it to reflect daily life. Unrealistic as it might be on a factual level, a product
of media fiction is nevertheless attributed a degree of realism because it demonstrates similarities
with daily life. Such media texts are not referred to as real, but as probable, typical or plausible
under certain circumstances (Hall, 2003). Shapiro & Chock (2003a; 2004) make a distinction
between ‘the absolute perceived reality’ and ‘the relative perceived reality’ of a media text. The
first notion refers to the perceived statistical likelihood that a depicted event could happen in the
real world (and as such refers to the factual realism of a media text). The latter notion refers to a
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hypothetical sense of reality. With respect to digital game realism, the argument has been
forwarded that players are offered a highly personalized and subjective experience that is not
necessarily referred to as real, but rather as authentic (Bell, 2003). Shapiro et al. (2006) observe
that the addition of elements that are typical of everyday life enhances the illusion of reality
created in a digital game story. Malliet (2006) adds to this that the makers of a game may
succeed in expressing an emotionally convincing or poetic message. As a consequence, game
titles such as Baldur's Gate (1998) or Final Fantasy (1987) can be perceived as emotionally
realistic or authentic, even though the main action takes place in a fantasy setting.
Social Realism
In the definition provided by Galloway (2004) social realism deals with aspects of
authenticity: aspects that highlight a perceived similarity between a person's social life and the
actions or storylines that unfold in a digital game. Galloway (2004) defines realistic games as
“those games that reflect critically on the minutia of everyday life, replete as it is with struggle,
personal drama and injustice.” Galloway's definition corresponds closely to a number of notions
that have been forwarded in television research, including social expectations (Hawkins, 1977)
or social realism (Busselle & Greenberg, 2000; Wright, Houston, Reitz, & Piemyat, 1994). Other
authors have focused on the intrinsic social characteristics of online or LAN-based game play,
and have argued that in-game social relationships can be constructive of a game's overall reality
impression (Castranova, 2005).
Character Involvement
Several concepts have been used in order to explain the experience of acting out a character
in a digital game environment - most notably presence (Klimmt & Vorderer, 2003; Lee, 2004),
telepresence (Minsky, 1980), virtual presence (Sheridan, 1992), immersion (Murray, 1997),
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engagement (McMahan, 2003), and virtual introjection (Van Looy, 2005). A central issue within
each of these theories is the observation that games should be considered a lean-forward
medium, where the player is not only a spectator but also an active contributor to the actions that
take place (see Jansz, 2005). Calleja (2007) explains the experience of realness created in a game
in terms of an overall process where the player is simultaneously identifying with a character and
acting out this character. Konijn et al. (2007) found empirical support for the assertion that a
stronger identification with the main protagonist in a shooting game results in an enhanced sense
of player immersion and consequently, in a stronger effect on post-game aggression. Similarly, a
number of studies have demonstrated that the player's moral orientation towards the narrative has
an impact on the enjoyment derived from playing violent games (Klimmt et al, 2009; Hartmann
& Vorderer, 2010). Shapiro et al. (2006) distinguish three aspects that are relevant in the context
of perceived realism based upon character involvement: the presence/absence of personalised
player characters, the degree of moral judgment required, and the degree to which unexpected
emotions are encountered during game play.
Perceptual Pervasiveness
Graphical realism is probably the one characteristic of digital games that attracts the most
attention in public debate. Over the last couple of years, several video game titles have been
heavily criticized for offering increasingly realistic depictions of violent activity (Anderson &
Dill, 2000; Farrar, Krcmar, & Nowak, 2006; Carnagey, Anderson, & Bushman, 2007). In self-
regulating rating systems such as the Pan European Gaming Information (PEGI) system or the
American Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) system, graphical explicitness is used
as a main criterion for assigning labels to games. Graphical realism is also the aspect of digital
game realism that is most often highlighted in video game effect research. The logic behind this
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appears to be that, the greater the ability of a game to create a compelling, realistic experience,
the stronger the impact this game will have on the attitudes and behaviors of adolescent players
(Malliet, 2006). Malliet (2006), following Hall (2003), defines ‘perceptual pervasiveness’ as “the
degree to which a text creates a compelling visual illusion, independent of the degree to which
the content of the text may relate to real-world experience” (p. 637). This definition extends
beyond the strict notion of graphical realism and also accounts for the accurate representation of
real-life movement, facial expressions, locations and sounds. From this perspective the
audiovisual qualities of futuristic games such as Halo: Combat Evolved (2001) have been
described as overwhelming, and have been accounted for as realistic even though the locations
and characters do not resemble locations or characters that exist in real life (Malliet, 2006).
Simulational Realism
Digital game theory has emphasized the importance of studying the programmed rules of
games and the different types of behavior that are made possible within these rules (Eskelinen,
2001; Frasca, 2003; Juul, 2005). Games have been described as realistic because they consist of
real rules that players actually interact with (Juul, 2005). This type of game realism encompasses
a number of aspects, all relating to the notion that game play is a relevant experience in a
person's daily life, bearing equal importance to any other activity one might perform.
A first notion that has been given strong importance from this point of view is that of the
digital game as a laboratory experience (Frasca, 2003; Jansz, 2005). Players are given the
opportunity to safely experiment with the outcome of different types of behavior, without being
exposed to any real-life risks. As such, a game's degree of realism is often judged as a function of
the accuracy to which the programmed rules reflect the rules that govern daily life behavior
(Malliet, 2006). A second feature that characterizes the virtual experience offered in digital
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games is that of ‘freedom of choice’. Players of digital games enjoy a considerable degree of
freedom in the virtual world, and are given the opportunity to make choices. The more these
choices reflect the choices one encounters in daily life, the more a game is described as
simulationally realistic (Malliet, 2006). Thirdly, the argument has been made that, in a digital
environment, the user is offered the illusion of an unmediated experience (Bolter & Grusin,
1999). Especially with younger generations, who have grown up with digital media and who
have come to accept many digital applications as social artifacts, these applications are being
communicated with as if they are part of real life (Turkle, 2005). This is in line with studies
conducted at the Center for the study of Language and Information at Stanford University,
indicating that the interactions of people with technology are “fundamentally social and natural,
just like interactions in real life” (Nass & Reeves, 1996, p. 5). Similarly, the point has been raised
that virtual worlds should be considered hybrid places: virtual because they only exist in a digital
form, but at the same time real since they succeed in invoking recognizable structures of real
places (Dodge, 1999, p. 4). Finally, Shapiro et al. (2006) explain that the pace and complexity of
a game may impact the player's perceptions of realism. Highly complex games may require a
strong mental effort of the player in order to correctly judge the developers' intention to create a
realistic environment. In games of lower complexity the player will make a correct judgment of
the developers intentions more easily.
This Study: Methods
In order to explore a possible underlying structure of perceived game realism, several high
schools located in both rural and urban Flanders were contacted and administered a standardized
questionnaire. Respondents filled in the questionnaire in an assembly setting while being
monitored in order to avoid consultations between students. Flemish youngsters whose age
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ranged between 15 and 19 years were targeted, as studies indicate that a large majority of this
age group plays digital games (OIVO, 2010). According to Shapiro (2003b), the reality
judgments of these respondents are multi-dimensional and more strongly influenced by
conceptual and abstract elements, surpassing the mere physical characteristics of the medium.
In order to examine the internal consistency of the scales and to evaluate the intelligibility
of the items, a pre-test was conducted with 84 respondents.
Subsequently, a sample was drawn of 521 Flemish respondents. Principal axis factoring
with oblique rotation (direct oblimin) was performed on the items on which all participants had
answered. Thus, only respondents who had answered all relevant questions were included in the
analysis (N=385).1 Following Kline (1994) the sample size was considered adequate for
performing an exploratory factor analysis with this amount of variables. Since the use of
eigenvalues often results in substantial overfactoring or underfactoring, the decision was made to
use parallel analysis to determine the cut-off point. A visual inspection of the scree plot was used
to support this decision. Finally, following Field (2005) all items with factor loadings below .5
were deleted. In sum, the decisions made are in line with the methodology prescribed by
Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan (1999), Kline (1994) and Preacher & MacCallum
(2003).
Measurements
Because most scales concerning perceived media realism have been constructed in the context of
television research, a video game-specific instrument was developed. If possible, items
originating from television research, were adapted to fit in a electronic game context. In other
1 Listwise deletion was used as suggested by Field (2005). As such, an entire record is excluded from the analysis if a participant has missing data for one variable. Given that 1) 73,8% of the respondents filled in the entire questionnaire 2) 92.7% filled in more than 90% of the relevant questions and 3) non-respons on variables seems random, we believe this non-response rate is not problematic.
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cases new items needed to be constructed.
Factuality. The sub categories of ‘factuality’ were derived from Potter (1986, 1988)’s
concepts of ‘magic window realism’, ‘utility’ and ‘identity’, and modeled to fit in a digital game
context. Each sub category was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘totally not
agree’ to ‘totally agree’.
Social realism. A 5-point Likert scale measuring the concept of ‘social realism’ was based
on items used by Hawkins (1977) and Wright, et al. (1994) .
Authenticity. Theoretically, the construct of ‘authenticity’ was split up in the categories of
‘plausibility’, ‘absolute perceived realism’ and ‘relative perceived realism’. ‘Plausibility’ and
‘absolute perceived realism’ were measured using a 5-point Likert scale containing six items.
‘Relative perceived realism’ was operationalized by means of five items. All items in this
category were self-constructed, according to the theoretical purpose of this study.
Character involvement. At the time the investigation was performed no single scale
incorporated elements of physical presence, social presence and self-presence as operationalized
by Lee (2004). A new 5-point scale was constructed based on empirical studies found in general
literature on the construct of presence (e.g., Poels, de Kort, & IJsselsteijn, 2007).
Perceptual pervasiveness. Six items on a 5-point Likert scale were rated by respondents to
gather the required information for ‘perceptual pervasiveness’.
Simulational realism. A new 5-point Likert scale was formed with response categories
ranging from ‘totally not agree’ to ‘totally agree’. Each sub category discussed above was
operationalized by means of three or more items.
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Results
Pre-test
The mean age of the participants was 16.62 years. The division between different types of
education was as follows: 65% attended a General Secondary School, 35% attended a Technical
Secondary School.2 The division boys/girls was 60%/40%.
The pre-study was designed to test the internal consistency of the scales, and to verify
whether the participants understood every question. Seven items were removed because the
respondents indicated that they did not understand those questions very well. In general, most
scales proved to be one-dimensional. Nevertheless, some items were removed because they did
not load on the presumed factor. Each concept qualified for at least three items. Highest possible
reliability scores are shown in appendix A. The results suggest that the scales were constructed
with mixed success – a finding for which three explanations can be given. First, the possibility
exists that the items were not coherent, which means a threat to the validity of the scales. Second,
it is possible that the discerned constructs are incorrect and are not valid constituents of
perceived game realism. Third, a small and unrepresentative sample was used to examine issues
such as internal reliability and consistency. Given that the second possibility cannot be ruled out,
the decision was made to use the same questionnaire, with exception of the removed items
mentioned above.
Exploratory Factor Analysis
The final sample consisted of 385 Flemish high school students. The mean age of the
participants was 16.78 years, and the boys/girls ratio was 61.6% / 38.4%. A distortion concerning
gender exists, which can be attributed to the predominance of male orientated courses in
2 More information on the Flemish educational landscape can be found at
http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/publicaties/eDocs/pdf/120.pdf.
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Technical Secondary Schools. The division between the different types of education was as
follows: 43.7% attended a General Secondary School, 46.4% attended a Technical Secondary
School and 9.9% attended a Vocational Secondary School. Prior to performing the exploratory
factor analysis, the suitability of the data for factor analysis was assessed. Closer examination of
the correlation matrix exposed many coefficients above .3. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of
sampling adequacy is .893, exceeding the minimum recommended value of .6 (Kaiser, 1970).
Finally, the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (Bartlett, 1954) reached significance, supporting
factorability of the correlation matrix.
Principal axis factoring revealed 12 factors with eigenvalues larger than 1. The parallel
analysis, however, showed only seven factors with eigenvalues exceeding the corresponding
criterion values for a randomly generated data matrix of the same size (48 variables x 385
respondents). This, in combination with a closer visual inspection of the scree plot, suggested
retaining only seven factors. The seven-factor solution, included in appendix B, explained a total
of 49.93 % of the variance. The contribution of the different factors to the total variance is
reported in table 1.
Table 1
Initial eigenvalues and variance explained of the seven-factor solution
Factor Initial
Eigenvalues
% of Variance Cumulative %
Simulational realism 11,167 23,265 23,265
Freedom of choice 3,295 6,865 30,130
Character involvement 2,832 5,900 36,030
Perceptual pervasiveness 1,937 4,035 40,065
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Authenticity regarding subject
matters
1,719 3,581 43,646
Authenticity regarding characters 1,532 3,191 46,837
Social realism 1,486 3,095 49,931
The analysis of the seven-factor solution will be briefly discussed first. Subsequently, a
number of general findings will be reported.
The factor solution. The most important factor was comprised of six items from the
construct ‘simulational realism’. The subdivisions that were made within the category of
‘simulational realism’ thus partly collapse into one factor. Especially those items have been
retained that deal with the degree of realism associated with free exploration of the game world.
As such the factor corresponds closely to the idea of the digital game as a laboratory experience,
as forwarded by authors such as Frasca (1999, 2001b, 2004), Jansz (2005) and Turkle (1995).
Recent research has also suggested that the meaningfulness of the video game world can
contribute to an increased feeling of presence, thereby increasing the perceived realness of the
experience directly (Ribbens & Vanden Abeele, 2008; Witmer, Jerome, & Singer, 2005). In
summary, this factor refers to the need for creating a ‘credible simulation’ in order for a video
game to be judged realistic.
The second factor consisted of items used to operationalize the concept theoretically put
forward as ‘freedom of choice’. When important decisions are left to the player, a feeling of co-
authorship might arise (Kücklich, 2003) invoking a higher sense of realism. Hence, being able
‘to do whatever you want’ increases the overall sense of realism created within a digital game.
This coincides with the findings of Malliet (2006).
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The third factor corresponds with the theoretical concept of ‘character involvement’. The
items retained especially contain references to ‘physical presence’, ‘social presence’ and ‘self
presence’. According to this factor, for a game to be labeled realistic players should have the
impression that they are part of the game – an impression Bolter and Grusin (1999, p. 31) refer to
as ‘immediacy’. This sensation is increased when players strongly believe that the characters in a
digital game are actual persons. Because of the high congruence between the predefined concept
of ‘character involvement’, the term ‘character involvement’ is used to describe this factor.
A fourth factor of perceived game realism consisted of items referring to the graphical
qualities of computer games. These items all stress the importance of compelling graphics as
contributors to an overall reality impression. Players do not necessarily judge a game’s
representational accuracy, but rather the sensory intensity and impressiveness of the experience
(Hall, 2003; Busselle & Greenberg, 2000). As explicated in the theoretical framework,
‘perceptual pervasiveness’ is situated mainly on a representational level.
Factors five and six made it necessary to rethink the theoretical conceptualization of
‘authenticity’ in terms of three sub concepts: ‘plausibility’, ‘absolute perceived realism’ and
‘relative perceived realism’. The fifth factor consisted of items referring to a credible
presentation of subject matters, which relates to the notion of ‘absolute perceived realism’. This
factor supports the idea that players make a statistical judgment of the subject matters dealt with
in order to ascribe a degree of realism to a game. Interestingly, this statistical judgment is
restricted to subject matters only. This may indicate that players do not make an overall judgment
of the credibility of a digital game, but make a judgment of different elements separately. This
idea is further supported by the structure of the sixth factor.
The sixth factor joins up with the fifth factor. Each item refers to the need for a credible
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depiction of the video game world. One aspect is emphasized in de majority of the items: the
design of characters that are real life-like. It should be noted that this factor mainly features items
relating to the characters of one specific game, namely The Sims (2000). While this finding can
partially be attributed to the phrasing of the questions, it is remarkable that more general items
referring to the authenticity of the characters were not used in the analysis because they did not
account for a solid factor solution.
Based upon the analysis of factors five and six, we argue that the distinction between the
sub categories ‘plausibility’, ‘absolute perceived realism’, and ‘relative perceived realism’ cannot
be maintained in the context of digital game research. The analysis provided two reasons for this.
First, ‘relative perceived realism’ items were not withheld in the final factor solution. Second, it
appears that players do not make a distinction between the plausible nature of characters and the
statistical likelihood of the occurrence of those characters. In the light of these results it is
questionable that the fifth factor, consisting only of items relating to a game’s ‘absolute
perceived realism’, was correctly interpreted. It seems more plausible that factor five and six are
similar, even though each have a focus on different aspects of the video game world. In sum,
‘authenticity’ is retained but is split up into two categories: ‘authenticity regarding subjects
matters’ and ‘authenticity regarding characters’.
The last factor generated by the factor analysis referred to digital game realism in terms of
a perceived congruence between the video game world and the real world. Games are considered
realistic if they deal with subjects, events and characters that bear similarities with real-life
subjects, events or persons. Implicitly, a connection can be observed between this factor and
Galloway (2004)’s operationalization of social realism. Digital games appear to invoke a
stronger sense of realism if they succeed in reflecting the personal situation of the player. In
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addition, research suggests that social realism can contribute to an increased feeling of ‘being
there’ and, as such, indirectly influence a realism judgment (Lombard & Ditton, 1997; Ribbens &
Vanden Abeele, 2008). Since all items refer to an analogy between the real world and the virtual
world the term ‘social realism’ is maintained.
General Remarks on the Factor Solution. To conclude the result section a number of
general findings are discussed. First, none of the presented constituents of the ‘factuality’
construct came forward as strong factors during the analyses. As such, corroboration was found
for the observation that, as opposed to television, electronic games do not necessarily offer a
magic window on reality.
Second, several factors bear a (strong) link with the ideas put forward in game theory. With
regard to the factor ‘simulation’, for instance, one can easily find traces to behavioral rules and
simulation-based game play (Frasca, 2001b). ‘Freedom of choice’ can be related to the notion of
paidea-oriented games (Frasca, 2001b) and to the active participation of the player (Eskelinen,
2001; Kücklich, 2003). In addition, most other factors can be interpreted both from a
representational and ludologist point of view. Our results therefore strongly suggest that
theoretical constructs emanating from traditional media research cannot be easily translated to
the domain of a new medium such as the digital game.
Third, a number of significant correlations are observed between the factors that were
identified. Three relationships are notably strong. The ‘simulation’ factor correlates strongly with
the ‘character involvement’ factor (r =.449). This should not be surprising, given the observation
that during game play one has to take up the role of the player before one is able to engage in
meaningful interactions. Second, the ‘simulation’ factor correlates with the factor ‘authenticity
regarding characters’ (r =.340). Intuitively, this association can again be easily understood
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because the act of stepping into a virtual character can be seen as a precondition to the act of
ascribing credibility to the other virtual characters. Third, a significant relationship exists
between the factors ‘authenticity of characters’ and ‘social realism’ (r =.349). In the theoretical
section the observation was made that both factors bear a number of obvious resemblances. In
line with the theoretical framework, the analysis supports the assertion that the concepts should
be treated as distinct, yet related.
Finally, the internal consistency of the factors generated by the EFA can be considered
reasonably good. Table 2 indicates that only in the case of ‘freedom of choice’, ‘authenticity
regarding subjects’ and ‘social realism’, alpha values fall below .70. These items can therefore
serve as a possible starting point for the construction of more valid scales. In turn this should be
beneficial for future quantitative explorations of perceived digital game realism.
Table 2
Internal reliability consistency of the factors of perceived game realism
Factor Highest possible reliability
α=
Number of
items
Simulation .8000 6
Freedom of choice .5865 2
Character involvement .8561 7
Perceptual pervasiveness .7657 3
Authenticity regarding subject
matters
.6341 2
Authenticity regarding characters .7368 4
Social realism .6339 3
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Conclusions
Although the study of media realism is not new, we believe that recent developments in
digital games research demand new and constant research efforts that further our understanding
of the boundary between the virtual and the real, especially as it is now widely held that games
have distinct characteristics compared to traditional media such as television. Several research
lines have directed their attention towards aspects of perceived game realism but little is known
about its dimensional structure. This stands in contrast with the literature on television realism or
on game-related concepts such as presence or involvement. With this research we have provided
a quantitative exploration of the constructs that constitute perceived game realism. In the first
section, a typology was developed based upon a literature review. Subsequently, this typology
was validated by means of an explorative factor analysis. To a large degree the typology holds
out and further support is provided for the view that perceived game realism is a complex,
multidimensional construct. Preconceived factors such as ‘perceptual pervasiveness’, ‘character
involvement’, ‘social realism’ and ‘authenticity’ have been fully or partially identified as
constituents of perceived game realism. A number of unexpected findings came forward as well.
Constructs that had only partly been accounted for, such as ‘the digital game as a laboratory
experience’ or ‘freedom of choice’ accounted for a large part of the explained variance. The
results of this study indicate that the rule-based characteristics of an electronic game count as
better contributors to its overall reality impression than its audiovisual characteristics. The three
most important factors that came forward in the analysis were 'simulational realism', 'freedom of
choice', and 'character involvement'. Graphical aspects such as 'perceptual pervasiveness' or
narrative aspects such as 'authenticity' accounted for a substantially smaller amount of the
explained variance.
21
Comparing these results with previous conceptualizations of realism, the biggest difference
lies in the absence of the ‘factuality’ factor. This finding should not be surprising, because
Malliet (2006) already pointed out that digital games are only rarely ascribed a general sense of
factual realism. Rather than that, very specific characteristics of specific (types of) games, such
as the modeling of armory in America's Army, are considered realistic under certain
circumstances.
Discussion
The abovementioned observations may help explain the relatively low amount of total
variance explained the analysis provided (only 50%, leaving 50% of the overall construct's
variance unexplained). First, because the majority of research regarding perceived media realism
has thus far been performed in the context of television research, many of the scales we used
were in fact adaptations of instruments that have been developed with respect to television
realism. As a result, a number of game-specific variables may have been under-represented in the
empirical part of this study. More specifically, we believe the construct of simulational realism
should be further explored, hence adding more weight to the rule-based characteristics of the
medium. The aspects of simulational realism have frequently been studied from a
cultural/philosophical point of view, but also bear a strong relevance in the empirical debate on
the social impact of digital gaming. This paper therefore makes a plea for a further quantitative
examination of the perceptions gamers have towards the characteristics of the environments that
constitute their favorite digital games. Second, the decision was made to study digital game
realism in general. As such, we did not take into account the fact that different respondents may
have different mental models of the concept “digital games” as a consequence of individual
experiences and tastes. The aggregation of these mental models in the analysis may have
22
produced a substantial amount of random variance affecting the total variance explained. In line
with digital game theory, we believe it can be fruitful to limit the scope of this type of research to
one specific genre or type of game content. Preliminary analysis of data from a revised survey on
perceived realism in Half Life 2 shows promising results with an increased total variance
explained (Ribbens & Malliet, in preparation).
Additionally, it would be interesting for future research to examine the relationships
between gaming preferences, personality variables and socio-demographic variables on the one
hand and the proposed dimensions of perceived game realism on the other hand. A clearer view
on these relationships, as well as on the moderating role perceived realism plays in the learning
effects that are associated with digital game play, will refine current research and might create a
more healthy atmosphere to discuss the societal impact of digital games. Especially the finding
that elements relating to the game rules and the processes of player involvement are stronger
constituents of perceived game realism than graphical or representational elements seems
important. While research on digital gaming effects has shown considerable interest in graphical
representations of violence-related aspects, the results of this study indicate that the observed
realism of digital games cannot be traced back to graphical realism only. While the factor of
'perceptual pervasiveness' significantly contributes to the overall explained variance, other
aspects appear at least equally relevant to include in the models that have been tested by means
of experimental research or content analysis. Following previous research on perceived game
realism, we support the claim that realism should not be considered a mere function of visual or
narrative aspects, but that ludic aspects should be investigated more intensively. The same
remark counts in the context of design-based research that focuses on the development of
educational virtual environments or engaging playing experiences in general. While within these
23
domains simulational aspects of the play experience have been accounted for more intensively
already, research on realism of the gaming experience is mainly oriented on the realism of
graphical elements or on digital game characters.
In conclusion, this paper attempts to make a first step towards a better empirical
understanding of the perceptions and expectations of adolescent players. Making this step
required performing a translational move, wherein the practical applicability of constructs such
as 'simulational realism', 'social realism', 'immersion' or 'digital involvement' was explored and
subjected to a formal test. Even though further research is required in order to develop a fully
functional framework for upcoming research, a number of strong and operational constructs
already came forward, bearing relevance to both researchers interested in the theoretical aspects,
and researchers interested in the socio-psychological mechanisms that are associated with
electronic game play.
24
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Appendix A: Highest Possible Cronbach’s Alphas of the Preconceived Constituents of
Perceived Video Game Realism (Pre-test)
(sub) dimension Highest possible alpha Number of
items
Factuality: magic window realism .5482 4
Factuality: utility .8116 4
Factuality: identity .5509 6
Social realism .5927 5
Authenticity: plausibility .8142 4
Authenticity: absolute perceived realism .7587 5
Authenticity: relative perceived realism .5193 4
Character involvement .8822 11
Perceptual pervasiveness .7537 3
Simulational realism: experimentation .7110 6
Simulational realism: freedom of choice .5561 3
Simulational realism: social artifacts .7012 3
Simulational realism: video games as
virtual experience
.6286 3
33
Appendix B: Structure Matrix of the Factor Analysis
NNumber Item Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Video games offer an
interesting world in which you
can discover aspects of your
identity. (Simulational realism:
experimentation)
,709
2 Video games are realistic
because they allow me to
discover how to handle certain
emotions. (Simulational
realism: experimentation)
,667
3 Video games are useful to learn
about the consequences of
certain actions in the real world.
(Simulational realism:
experimentation)
,658
34
Number Item Factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 Online Mud’s and MMORPG’s
such as World of Warcraft and
Second Life offer an
environment to discover aspects
of one’s identity. (Simulational
realism: experimentation)
,617
5 A computer cannot really be
considered a machine, because
it can reliably show the
consequences of actions in the
real world. (Simulational
realism: social artefacts)
,616
6 Video games are similar to real
life because in both learning
how to control a situation is a
central theme. (Simulational
realism: video games as a
virtual experience)
,504
35
Number Item Factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 Video games need to give a
large amount of freedom to the
player, because in real life you
have to make choices as well.
(Simulational realism: freedom
of Choice)
,627
8 It is the freedom of choice that
makes video games realistic.
(Simulational realism: freedom
of Choice)
,607
9 While playing a video game, I
have the feeling that I’m in the
middle of all the action.
(Character involvement)
-
,770
10 While playing a video game, I
leave reality and I feel wrapped
up by the video game.
(Character involvement)
-
,758
11 While playing a video game,
I’m the character on the screen.
(Character involvement)
-
,708
36
Number Item Factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 While playing a video game, I
have the feeling that I take up
the role of the character I play.
(Character involvement)
-
,706
13 While playing a video game, I
feel the emotions that the
character on the screen
experiences. (Character
involvement)
-
,590
14 While playing a video game, I
have the feeling that my
supporters and adversaries in
the video game are real people.
(Character involvement)
-
,586
15 While playing a video game, I
have the feeling that the objects
in the video game are real.
(Character involvement)
-
,586
37
Number Item Factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16 Strong graphical abilities are an
absolute condition to make a
video game resemble the real
world. (Perceptual
pervasiveness)
,828
17 The quality of the graphics is
very important to achieve
realism in a video game.
(Perceptual pervasiveness)
,744
18 The first thing that pops to mind
when asked about the realism in
video games, are the graphics.
(Perceptual pervasiveness)
,629
19 The subject matters in most
video games occur in real life.
(Authenticity: absolute
perceived realism)
,650
20 The subject matters used in
video games are credible.
(Authenticity: absolute
perceived realism)
,525
38
Number Item Factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21 The way people deal with each
other in simulation games such
as The Sims is the way people
handle each other in real life.
(Authenticity: absolute
perceived realism)
-
,786
22 A character from a simulation
game such as The Sims acts like
someone I know in real life.
-
,674
23 Characters from a simulation
game such as The Sims can
exist in real life. (Authenticity:
plausibility)
-
,654
24 The characters in video games
are typical for people in reality.
(Authenticity: absolute
perceived realism)
-
,514
25 The things that happen to
people in video games,
resemble the things that happen
to people in real life. (Social
,616
39
realism)
Number Item Factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
26 The things that happen in video
games resemble the things that
happen in real life. (Social
realism)
,599
27 The characters I see in video
games are similar to people in
real life. (Social realism)
,584
Note. KMI = .893; Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity = .000; All factor loadings below .5 were
deleted; Items with high cross loadings (<.200) were removed from the analysis.
