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SHOCK SAFE NEPAL Team One

A.O. de Stoppelaar A.J. Oosterhof B.C. Can Düzgün C.J. Spelt E.C.M. van Wijnbergen

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Supervisor CME coordinator Drs.ir. J.G. (Jules) Verlaan Academic board grading professor Prof.dr.ir. A.R.M. (Rogier) Wolfert

IDM coordinator Dr.ir. G.A. (Sander) van Nederveen BCC coordinator Ir. H.R. (Roel) Schipper internship coordinator Dr.ir. M.G.C. (Marian) Bosch-Rekveldt

November 2015 Delft University of Technology

An electronic version of this report is available at http://repository.tudelft.nl/.

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL Team One

A.O. de Stoppelaar A.J. Oosterhof B.C. Can Düzgün C.J. Spelt E.C.M. van Wijnbergen

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Preface In May 2015 Cas de Stoppelaar, the Consul General of Nepal to the Netherlands, pitched the problems in Nepal regarding earthquake engineering to the TU Delft. Jules Verlaan, the Master Program Director of Construction Management and Engineering (CME), and De Stoppelaar organized an initial kick-off meeting with interested parties. During this meeting people with various expertise’s and different backgrounds were invited; such as construction companies, TU Delft, and people with knowledge of Nepal and its business climate. In this meeting, where Baris Can Düzgün and Allard de Stoppelaar attended, the foundation was made to set up the students project ‘Shock Safe Nepal’. The student team was completed by including Arjan Oosterhof, Coen Spelt and Emilie van Wijnbergen. With the help of our supervisors, academic board and the Consul General our scope and purpose were defined. The project was set up under the Master course CIE4061-09 Multidisciplinary Project, in which an interfaculty team is required. The team consists of CME and

Building Engineering students, with four different bachelor backgrounds. The initial idea of Shock Safe Nepal is to create a knowledge platform by sending multiple student teams to Nepal, each team contributing to the platform. Team one’s mission is a reconnaissance mission, in which we explore the possibilities for future Shock Safe Nepal projects. We want it to be a platform for (low-tech and non-engineered) earthquake proof building solutions with a long term vision. 4 September 2015 we left the Netherlands to spend two months in Kathmandu, Nepal. Cas de Stoppelaar joined the first two weeks to help start up the project, and introduce us to interesting parties. This report consists of two reports: the first report is the basis for future teams, the second report goes more into depth on one of the research topics. We wish the following Shock Safe Nepal teams lots of success.

A.O. (Allard) de Stoppelaar A.J. (Arjan) Oosterhof

B.C. (Baris) Can Düzgün C.J. (Coen) Spelt

E.C.M. (Emilie) van Wijnbergen

Delft, November 2015

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Contents Preface ................................................................................................................................................................. iv Contents .............................................................................................................................................................. vi Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................... ix

Abstract report one ......................................................................................................................................... ix Abstract report two .......................................................................................................................................... x

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................. xi ............................................................................................................................................................................. 1 Report One ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Methodology ................................................................................................................................................... 4 3. The context of Nepal ....................................................................................................................................... 5

3.1. General introduction of Nepal ................................................................................................................. 5 3.2. Geographical characteristics .................................................................................................................... 6 3.3. Climate related ......................................................................................................................................... 8 3.4 Institutional historical of Nepal ................................................................................................................. 9 3.5 Politics ....................................................................................................................................................... 9 3.6 Nepalese Economy .................................................................................................................................. 10 3.7 Cross-cultural differences ....................................................................................................................... 11 3.8 Social aspects .......................................................................................................................................... 13 3.9 Ethnic aspects .......................................................................................................................................... 14 3.10 Important stakeholders ......................................................................................................................... 17 3.11 Construction market analysis ................................................................................................................ 21 3.12 Financial aspect of post-earthquake Nepal........................................................................................... 22 3.13 Overall damage in Nepal ....................................................................................................................... 23

4. Settlement typology classification ................................................................................................................ 25 Zone A: Urban core ................................................................................................................................... 26 Damage assessment ................................................................................................................................. 26 Zone B: Urban village ................................................................................................................................ 29 Damage assessment ................................................................................................................................. 29 Zone C: Urban historical settlements ....................................................................................................... 32 Zone D: Rural village ................................................................................................................................. 35 Damage assessment ................................................................................................................................. 35 Zone E: Remote village ............................................................................................................................. 38 Damage assessment: ................................................................................................................................ 38

5. Principles of earthquake resistant building ................................................................................................... 41 5.1 Global strength, stiffness, stability and ductility ..................................................................................... 42 5.2 Building configuration and mass distribution ......................................................................................... 42 5.3 Load path ................................................................................................................................................. 44 5.4 Building components .............................................................................................................................. 44

6. Building methods ........................................................................................................................................... 46 6.1. Commonly used building methods in earthquake affected area Nepal ................................................ 46 6.2 Reference building methods ................................................................................................................... 50 6.3 New building methods ............................................................................................................................ 53

7. Set of higher level requirements ................................................................................................................... 56 8. Discussion ...................................................................................................................................................... 58 9. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 59 10. Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................... 62

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11. Critical review of construction in Nepal ...................................................................................................... 63 RReport two: Ribbon development in rural areas 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 66 2. Methodology ................................................................................................................................................. 68 3. Elaboration on case village ............................................................................................................................ 69

3.1 Location .............................................................................................................................................. 69 3.2 Demography ....................................................................................................................................... 69 3.3 Function .............................................................................................................................................. 69 3.4 Built environment ............................................................................................................................... 69 3.6 Post-earthquake situation .................................................................................................................. 71

4. SWOT for case village .................................................................................................................................... 72 5. Solution space................................................................................................................................................ 73

5.1 Requirements...................................................................................................................................... 73 5.2 Scoring ................................................................................................................................................ 73 5.3 Minimum values ................................................................................................................................. 74 5.4 Filtering by solution space .................................................................................................................. 74 5.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 76

6. Multi criteria analysis .................................................................................................................................... 77 6.1 Theory on MCA ................................................................................................................................... 77 6.2 Objectives and purpose ...................................................................................................................... 77 6.3 Selection of building methods ............................................................................................................ 77 6.4 Scenarios ............................................................................................................................................. 79 6.5 Scaling ................................................................................................................................................. 80 6.6 Ranking ............................................................................................................................................... 80 6.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 82

7. Design ............................................................................................................................................................ 84 7.1 Challenges ............................................................................................................................................... 84 7.2 Potential solutions .................................................................................................................................. 90 7.3 Design proposal ....................................................................................................................................... 93 7.4 Organisational challenges ....................................................................................................................... 97

8. Discussion ...................................................................................................................................................... 99 9. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 101 10. Recommendations ..................................................................................................................................... 104 Bibliography Report One & Two ...................................................................................................................... 105

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AAppendix

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Abstract AAbstract report one As a response to the 2015 Nepal earthquakes Shock Safe Nepal was founded to function as platform intended to contribute to the development of knowledge on earthquake safe housing. The goal of report one is to serve as a base that can be used and expanded by future Shock Safe Nepal groups. Literature study, field work and interviews have been performed resulting in main findings and products serving as an exploratory introduction on the context of Nepal. The main findings regarding the context on Nepal’s national level are firstly the country’s dependency on India and China, the superpowers between which it is landlocked. Nepal is highly dependent on gas, petrol, electricity, and on monetary and physical foreign aid. Secondly, the diverse nature of Nepal is characterised by a huge variety of ethnicities, social classes, resources and materials ranging from the Himalayas (4 to 8.8 km’s altitude), the middle mountains and valleys (1.5 to 4 km’s) and the midlands to the Terai (0.06 to 1.5 km). Thirdly it’s complex fabrics of politics, society and levels of social interaction. Fourthly the diversity of the built environment with corresponding building methods, characteristics and key earthquake related issues. Based on a settlement typology classification five zones are distinguished: ‘Urban Core’, ‘Urban Villages’, ‘Urban Historical Settlements’, ‘Rural Villages’ and ‘Remote Villages’. Since more than a half million houses were destroyed during the quakes, a large task of rebuilding lies ahead. For this reason, an assessment is made of 19 possible building methods for rebuilding. These methods belong to one of three classes being, native or embedded, upcoming and potentially introducible. Field research was performed to make an overview of the earthquake related damage observed in the native building methods. Finally, the main principles on earthquake resistant building are collected and presented. Based on the contextual characteristics of Nepal (gathered through field research, literature review and interviews) a comprehensive set of higher

level requirements was set-up for rebuilding in Nepal. Within these requirements a distinction is made between fixed and variable aspects which are dependent on the settlement typological classification within which a building is intended to be built. The main findings regarding the challenge of rebuilding are that much of the knowledge on earthquake safe constructions is already present in Nepal. The Nepal National Building code is developed (and at the moment of writing being updated) by foreign and Nepali engineers and contains most of the knowledge. An important conclusion with respect to rebuilding is that there is not necessarily a lack of knowledge on seismic engineering (in other words: on how to rebuild) but are mainly related to the implementation: how to transfer this technical building knowledge to local masons and ensure good execution. Report one delivers three end products: An overview of relevant contextual information for rebuilding of Nepal and a critical review of the developments after the earthquakes. An extensive overview is given of a selection of native, upcoming and potential building methods, evaluated by means of a comprehensive set of requirements for rebuilding which were set-up in the research. On the basis of this exploratory research, recommendations are given for further research on earthquake safe housing (for successive Shock Safe Nepal groups), including an overview of relevant stakeholders to take into account. The complete first report will serve as a basis for all Shock Safe Nepal groups, a starting point for new research, which will contribute to a safe long-term housing solution. The recommendations for further research are supported by multiple SWOT-analysis throughout the report; provided insight regarding opportunities and threats. Concluding with a SWOT summary of all presented information relevant when rebuilding earthquake struck Nepal.

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AAbstract report two In report one, relevant information is documented to form a base and a framework is set-up to evaluate suitable methods for rebuilding. In report two a case study was chosen to implement this framework: settlement zone D, rural villages. Within the settlement typology of rural villages, a specific challenge is assessed namely, constructions on slopes in ribbon developed settlements. Although it is definitely not recommended to build on sloped ground (for multiple structural and seismic related reasons) but due to scarcity of flat building sites it seems unavoidable that a lot of people will continue to build on slopes anyway. The goal of this research is to test the framework and assess the preferred post-earthquake reconstruction methods bound by the requirement aspects which correspond to Ribbon Developments. The set of requirements is organised by means of the following main aspects: technical, resources, feasibility, social-cultural, functional and sustainability. First it is tested if the 19 potential building methods lie within the solution space (meaning: the satisfying the upper- and lower boundary conditions). Low strength stone and brick masonry, adobe, rammed earth, bamboo and earth bags building methods are excluded due to low scorings within the solution space. These methods were excluded due to insufficient performance on the following aspects: seismic performance, possibilities for expansion, accommodation for workplace, number of storeys possible, the amount and complexity of maintenance required or the lifespan. The remaining 13 building methods are ranked by a Multi Criteria Analysis and scenario analysis, resulting in a shortlist of suitable building methods for the rebuilding of the chosen case

study situation. The four scenario’s used are: baseline, no subsidy, subsidy, and full material availability. The shortlist of preferred building methods is: ‘Reinforced Cement Concrete’ frame structures, ‘Steel’ frame structures, ‘Confined Masonry’ and ‘Stone Cement Masonry’. From this shortlist the ‘Reinforced Cement Concrete’ building method is chosen for further elaboration. The research is concluded by presenting conceptual design ideas for the chosen building method (‘Reinforced Cement Concrete’) and laying the foundation for further complementary research by following Shock Safe Nepal groups. This conceptual design led to a number of findings related to the technical and functional demands such as the need for stabilization of the slope and the designing of a fitting foundation. An overview is made of the rebuilding challenges with respect to socio-economic/functional-, building-, natural hazard and structural challenges. Then, a design proposal is done with ideas on the levels of building organisation (building in blocks), lateral load resisting elements, and building appearance. A proposal is done for composite columns (fitted with H-beams) and shear walls to compensate for soft storeys. The coupling of building blocks can be used to create more bays, which provides more redundancy, greater resistance against lateral forces and possibilities to compensate for open storefronts. These proposals seem to address a lot of challenges, whereas they also create some new challenges. The organizational challenges corresponding to the proposed design are identified but left open for further research. The design chapter shows the potential of more elaborated research on a specific problem and acts as an invitation for future Shock Safe Nepal groups and their research.

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Acknowledgements We would like to thank a couple of organisations and people for guiding us in our project. Without this help we would not have been able to write these reports. First of all we would like to thank Cas de Stoppelaar for preparing us for our adventure and guiding us during our first weeks in Nepal. We thank Drs. ir. Jules Verlaan, Dr. ir. Roel Schippers, Prof. Dr. ir. Rogier Wolfert, Dr. ir. Sander van Nederveen, Dr. ir. Marian Bosch-Rekveldt for guidance and supervising at Delft University of Technology. We would like to thank Martijn Schildkamp, Ram Budhathoki, Fanindra Panta and others in preparing us in our research by sharing knowledge on Nepal and the Nepalese construction industry. Besides support from The Netherlands we also had the pleasure of receiving help from within Nepal. We would like to thank Padma Sunder Joshi and others from UN-Habitat, Siobhan Kennedy from Shelter Cluster, Surya Narayan and others from NSET, Anil Tuladhar, Kusma Thapa, and Anatta Shresthacharya. A special thanks goes out to Jolein Feteris and Jan-Kees van Mourik for providing us office space in the Drafting Factory. Last but not least we would like to thank DIMI, UfD-TBI, FIS fonds, Rotary Sliedrecht and our crowdfunders for their financial support.

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SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 1

“

Report One “Assessment of context on national level”

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1. Introduction The recent earthquakes (April 25th and May 12th of 2015) with magnitudes of 7.6 and 6.8 on the scale of Richter and the following aftershocks have left a trail of destruction across the built environment of Nepal. The earthquakes affected 31 of the country’s 75 districts, out of which 14 were diagnosed as ‘crisis hit’, as shown in figure 1.1. (National Planning Commission, 2015). Historic parts of the capital Kathmandu and villages in and around the Kathmandu valley are in ruins and many families are left homeless. According to the latest ‘Post Disaster Needs Assessment’ (N. P. C. Nepal, 2015b) there are 8,790 casualties and 22,300 injured. Numerous NGO’s and charity organisations have jumped to their aid and have built short term shelters for the earthquake victims. However a long term solution remains. The challenge of rebuilding Nepal in an earthquake proof manner has many possible solutions. While these solutions are possible in theory not all are feasible, realistic, practical, fitting or structurally earthquake safe. To be able to assess which solutions (designs) are fit for rebuilding in a certain types of village in Nepal,

research is needed.

Figure 1.1. Categories of earthquake affected districts (National Planning Commission, 2015). Shock Safe Nepal Vision and Mission After the 2015 Nepal earthquakes and the subsequent aftershocks the Shock Safe Nepal project was initiated with the idea of working

towards solutions and expanding practical knowledge regarding earthquake safe housing. Shock Safe Nepal is a continuous MSc student project set within a multidisciplinary (interfaculty) and international context. Shock Safe Nepal is envisioned to be multi phased with each phase being executed by a new team of TU Delft MSc students with their own specific focus, working towards a higher goal. The goal of the entire multiphase project is twofold and can be described as follows:

1. Shock Safe Nepal has envisioned itself to contribute to the knowledge and organization needed to reconstruct the +- 500,000 houses and retrofitting/repairing +- 250,000 houses, as determined in the PDNA (N. P. C. Nepal, 2015a). SSN wants to contribute to knowledge development on earthquake-proof building with respect to traditional and culturally accepted building methods, and realize a platform that future student groups can use to base their own Shock Safe Nepal research on.

2. Since the earthquake incidents in Groningen the TU Delft is focusing more on earthquake related research and education. Shock Safe Nepal creates the opportunity for a continuing TU Delft research project on earthquake-proof building, offers possibilities for cooperation with Nepali Universities and enables the TU Delft to become an international knowledge centre for earthquake engineering.

GGoal of Report One: Reconnaissance In order for future Shock Safe Nepal teams to be able to achieve the higher goals information is needed that serves as a foundation for following researches. This need for information forms a base for the first report of Shock Safe Nepal that should function as an introduction into rebuilding Nepal. Ideally each team should validate the variable elements of this report and should add any changes or new information that is lacking.

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2. Methodology Report one is intended to be the introduction for rebuilding Nepal, it is the foundation for future research containing an introduction on all issues and facts relevant to building in Nepal. This document will not be set up as a research but rather as an inventory of all relevant information or an extensive analysis of all present information.

This foundation is created by informing the reader about the context, relevant building methods, areal classification, earthquake damages, earthquake principles, characteristic challenges and by the creation of a framework for the assessment of building methods.

Firstly an assessment of the context will be made on national level focusing on the reconstruction of Nepal. This will be done by addressing several topics which are of importance when designing a housing project. The topics will be elaborated on by means of literature reviews, fieldwork, interviews, meetings and market research. To introduce the information a general introduction on Nepal and its institutional history will be given. To understand the physical housing demands the geographical and climatological characteristics will be looked into. Often construction is a sector which is heavily influenced by national governance, politics and the economy, making this information relevant in the process of reconstruction. When the boundaries of continents but also countries get crossed another aspect is of importance namely, the cross-cultural differences. These differences have large impacts on many aspects (e.g. social structures), these aspects and their consequences will be analyzed by use of the theory of (Hofstede). Obviously when the focuses is laid on construction an analysis is needed of the construction market and industry including the financial aspects. And concluding with an overview of important stakeholders that play a role when addressing the issue of reconstruction.

Secondly an initial selection of building methods needs to be made based on some higher-level requirements. The building methods that fall within the initial scope will partially be based on

the intended views of Shock Safe Nepal team 1. These building methods are categorized on their embeddedness and need to be elaborated based on comparable aspects by means of literature reviews and fieldwork. The documentation of building methods will be a ‘live’ document that needs to be complemented with new building methods and new information on already incorporated building methods. The settlements in different areas of the country will have different demands and requirements for the designing of houses. The differences can be related to geographical, ethnical and built environment characteristics, these will be used in the classification of areas that have similar challenges. These classifications will be elaborated on with a photo report, general characteristics, and the present building methods, a global damage assessment, a SWOT and specific challenges that can be used for further research.

All information regarding the context assessment, settlement types and building methods will be used for the defining of a framework for assessing building methods by means of higher-level requirements. Part one will assist in the selection of building methods based on the possible and desirable solutions for reconstruction in Nepal. Future Shock Safe Nepal teams will continue this research and expand the information package.

Figure 2.1. Set up of Shock Safe Nepal (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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Figure 3.2. Nepal on the world map (Little-bells, 2014).

Figure 3.1. Nepal is landlocked between China and India (Geology.com, 2015).

3. The context of Nepal 3.1. General introduction of Nepal The Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal is a South Asian country that is located in the Himalayas and home to many of the world's highest mountains. It is landlocked between the people’s republic of China in the North and India in the South, East and West borders of Nepal. Despite that Nepal is a relatively small country (Mapfight) it has a great diversity regarding ethnic groups, nature and climatic conditions. Its many rivers that run from North to South divide the country. The division by the rivers has affected the diversity of ethnic groups creating many different sub-groups and over 90 different languages and dialects. A great contrast exists between its countryside where nature is in charge and culture is at its purest, and its bigger cities and capital where tourism and economic welfare have taken an overhand. The bordering countries have had an influence on the religions in Nepal and have led to the two major religions Hinduism

and Buddhism to go hand in hand with an inspiring religious tolerance.

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33.2. Geographical characteristics Altitude and climate The country has unique geographical characteristics such as the great altitude variations (from +60 mean sea level to +8,848 mean sea level within a stretch of 150 kilometres) affecting the climate conditions that differ from arctic to subtropical. From North to South Nepal the geography changes from the higher Himalayas with its rocky and icy peaks to the lower Himalayas and high mountains and valleys with their more fertile soils of earth and clay, and the lower flat (Terai) regions with their subtropical forests and humid weather. (Worldatlas) Natural resources Nepal’s biggest natural resources are tourism and hydroelectricity. Both have to do with the Himalayas that is are a big part of Nepal. The hydropower currently is not enough to provide Nepal of enough energy. Large possibilities lie here for Nepal. Nepal has various other natural resources such as copper, iron, mica and limestone. Nevertheless due to the difficult and steep mountain terrain the exploitation of these resources is very hard. Moreover Nepal has a lot of forest. Yet due to overpopulation the ‘carrying capacity’ is not enough for the middle hill areas. Most of the forest is protected which makes it hard to get wood from (UNEP, 2011). This causes that Nepal only exports for 894 million and imports for 6.42 billion, resulting in a negative trade balance of $5.53 billion in 2013. Most of this import crosses the border with India (OEC).

Seismic hazard Nepal borders the boundary between the seismically active Indian and Eurasian plates. The Indian plate is moving in Northern direction, sliding underneath the Eurasian plate at a remarkably high rate of 40-50 mm per year (USGS National Earthquake Information Center). The mountainous region of the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau are the surface expression of the collision of these plates. The converging of the plates causes a build-up of tectonic stresses, and an accumulation of strain, making the region a high seismic active area. Multiple earthquakes affected the area. Large and devastating earthquakes (with intensity of X out of XII of the Mercalli scale) tend to occur in a cycle of 75-100 years (Pradhan, 2000). The Kathmandu valley was originally a lake. The clay ground causes amplifications of the earthquake motions (Pradhan, 2000). Large earthquakes have occurred in 1253, 1407, 1681, 1803, 1824, 1833 and 1835. In the 20th century a major earthquake (‘the Great Bihar’) occurred in 1934, with magnitude 8.4 in Richter scale. In 1988 an earthquake with Richter scale 6.6 occurred in Udayapur, the east of Nepal. Recently a severe earthquake series occurred in April-May of 2015. The first earthquake occurred on 25 April 2015, with an epicentre located in Barpak in the Gorkha district. The ‘Ghorka’ earthquake with a Richter scale of 7.8 Mw (Intensity of IX on Mercalli scale), was followed up by an aftershock of 7.3Mw. The second earthquake occurred on 12 may 2015 with an epicentre located at the border of Dolakha and Sindupalchowk, with a Richter scale of 7.3 Mw, followed by an aftershock of 5.7 Mw (USGS National Earthquake Information Center, 2015b) (USGS National Earthquake Information Center, 2015a).

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Figure 3.3. Nepal’s physiographical regions (UMN, 2014).

Figure 3.4. Nepal Geographically (American, 2006).

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3.3. Climate related Construction in Nepal is season bound. The best time to start gathering the materials for construction is from December to January, the start of construction is best in the month of February because of the availability of raw materials, work efficiency/quality and skilled labour. Roughly the climate can be divided into four main seasons: June-September: Rainy season. Inappropriate to start construction because of the heavy rain. The disturbance of the monsoon will lead to more difficulties during construction, which can result in extra cost for house owners. During the period most of the agricultural work is done meaning less availability of construction workers. October-December: Clear and Cool, the rainy season has stopped and main season for the tourist to visit Nepal. Also the best time to start with the preparations for construction. January-March: The cold but dry season with temperatures around 10 degrees, the appropriate time to start

construction. Although during the period increased power cuts and shorter amount of daylight create additional problems. April-June: End of the dry season and start rainy season, during the period the weather conditions are not fixed and construction could expect a short periods of heavy rainfall (Housingnepal, 2013). According to the Department of Urban Development and Building Construction (DUDBC) the cost of construction differs by 15 to 20 percent, depending on the period when construction is started. It is seen that 60 percent of the houses are constructed in the months February and March. This is done because the weather conditions are most ideal during that period but also because people want to acquire new property after the main festival season (DUDBC, 2015). As in all over the world the seasons shift, during our trip we still experienced short heavy rainfall in the end of September/ beginning of October, meaning that the best time to start construction also shift further back during the year.

Figure 3.5. Kathmandu climate graph (Climatemps, 2014).

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33.4 Institutional historical of Nepal The first human establishments in Nepal were founded in the Kathmandu Valley with its fertile clay soils. The Nepali rulers often consisted of different kingdoms that had their own territory with either a background in Buddhism or Hinduism, with its climax in the 12th century that was marked by the presence of three large kingdoms that reigned for successive periods. The Malla kings started their reign from the 12th century leading to the geometry of the current Nepal. In 1768 the unified Kingdom of Nepal was formed by King Prithvi Narayan Shah (Please, 2015). For the past centuries the Shah dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Nepal (with the exception of the so called Rana rule from the mid-19th century till 1951 when the king was kept silent) (Hagen, 1980). Basically Nepal knew only one centre of power, namely ‘His Majesty’. The king was surrounded with all kinds of vassals, like the various layers of an onion. If you wanted to achieve something, you had to go to the king through all these layers of middlemen. The king off course had the power to lend someone a favour, in return for some kind of benignity. In principle money would go up to the King while the favours would go out. While this system seems very corrupt, Nepali wouldn’t address this as corruption – the terminology corruption doesn’t exist in the same context like we know it in the Netherlands (Gerzon, 2014). However there came an end to the Shah dynasty after a long struggle for a parliamentary democracy in 2008; the king lost all his powers (Ramesh, 2008). After his resignation there came a parliament that again does not function, as it should. For example since 2008 there has not been an agreement for the constitution of Nepal till 2015 (Stoppelaar, 2014). What happened in reality is that there isn’t one centre of power anymore but a lot of different ministries, all with their own centre. This causes a complicated situation. Procedures do not follow the lines as they should and knowledge about the

system and people are sometimes more important than rules (Worldbank, 2014).

3.5 Politics In 2008 the Nepalese Constituent Assembly abolished the monarchy and created a republic with a multi-party system: The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. The legislative power is vested in the Constituent Assembly, a body of 601 members that serve as Nepal’s parliament. Around the period of the big 2015 earthquakes the main task of the Constituent Assembly was drafting a new constitution, which was a difficult process due to disagreements between governmental parties. After the earthquake the prime minister used his mandate to promote a Central Natural Disaster Relief Committee (CNDRC) now called the National Planning Commission (NPC). This commission had the authority and resources to act quickly and offer relief support. Delayed plans for rebuilding and the building code The political situation in Nepal around the time of the 2015 earthquakes was very unstable and was one of the reasons why the reconstruction process is very slow. As laid down by the constitution the prime minister's mandate only lasted for 60 days. During these 60 days the parliament failed to approve the rebuilding committee causing the mandate to expire. Resulting in a delay for the rebuilding plans and building code of Nepal. Many people were promised a fund with the side note that the constructed building had to be according to the new plans for earthquake safe housing. The delay of these plans led to people needing to wait before being able to rebuild while the wintertime was approaching. Structural challenges concerning, water, gas, electricity and petrol Next to the incidental events related to politics Nepal also suffers from more structural challenges that make everyday life slightly different than in other countries. Due to its geographical location and presence of natural resources, Nepal is dependent on its neighbouring countries for its fuels (Petrol, Gas and Electricity). The lack of

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infrastructure for utilities require for average households to have all gas powered units connected to a small gas tank and all units that require water to be connected to water tanks (in urban areas water is available from the net, however it is not drinkable for everybody). The water to refill the tanks is abstracted from water springs in Nepal while the gas is imported from India. Both of these substances need to be transported to central locations or household in Nepal requiring trucks and other motorized vehicles. Concerning electricity Nepal struggles with three different problems that amplify each other. The generation capacity of power during peak hours is too low to cope with the demand. The transmission networks are inefficient and inadequate at transporting the energy from production units to distribution units. Finally the distribution is inefficient and inadequate resulting in the available capacity to be distributed among the many demanders by means load shedding, at times provide no more than 8 hours of electricity per day per household. (Asian Development Bank). The remaining hour’s energy is produced individually by means of generators running on petrol or diesel. The above mentioned challenges create another challenge altogether, the need for gas and water transported by trucks and the production of electricity by means of generators are all dependent on the availability of petrol, another fuel that is not produced in Nepal. Thus in the situation that petrol is unavailable it affects the availability of water for drinking and other purposes, the availability of gas for heating of water and cooking, and the ability to produce one’s own electricity. This results in power only being available when load shedding is not active in a particular group. The unavailability of these resources, the fact that Nepal is landlocked and that politics are distracted by other issues leads to structural dependencies on its neighbouring countries, which can be a threat in case of political instability in the relation with one of the neighbouring countries.

33.6 Nepalese Economy Nepal is considered as one of the least developed countries in the world. According to the Worldbank out of the total population of 30 million, 25.2% lives below the national poverty line. In 2014 Nepal had a GDP of $19.64 billion this is only a fraction of the $869.5 billion the GDP of The Netherlands. (Worldbank, 2014) The fact that Nepal is landlocked between India and China creates additional challenges in achieving economic growth. Combined with the on-going power shortages and underdeveloped transportation infrastructure Nepal still manages to get an estimated 4,5% GDP growth in 2016. (CIA, 2015). The GNI per capita is used get an understanding of the average salaries; in Nepal the GNI per capita is $730. Nepal is for almost 25% dependable on remittances by foreign governments. The largest part of Nepal's GDP comes out of agriculture, accountable for the livelihood of 70% of the population; the industrial activities mainly focus on the processing of agricultural products. In the peak seasons the tourism sector is also accountable for a large part of the occupation of the population, unfortunately this has halted after the earthquake. Nepal has a lot of potential to gain income from hydropower, but the lack of political continuity and proneness to natural disaster has hampered foreign investments to get the projects started (OEC, 2015). The earthquakes had a big impact on the economic situation of Nepal, according to the PDNA an additional 2.5 to 3.5 percent of the population will be pushed into poverty, equivalent to at least 700.000 additional poor. The PDNA made an estimation to quantify the total damage and losses, the total damages are estimated to be $5 billion, the total losses are estimated to be $1,8 billion. (N. P. C. Nepal, 2015b) The housing sector was affected most, with the total effects valued at 350 million NPR. These total effects exist out of damaged and losses, total damaged is defined as the combined cost to replace the destroyed house, repair cost of partially damaged house and replacement cost of household goods. The total losses are the combined cost of demolition and clearing and transitional shelter. (N. P. C. Nepal, 2015b)

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33.7 Cross-cultural differences Since the Dutch and Nepalese culture seems to be very different we analysed cultural differences. These differences are aspects to take into account when interviewing and working in Nepal. As a theoretical framework the six cultural dimensions of the Hofstede Centre are used to provide the cultural aspects of our project. Since these dimensions are renowned and describe the national dimensions, distinguishing countries rather than individuals. The Power Distance Index: This index shows in what way people perceive power differences. A high rate means people expect that power is distributed unequally, autocratic and paternalistic. People will accept power simply based on the hierarchical position. Lower rated countries show that people expect power relations are more consultative and/or democratic. Formal positions are less important and people expect more to be treated like an equal, regardless of the hierarchical position (Hofstede, 2015) The relatively high score of 65 on the power distance index means people in Nepal accept a hierarchical system more than we do in The Netherlands. Even though the caste system of

Nepal has been abolished in 1963 it still remains a fundamental aspect of how people perceive hierarchy (Feller, 2008, p. 41). Own experience: We have learned to ask open questions instead of 'yes or no questions'. Nepali tend to answer all questions with yes in order not to disappoint you. Even though according to the caste system we are considered to be part of the fourth layer, a lot of Nepalese people treat us (an unnecessary amount) of respect. Often it is hard to connect with a Nepali, the power distance avoids this. Also we've noticed the power distance between higher and lower layers of society. Nepal has a big gap between rich and poor, we have seen people act like this as well. Individualism versus Collectivism: This dimension shows to what degree individuals are integrated to groups. In collectivistic societies people are more loyal to another in exchange for protection, people act as members of a lifelong group. Individualistic societies are more focussed on personal achievements and individual rights (Hofstede, 2015). This dimension displays the biggest difference in known Hofstede dimensions of Nepal and the Netherlands. Nepal is a collectivistic country compared to The Netherlands.

Figure 3.6.: cultural differences Nepal - The Netherlands (Hofstede).

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Own experience: Nepali use public places much more collectivistic than we do in The Netherlands. Entire families wash themselves and their clothes in fountains and swimming pools. Temples are gathering places for all layers of society. MMasculinity versus Femininity Displays the differences between masculine and feminine cultures. Masculine values are competitiveness, assertiveness, materialism, ambition and power. Feminine values are focussed on relationships and quality of life, such as cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life (Hofstede). The Netherlands is considered to be a very feminine society meaning caring for others and zqualities of life are important values. Nepali however strive more to be the best instead of liking what you do. With a score of 40 it still is a feminine society but leaning towards masculine, meaning competition, achievement and success are important values as well. Own experience: the feminine character of the Nepalese is noticeable in their interaction with each other. People seem to care for each other and their quality of life. Besides that Nepalese seem very modest, sometimes unwilling to accept compliments or gifts. Uncertainty Avoidance Index: Gives the degree in which people tolerate the uncertainty of their environment. People in low UAI cultures are comfortable with unstructured or changeable environments; high numbers of rules are not necessary. People who live in high UAI cultures need rules, laws and regulations to control the uncertainty factor (Hofstede). Even though the Netherlands and Nepal are comparable, Nepal tends to be less uncertainty avoidant. People are fairly relaxed and not unwilling to taking risks. Symptoms are people are not aggressive and emotions are not shown often. Besides that a majority believes in Karma which revolves around acceptance of fate. This could

lead to Nepalese shrugging their shoulders during difficult situations (Feller, 2008, pp. 40-41). Own experience: Nepali seems very relaxed and non-violent. In traffic they do not get agitated easily despite the chaotic driving style in Kathmandu. Also in combination with the Hindu and Buddhist religion people seem to embrace fate, not worrying too much about uncertainties. Information on the dimensions Long Term Orientation and Indulgence are missing at the Hofstede centre. In order to get an idea on these dimensions we will carefully make a comparison with India instead. Due to the fact South Nepal is similar to North India, but North Nepal is only comparable to Tibet, it is more likely to presume India fits the Nepalese profile than China does. The following two dimensions are assumptions and therefore in the report cannot be used as facts. Long Term versus Short Term Orientation This dimension shows the different perception of the future and past/present. Long term-oriented societies focus more on the future what can be seen in its orientation towards rewards, persistence, saving and capacity for adaption. Short term oriented societies values are steadiness, respect for tradition, preservation and fulfilling social obligations (Hofstede). India has an average score of 51 compared to 67 of The Netherlands. Out of own experience we think Nepal scores lower than Nepal, since respect for tradition and social obligations are important values in Nepal. Therefore Nepal is a short-term orientated country, which is noticeable working here. Indulgence versus Restraint Indulgent societies allow people to gratify their needs of basic and human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint societies have the idea that this gratification needs to be regulated by strict norms. In the restraint societies status is of importance, people expect materialistic reward for good jobs and easily feel treated unfair (Hofstede).

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Figure 3.7. Nepal - The Netherlands – India (Hofstede). India is a restraint society, which seems to fit the Nepalese context as well. However Nepalese do not seem to feel treated unfairly quickly, which could have something to do with their Hindu religion in which karma is of course an important value.

33.8 Social aspects National Identity Despite the fact Nepal has many different ethnic groups and differences in cultural detail there still is a strong national identity that focusses around the sacred Buddhist and Hindu sites which attract many tourists and the spectacular natural sights such as the Himalayan mountains and rivers. Education Education is one of the focus points of the Nepali government, although the government spends almost 14% of its budget on education the educational system was left shattered after the earthquake. According to Unicef almost one million children were enrolled in school before the earthquake, now there is no place to return for many children. The national education department indicates more than 5000 schools

were damaged and 1000 schools were collapsed. Also before the earthquake schools had to deal with a high dropout rate: about 1.2 million children between the ages of 5 and 16 were dropping out or never attended school (Unicef, 2015). Health According to the standards of the UN the health situation of the population in Nepal is poor. This state of health is a result of the lack of drinking water, sanitation, food supplies and scarcity of medicine. The rapid growing population is especially placing stress on the available water resources (Kharel, Dhakal, & Poudyal, 2014) All these factors combined give a life expectancy of 68 years according, which is high for countries with comparable income and even higher than south Asia’s average (Worldbank, 2014). Poverty Nepal is the poorest country in South Asia, over the last decades the country has made progress reducing the poverty but is still falling behind. There is a large difference between the cities and the rural area, urban poverty lies around 10% of the population and rural poverty around 35%. In

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2013 only 17% of the population lived in urban areas, but Nepal is urbanizing rapidly: the Kathmandu Valley with a population of 2,5 million is growing at 4% per year. The fastest growing settlements are actually the towns along the main highways, with population increasing by 5-7 percent every year (Worldbank, 2013). Labour and labour division Traditionally labour in Nepal was determined by social status and caste with the lower castes holding the occupations that are physically the heaviest and most unclean. Among genders there is also a division of labour, even though both genders perform physically heavy work “Men perform the heavier agricultural tasks and often engage in trade, pottering, and other work outside the village” while woman “cook, care for children, wash clothes, and collect firewood and fodder”. Often work is a family business where older people, parents and children each have their own roll. Examples that can be seen all over Nepal are, at the construction site the men do the constructing while woman and children prepare or carry materials needed for the construction (bricks, breaking rocks etc.). And at a family shop, the man of the house does the trading and buying of the inventory, the children work in the shop with the woman of the house carrying the final responsibility (Culture, 2015). Family In (Hindu) Nepali society the family consists out of the direct family, the extended family and relatives. People refer to each other as brother or sister even though they might not be related in that manner. This expanded use of the term family also has effect on the composition of households. Typically grandparents, parents, children, daughters-in-law and grandchildren all live in the same house, with the elders having more authority than the young. A household and resources are owned and shared by all family members and managed by the man of the house. Marriage is an important aspect in the creation of social bonds, and is often arranged by the elders of the family. When a son marries a woman, generally she moves into the household and falls in the lowest position until she gives birth to a

child. This household set-up emphasises the importance of loyalty and solidarity over individualism. In more modern and wealthy families it is seen that children are also sent abroad for studies with only the eldest son being forced to return home to take care of the family. When the man of the house comes of age the possessions are split into equal portions and inherited by the sons. A consequence of this can be seen in villages where a house belonging to a father is divided over three sons. The welfare and household size of each son would differ causing the house to be expanded unequally according to the needs of each individual son (Culture, 2015). Social structures within society Next to the family that takes care of each other, a community (determined by caste, occupation, relatedness etc.) also has a role in society. It is often seen that private houses or courtyards are used by a certain community for group activities such as praying, singing, parties, workshops etc. etc. An example of this is the local pottery shop also being the gathering place for elderly (Culture, 2015).

3.9 Ethnic aspects Until 2006 Nepal was the only Hindu Kingdom in the world, however Hindus (80,6%), Buddhists (10,7%), Muslims (4,2%) and others (4,5%) live together in peace for years due to the mutual respect and religious tolerance (Feller). The northern part of Nepal is considered to be more Buddhist and focussed on Tibet, while the south ethnical groups lean towards India. This north-south segregation is noticeable as well in the elevation of the country, also isolating some groups. Due to main rivers flowing north-south from the Himalaya towards India, the valleys also created an east-west orientated segregation, which is noticeable in the ancient races map. These aspects resulted in Nepal having multiple ethnic groups with their own culture and language. The Kathmandu valley is primarily Newari, as can be seen in figure 3.9.

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Figure 3.8. North-South segregation due to elevation (Hagen, 1980)

Figure 3.9. Ancient ethnic groups (Hagen, 1980).

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Besides the ethnic division of society Nepal also still deals with the caste system, even though it officially has been abolished. The caste system, which is comparable to India’s, classifies people on whether they are pure or impure. Even though a 1962 law made it illegal to discriminate against

other castes, people can still treat each other differently based on their caste. Because of the aforementioned isolated ness of the parts of the country the interpretation of the caste system is different throughout Nepal. In general the caste system is generalised in table 3.1.

# Caste Groups Profession

A. Pure (water acceptable)

1 Tagadhari (Wearers of the sacred thread)

Upper caste Brahmans, Chhetris, Madhesi, Newar

Priests

2 Namasinya Matwali (non-enslavable alcohol drinkers)

Gurung, Magar, Sunuwar, Thakali, Rai, Limbu, Newar

Kings and warriors

3 Masinya Matwali (enslavable alcohol drinkers)

Bhote, Chepang, Gharti, Hayu, Kumal, Tharu

Traders and businessmen

B. Impure (water unacceptable) 4 Pani Na Chaine (touchable) Dhobi, Kasai, Kusale, Kulu, Musalman,

Mlechha (foreigners) Peasants and laborers

5 Achut (untouchable) Badi, Damai, Gaine, Kadara, Kami, Sarki, Chyame, Pode

Table 3.1. Nepal caste system adapted from (Bennet, Dahal, & Govindasamy, 2008).

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33.10 Important stakeholders For reconstructing Nepal several stakeholders are of importance for its process. The following stakeholders we’ve encountered during our project will be summarized and by a stakeholder identification map and a power-interest grid (Bryson, 2004). The following overview is not complete but illustrates the most relevant stakeholders during our project, future teams can complete this overview. In reality hundreds of parties are involved in reconstructing Nepal whether large scale or small scale like NGO’s building a school. Depending on the phase of the reconstruction of Nepal presence and relevance of stakeholders can change. Department of Urban Development and Building Construction (DUDBC): This government department has the function to formulate, plan and implement housing plans and urban and housing policies. Besides that it is responsible for designing, constructing, repairing and maintaining of government buildings. The objectives can be divided into three divisions (DUDBC, 2015): 1. Housing division.

Promote safe and affordable housing through development of planned settlements

2. Building construction division Promote construction and development of safer, economical, and environmentally friendly buildings that also foster local architecture

3. Urban development division Promote sustainable urban development and urban rural linkages through development of modern physical facilities and conservation of cultural, religious, and historical heritage sites

Since promotion seems to be their biggest responsibility, they’ve for instance joined the Recovery and Reconstruction Working Group in which they propose standardized housing typologies. The DUDBC is now (in cooperation with international experts) rewriting the 1994 Building Codes.

National Planning Commission (NPC): The NPC is the advisory body of the Nepalese Government for national vision, planning and policy development. After the earthquakes they were assigned to perform the Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA), in which the damage and needs are inventoried. The Global Shelter Cluster (GSC): This committee supports people affected by natural disasters and conflicts that strives for safe, dignified and appropriate shelters. The GSC is a platform with 35 regular partners, of which UN-Habitat is one of them. On global level GSC works on technical capacity and system-wide preparedness in order to respond to humanitarian emergencies, they support country-level shelter clusters. They collect, analyse and share best practices and lessons learned via their website. On country level (Nepal) Shelter Coordination Teams mobilize groups of agencies, non-government organizations, local and national governments, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement to respond in a strategic and accountable manner. In the case of post-earthquake Nepal they also established a GSC Working Group, called the Recovery and Reconstruction Working Group (Cluster). Recovery and Reconstruction Working Group (RRWG): The RRWG is a working group initiated by The Global Shelter Cluster, working task-oriented and time-bound with clear deliverables. In parallel there are also Technical Working Groups were also companies and engineers come up with technical solutions. The RRWG is led by the Strategic Advisory Group of which UN-Habitat (leading organization) and the DUDBC are part (Appendix 1.E., Shelter Cluster) UN-Habitat: This United Nations programme works towards a better urban future, by promoting sustainable human settlements development and achieving shelter for all. Already before the earthquakes UN-Habitat was running 7 projects between 2008 and 2013 with a budget of $7.074.204 (). Post-earthquake they amongst other things cooperate with Arcadis and KU Leuven in order to design new plans for Bungamati, an urban historical settlement close to Kathmandu.

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PPrime Minister’s National Relief Fund (PMNRF): The PM Relief Fund is a fund that accepts voluntary contributions. The resources in the fund are used for rescue, treatment, relief and rehabilitation of families who are victim of natural disasters (). For the long term process of reconstructing Nepal this stakeholder is not of big importance since they focus on the first needs after a natural disaster. National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET): The NSET is a non-governmental institute founded in 1998 with the vision to realize earthquake safe communities in Nepal by 2020. The institute constitutes professionals belonging to various technical and social aspects of earthquake disaster management. It wants to reduce the impact of future earthquakes, and raise awareness on disaster reduction, contribute to science and technology (N. Nepal). Municipality vs. VDC: Nepal's 75 districts are divided into municipalities and VDC's, which both serve the same function. One of their key responsibilities in this context is to award construction permits and control the permitted executions. Municipalities are the governmental body in town areas and the VDC's in (smaller) villages. Eventually municipalities and VDC's are divided into so called wards, with their own committee (WC) (Democracy). The earthquake control on building codes has been sharpened since the 2015 earthquakes. The severity of control depends on whether your construction site is under the legislation of a municipality or a VDC. Municipality control is stricter and require constructions sites to have their permits, otherwise the structure will not get access to the water and power grid. VDC’s deal with a lack of engineers and therefore cannot control new structures in a qualitative way (Appendix 1.E., NSET).

Special Envoy for Reconstruction Efforts: Shesh Ghale, president of the NRNA (Non-Resident Nepali Association), has been appointed as Nepal’s special envoy to raise necessary funds for rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts (Republica, 2015). The government appointed him as the Special Envoy to collect funds, since the PDNA pointed out $6,6 billion is required to rebuild Nepal. Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee (KVTDC): The KVTDC is responsible for overall planning and regulation of urban development within the Kathmandu Valley (ICIMOD, 2007). They also formulate building byelaws Table 3.4, on the next page, identifies the stakeholders on their interests and power. The table is based on interviews and background research with the named stakeholders. Some stakeholders also have interests in Nepal other than post-earthquake aspects. Power is based on whether stakeholders can affect the issues future (Bryson, 2004). The issue on which their interest and power is described, and later assessed in a Power-Interest grid, can be formulated as: rebuilding Nepal on a large scale for the long term with the focus on safety, feasibility, resources, culture, sustainability and functionality.

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Stakeholder

Interest

Power

DUDBC Organizing large scale projects to rebuild Nepal. However besides the earthquake situation they also have other interests on urban developments and constructions.

High power since they are a governmental department, however they are constrained to governmental budgeting which are mostly yet to be collected.

NPC Advise the government on vision, planning and policies

Low power; the NPC is an advisory body.

GSC Nepal Give (technical) support to parties involved in reconstruction

Low power since they do not have legislation in Nepal, they provide support

RRWG (and technical working groups)

Bring all involved parties together Low power since they do not have legislation in Nepal, they provide support

UN-Habitat Running its own projects with their own budget. They are also interested in collaborating with other organizations in order to work on a national scale (RRWG)

UN-Habitat has its own budget

PMNRF Bring relief to those affected by the earthquake in the form of rescue, treatment, rehabilitation etc.

The PMNRF has its own budget and controlled from the PM’s office

NSET Assess damage, train masons and construction workers, create awareness on disaster reduction

Low power since the NSET is non-governmental and functions as a knowledge institute

Municipality Legislation and control High power due to their blocking power as a legislative body

VDC Legislation and control Their power is less than the Municipalities since their resources and level of control are less.

Special Envoy Raise funds for the Nepalese government to spend on rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts

Low power since they are a ‘networking’ organization

Table 3.4. Stakeholder identification map (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). The power-interest grid of figure 3.12. categorizes whether stakeholders are subjects, crowd, players or context setters. Due to the common interest of ‘rebuilding Nepal’ no important stakeholder has a low interest. The difference in interest amongst stakeholders is small since all parties are interested in reconstructing the country. The ‘Subjects’ are stakeholders with high interest but low power and therefore in general do not pose a threat to the process. Subjects are: the Special Envoy for Reconstruction efforts, NSET, and Global Shelter Cluster (Nepal). ‘Context Setters’ have high power but low interest, their rules and regulations may form restrictions. Context Setters are: VDC’s and municipalities. ‘Players’ are stakeholders with high interest and power, they can be seen as key stakeholders. Players are: the Recovery and Reconstruction Working Group, UN-Habitat, and the DUDBC.

It can be concluded the DUDBC is one of the players in this issue, they have the power and the interest to work towards rebuilding Nepal on a large scale. It is advisable to include them when working on large scale construction plans. Even though the VDC and Municipalities have shared interests with other stakeholders they can implement blocking power due to their legislative and controlling nature, therefore need to be included in the decision making as soon as plans become tangible. In the Subjects category stakeholders who are interesting to cooperate with are included.

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Figure 3.10. Power-Interest Grid (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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33.11 Construction market analysis The construction market includes materials as well as labour. The following chapter describes quality, availability and cost based on interviews, experiences in Nepal, and data of the CBS. Quality Quality of building materials are given by the building code standards (NBC 101: 1994), materials have to comply with Standard Certificates. Not all materials are in the Nepalese Building Codes, therefore Indian Building Codes are incorporated to complement. Materials that don’t have a standard certificate need to comply with the requirements given by the BC or similar international standards. However quality of construction material might not be comparable to Western standards. Availability In order to reconstruct the +- 750,000 houses construction material is required. Main construction materials in Nepal are: cement, sand, aggregate, stone, mud, rebar, CGI sheets, burnt bricks, sun dried bricks and timber. Due to the high demand of the moment prices have gone up. Due to ‘India’s unofficial trade blockade’ construction materials are hardly imported in Nepal, also transport is complicated due to the fuel shortage. This increases the material prices even more and makes it hard to give a clear overview of the construction market. Table 3.2. shows the projected demand (according to the PDNA) versus the annual production of construction material. However the annual production is based on the pre-earthquake situation, and seems not taking into account collapsed factories, missing personnel, lack of transport etc. Construction cost The following table shows the increase of construction material and labour costs, measured by the Nepalese CBS. Year 2008 until 2014 were compared to 2007, resulting in the average annual index increase. The table shows labour costs increase more quickly than construction material does.

As can be seen there is a projected shortage of burnt bricks, which is also noticeable in its current cost. Fortunately Portland cement is projected to be able to handle the demand. However due to doubts on quality house owners often import it from India. To preserve forests in Nepal it is necessary to arrange a permit to cut trees, which also makes it harder to use wood in construction. Steel profiles are quite uncommon and are imported from China or India. Common and easy accessible materials are bamboo and stone. The increase in construction material cost can be divided into the separate materials. Especially brick, concrete and wood increased large amounts. With respectively 10,9%, 8,7% and 5,3% of the total cost of construction materials this has a big influence on the total market. The cost for wood especially increased explosively. Labour in Nepal accounts for an average of 29, 50% of total construction cost. The following figure shows the index growth of costs for different construction jobs. ‘Normal labour’ saw the biggest growth, engineers the smallest. Due to the current unstable construction market, because of India’s unofficial trade blockade and the post-earthquake situation, it is complicated to come up with hard data on material prices. The location of construction site also has great influence on costs due availability and transport. Only an extensive survey, as performed quarterly by the Nepalese CBS, could give an indication on construction prices. However the CBS is constrained by the government for not sharing raw data and are therefore not able to provide us with actual prices.

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Material Unit Annual production (pre-

earthquake) Projected demand

Portland cement Million Ton 3,5 2,01 Deformed steel bars (10-25 mm) Million Ton 0,75 0,14 CGI sheets (26G medium) Million Ton 0,8 0,09 Burnt bricks Million no. 430 1193 Timber Million m3 0,55 Quarry stone/ rubble Million m3 22,15 River sand Million m3 2,61 Aggregates (10-20mm) Million m3 0,83 Galvanized welded wire mesh (13 G 25x25 mm)

Million Ton 0,01

Table 3.2. Expected demand on construction material versus annual production (National Planning Committee, 2015). Market % of total 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 (first ½) Material 100 114,3 121,8 130,9 147,9 159 170,1 178,3 Labour 100 119,3 145,4 168,6 192,4 211,5 229,1 244,5 Total constr. sector 100 115,8 128,8 142 161,1 174,5 187,5 197,8 Table 3.3. Growth of total construction costs (National Planning Committee, 2015).

Figure 3.10. Growth of labour costs (Based on (N. P. C. Nepal, 2015a)

Figure 3.11. Growth of construction material costs (Based on (N. P. C. Nepal, 2015a)

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33.12 Financial aspect of post-earthquake Nepal After the April 25 earthquake a lot of countries gave aid to Nepal. There is no exact figure to the extent of this aid because the government but also numerous NGO’s received foreign donations. Estimations indicate 4,4 billion USD (approximately 4 billion Euros) is pledged to Nepal (Appendix 1.E.) The PDNA estimates 6,7 billion USD is needed for the rehabilitation and construction of all the damaged sectors. (N. P. C. Nepal, 2015a) The first aid existed of emergency relief such as tents and food. The second phase exists of mid- and long-term recovery. There is a difference in how aid is transferred to Nepal; countries could donate to the Nepali government into which they decide in the distribution of the funds or the countries donations could be distributed to various NGO’s present in Nepal. The choice of the donating countries to distribute their funds between NGO’s has a lot to do with trust issues present in Nepal’s politics. Because of the unstable political situation countries want to keep control of their funds. For example the German government assist Nepal in its mid- and long-term recovery by a donation of 30 million euros. The support focuses on rebuilding: hospitals in the worst hit districts, infrastructure and energy sector support. All the support is coordinated by the German Embassy and implemented by the Deutsche Gesellenschaft

fur International Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). With this setting the German government keeps control of its funds and knows exactly where the funds are being distributed (GIZ, 2015). The government is currently working on a plan to support the inhabitants to rebuild their homes; in the financial speech of July 2015 the Ministry of Finance unveiled the details of the post-earthquake reconstruction works. The government has allocated NPR 74 billion (630 million Euro) for earthquake reconstruction works for the next fiscal year. Out of this budget NPR. 50 billion (430 million Euro) for housing, NPR. 3 billion (25 million Euro) for public buildings, NPR. 2 billion (17 million Euro) for archaeological structures, NPR. 7 billion (60 million Euro) for other physical infrastructures, NPR. 6 billion (51 million Euro) for production sector and NPR. 6 billion (51 million Euro) for the social sector will be spent. (M. o. F. Nepal, 2015) According to the Ministry out of the housing budget every earthquake-affected family will be provided financial assistance of up to NPR 200.000 (1700 Euro) and a soft loan of 2% to rebuild their damaged houses. Loans go up to 2,5 million NPR (21,000 Euro) for the Kathmandu Valley and 1,5 million NPR (12,500 Euro) for outside the Valley (M. o. F. Nepal, 2015).

3.13 Overall damage in Nepal According to the Post Disaster Needs Assessment 755.549 houses were collapsed or damaged due to the earthquakes. Nearly half a million houses have collapsed, a quarter million was damaged, resulting in a total loss of €2, 4 billion.

Of all collapsed and damaged houses most affected houses were low-strength masonry, this building method also was the most common type as can be seen in table 3.6. Following chapters give an overview of typical damage to building methods and settlement types.

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Table 3.5. Damage on private housing adapted from the National Planning Commission (2015). Low-strength masonry Cement-based masonry Reinforced concrete frame Wood and bamboo

based 58% 21% 15% 6%

Table 3.6. Existing building typologies in the 31 affected districts (National Planning Commission, 2015).

Number of houses Loss in NPR (million) Loss in € (million) (rate of 6 Oct, 2015)

Collapsed houses Low-strength masonry 474.025 199.091 1.702 Cement based masonry 18.214 19.671 168 RC frame 6.613 39.680 339 Total collapsed 498.852 258.442 2.209 Damaged houses Low-strength masonry 173.867 7.302 62 Cement based masonry 65.859 7.113 61 RC frame 16.971 10.182 87 Total damaged 256.697 24.597 210 Total 755.549 283.039 2.419

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4. Settlement typology classification An effort is made to classify the different settlements in Nepal into general classifications. Within this classification a majority of the settlements in the earthquake affected area can be classified. This generalization is used to create a quick overview of the settlement typologies of Nepal. The geographical locations are bound by the area into which earthquake damage has occurred. The area of classification is shown in figure 4.1.

SSettlement typologies To get a manageable overview of the housing situation the earthquake affected area of Nepal is divided in settlement zones. The zones ranked from A to E are shown figure 4.2. Each zone has specific building characteristics that will be

Figure 4.1. Area of earthquake destruction {Nepal National Information Technology Centre, U.S.G.S.}

explained in the following paragraphs, for each zone a SWOT is made to indicate the differences between the zones. The zones are based on existing overviews made by the DUDBC and UN-habitat. The main difference between the zones is their location that has consequences on the availability of materials, transport options, village size, income and building methods. Each zone has distinct needs and building topologies and can work as a blueprint for similar settlements throughout the earthquake affected area. Within the zones the most common typology of engineered or non-engineered buildings are indicated. Non-engineered buildings are buildings which are not formally designed but built using traditional techniques {Indian building code committee, 2013} More information about the building typologies can be found in the chapter: building methods.

Figure 4.2. Settlement zones (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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Zone A: Urban core In zone A the Kathmandu metropole centre is categorised, here constructing materials are available and there is no transportation issue. The price of land is high and is for that reason fully utilised, as a result concrete multi-storey structures have taken over the scenery. The major cities do have important historical heritage sites which make the area also attractive for tourism. Most characteristic building methods:

Reinforced Concrete Frames Low strength brick masonry Brick masonry

Characteristics:

Mostly engineered buildings Historical and traditional build heritage

sites

Damage assessment Extensive damage reports can be found in Appendix 1.B. RC-frame buildings Many vulnerable factors are seen with respect to discontinuous load paths (cantilevers), lack of redundancy and bad quality of construction and detailing. Brick masonry and traditional brick masonry buildings Most of the severe damage caused in the urban core can be found in the old masonry structures. Many of these older buildings were built in the traditional Newari style (timber decorations). Newer brick masonry buildings are made with sober timber window frames and sometimes concrete slabs as flooring. Many vulnerable factors are seen with respect to lack of maintenance and lack of coherency between building elements.

Figure 4.3. RCC building with discontinues load path (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 4.4. Traditional brick masonry building (Shock Safe Nepal group 1)

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SSite visit report: Lalitpur, Kathmandu centre At first sight the damage in Kathmandu seems limited but after a few days the destruction of the earthquake becomes more visible. The earthquake happened half a year ago and a lot of the debris has already been cleaned up but if one deviates from the beaten track the damages is still visible. Most concrete frame buildings are damaged and large cracks show they are not safe anymore. Eventhough the cracks could also indicate the building performed well during the eaerthquake, afterall the energy causing the cracks as absorbed, it now needs retrofitting. In the historical parts of Kathmandu the destruction of the earthquake is most visible, on the three durbar squares of the metropole complete historical buildings are missing, their historical artefacts are stored in the hallways of other historical buildings. Many old masonry brick buildings are propped by poles and still inhabited, with the risk of collapsing. Key problems due to earthquakes In Kathmandu many concrete and brick structures are heavily damaged but not collapsed. The damaged structures are only fixed aesthetically, by plastering and repainting the cracks, but their structural damage remains. Because many concrete structures did not collapse during the earthquake people belief they are safer for earthquakes than brick masonry. This reasoning is unfortunately based on a comparison between a 100 and 10 year old building. The key problem of the concrete structures is the lack in executional knowledge and are for that reason not necessarily safer for earthquakes, it depends on skilled craftsmen. Research topics

Retrofitting/repairing the damaged RC frame and brick masonry houses

Numerous buildings in this zone are damaged badly, however are ‘repaired’ for instance by adding a new layer of plaster. The internal damage of walls and structural elements however remains damaged and therefore adds risk in

future earthquakes. What feasible methods can be used to retrofit these buildings? Is demolition and new development safer?

Rebuilding historical heritage sites Historical heritage sites (Durbar Squares, numerous temples, centre streets etc) are main touristic attractions of Nepal. Unrestorable damage could harm the tourist sector, which is of importance for the economy in the Kathmandu Valley. How should heritage be handled? Should traditional methods be used to safeguard the historical values or are modern techniques required?

Control on/building according building codes

At the moment the 1994 building codes are being rewritten. As soon as they are published they need to be implemented and respected by all building parties. In the past building codes were often not respected, which added risk to the situation. What would be a successful organisational implementation to assure building codes are respected? Is there a difference between the top (site manager) and bottom (labourers) in knowledge on the building codes? Is project management sufficiently present on site?

Demolition of severely damaged buildings Several buildings in this zone are severely damaged beyond repair, however are surrounded by other structures. These buildings are now held up by temporary wooden and steel supports and pose a threat for its surroundings. There is a lack of equipment and funds to demolish all buildings. How can demolition be executed in a safe way without damaging surrounding buildings?

Logistical challenge due to limited space Zone A houses numerous small historical streets which makes it inaccessible for larger equipment and transport. The limited space also has effect on the flexibility of the construction site. What methods could be developed or already exist that can deal with this logistical challenge? Should new urban planning take this into consideration and propose wider urban space?

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SWOT Zone A

Strength: Availability of resources (materials,

labour and knowledge) Capital city; nationwide priority Most sites cleared of debris Large motivation to rebuild Resources to invest available

Weakness: Expensive land price Buildings constructed close to each other Limited availability of land for new

construction Limited capacity of Infrastructure

Opportunity: Reconstruct monuments (temples) in

order to restore tourism Able to implement construction

improvements Able to implement logistical

improvements Possibility for improvement of urban

planning Efficient control on new building codes

could improve the structural integrity

Threat: Severely damaged buildings can harm

surrounding buildings when demolishing Severely damaged buildings will not be

demolished at all Construction of unsafe multi-storey

buildings No funds to repair damaged buildings, risk

remains or bad repair Not retrofitted buildings are still a risk

during next earthquake

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ZZone B: Urban village Zone B lies outside the ring road of the major cities, the areas are in close connection with the major cities but are less attractive for commercial activities (see figure 4.6). For that reason the price of land is less than in the urban core. Because of the close connection to the major cities all material are available and there are no transportation issues. The urban villages started to grow as the major cities expanded, but lack the historical heritage which is found in the urban core. Most characteristic building typologies:

Reinforced concrete frames Brick masonry

Characteristics

High amount of corrugated sheets/temporary shelters

Engineered and non-engineered structures

Damage assessment Extensive damage reports can be found in Appendix 1.B. The outskirts are characterized by an urban sprawl of non-engineered buildings. Most problems are seen due to informal construction, discontinuous load paths, unfavourable configurations and building on slopes

Figure 4.5. Uncontrolled construction of brick masonry (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 4.6. Ring road of the major cities (Google Maps, 2015).

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SSite visit report: In urban villages people from the earthquake affected rural parts of Nepal gathered to find a safe shelter. Therefore a lot of tents and shelters made with corrugated sheets can be found. The people living in the shelters are either dependent on the government to get the resources to reconstruct their house in the rural area or too afraid to move back to their villages because of the loss of relatives or total destruction of their village. The original inhabitants of the urban villages mostly have less financial resources than inhabitants of the urban core, therefore their houses were of less quality and more damaged during the earthquakes. Key problems due to earthquakes Emergency shelters which are built for temporary use have a risk to become permanent, since people are waiting on the government to provide the resources to reconstruct. The houses which are been rebuild are built for emergency needs and not build according to the building code which make them unsafe in future earthquakes. Research topics

Designing feasible low-tech housing Zone B is dealing with more financial challenges compared to Zone A. A threat for this zone is impoverishment of the build environment, either because of poor design/execution or because of temporary housing turning into permanent house. Which feasible building methods/materials can be implemented on large scale? What alternative is there for corrugated sheets, since it affects the cultural values?

Unattractive nature of Zone B Zone B is less attractive than its surroundings; the city centre and historical settlements. It lacks financial injections and the touristic activities offered in zone A and C. This combination causes the threat of slow development after the earthquakes, compared to other zones. How can this area change towards a more attractive zone? What catalyst could initiate this? Could aesthetically attractive housing initiate this?

Uncontrolled construction Even though control on permits and building codes is supposed to be sharpened, zone B still offers room for uncontrolled construction, meaning people build or extend their houses ‘randomly’ throughout the zone. These types of construction can cause additional risk during safety. How can these constructions be controlled?

Upgrade urban planning The whole city plan of zone B needs an upgrade; the area is mostly build informally and therefore not according city planning regulations. Roads are narrow and in bad condition causing problems when assess by emergency service. Besides that a working sewage system is lacking. This is mostly an urbanism challenge.

Figure 4.7. Uncontrolled RCC-frame buildings with unequal column length

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SWOT Zone B

Strength: Short distance to resources (materials,

labour and knowledge) Large labour force available Close to main infrastructural arteries

Weakness: Limited financial resources available No focus point of relief organisations No focus point of government Not all sites cleared for reconstruction

Opportunity: Able to implement

construction/logistical improvements Able to improve scenery / make the area

more attractive

Threat: Temporary housing becoming permanent

housing over time People from outside of the valley do not

move back to their original houses

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ZZone C: Urban historical settlements Zone C are smaller settlements which are not directly connected to the urban core. The settlements were founded a long time ago but contrary to the urban core did not lose their historical character. The buildings are mainly constructed with traditional building methods and craftsmanship. Most Characteristic building typologies:

Low strength (brick) masonry (for example Newar)

Characteristics

Non-engineered Damage assessment: Extensive damage reports can be found in Appendix 1.B.

These settlements are characterized by clusters of traditional brick masonry buildings (Newari style) and newer RC-frame buildings. Many traditional buildings have collapsed or are severely damaged. The main reason is bad maintenance of timber elements and inadequate connections between building elements. The relatively newer concrete buildings have performed better during this quake, also due to their smaller age. But also these buildings form a threat in future quakes due to discontinuous load paths, weak storeys and low quality of construction and detailing. Site visit report: Bhaktapur, Sankhu, Bungamati In the historical settlements the destruction rate was very high, the traditional building methods survived multiple earthquakes over the last 100 years but were unable to cope with the 2015 earthquakes. The settlements still show flashes of the beauty they once had but this might change soon: for example the owner of a damaged Newari house in Sankhu has impressive woodwork window frames but he wanted to sell them to build a new concrete frame house. In

Figure 4.8.Trail of collapsed buildings (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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Bhaktapur a combination between concrete frame housing and maintaining the historical aesthetics of the city has been made. The newly constructed buildings are completely made as a concrete frame, with only the front facade made from traditional materials. KKey problems due to earthquakes: The settlements got their character and income from the traditional constructed buildings. The craftsmen making the constructions and woodwork sell their skills in a wide area and the traditional character attracts tourists to the settlements. With the destruction of a lot of the traditional build houses the chances are that the settlements lose their character and so craftsmen lose their skill set. Many people lost their home and want to reconstruct as soon as possible, the cost of a concrete frame building is less and takes less time to build than a traditional build house. The risks are that the settlements will be rebuild with concrete. Research topics:

Combining earthquake safe housing while maintaining the traditional character.

The cultural and historical values of buildings in this zone are of importance for its identity and touristic sector. In Bhaktapur for instance RC frame houses are now rebuild with traditional brick facades. Is this the most beneficial way to rebuild historic settlements?

Maintenance of traditional housing Traditional build houses require more maintenance, mainly because of the use of timber as structural (and non-structural) elements. Poor maintenance of timber cause the structure to perform less during earthquakes. Maintenance results in additional costs for the house owner, are there feasible maintenance methods which makes traditional houses still attractive to own?

Use of historical artefacts in reconstruction

The earthquake destroyed many historical monuments, however many building materials are still intact. These materials are of historical value and should therefore be used during restauration/rebuilding of the monuments. The historical (Newari) woodcarving is an example.

Figure 4.9.: Brick masonry heritage with a newly added floor

(Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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SWOT Zone C

Strength:

There is high interest in reconstruction since these settlements are of high cultural/historical value and important for tourism

Attention of foreign aid organisations High people's participation for the construction

of religious structures Strong village identity

Weakness:

Restrictions in reconstructing due to the historical values

Damaged historical items lie out in the open Large part of the workforce moved to the

major cities

Opportunity:

Preservation of historical artefacts Utilizing the available traditional craftsman

Threat:

loss of historical value due to reconstruction/ new construction

Time and weather conditions will destroy historical items

Building in a traditional way might be more expensive

Traditional professions are vanishing (masons, timber etc.)

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ZZone D: Rural village Zone D consists of villages which are hard to reach from the urban core but are connected by a road. The villages form the entrance points to the remote areas. Rural villages are changing from traditional build rubble stone houses to concrete frame buildings. Most materials are available but the cost of transportation might be higher. Most characteristic building typologies:

Low strength (stone) masonry Reinforced concrete frame

Characteristics

High amount of corrugated sheets Damage assessment Extensive damage reports can be found in Appendix 1.B.

In these settlements vulnerabilities are seen in construction quality and building configuration; soft/weak storeys, and discontinuous load paths. Site visit report: Dhunche, Chisapani The village of Dunche is one the main entrance points to the trekking region of Langtang, for that reason the village gets a lot of income from the lucrative tourism industry. This means that the village is rapidly growing and multi-story concrete frame buildings are replacing the traditional rubble stone houses. Since the rural villages are situated against the mountain regions there is a lack of level construction ground and with the village growing many of the buildings are built on or against a slope. After the earthquake a lot of destruction was seen in the concrete frame buildings, showing they are not necessarily safer.

Figure 4.10. Soft storey collapse of RCC-frame building (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 4.11. Buildings on a slope, discontinuous load path because of construction on the slope (Shock Safe Nepal group

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KKey problems due to earthquakes: The rural location and the rapid growth makes that buildings are constructed with haste and not according to the building codes, since the area is situated more than half a day away from the heart of the country where most of the engineers are located, less design expertise is available. This is a problem since the buildings are evolving into more difficult multi-storey buildings constructed on a steepening slope. Also the availability of experienced construction workers is problematic since most of the houses are built by the house owner. Research topics

Safely construct on slopes Especially in ribbon developments people have benefit of building their house directly connected to the road because of the commercial advantages. However buildings connected directly to the road have several characteristics which are disadvantageous during earthquakes. They are built on a slope, have unequal wall/column length, difficult accessible construction site.

Design of multifunctional structures (housing / workspace / restaurant)

The buildings have multi purposes, the ground floor is often used as a workspace with the other layers used for housing. The design of a floor should match its function without compromising on the structural strength of the building.

Choice of material, transport cost, dependant

Zone D offers more challenges regarding choice of construction material. Transport costs play a bigger role for this zone compared to A till C. Are there alternatives to transport, factories and plants for instance? Or can local materials cover the need for nonlocal materials?

Implementation of different foundation types

Each construction site has its own foundation solution, research should be done in which foundations types are feasible in zone D and which ones have a preference when matched with a building method. Zone D is challenging due to the fact people build their houses on slopes and in general along roads.

Re-use construction material The areas in zone D are difficult to reach, especially by large trucks used for the transportation of new building materials. Research should be done in the use of used material for the construction for new houses, to come up with a more feasible and environmental friendly construction cycle.

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SWOT Zone D Strength:

Tight communities create high people's participation.

Many commercial functions along the road

Situated at popular and economic attractive traffic routes

Extra income from the touristic sector as mountain station

Weakness: High (er) transport costs Often part of a VDC instead of municipality resulting

in lack of control on building codes Few appropriate building sites due to mountainous

character Additional difficulties of working in a landslide area Limited financial resources

Opportunity: Ability to combine work and

housing function into one structure Increase the area’s potential

Threat: Villages are rebuild using corrugated iron sheets;

temporary housing turning into permanent housing The policy on cutting trees makes it harder to use

local timber for housing (community forest)

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Zone E: Remote village Zone E consists of small villages only reachable by foot, for that reason not all building materials are available or transportation can be very costly. The houses are mostly constructed with local available materials, such as rubble stone, wood and mud mortar. The villages located at higher altitude deal with large temperature fluctuations. Most characteristically building typologies:

Low strength stone masonry

Damage assessment: Extensive damage reports can be found in Appendix 1.B. Remote settlements are threatened by site hazards such as land- (mud) and rock-slides. Risks are higher during Monsoon season when the

slopes which have little vegetation holding the ground together with its roots. The majority of buildings is made of rubble stone masonry. These buildings are highly vulnerable to earthquakes due to heavy material, irregular stones and lack of coherency between building elements. Site visit report: Laurebina, Gosainkunda The villages are heavily affected by the earthquake, with most of the buildings damaged or collapsed. Many of the villagers abandoned their house and moved to another location. Prior to the earthquake most of the villages where self-sustainable and had an agricultural function. The villages which are located at viewpoints have lodges where tourist spent the night during their trekking. These villages get a significant boost from the tourist industry.

Figure 4.12.: Low strength stone masonry house made with mud mortar (Smart Shelter Foundation).

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Key problems due to earthquakes: Not only the buildings collapsed but also the landscape changed during the earthquake, landslides blocked the main tracks between the villages and some landslides even covered complete villages. Since the villagers moved to another location some of the areas could stay the same for years to come. The remoteness of the villages also limits the possibility to exchange and access earthquake safe construction knowledge. Research topics:

Restore infrastructure Earthquakes and landslides caused some remote villages to be isolated because of inaccessible routes. It turned out this accessibility caused the emergency relief to arrive late, but also causes trouble during reconstructing the villages. How can routes be constructed on a national scale? Are there ways to make the routes more durable?

Distribution of knowledge on earthquake safe building

Nepal has a lot of knowledge on earthquake safe housing, however this knowledge is not distributed throughout the country. Distributing this knowledge would avoid poorly built houses. How can we share in knowledge with masons, labourers, and home owners on a national scale?

Earthquake safe designs with local materials

In remote villages not all materials are available, some materials are nearly impossible to import, some are costly to transport to the village. What materials are feasible to transport to remote villages? How can local materials be used to design more safe buildings? Should certain materials be produced on site or locally to generate more availability?

Figure 4.13. Loadbearing wall of low strength stone masonry has collapsed (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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Choice of the correct building sites Since the zone E areas are so remote not all materials are available or feasible to construct an earthquake safe house. A big part of the solution in building earthquake safe houses is the choice of the correct building site. The correct building site could reduce the risks for landslides and limit the damage.

SWOT Zone E Strength:

High people’s participation Part of the construction material is locally

available Unique character of the buildings Preserving the environment by re-use of

materials

Weakness: No road access Lack of (new) knowledge/education Part of a VDC instead of municipality resulting in

lack of control on building codes Villagers left the villages Only the traditional building methods are locally

available Very limited resources (labour, materials,

knowledge) Limited suitable construction sites

Opportunity: Use existing materials in an innovative way Implement educational programs

on earthquake engineering basics Create extra income by accommodating

tourists.

Threat: People not returning to the villages, remain

abandoned Local building materials are not sufficient enough

to withstand an earthquake

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5. Principles of earthquake resistant building Parts of this text have previously appeared in modified form in the thesis ‘Earthquake engineering, balancing conflicting objectives’(Wijnbergen, 2015). There are basically 3 main methods (Figure 5.1) a) Resistant: making the building stiff or strong enough. This conventional method costs a lot of material. b) Vibration control: creating a more flexible building, but dissipating the seismic energy. c) Base isolation: reducing acceleration by changing the natural building period. Resistant methods are based on strength and stiffness. The approach is based on an appropriate structural configuration, mass distribution, choice of material, careful detailing of structural members and connections(MCeer). Architectural decisions are bound and framed by structural objectives as avoiding torsion, discontinuities, set-backs and promoting symmetry, continuity and regularity (Beltran, 2014). Vibration control and base isolation can comprise high-tech and expensive measures which are not feasible in countries such as Nepal. Measures of damping and base isolation are seen in the form of material use; such as the damping by yielding of mud mortar (fig. 5.2), or temples which are set on a stone base (fig. 5.3). Figure 5.1. Main earthquake resistant construction methods: resistant, vibration control, base isolation (adapted from Japan property central).

The main earthquake principles are classified into several categories and mentioned in the following paragraphs.

Figure 5.2. Masonry and stone mortar (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 5.3. Traditional temple on a stone base (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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55.1 Global strength, stiffness, stability and ductility Choice of material and detailing It is favourable to use materials with a high ductility, such as well-detailed steel, timber, reinforced concrete, reinforced masonry and design details with enough ductility and deformation capacity. This characteristic allows the structure to deform and dissipate some of the earthquake energy without instantly breaking (without warning).

Figure 5.4. Top: Stress strain graph elastic behaviour, Bottom: stress strain graph of plastic behaviour (adapted from TNO, 2014). Flexible materials Flexible structures, which allow some movement, have a good earthquake performance. This can be achieved with flexible materials such as timber, or motion space in the detailing of connections. Limited mass Seismic forces are directly proportional to building mass, it is therefore beneficial to build as light as possible. Timber, bamboo and steel frame structures generate less seismic loads due to low mass.

Figure 5.5. Building with light materials (Arup, 2014).

5.2 Building configuration and mass distribution The building configuration and distribution of mass influence the flow of forces. Distribution of seismic-resisting elements By placing the resisting elements for seismic lateral loads, such as braces and shear walls, at the perimeter of the building, the greatest resistance is achieved since the lever arm will be the largest. Regularity in plan Regularity and symmetry in plan is important for the load transfer. The resultant of the forces is located in the centre of mass, whereas the centre of rigidity withstands the forces. A difference in location of these centres results in torsion, as can be seen in figure 5.4. The plan should be symmetric, including aspects as cut-outs of the floors. When designing the plan, one should avoid L, T, U, V, Z-shapes since these configurations introduce high shear stress and stress concentrations in the re-entrant corners. The plan setback should be at least 15% to be considered re-entrant. Also the length of the walls should preferably be equal in both directions; in any case not more than 3 times the width.

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Figure 5.6. Regular plans are favourable above irregular plans (Adapted from Arup, 2014).

Figure 5.7. Dimensions max L<3B (Adapted from Arup, 2014).

Figure 5.8. Resisting elements in the perimeter to create a larger lever arm (Adapted from Arup, 2014).

Figure 5.9 Regular plans are favourable above regular plans. Dilatations can be provided to avoid irregularity in plan lay-out (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

RRegularity in elevation The elevation should also be designed regular and continuous with respect to load transfer, since sudden changes of stiffness can induce a concentration of forces. When changing stiffness in elevation, it is wise to provide a dilatation or split to the building. Flexible stories, open ground stories or ground floors with too many windows in combination with stiffer upper floors should be avoided and are problematic due to the difference in deformation. A disproportionate drift which is concentrated on a specific story can be the cause of collapse(Khan, 2013). Distribution of live loads Heavy loads (such as water tanks) should be placed lower in the building, to minimize the inertia forces. They should also be placed close to the centre of rigidity in order to avoid torsion.

Figure 5.10. Large live loads on roof due to water tanks (Shock Safe Nepal group 1)

Figure 5.11. Irregular shapes (Adapted from Arup, 2014).

Figure 5.12. failure mechanism: Soft story effect (Adapted from Arup, 2014).

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55.3 Load path Interconnection of members The connections between the walls and the diaphragms must be adequate. In this way, the building can withstand forces in a box-like manner. Seismic bands for masonry Masonry performs well under compressive loads, however it has low tensile strength if it is not reinforced. Vertical and horizontal reinforcement members are therefore essential for a good performance in earthquakes. Reinforcement should be provided by means of strong and ductile materials. Horizontal and vertical reinforcement should be adequately tied together. Horizontal reinforcement Horizontal bands are key elements to ensure integral action of masonry walls (Devdas Menon, 2008); to tie the wall leaves together. to ous and have a good connection with the wall (Garcia). The bands will reduce the tendency of out-of-plane collapse. Usually, the bands are provided at floor, lintel and roof level of a building. Combining lintel and roof band can save costs. Horizontal reinforcement helps to transmit the out-of-plane forces in transverse walls to the supporting shear walls, as well as to restrain the shear stresses between adjoining walls and to minimize vertical crack propagation. Vertical reinforcement Vertical reinforcement is necessary to connect the wall and foundation to the horizontal band. It helps in withstanding out-of-plane bending and in-plane shear. Redundancy By providing structures with a second load path, its redundancy will increase and it will not collapse entirely if individual members fail.

5.4 Building components Stiff diaphragms Stiff diaphragms distribute forces related to the stiffness of each wall, whereas flexible diaphragms distribute forces on the basis of mass. This means that the walls perpendicular to the

loading will experience significant loads in the weak-out-of-plane direction, possibly causing local failure. By creating stiff diaphragms, the forces can be distributed to walls that are parallel to the forces, and therefore resistant to those in-plane forces, which is more favourable.

Figure 5.13. Stiff diaphragms provide a better load transfer (Adapted from Arup, 2014).

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WWalls In the design one should avoid long unsupported walls. Seismic performance of walls can be increased by adding transversal walls or peers that act as an out-of-plane support for the wall, preventing inward or outward overturning {Blondet & Villa Garcia). Furthermore a wall should not have too many openings; this will decrease its shear strength. In case of openings, take care of a direct transfer of forces between the cut-outs.

A. Non-structural elements Carefully design possible falling hazards which are non-structural elements such as: chimneys, parapets, outer leaf of cavity walls, ornaments, balconies and awnings. The detailing connection and fixation of these elements should be done with great care.

B. Reduce demand Instead of strengthening the building, one

can also try to reduce the loading demand. Buildings have an inherent ability to dissipate energy, this is called damping. However, damping by the building itself results in a degree of damage, since it is based on friction between elements. Enhance damping capacity By equipping the building with additional devices which have a high damping capacity, the damage can be limited. Isolate from ground By setting the building on base isolators, the building will move, but it can retain its original shape (NAMplatform, 2014) without experiencing too much deformation. The natural period of the building will be longer, which reduces the acceleration of the structure.

Figure 5.14. Limit the wall openings in diaphragms (Adapted from Arup, 2014).

Figure 5.15. Damping device (Adapted from MCeer).

Figure 5.16. Lead-rubber bearing of base isolation (Adapted from MCeer).

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6. Building methods A preliminary selection of proposed buildings methods is made on the basis of interviews with local non-governmental and market parties, feedback from the Department of Urban Development and Building Constructions (DUDBC) in Nepal and input from World Housing Encyclopaedia based on the appropriateness for housing, the suitableness for low-rise buildings and the potential seismic resistance. This resulted in a list of building methods considered interesting for rebuilding Nepal. These building methods can roughly be categorized in three groups:

Commonly used building methods in Nepal

Reference building methods New building methods

In this section a summary of the findings is shown, in Appendix 1.A. building methods each building method is elaborated on: technical, recourses, feasibility, social/cultural, functional and sustainable aspects. This information should provide more inside in choosing the right building method when constructing in Nepal.

6.1. Commonly used building methods in earthquake affected area Nepal The commonly used building methods in earthquake-affected Nepal can be either indigenous or foreign. These are the building styles that are known by the people and may be historically embedded in the Nepalese culture or are already being used for a very long time.

A. Low strength (stone) masonry This building style is mostly found on foothills, hills and mountains in the rural and remote areas of Nepal {Parajuli, Bothara, & Upadhyay, 2015}. The buildings typically consist of river stone foundations, load bearing stonewalls, timber window frames, and varying roof/flooring systems. The walls are composed of two layers of mountain stone and the space between is frequently filled with mud, small stones and pieces of rubble (Brzev).

Figure 6.1. Stacked stonewall (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.2. Low strength (stone) wall (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

B. Low strength (brick) masonry This building style is very common in old villages and towns of the Kathmandu valley. The buildings typically consist of river stone foundations, a combination of burned brick on the outer wall and sun dried brick masonry on the inner wall, the brick masonry is often held together with mud mortar. The he space between is frequently filled with mud, small stones and pieces of rubble stone. The average low strength brick masonry house has a basic rectangular design. Within this category the traditional Newari building style can be classified.

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Figure 6.3. Low strength brick masonry, inner and outer wall (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.4. Low strength brick masonry house (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

CC. Stone masonry in cement mortar This building style is similar to stone masonry and mostly found in the more mountainous parts of Nepal. The houses consist of stacked mountain stones held together by cement instead of mud mortar.

Figure 6.5. Stone masonry with cement (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.6. Stone masonry cement house (smartshelterfoundation, nd.)

D. Brick masonry in cement mortar This building style is similar to brick masonry and mostly found the villages and towns of the Kathmandu Valley. The brick masonry is held together with cement instead of mud mortar to construct load-bearing walls. The walls usually exist out of multiple layers of brick

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.

Figure 6.7. Brick masonry wall (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.8. Brick masonry house in construction (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

EE. Hollow concrete block masonry Hollow concrete blocks are used around the Kathmandu Valley and are popular in certain areas {Habitat Nepal}. The blocks are designed to have hollow compartments inside in order to reduce cost, the addition of these air pockets also makes the blocks fire resistant provides insulation. (Hornbostel, 1991) The blocks are held together by cement mortar and allow for incorporation of rebar and cement in the air pockets for additional strength.

Figure 6.9. Hollow concrete blocks (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.10. Hollow concrete blocks house (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

F. Reinforced Cement Concrete frames (RCC) This building type can be found widespread in urban and semi-urban areas of Nepal, and is one of the most emerging building methods (Yukta Bilas Marhatta, 2007 & Chapagain). An important distinction can be made between engineered and non-engineered (informally constructed) concrete frames. The main structural system is a moment-resisting reinforced cement concrete skeletal frame of cast-in-place concrete beams and columns with masonry infill walls. Infill is mostly

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solid clay bricks; infill with stone masonry is also seen in informal structures.

Figure 6.11. Reinforced cement concrete frame with brick infill house (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.12. Reinforced cement concrete frame with brick infill house build on a slope (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

GG. Timber constructions Timber constructions are often used in Nepal. They are often constructed in stud wall frame or wood frame construction, with either concrete or stone foundations. Walls are built out of vertical timber elements and are stiffened by plywood or gypsum board sheathing. The roofs are often executed out of timber joists or prefab timber trusses (Arnold).

Figure 6.13.: Timber framed house, infill of mountain stone (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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Figure 6.14. Timber framed house, with a mountain stone foundation (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). 66.2 Reference building methods The reference building methods are inspired by methods used in other earthquake prone countries with comparable geographical, income, and seismic characteristics and knowledge as Nepal. Some of the countries taken into account are Pakistan, Haiti, North India, Peru, Indonesia, but also some more advanced countries such as Japan and Chili. These reference-building methods often make use of cheap and innovative methods that are used in the different earthquake-prone areas around the world.

A. Adobe This building method is common for low-income rural populations. The Adobe building method uses building materials such as earth, un-stabilized mud-like blocks or sun-dried bricks. This building method is one of the earliest building methods in the world, dating back to 8000B.C. (Houben). The typical building consists of a strip footing foundation, adobe material walls and floors spanned with wood joists. The roof is usually clad with clay tiles or corrugated sheet metal. (Garcia)

Figure 6.15. Construction of house made with adobe bricks (Municpio, nd.)

Figure 6.16.: Adobe house in Nepal that the quake (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

B. Dhajji Dewari Traditional building method in the western Himalayas, mostly found in Pakistan and India. Similar building methods can be found in parts of Europe and Central America (K. Hiçyılmaz, 2011). It is largely adopted as a rebuilding method after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. The building method exists of an extensively braced timber frame filled with either stone or brick masonry held together with mud mortar. The method is generally laid on shallow foundations stone masonry (K. B. Hiçyılmaz, Jitendra ; Stephenson , Maggie, 2012). Flooring is done with timber beams, which span wall-to-wall, timber floorboards on top of the beams are overlain with a layer of clay/ mud. Roofs are either flat, timber logs with a mud layer pitched timber constructions with metal roof sheeting.

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Figure 6.17.: Timber frame filled with mountain stone (worldhousing, nd).

Figure 6.18: Timber framed house filled with mountain stones (worldhousing, nd)

CC. Rammed earth This ancient technique is mostly used for residential purposes in many different countries. Also in Nepal it is used in many places ranging from the Terai (plains) to the Himalayas. Rammed earth is the in-situ ramming of moist soil into a placed mold (Sassu & Ngoma, 2015) to make foundations, floors and walls. Rammed earth is gaining renewed interest, due to its usage of sustainable and locally available building material. The roofs are mostly made of timber or bamboo structure (pitched) and clad with corrugated iron sheets.

Figure 6.18. Construction work of a rammed earth wall (Wentworth designs, 2009).

Figure 6.19. Section of a rammed earth wall.

D. Steel Structural steel was predominately used for industrial and agricultural structures and found its up rise in the Second World War. () After the war the use of steel as a construction material for buildings, bridges and other structures was widely accepted and accessible due to its cost- efficiency. Nowadays steel is not only used for complex structures but also for regular housing projects in seismically active areas, such as Japan where the use of steel in building housing is subsidized.

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Figure 6.20.: Steel framed house with brick infill house in Nepal (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.21. Steel frame in Nepal (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

EE. Concrete in-situ shear wall Buildings made with cast-in-situ reinforced concrete walls have been practiced since 1960. This type can be widely found in urban regions of seismic hazard areas such as Canada, Chile, Romania, Turkey, Columbia and the republics of the former Soviet Union (Moroni). Shear walls are usually placed along both length and width of buildings; they carry earthquake loads downwards to the foundation. Shear walls can be executed in several ways such as, all shear wall, tunnel or limited shear wall.

Figure 6.22. Placement of concrete shear walls in a structure (mahve, nd).

Figure 6.23. Construction of a shearwall (ENR, 2011).

F. Confined Masonry This building type is found in urban and rural areas highly seismic areas, for example Chile. This type is practiced in most countries since the last 30-35 years, the building method gets its strength from tie-columns which are cast-in-place after the masonry wall construction has been completed. Tie-columns and tie beams work as ties that provide reinforcement to the structure. Reinforcement steel is needed to provide this tie function between the columns and beams. {Rodriquez}.

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Figure 6.24. Confined masonry principle, load bearing infill walls (SCG, nd).

Figure 6.25. Construction sequence of confined masonry walls.

66.3 New building methods The new building methods are not in all cases necessarily new, some of these methods use existing materials and techniques and incorporate them into a building in a different manner while others use an entirely new technique. Often these methods focus on the speed of construction, the affordable ness and use of lightweight materials that perform well when loaded laterally.

A. Bamboo Bamboo is found in several forms in the construction practice in Nepal {Pokhrel}. It can be used as building material in combination with other materials. Floor or roof systems, or as an reinforcement for methods such as adobe or stone. Bamboo can be used practically for the majority of the housing components (walls, floors, roof, doors, windows, and stairs) but in practise is most common in the Terai region as building method and only as scaffolding in other parts of Nepal.

Figure 6.26.: Bamboo with corrugated sheet shelter (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.27. Bamboo house designed for long-term housing (Kagay, n.d.).

B. Earthbags The use of piled sandbags for the creation of walls is a technique that has been used for decades in flood protection and by the military in creating strong barriers. However the application of using sturdy bags filled with local materials for use in the construction sector is fairly new. () In building with earthbags different kind of methods are developed such as regular earthbags, super earthbags, hyper earthbags and sandsbags. Earthbags have been used in many countries to develop cheap and easy to construct houses. They can incorporate barbed wire and/or rebar for the strengthening of weak spots.

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Figure 6.28. Construction of a house build with earthbags (Goodearthnepal, 2014).

Figure 6.29. Earthbag walls with a timber roof (natural building, 2010).

CC. Interlocking Bricks Interlocking bricks are bricks that form a connection with each other without necessarily the addition of mortar. The blocks are shaped with projecting parts, which fit exactly into depressions in the blocks placed above, such that they are automatically aligned horizontally and vertically which makes bricklaying possible without special masonry skills. The row interlocking of bricks that lie directly on the foundation is done with cement and must be completely straight. On top of that bricks can be laid down. In the end the holes can be filled up with cement and steel barns for reinforcement. Interlocking bricks can be made locally and consist of a mixture of cement and soil.

Figure 6.30. Machine used for producing interlocking bricks (Myib, 2015).

Figure 6.31. Construction of a house with interlocking bricks (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

D. Light weight steel profile building systems (Veerhuis, Hulas, Finish Profiles) This method is currently not widely used in Nepal but has been used in many disasters struck countries for rapid rebuilding. The building method makes use of steel plate rolls which can be bended into profiles on location, the profiles are easily connected by bolts and nuts, and the walls can be filled in with any type of material from local to Styrofoam.

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Figure 6.32.: Lightweight steel house seen in Nepal (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.33. Construction of lightweight steel framed house (veerhuis, 2012).

EE. Prefab-framed in-situ concrete (Sismo) Prefab-sandwich concrete panels are currently not used in Nepal but are used in countries with similar conditions. The frame exists of a simple construction made of hollow steel wire/ Styrofoam panels which should be filled with concrete, the method allows for the use of rebar and other strengthening’s. To be able to construct these houses in Nepal a new factory and office need to be realized that works by importing styrene fluid for the creation of foam panels. The steel wire is the same as used in car tires and therefore a material that should be locally present. For harder to reach areas a mobile production system can be attached to a truck. The interior and exterior walls can be finished in any way, giving the opportunity to safeguard the Nepali architecture and culture.

Figure 6.34. Prefab-frames used for construction (SISMO, 2009).

Figure 6.35. Construction of a house with Rapidwall panels. (greencross, nd).

F. Single Panel Walling System (RapidWall) Rapid Building Systems make use of Gypsum plaster products that are present in debris in the building and construction industry. The panel serves both as the internal and external wall and eliminates the need for bricks, blocks, timber wall frames. The panels are load bearing and can be used in single, double, or multi storey construction. RapidWall is mainly used in India and China, the two countries in which between Nepal is landlocked. Also both surrounding countries have Rapidwall factories (2009, RapidWall, presentation UN-Habitat).

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7. Set of higher level requirements In the previous chapters the problem space has been explored by defining the main problems in Nepal. Information is useful when considering rebuilding of affected Nepal has been categorised and documented. This information needs to be translated to a form in which it can be used for the definition of solutions fitting the problem. This chapter will elaborate on this process. GGeneral idea The bulk of generated information contributes to the definition of solutions that are suited for the earthquake safe rebuilding of Nepal. However this bulk of information can become disordered and inconvenient to use possibly resulting in the loss of information when designing. To enable the systematic and structural mapping of the criteria for housing, the theory of Wasson (2005) is used to define a set of higher level requirements. The aspects that are fixed for Nepal are described while the aspects that vary per specific settlement classification are left open to ensure the applicability of the requirements for all settlements typologies. These requirements are initially abstract and describe the performance that is expected from a solution. While more information becomes available or is defined more clearly the set of requirements are updated, this happens in as a repetitive process. Defining the aspects To define clear requirements, the goal of a project needs to be clear. Having a clear goal allows for the creation of fitting requirements. This main goal is based on vision of the Shock Safe Nepal project and the gathered information being, the provision of a safe housing solution which is available, suitable and affordable for long term earthquake resistant construction in Nepal and which can be integrated in the local building and housing tradition. To define the aspects to fit the main goal and problems a group workshop was organised. The input for this workshop was the information gathered in the first weeks of doing literature

reviews, interviews and meetings and observations. This information was used to determine the important factors required to solve the problem. These factors were defined and combined into six aspects to keep it manageable. The following six aspects are defined: Technical, Resources, Feasibility, Social-Cultural, Functionality and Sustainability which together bound the ‘solution space’. 1. Technical The Technical aspect refers to the technical requirements that correspond to normal usage and seismic activity. It contains topics such as the seismic performance, the ability to improve seismic performance, the intended lifespan of a building, its climate performances and the amount and complexity of maintenance required. 2. Resources Resources aspect refers to the construction materials, physical labour and, the knowledge and time needed for the construction of a house. It contains topics such as the availability of materials, the familiarity regarding a method and the compliance to the building code. 3. Feasibility Feasibility refers to the monetary aspects with respect to the large scale rebuilding of Nepal and the impact on the local and national economy. Regarding the financial component it refers to affordability, the need for loans or external funding and government subsidisation. 4. Social Cultural Social-cultural refers to the requirements that are related to the identity of a village or community, the way buildings are used in non-private manners and the effect of religion on the requirements of a building. 5. Functional Functional refers to the functional requirements of a building with a certain use. It contains topics such as the ability for expansion, the functions for which a single building is used and how a homeowner lives in his/her house. 6. Sustainability Sustainability refers to the possibilities regarding the reuse and recycling of materials, the production process and the ability for self-sustaining elements.

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SSub-aspects Each of the six main aspects is defined by smaller aspects related to the main aspect. And each smaller aspect is again built up from even smaller parts. These smaller parts are the sub-aspects of an aspect. The aspects and sub-aspects within a main aspect form the first cycle of narrowing down to the requirements. Table 7.1 displays some of the aspects and sub-aspects that fall within the main aspect ‘Technical’. Higher level requirements Based on these multi-layered aspects, the set of requirements can be formulated with the use of all gathered information. New information can be coupled to existing requirements or new requirements can be formulated. Table 7.1 gives the requirements belonging to the aspects.

The full list of aspects and requirements can be found in Appendix 1.C Solution Space. Results With the use of the structure of the aforementioned six aspects and the information gathered in the report, a list of requirements to which each building method has to fit when constructing in Nepal is determined. These requirements are combined in a general requirements specification usable for the construction of houses in Nepal. When constructing in a specific part of Nepal the requirements specification needs to be extended to fit the requirements in that location. Thus forming a framework for determining suitable building methods per location.

Requirement ID

Aspect Sub-aspect Requirement Requirement Value Qualitative

Technical

TE-1011 Structural Building Components

Strength Loading types and loads withstandable by construction

Construction should minimally be able to withstand the constant and variable loads as given by the Building Code

TE-1012 Structural Building Components

Redundancy Presence of redundancy regarding structural elements

Structure should at least allow some redundant elements to relieve structure´s dependency on a single structural element in its imagined form.

TE-1013 Structural Building Components

Non-structural elements

Placement and amount of non-structural elements

Non-structural elements should not diminish the inherent properties of structural elements or general safety

TE-1014 Structural Building Components

Regulated safety

Level of safety needed in regular usage of building according to building code

If building type is mentioned in the building code then compliance with minimal requirements as stated in most recent version of the Nepali Building Code If not mentioned in building code then according to general structural principles

TE-1020 Seismic Performance

General seismic performance

Structure should be able to withstand seismic activity

Combination of aspects TE-1021 - TE-1025 determine the performance during seismic activity, the structure should at least be considered category C according to the Worldhousing.net classification

TE-1022 Seismic Performance

Diaphragms Degree of stiffness of diaphragms

Must allow for diaphragms that can provide ensure a uniform redistribution of lateral loads amongst structural elements

Table 7.1.: Aspects and sub-aspects within ‘Technical’ main aspect and corresponding requirements

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8. Discussion This chapter will elaborate on the limitations of the results and their consequences for report one. These shortcomings need to be taken into account by readers and future Shock Safe Nepal teams. The discussion points are categorised according to the main subjects that are elaborated in the report. IIntroduction Nepal – During the course of more than two months much information has been gathered by the Shock Safe Nepal team; some by research and observation and others in more indirect manners. In creating the general overview we intended to be informative whilst not being overkilling. Due to the time component, information that was incorporated might have become out-dated. It is advised that information is validated by each group and expanded where possible without overloading the reader with information. Another difficult aspect of the given introduction is that deeper layers might be missed due to a lack of experience. The given introduction is very broad and describes the overall situation of construction in Nepal, a consequence of this is that, when looking in to a specific topic, more study is required before further work can be built upon that base. A consequence of these points is that the reader still requires more study to really understand certain topics. Correctness and experience with zones – The zones used in this report have been partly adopted from the classification of the United Nations programme UN-Habitat. This choice for zoning is not definitive and zones might be added. Given the experiences obtained from two months in the affected parts of Nepal we can say with certainty that these zones do cover much of the load. However when doing research outside of the investigated area the zones might not be applicable due to the diversity of the built environment of Nepal. This creates the limitation that only a small part of the country is documented and validated.

Requirements package validation – At the start of the project the goal was to validate information in multiple cycles, through interviews and questionnaires. However we experienced some difficulty in obtaining the needed information from the questionnaires. The problem was that questionnaires needed to be easy enough to be understood while uncovering all the needed information. In some cases this proved to be too much, the questionnaires were still experienced as too difficult resulting sometimes in unusable or inaccurate data and therefore less reliability. Furthermore due to India’s unofficial trade blockade some field trips were not possible due to lack of gas, decreasing the amount of validation. Building methods – The chosen building methods were preselected on the base of some initial criteria. However some building methods were added after the scope choice of report part two. Therefore the building methods in part one cannot be seen as complete when taking into account the scope of entire Nepal. Addition of more building methods can increase the quality of future researches. The data gathered for each building method is not equally objective for each building method or each aspect per building method, due to different sources. The data might be biased by the writer or by the manufacturer providing the information. Stakeholders - The stakeholder analysis should be an ongoing process, their power and interest could change in time. Therefore the power-interest grid is a 'snapshot' of that period in time. Stakeholders can enter or exit the context of this report. In the mentioned situations the stakeholder analysis should be updated. The judgement on their power and interest is partly subjective, since power and interest are perceived values based on stakeholder characteristics. Therefore controlling and updating by future teams is advised.

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9. Conclusion The main goal of report one is the assessment of challenges regarding rebuilding Nepal. The report serves as a start-up document for further research by future Shock Safe Nepal teams. The created products cover five aspects that are useful when considering a construction project in Nepal. These products are the general overview of Nepal, a geographical classification including research topics, earthquake engineering principles, an overview of the initially selected building methods, and a general set of higher level requirements applicable for all zones. The conclusions and recommendations are therefore addressed to future Shock Safe Nepal teams and any interested party who is planning construction activities and/or research in Nepal. GGeneral Nepal is a country that is rich in diversities; from its altitudes to the climatological areas, the religions and the many different ethnic identities. It is a country that is extremely rich when it comes to certain natural beauties, such as the tourist attracting sceneries and culture historic areas. But also very rich in some intangible cultural aspects, such as tight family ties and the complex intertwinement of society. On the other hand it is very poor when it comes to wealth, reliability of infrastructure and stability of the political climate. Many factors contribute to the difficulties and possibilities of rebuilding in Nepal. The main issues when it comes to rebuilding Nepal consist of existing structural issues and newly formed earthquake related issues. Some of its structural challenges are that Nepal is very much dependent on its neighbouring countries due to its lack of certain natural resources; it is especially dependent of India who serves as the main importing partner for electricity in peak hours, construction materials and petrol. Furthermore it suffers from availability and reliability issues concerning the basic utilities such as the lack of electric capacity leading to load shedding. A lack of quality of infrastructure makes large parts of the country difficult to reach, especially during monsoon season due to heavy rainfall. The earthquakes also have caused some

large challenges such as the enormous number of houses that need to be rebuilt causing strain on the availability and costs of materials and labour. The buildings that have survived but still form a risk during future earthquakes need retrofitting. A conclusion which can be drawn after the assessment is that the main problem in rebuilding is not a lack of knowledge regarding earthquake safe construction but rather the implementation of this knowledge. The governmental and knowledge institutions face difficulties in transferring the available knowledge to the homeowners and builders. The available knowledge is thus not always used in the construction sector, forming a problem which is especially noticeable in rural and remote areas. Drafting the new constitution and the new building codes have suffered many delays causing the reconstruction of the country to stagnate. Luckily the resilience and optimistic attitude of the Nepali people enable them to react flexibly and take measures into their own hands by constructing temporary shelters for instance. A downside of this is short term solutions, such as housing made out of all corrugated sheets, turning into long term solutions. Luckily there is a young and ambitious generation of Nepali who are willing to make changes in Nepal. Summarizing, the main problems of rebuilding Nepal seem organisational, however with a technical and financial background. Research on managerial and technical aspects of the problems should provide outcome for the above mentioned observations. Combined SWOT Based on the information retrieved from the literature research, market research, site visits, interviews and meetings in the Netherlands and Nepal several conclusions have been made. These conclusions are given below and are summarised in a SWOT, exposing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of rebuilding Nepal. These observations should serve as guidelines for report 2 of team one and future Shock Safe Nepal teams.

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SStrength Financial resources for start of the rebuilding

process available, since international funds have been pledged and the government proposed a gift and loan system;

Financial, material and engineering aid by external parties and or countries to specific villages;

Worldwide natural goodwill towards Nepal; Resilience and optimistic attitude of

population with respect to discomforts, such as disaster situations;

Strong family ties and tight social structures make that people help each other;

The creativity and ingenuity of people make them adaptable and flexible in certain situations;

Rich in natural scenery and culture, attracting large scale tourism;

Many culturally historic values; Existing traditional construction methods

which are proven to be earthquake resistant to a certain level.

Weakness Lack of sufficient financial resources cause

dependency on international aid; Young democratic political history with

climate which is not efficient and decisive; Overall lack of consistency and reliability

regarding quality of construction material; Lack of knowledge on earthquake safe

engineering and constructing on execution level;

Insufficient adequately skilled masons and construction workers;

Young generation migrates for a better financial situation, construction workers for instance move to the United Arab Emirates for work;

Little chances of knowledge flowing back from overseas construction workers that gained good experience;

Lack of equipment, such as machines to remove RCC debris;

Difficult/mountainous terrain to build on (Himalayas);

Lack of control on permits and building codes; Incremental building (adding of extra or

asymmetric stories after completion); Buildings often too close to each other;

pounding effect during earthquake; Lack of certain natural resources causing a

great need for import; Unbalanced between import and export,

billions vs. millions; Located on active fault lines making it

seismically active; Structural challenges concerning the

availability of utilities (gas, electricity and water);

Dependence on neighbouring countries, especially India;

Many people live below poverty line; Educated people move abroad for better

living conditions and jobs; Heavy monsoon season, harvesting season

and many festivals cause a short time slot in which construction is possible;

Bad infrastructure between and within cities and villages, making many places difficult to reach;

Heavy rainfall during monsoon destroys much of the weak infrastructure;

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OOpportunity Learning from foreign organisations which

provide aid in Nepal; Build Nepal back better, prepared for future

earthquakes; To create more earthquake awareness; The infrastructure can benefit from the

national reconstruction, resulting in improvement of roads, water, electricity and gas utilities;

Room for entrepreneurship, better investment climate;

Possibility to learn new construction techniques that can be embedded or adapted in the culture;

Large unskilled labour force available that can be utilised for construction;

Young and ambitious group of young Nepali willing to make changes in Nepal;

Many unexploited possibilities in the hydropower sector, a natural resource that can be exported;

More and more educated people, youngest generation largely bilingual;

Threat Politically unstable climate is preventing the

Nepalese government from forming an executive body in the rebuilding process which is necessary for collecting the pledged international funds;

Haste in rebuilding (before monsoon and before winter) may have negative influence on housing quality and/or culture historical character;

People are waiting for the new building codes to be completed before starting to construct since they are afraid to have to ‘redo’ it or won't get the pledged monetary aid from the government;

Donated corrugated sheets widely used for housing instead of temporary housing resulting in ‘ugly’ sight which is not part of Nepalese architecture;

People unfairly trust non-engineered RCC frame constructions because 10 year old concrete structures that have survived are being compared with 100 year old brick/wood traditional structures;

An abundance of NGO’s, governmental organisations, companies, private persons etc. can make the situation disordered or cause unnecessary overlap of work;

Diversity of ethnic groups can cause invisible difficulties in the design of houses;

Diversity of altitudes cause divers climatological zones which increase design challenge;

The short term orientation of Nepal can cause difficulty in design and execution;

The large number of houses needing to be rebuilt can have negative effect on the costs and availability of materials and labour;

Due to much uncontrolled construction lack of supervision and control on non-engineered construction;

Creativity and ingenuity can be used to ‘fix’ damaged buildings;

The large scale need for retrofitting of existing structures to increase safety during seismic activity;

Temporary shelters and refugee camps may become permanent;

Many interesting earthquake safe building methods not known in Nepal;

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10. RecommendationsThe recommendations for report one on further research by future Shock Safe Nepal teams can be divided into: 1. Updating the report sections As mentioned in the Discussion chapter we advise future teams to update the context overview, building methods, and research challenges. Reasons to do so are: During the last half year Nepal experienced influential changes to the country, such as the earthquake leaving the country to rebuild, the approval of the first constitution of the country, and an ongoing border blockade. During the documentation of the report probably not all consequences of these events were noticeable. Combined with the changing situation over time it is important to update. Most interesting aspects for the context overview are political situation, construction sector (material availability and cost) and financial aspects. Financial aspects are especially interesting for the building methods. 2. Sharing our knowledge Future Shock Safe Nepal teams are advised to cooperate with Dutch and Nepalese organizations that on one hand can help the team in its research, but on the other hand is interested in the implementation of the results. Creating a knowledge platform on earthquake engineering is one of the overall goals, sharing this information should benefit Nepal. 3. Solving observed challenges Solving the existing list of challenges could provide the much needed support in the reconstruction of Nepal and contributes to achieving the goal of Shock Safe Nepal. The challenges are divided into two groups: related to housing zones (A-E) and additional topics.

Zone A:

Retrofitting or repairing the damaged RCC frames and brick masonry houses

Rebuilding historical heritage sites Control on/building according building

codes

Demolition of severely damaged buildings Logistical challenge due to limited space

Zone B:

Designing feasible low-tech housing Unattractive nature of Zone B Uncontrolled construction Update urban planning

Zone C:

Combining earthquake safe housing while maintaining traditional character

Maintenance of traditional housing Use of historical artefacts in

reconstruction Zone D:

Safely construct on slopes Implementation of different foundation

types Design of multifunctional structures

(housing / workspace / restaurant) Choice of material, transport cost,

dependant Implement the use of second-hand

material Implementation of functions for a

profession in building types

Zone E: Restore infrastructure Distribution of knowledge on earthquake

safe building Earthquake safe designs with local

materials Choice of the correct building sites

Additional topics

Waste management Clean drinking water in urban areas Stable energy provision Efficient road network Distribution of professional knowledge Start-up local entrepreneurship Management of local resources (wood,

water, soil)

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11. Critical review of construction in Nepal

After writing report one we found it necessary to give a critical review on the construction situation in Nepal. It is important to notice that this part is written out of our personal perspective gained in our eight-week site visit. The earthquakes happened half a year ago and at first sight not much on-going reconstruction is observed. On most of the main roads the debris has been removed and the materials are stacked for re-use. At the more far-off locations the collapsed buildings are still visible and the sites look untouched. At first notice it is not clear what happened with the former inhabitants. At the remote locations the earthquake-affected areas look even more abandoned. A large part of the population in Nepal lacks the resources to rebuild their house but also the demolition and clearing up of the sites has to be paid by the house owner therefore these issues remain. During our visit we have seen the rebuilding of structures, but almost all of these structures where seen as temporary.

Construction of permanent housing halted because everyone is waiting for the government to distribute the new building code, to which new construction has to comply. People are waiting for the distribution of the relief funds, a requirement for receiving this fund is complying with the earlier mentioned building codes. As students we think the upgrade of the building codes is important for safety of future construction in Nepal, but it is harsh to see the people suffering so long after the real disaster happened. The main reasons for this delay are the other agenda items of the Government of Nepal, mainly the draft and acceptance of the first constitution was important. In the last period of our stay also the political situation with India forced the government to shift their focus. Before large-scale reconstruction in Nepal can be initiated all these side issues have to be resolved. This situation shows the lack of political decisiveness needed to rebuild a country in need. It is important for future teams to keep this situation in mind when doing their research in Nepal, but this should certainly not stop you from helping the people of Nepal.

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Report Two Ribbon development in rural areas

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1. Introduction Report one describes five different settlement zones, each with their own characteristics and challenges. In report two one of these challenges is chosen for further elaboration. This report focuses on a challenge seen in the Rural Villages (Zone D), more specifically, the challenges concerning Ribbon Developments in sloped areas. During the research for report one this challenge was experienced as a major problem and was not specific targeted by any of the local organizations. This type of settlement, the Ribbon Development, consists of a group of houses or buildings that are arranged along the length of the road. These villages are often formed by physical restrictions or attractions that create a linear barrier forcing the village to expand along the line next to the existing buildings creating the prolonged form of the settlement. These barriers can be of geographical or of man-made nature such as rivers, mountain ridges or paved and unpaved roads (Mandal, 2001). Due to consummation of accessible land in the west and the difficulty to develop the east, in the 1980s and 90s the urban growth of Kathmandu was generally occurring in north-south direction. On the main trade routes between the capital and surrounding villages people started to build along the main road forming the Ribbon Developments. An example of this is the intensification of land use for buildings on the route between Kathmandu and Bhaktapur since the 80s. One of the reasons for this urbanisation was the trolley connection between Bhaktapur and Kathmandu (ICIMOD, 2007). Ribbon Developments are commonly seen along the main routes in Nepal, especially along the

North-South orientated trade routes between China and India. Due to the economic growth of the main cities and the increasing accessibility of mountainous areas the Ribbon Developments increase in size. In some cases it develops sufficient size and a distinctive market centre enabling it to attract new buildings behind the initial line of (commercial) buildings, slightly altering the shape of the linear settlement (Singh, 2012). In the earthquake affected area the landscape is very mountainous with winding roads going up mountain slopes. This geological characteristic causes for differences in elevation along a route and the lack of level construction ground resulting in the villages expanding on or against a slope resulting in ‘interesting’ constructions. These constructions with irregular foundations attract unequal forces during an earthquake resulting in ‘weaker’ buildings of which many have collapse or are damaged buildings. Ribbon Developments have certain opportunities. Often they are relatively well accessible by road allowing for supply of materials. They lack historical value or are not targeted by heritage preservation groups or to heritage laws giving a degree of (design) freedom. In this report a design solution will be sought for a specific problem in Ribbon Developments. This will be done by assessing the challenges in this village type, linking these to the earlier uncovered general information given by report one and new, case specific, information.

Figure 1.1: Hillside Ribbon Development on the road to Kakani, Nepal (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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PProblem definition The Ribbon Developed Settlements are observed to face several challenges. Due to the increasing population in the Kathmandu valley settlements are rapidly increasing in the hilly areas surrounding the valley and the highway corridors (Narayanan et. al., 2012). These highway corridor locations are often commercially favourable for small businesses such as shops, restaurants and workplaces combined with housing increasing their rapid expansion, stimulates the linear shape and reducing the choice for building locations. The growth of these settlements is often very fast and uncontrolled, most of the areas lack rules and regulations because they are regulated by local village development committees (Kharel et al., 2014 2014). Location, design and construction are often informally decided and executed instead of being engineered leading to more risks being taken than necessary. Even though there is limited research done on building on slopes in the mountainous areas of Nepal, there is a substantial body of knowledge from other areas indicating several structural vulnerabilities and challenges. Multiple studies indicate that buildings resting on sloping ground are more prone to earthquake damage than buildings resting on flat ground due to unequal stress distributions in the unequal columns (Khadiranaikar, 2014). The commercial functions at road level create a vulnerability due to the before mentioned. And the mountainous

locations have an increased risk of extremely destructive land-, rock- and mudslides after earthquakes or heavy rain capable of destroying entire villages. A combination of these problems creates an interesting problem space which can have different answers. The objective of the report is to find out what the preferred building methods are when constructing earthquake safe housing in Ribbon Developments on sloped ground. From these preferred building methods an initial design is desired to show how these building methods can be implemented. The preferred building method should be technical able to withstand a next earthquake while also meeting social-cultural and functional requirements of the local people. Finally the resources should be available to construct the building in a sustainable and financially feasible manner. Research question This problem definition leads to the research of preferred building methods when constructing earthquake safe housing in rural areas, more specifically in Ribbon Developments on sloped ground, resulting in the following research question: What are the preferred post-earthquake reconstruction solutions, which are bound by social-cultural, financially feasible, technical, resource, functional and sustainable requirement aspects, which can be representative for all ribbon developed settlements in post-earthquake Nepal?

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2. Methodology

The following methodology is used to answer the research question, which followed from the problem definition.

The information from report one will be elaborated on the rural village settlement typology. With the help of observations and feedback sessions with local experts an extended SWOT analysis focussed on ribbon development in the rural village settlement typology will be made. With the information from this SWOT analysis the overall requirements for construction in Nepal, made in report one, will be altered and elaborated to correspond to the requirements needed for construction in ribbon development in rural village settlements.

The minimum requirements for construction in rural village settlements will be determined by interviews and questionnaires, from which the results are compared with the literature and observations of the project team. The list of minimum requirements will be used to span the solution space for ribbon development.

Each building method will be scored according to the set requirements; this will be done using a one-to-five scoring method to give qualitative values. The scored building methods will be plotted in the solution space to exclude the building methods that do not fit the desired requirements.

A Multi Criteria Analysis (MCA), with weighting factors determined by combining the local preference with the technical demand, will rank the remaining building methods on preference to define the most desirable solutions. To ensure the weight factors are correct a sensitivity analysis with different scenarios and viewpoints will be performed, resulting in a short-list of building

methods fit for and preferred in the chosen settlement type.

One building method out of this short-list will be further elaborated, without providing structural validation. The focus point for the design will follow from solution space definition and will be proposed in a conceptual preliminary design. The design based on the case village should serve as a conceptual solution for the entire settlement type. The result will form the input for the recommendations for further research. Scope To keep the project manageable a scope is determined. The scope of report two is limited to ribbon development in the rural settlement type with as focus point ‘construction on the downhill side of the slope’. The list of building methods that are described in report one form the basis for report two, this list will not be extended. Also the amount of requirements which span the solution space are limited to the information described in the building methods since it is not possible to assign values to a requirement when the required information is not available. The list of MCA requirements is limited to minimise dependencies between requirements and to identify a clear distinction between the accepted building methods. By this limitation larger percentages are distributed to the chosen requirements and larger differences will be shown. Because of the changing political situation it is not found feasible to come up with reliable data on the cost perspective of the building methods. The relative costs between building methods will be based on a ranking.

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3. Elaboration on case village To gather data on ribbon developments, a case village is chosen that fits the requirements and challenges as described in the problem definition, being:

Village is a ribbon development, with possible parallel building rows behind the initial line;

Buildings are built on slopes; It is situated on a main road giving

commercial and economic characteristics; It shows signs of expansion e.g.

construction, lively streets.

33.1 Location As can be seen in figures 3.1 and 3.2 Dhunche is situated just outside the valley to the north of Kathmandu. It lies on a main route to the Chinese/Tibetan border, making it a busy route with economic and commercial characteristics. The village is located at the main road between Kathmandu and Tibet in the lower regions of the Himalayas. The mountainous terrain limits the amount of flat construction sites resulting in building being constructed on slopes and leaning against the road.

Figure 3.1: Dhunche on national scale, (Maps.google).

Figure 3.2: Dhunche on a local scale (Maps.google).

3.2 Demography Dhunche is part of a Village Development Community and capital of the Rasuwa district. In 2001 the village population was 2330, with a total number of households of 504. Two-third of the population is Buddhist and one third is Hindu (Nepal Census Data 2011). Later data is not available but during the site-visit many newly constructed buildings where seen.

3.3 Function Dhunche is often used as a ‘mountain station’, for distribution to the higher mountains and as a base of departure for companies who work in the higher mountains e.g. NGO’s. Being one of the last larger settlements on this road through the mountains, it often functions as a start or end point for recreational hikes. For these two reasons a number of hotels and lodges are seen in Dhunche.

3.4 Built environment The built environment and infrastructure showed some characteristics which can of interest. These have been divided in the following categories, building characteristics, layout of main road, utilities and accessibility. On building level it is seen that most of the buildings have commercial or profession related spaces on the road level floor. Many of the buildings are not limited to single storeys but often range between two to five storeys, with some exceptions exceeding these numbers. The layout of the main road is lacking, resulting in no clear functions defined on the road. The road has certain dimensions which are bounded by the buildings and private territories. This limited road width serves multiple functions such as stalls for shops, tables for restaurants, pedestrians, parked vehicles, local traffic and traffic that is passing through the village. The utilities in Dhunche are similar to other villages in Nepal, power is fed to houses by cables. Water is guided into the village from natural springs and is publically accessible from several points by means of a well or faucet. It is also seen that some of the wealthier households have water tanks on their

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roofs and water supply is more integrated in the building. The accessibility of Dhunche is heavily depended on the weather conditions, in good weather conditions the village can be reached within a day’s drive from Kathmandu. While during the monsoon season there is much chance that parts of the road are impassable due to

heavy rainfall, the road being washed away or landslides that have destroyed the road. The differing accessibility of Dhunche has implications on the supply of construction materials making it very difficult to have a reliable logistic route.

Figure 3.3: Dhunche okt 2012 by Yarda Volsicky (maps.google)

Figure 3.4: Dhunche okt 2012 by Yarda Volsicky (maps.google)

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33.6 Post-earthquake situation The situation of Dhunche almost half a year after the earthquakes still shows signs of the earthquakes on the built environment. Gaps in the line of buildings, tent camps, damaged buildings, much sheet metal used in many different ways and (abandoned) construction sites. The new buildings being constructed appeared to be mainly RCC frame structures, while repairs were often done to other building types. To confirm the ribbon development characteristics and to gather more data two other ribbon developments were visited. The additional villages are Kakani and Panga, respectively north and west of Kathmandu. The villages, even though not outside the Kathmandu Valley showed similarities to Dhunche. The inhabitants are forced to build on a slope, numerous ground floors have commercial functions, reconstruction is happening mainly with RCC frames and street layout is very similar with passive, active, slow and fast traffic on the same road. The information gained from these case villages will all be combined to form the base for the following steps.

Figure 3.5: Construction site in Dhunche (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 3.6: Buildings on a slope in Dhunche (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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4. SWOT for case village To find out what the preferred building methods are for the case village Dhunche, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats are determined. This is done by building upon the existing information from report one and adding

to this the gathered information during the site visits, interviews and literature research done for the case village. This results in the following SWOT table. The SWOT is the basis to determine the requirements and the design of the solution.

SStrength: Presence of commercial functions result the availability

of financial resources for the start of the rebuilding process Financial, material and Engineering aid by external

parties and or countries to specific villages; Resilience and optimistic attitude of population with

respect to discomforts, such as disaster situations; Strong family ties and tight social structures make that

people help each other; The creativity and ingenuity of people make them

adaptable and flexible in certain situations; Rich in natural scenery, attracting large-scale tourism;

OOpportunity: Learn from foreign organisations providing aid in

Nepal; Build back better, prepared for future earthquakes; To create more earthquake awareness; The infrastructure can benefit from the national

reconstruction, resulting in improvement of roads, water, electricity and gas utilities; Room for entrepreneurship, better investment

climate; Possibility to learn new construction techniques that

can be embedded or adapted in the culture; Large unskilled labour force available that can be

utilised for construction; Young and ambitious group of Nepali willing to make

changes in Nepal; More and more educated people, youngest generation

largely bilingual; WWeakness: Lack of sufficient financial resources cause dependency

on international aid; Lack of appropriate building sides because of hilly

character; Overall lack of consistency and reliability regarding

quality of construction material; Lack of knowledge on earthquake safe engineering and

constructing on execution level; Insufficient skilled masons and construction workers; Lack of equipment to remove RCC debris; Difficult/mountainous terrain to build on (Himalayas); Part of a VDC resulting in Lack of control on permits

and building codes; Incremental building (adding of extra or asymmetric

stories after completion); Buildings too close to each other; pounding effect

during earthquake; Lack of certain natural resources causing a great need

for import, policy on cutting trees; Close to the active fault lines making it a seismically

active region; Structural challenges concerning the availability of

utilities (gas, electricity and water); Heavy monsoon season, harvesting season and many

festivals cause a short construction time slot; Bad infrastructure between and within cities and

villages, making many places difficult to reach; Heavy rainfall during monsoon destroys much of the

weak infrastructure;

TThreat: Politically unstable climate is preventing the Nepalese

government from forming a executive body in the rebuilding process and collecting the pledged international funds; Haste in rebuilding (before monsoon and before

winter) may have negative influence on housing quality and/or culture historical character; People are waiting for the new building codes to be

completed before starting to construct since they are afraid to have to ‘redo’ it or won't get the promised monetary aid; People unfairly trust non-engineered RCC frame

constructions because 10-year-old concrete structures that have survived are being compared with 100-year-old brick/wood traditional structures; Diversity of ethnic groups can cause invisible

difficulties in the design of houses; The short-term orientation of Nepal can cause

difficulty in design and execution; The large number of houses needing to be rebuilt can

have negative effect on the costs and availability of materials and labour; Due to much uncontrolled construction lack of

supervision and control on non-engineered construction; The large-scale need for retrofitting of existing

structures to increase safety during seismic activity; Temporary shelters and refugee camps may become

permanent;

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5. Solution space The solution space method is used to find out which building methods are suited for the earthquake safe rebuilding in ribbon developments in Nepal. This is determined by setting the harder and crisper boundaries of a solution based on minimum requirements. In the chapter the applied method will be explained and the results will be given. DDefinition According to Wasson the definition of a solution space is: “A bounded abstraction that represents a capability and level of performance that, when implemented, is intended to satisfy all or a portion of a higher level problem space.” (Wasson, 2005). Translated to this project the solution space will be a list of higher-level requirements to which a building method in a ribbon development should minimally comply.

5.1 Requirements The problem space consists out of a number of higher level requirements which have been systematically defined for housing in Nepal. The full list of requirements can be found in Appendix 1.C general requirements Nepal.

Figure 5.1: General requirements specifications Nepal (Shock Safe Nepal group 1)

The defining of a solution space is not a one-time task but an iterative process with feedback loops and validations. For the creation of the requirements specification corresponding to the Ribbon Development a similar approach is applied by expanding the general requirements specification with the data retrieved from the various inputs. The results are requirements applicable to Ribbon Developments in rural areas. To keep the requirements measurable at this level

of abstraction they are elaborated into qualitative values. These Ribbon Development requirements can be found in 2.A: General requirements ribbon development. These requirements should be considered when designing solutions for a similar location.

Figure 5.2: General requirements ribbon development (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

5.2 Scoring The initial 47 requirements are slimmed down to maintain an overview and keep the project manageable. This selection is made based on the degree of importance of a certain specification and the information available for each building method elaborated in report one. The final list of requirements to be used for spanning the solution space is 31 requirements. These requirements will be used in determining if a building method is fit for the given context. To determine if a building method meets a requirement a quantitative score is needed. For all the requirements a one-to-five scoring method is used, with a one as the lowest possible value and five as the highest possible value. It is important to notice that the one-to-five scoring method is not a ranking but a category into which the building method is placed; therefore not all the categories/values can or have to be answered. The scale values per requirements can be found in Appendix 2.B: Explanation of values.

Figure 5.3: example of qualitative value and scale explanation (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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The explanation of the requirement is made as clear as possible, for some scales it is crisp due to the possibility of quantitative assessment, while for others it is only possible to give qualitative explanations. To clarify the reasoning behind the scores a short explanation of the scores is given in Appendix 2.F: Explanations of building methods scores.

Figure 5.4: explanation scores building methods (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). The information needed to score the building methods on the each requirement is given in the overview of building methods out in report one, the literature study, observations and interviews are combined into a general informative document. An overview of all the scores given to each requirement and for each building method is given in Appendix 2.C: Overview scores building methods.

Figure 5.5: part of scoring building methods overview (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

55.3 Minimum values The six aspects and their underlying 34 specification requirements span the solution space. To bind the solution space for each requirement minimum values are determined in a group workshop, each participant independently gives their input and the deviating values are discussed during the workshop. The minimum values from the workshop are subjected to a sensitivity analysis, this is done to determine if the

chosen values were considered to be acceptable. Values that show unanticipated results are discussed and reconsidered according to the scoring method. The sensitivity analysis showed changes in the minimum values of seven requirements: Technical Aspect: the minimum values of

Seismic performance, Improved Seismic Performance, Sensitivity to Surface and Maintenance Reliability are increased by one.

Resources Aspect: the minimum value of Material Quality and Technical Period are increased by one.

Feasibility Aspect: the minimum value of Use of Local resources is increased by one.

Figure 5.6: example of minimum values (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). The final list of minimum values for the solution space can be found in Appendix 2.C: Overview scores building methods.

5.4 Filtering by solution space All the building methods are filtered by the boundaries of the solutions space, determined by the minimum values of each requirement. In Appendix 2.C.: Overview scores building methods the points where a building method does not meet the minimum requirements are marked in red. In some cases it may be wise to make an exception due to the minor lacking’s of a building method. The overview on the next page clarifies which building methods are accepted, excluded or passed by exception. For each category the above average and below average values are explained giving insight into the decision.

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AAccepted Building methods 1c. Stone masonry in cement mortar / 1d. Brick masonry in cement mortar Stone and Brick masonry in cement mortar score exceptional on the experience available and the architectural embedding; they score just acceptable on maintenance, amount of storeys and expandability. 1e. Hollow concrete brick masonry Hollow concrete brick masonry scores average to good on all sub-aspects. 1f. Reinforced Cement Concrete Frames RCC frames score well on improved seismic performance, the reliability of maintenance, adaptability, the number of storeys and the expandability. They score just acceptable on maintainability, use of national resources, and re-use and recyclability 2e. Concrete in-situ shear wall Shear walls are quite comparable to RCC frames, however it scores just acceptable on expandability and labour intensity due to entire walls that need to be reinforced. 2f. Confined masonry Confined masonry is quite comparable to RCC frames and Concrete in-situ shear walls. 3d. Light Weight Steel Profile Building Systems This building system scores very good on improved seismic performance, maintenance, the technical building period, the national benefit and recyclability. It scores just acceptable on the amount of storeys and the price ranking 3e. Prefab-framed in-situ concrete Prefab framed in-situ building systems score well on seismic performance, the reliability regarding maintenance, national benefit and the amount of storeys. It scores just acceptable on maintainability, the presence of experience regarding building, price ranking, the use of local resources and the recyclable ness.

Excepted building methods These are accepted with a remark due to minor lacking requirements. 1g. Timber construction The timber frame building method would be excluded based on that timber is expensive and not very abundant due to anti deforestation programs. Thus require import from countries such as China, India or Russia. This creates a dependency and limits the stimulation of local and national economy. An exception is made for the method based on that timber is seen as one of the top materials to build with in earthquake sensitive areas and thus is an interesting method to consider. A side note can be made regarding the subsidizing of timber by the Nepali government as a solution. 2b. Dhajji Dewari The Dhajji Dewari building method would be excluded on the fact that it is difficult to expand vertically and it offers little possibilities for large openings required for workspace due to the many timber braces. An exception is made because it resembles the traditional building styles and performs well in seismic active areas. A side note will be made regarding the possibility of using Dhajji Dewari in the surrounding houses instead of the ribbon-developed houses. 2d. Steel The structural steel frame building method would be excluded based on that structural steel profiles are not produced in Nepal and thus require import from countries such as China or India. This creates a dependency and limits the stimulation of local and national economy. An exception is made for the method based on that steel is seen as one of the top materials to build with in earthquake sensitive areas and thus is an interesting method to consider. A side note can be made regarding the subsidizing of steel by the Nepali government or the business potential of local steel production as a solution. 3c. Interlocking bricks The interlocking bricks system requires a perfectly level foundation for the blocks to be placed in a structurally correct manner, creating a foundation

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this accurate on a hillside requires much extra resources. Based on this the method would be excluded but the interlocking brick scores good on other aspects and appears to be a promising method. For these reasons an exception is made with the side note that the foundation must be engineered in such a manner that it is easily reproducible and reliable. 3f. Single Panel Walling System The single panel walling system would be excluded based on the requirement criteria regarding expandability, however an exception can be made here. In its standard form the method does not (optimally) allow for vertical expansion, but it could be engineered in such a manner that the building method could allow for vertical expansion. EExcluded building methods 1a. Low strength (stone) masonry / 1b. Low strength (brick) masonry Low strength stone and brick masonry fail to make the selection due to bad seismic performance, the expandability and the opportunity for workspace with respect to the context. 2a. Adobe / 2c. Rammed earth Both Adobe and Rammed earth fail to make the selection due to bad seismic performance, the amount of maintenance required, the amount of storeys, possibilities for vertical expansion and workspace with respect to the context. 3a. Bamboo Bamboo fails to make the selection due to its short lifespan and amount of maintenance required.

3b. Earthbags Earthbags fail on their proven seismic performance, the amount of storeys, the possibilities for vertical expansion and workspace with respect to the context. Side notes Because of limitations on the information on the price label these values are formulated as a ranking between the building methods. For the requirements that belong to the social/cultural aspect the boundary is defined by a combination of cultural adaptability and architectural embedding, a building method needs to fail on two of the requirements before the solution space excludes it. This combination is made because failing on one of the requirements can be overcome by good performance on one the other requirement. The same applies for maintenance, where a building method that scores poorly on both reliability and maintainability will be excluded from the solution space. Whereas if only one of these requirements is not met, the other one can compensate with a good score e.g. a building with very expensive or specialised maintenance but with almost no need for maintenance in its intended lifespan can still be an interesting option.

5.5 Conclusion The solution space divides the possible from the available building methods based on a reasoning of quantitative values. Some building methods are excluded from the solution space but are still considered valuable for the MCA since there is only one failing value to overcome, these building methods, the exceptions, are included with a side note. The final list of building methods that are fit for the Multi Criteria Analysis belong to the groups of the Accepted and Exceptions.

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6. Multi criteria analysis To find out which building methods are best suited for rebuilding in a ribbon development in Nepal the building methods that passed the solution space are subjected to a Multi Criteria Analysis. The following chapter explains the theory and reasoning behind the MCA resulting in a shortlist of suited building methods.

66.1 Theory on MCA A Multi Criteria Analysis is a decision-making tool, helping the decision maker. It establishes preferences between options by referring to a specific set of objectives. To do so measurable criteria are required to measure to which level the objectives are met (Communities & Committee, 2010). The London Department for Communities and Local Government describes the follow steps: 1. What objective should be represented by the

MCA 2. Identify options 3. Identify criteria 4. Analysis of the options: describe the

performance of each of the options for all aspects

5. Weighting: assign weights for each of the aspects to reflect importance of the decision maker

6. Combine the weights and scores to derive an overall value (also include a performance matrix)

7. Examine the results 8. Perform a sensitivity analysis in order to

suggest changes in scores and weights: changing weights of the aspects in order to see the change or consistency in output, changing the weights should be done based on a different point of view (stakeholders for instance). Changing the score based on different future scenarios can show the relevance of the future of a certain aspect.

9. Create possible new options that might be better than the originals: Comparing pairs of options might create new options. For example the most beneficial option with the least costly one may show how to combine and create a new option. New options should

be added to the list and be awarded a score on all aspects.

10. Making the choice: is eventually a case of judgement. It may be decided a further options or options should be considered and the analysis should be revisited.

11. Feedback

6.2 Objectives and purpose Every MCA is executed from a certain point of view, for this MCA the viewpoint is those of a consultant. The viewpoint aims at providing data to choose the proper building method(s) that realises multiple goals. It should not only withstands a future earthquake, but should also safeguards cultural and environmental aspects of Nepal while considering the available resources and financial options. The targeted group is the Nepalese house owner who is forced to rebuild their house on slopes located in ribbon developments. The solution should be long-term and be considered the best option on both national and local scale. A MCA often has multiple objectives to take care of, given the viewpoints. For this MCA the following objects have been chosen, consisting of an immediate and ultimate objective. The immediate objectives is the provision of housing for affected people and the ultimate objective is the safeguarding of cultural and architectural values, while national resources are used accountability aiming at an overall safe structural built environment The purpose of this MCA is to generate a short-list of preferred building methods that serve the objectives and viewpoint.

6.3 Selection of building methods The selected building methods for the MCA are those remaining after filtering by the solution space. The building methods for which an exception was made by passing them even though a failure occurred in one of the requirements will be monitored. In case one of these exceptions would end up as a preferred building method, the remarks that were presented in chapter 5 should be focus points in the initial design.

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SScores All building methods selected for the MCA were assigned scores on each requirement. The scores of the Solution Space are also used for the MCA. All scores are processed in a so-called Performance Matrix that gives an overview of all performances of the building methods on all aspects and requirements. The Performance Matrix assists analysing dominance and/or similar scoring. Weights To give weights to the six aspects of the MCA, which are the same as the Solution Space, an anonymous survey is performed, the results of this survey are analysed to identify outliers and incorporated in the weighting. The individual weights reflect the weights team members of Shock Safe Nepal assigned independently to each aspect. Great similarities and consistency of viewpoint is seen amongst the team members except for one student who assigned quite a different score for the aspects Functional and Technical. Respectively this only produced a 2,75% and 2,25% deviation in the total scoring. The overall consistency was enough reason to use the average of weights for the MCA, as can be seen in table 6.2: combined average weights. To validate the weights Nepali engineering students were asked to answer the same survey. It seemed their answers were consistent to each other, however more focussed on Resources and Sustainability. While the Shock Safe Nepal team appeared to have a bigger focus on Functionality and Feasibility. Both teams of engineers agree on the relevance of the aspects Technical and Social-Cultural. In the sensitivity analysis it will be assessed whether it is justifiable to combine the viewpoints or keep them separated, as two scenarios. Weights to the requirements (sub-weights) were assigned based on the ‘better than’ approach, in which requirements firstly were ordered by a ranking visualized as ‘a2>a1>a3’. Based on the drafted viewpoint, the knowledge gained by interviews and a systematic approach the weights are assigned values. All weights are subjected to a sensitivity analysis after assigning all values per requirement. The main weights and sub-weights are shown in table 6.2 : Final weights

Since the main topic is earthquake engineering, seismic performance (standard and additional) is considered to be one of the most important requirement to compare building method on. For Resources, Functional and Sustainable the sub-weights are assigned equally over each pair of requirements, since they are considered to be equally important. Within the Feasibility aspect the price label is assigned more weight, this requirement is considered more relevant from the point of view of a house owner. Sensitivity Analysis The weights should be assessed for each aspect to make sure they reflect its importance, this should also be done based on the scores received from the MCA. If mutual differences are small, the weight should be decreased since it concerns a less relevant requirement. The numbers assigned as score should represent the ratio of valuation of the differences according to the preference. After analysing the scores feasibility received less weight, since the scaling of the price label is based on a ranking and not the actual price per m². Also based on the scores resources is considered to be more important for the MCA than the functional requirements. After analysing the weights by the sensitivity analysis the combined weights represents the desired viewpoint as described above, shown in Table 6.1. The final weights used in the MCA represent engineers from the Netherlands and Nepal, which is a representative group giving the weights some reliability. The final weights are found in table 6.2: final weights

Table 6.1: combined average of Nepali Engineers and SSN

Scoring subjects

Building Aspects

Reso

urce

s

Func

tiona

l

Tech

nica

l

Feas

ibili

ty

Sust

aina

bilit

y

Soci

al C

ultu

ral

Nepali Engineers 22% 13% 27% 12% 15% 12%

SSN 16% 19% 24% 19% 8% 14%

Average 19% 16% 25% 15% 12% 13%

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Average weight (%)

Aspect Code

Sub-weight

Category Unit

Technical

25%

TE-1020 30% Seismic Performance Standard

Performance

TE-1026 20% Improved Seismic Performance

Possible

TE-1031 20% Foundation Performance

TE-1032 15% Life span Lifespan

TE-1061-1062-1063

15% Maintenance

Reliability

Maintainability

Availability

Resources

19%

RE-2012-2013-2014

50% Material Availability

RE-2021-2022 50% Labour Experience

Feasibility

15%

FE-3011 60% Price Label Ranking

FE-3021-3022 40%

Local economy

Use of local resources

National economy

National benefit

Social / cultural

13% SO-0203 100%

Social/ cultural Adaptability

Architectural embedding Embedding

Functional

16% FU-5011 50% Building

height Amount of storeys

FU-5012 50% Expandability Possibilities

Sustainable

12%

SU-6011-6012 50% Recyclable Reusability

Recyclability

SU-6021 50% Environmental Impact

66.4 Scenarios In order to find a building method that is robust and time proof possible future scenarios are taken into account. These scenarios are chosen because they are realistic enough that they might occur and extreme enough to have a big consequence on the rebuilding of Nepal. The four scenarios that are chosen are the current scenario, a no subsidy scenario, a subsidy scenario and the full material availability scenario. These scenarios are considered relevant because of the instable political situation Nepal is in. The following paragraphs will elaborate on the four scenarios Scenario 1: baseline The baseline is the context in which Nepal was during the time of writing and for which the building methods have been scored. Due to the landlocked character of Nepal it has always been dependent on China and India for certain materials and non-material help. Scenario 1 assumes there is some dependency on the neighbouring countries making material availability limited. Scenario 2: no subsidy Scenarios 2 and 3 are based on the pledge done by the Nepalese government to provide gifts and loans for house owners that are rebuilding their house. However there is still much debate around if, how and how much money is going to be distributed among the affected people. Scenario 2 takes into account that the government budget is negligible, which results in more expensive measures to become less feasible. Scenario 3: subsidy Scenario 3 describes the context in which pledged gifts and loans will become available for households into such extent that feasibility should be less of an issue. Scenario 4: full material availability Nepal deals with difficulties regarding availability of construction material. Anno 2015 this problem is additionally complicated due to the oil crisis caused by roadblocks at the Indian border and blocked roads to China due to the earthquakes. This scenario describes the context in which construction materials all are available. This Table 6.2: Final weights

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increased availability can have multiple causes of which the most interesting one is based on a reference from Japan where the government subsidised steel as an earthquake safe building material for housing projects.

66.5 Scaling Local scaling is used to scale all scores; it assigns a score of 0 to the option scoring the lowest on a certain requirement, 100 is assigned to the option scoring highest. Since all building methods selected for the MCA passed the solution space we consider all methods to be sufficient. Therefore we consider the Solution Space score that would be insufficient to be the minimum of the scale. The maximum of the scale is the score of the best performing building method.

6.6 Ranking Since quantitative measures are used to rank qualitative aspects all building methods are grouped according similar percentages. Analysing performances of building methods in all scenarios shows Reinforced Concrete Frames performs best in multiple contexts. This is not surprising since this building method is widely used in ribbon development settlements; however do not per se excel in technical performance. Rankings differ depending per scenario, interesting to see is Reinforced Concrete Frames, Confined Masonry, Concrete in-situ shear walls, Dhajji Dewari, Prefab-framed in-situ concrete are performing constant in each scenario. Timber and Steel become considerable options in the scenarios ‘subsidy’ and ‘material availability’, since their low score on Feasibility and Resources becomes compensated. In the ‘no subsidy’ scenario building methods that require mainly local resources score better. Since the final rankings are based on 6 aspects, the Scoring Card Method is used to show excellence on single aspects and to avoid ‘the flaw of averages’. These ‘aspect rankings’ are analysed to conclude whether the overall performance is based on outliers or average good performance. It should be considers whether outliers, positive as well as ‘negative’, are desirable. The end ranking could generate good performing building methods either by an average of outliers or an average of

overall good performance. To make sure the preferred building methods are not a result of the flaws of averages each aspect is analysed and compared to each other.

Table 6.1: Ranking “baseline” scenario (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Table 6.2: Ranking "Subsidy" scenario (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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Table 6.3: Ranking "no subsidy" scenario (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Table 6.6: Ranking "material always available" scenario (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

The following section explains, based on the MCA, which highest scoring building methods are interesting for further research and design. Eventually a concept design of one of the preferred building method will be proposed.

Stone masonry in cement scores high on the end ranking for all scenarios, however scores one of the lowest for the technical aspect. Even though technical has the biggest weight it is still possible to score high on the end ranking, we could call this the flaw of averages. Since we consider the technical aspect to be one of the leading aspects it is considerable to not select ‘Stone masonry in cement’ as one of the preferred building methods.

RCC Frames however scores high on the end ranking in all scenarios end has no serious negative scores on individual aspects. The only downside on RCC frames is the score on sustainability, however this could be accepted since this is the aspect with the smallest weight. Besides that its score passed the solution space and therefore satisfies the criteria.

Somewhat comparable to RCC Frames,

confined masonry scores high on all scenarios, with only one of the least performing scores on sustainability. Confined masonry is an interesting method since the used materials is already commonly used in ribbon developments.

Steel has high scores on all scenarios except

the “no subsidy” scenario, which is accountable to the high costs. Also for the solution space steel ‘flunked’ on the feasibility aspect however was decided on to pass with a remark. When there is a solid strategy to handle the resource and financial challenges steel is an interesting building method, especially because it is one of the best performing methods on the Technical aspect.

Timber shows the same pattern as steel; high

scores on all scenarios except for “no subsidy”. Timber passed the solution space with a remark on material availability, since wood is scarce. Timber in general is an interesting method, however large scale application would cause complications on availability, especially due to cutting permits and anti-deforestation programs

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CComparison in Pairs Aspect ranking can also be used to compare pairs of options to possible create new options (hybrid building methods). Table 7 shows the scoring card method, illustrating best performing building methods on each aspect. Best performing methods in the scoring card are compared to each other and the overall highest scoring methods described in the former chapter. RCC frame is compared to the best technical methods: timber, steel, and concrete in-situ shear walls. Since timber is not an obvious combination for RCC, steel and concrete shear walls remain as options. As the following chapters will describe it actually offers an interesting hybrid.

Table 6.4: Scoring card method (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 6.1: Typical RCC frame construction (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

6.7 Conclusion The short list is based on overall ranking, aspect ranking, scenario analysis, consistency within these rankings and comparison in pairs. Besides performances of building methods it should be taken into account the MCA is a tool that assists

the decision maker, therefore it should serve as foundation for the short-list instead of adopt it as the absolute truth. The short-list of preferred building methods considered most suitable solution for the problem definition is: Reinforced Cement Concrete Frames Steel (with a remark on feasibility) Confined Masonry Stone Cement Masonry (with a remark on

technical) RCC frame and stone cement masonry are methods commonly known in Nepal, especially in mountainous areas, whereas steel structures and confined masonry are less common. Reinforced cement concrete frame scores highest in the MCA and is well known in ribbon developments. At the moment RCC frame is one of the most used methods for rebuilding ribbon developments (like Dunche), what makes it interesting to propose an ‘updated’ version of this method. RCC frame will be elaborated on in order to answer the research question and to propose a concept wise solution. The level of detailing will be schematic, since a detailed design does not fit in the scope and needs more research. The designs will be accompanied by an organisational and financial approach.

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SSummary of RCC frame building method To give a brief summary of the RCC frame building method a SWOT is made containing all information gathered. Strength: Functionality; maximum scores on building

height and expendability Resources; material and experience is

available Weakness: Sustainability; materials are close to

impossible to recycle or re-use, concrete factories have an environmental impact on large scale in the valley

Redundancy when designed with few bays Difference in column length on slope

Opportunity: Technical; RCC has multiple solutions for

improving the standard seismic performance, Improving architectural quality/ village

identity Threat: Feasibility; The price of cement/concrete is

not constant in Nepal due to uncertain developments (for instance the oil crisis of 2015)

Execution; expertise is not always present

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7. Design The design is divided into four sections: it starts by mentioning the technical challenges resulting into potential solutions to solve the mentioned challenges; these potential solutions are combined into a design proposal. With the design proposal the new organizational challenges are addressed.

77.1 Challenges Many mountainous regions characterize large parts of Nepal. In these regions a scarcity of flat building sites, oblige people to build constructions on slopes. Due to the increasing population in the Kathmandu valley, migration and settlement is rapidly increasing in suburban areas along the

highway corridors. Resulting in the linear settlements, earlier labelled ‘ribbon developments’. These settlements are reached by hairpins roads, which are often of bad quality. For the residents of these settlements it is commercially favourable to place their house along the roadside (shops, restaurants, workplaces); roads which often traverse a hillside. As determined in the previous chapters, it is known that buildings resting on sloping ground are more prone to earthquake damage than buildings resting on flat ground (Khadiranaikar, 2014). Such buildings have several structural vulnerabilities and challenges.

Figure 7.1. Ribbon development (own Figure 7.2. Hilly area (Shock Safe Nepal group 1) Figure 7.3. Bad infrastructure (Shock Safe Nepal group 1) illustration)

Building characteristics The research focuses on a specific frequent occurring building typology; the commercial and residential RCC frame building. This typology is composed of two open bays for commercial functions combined with a narrow bay in the middle for the corridor leading to the apartments.

Typical dimensions of the storefronts are 3,0-3,5 m and for the door opening approximately 1,5m. Bays in the cross directions are 3-4 m. Building heights are on average 3-4 storeys. The typical plans (with shop and restaurant furniture drawn in) and elevation shown beneath are based on observations in the case study villages.

Figure 7.4: Typical plan of building Figure 7.5: Alternative plan building Figure 7.6: Typical elevation (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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SSocial/ cultural factors The buildings stand along lively roads, which are packed with shop stalls, parking, local traffic and also passing traffic. Oftentimes commercial functions are placed along the road in the form of open storefronts, restaurants or workplaces. These spaces extend towards the outdoors, leading to oversized and intensively used doorsteps for hanging out, work place or selling goods. In contrast to the more traditional building

styles, the majority of roof of RCC-frame buildings is flat. Rooftops are intensively used for storage of water tanks, PV-cells, solar water heaters, hanging of laundry, playing with the kite or sitting in the sun.

Figure 7.7. Commercial use ground floor Figure 7.8. Extension to doorstep Figure 7.9. Roof top use (Shock (Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Building factors Construction sites are characterized by an informal building process, in which a head mason leads the construction team and house owners, family members, villagers help with the building process. The construction process is often incremental, building further whenever money is available or more rooms need to be rented. The frame structures are often extended, to leave opportunity for later expansion of the structure.

There is also little money for rebuilding, in relatively poor households.

Some additional limitations are building along a road. For increasing density of the traffic, it is hard to enlarge the road capacity. Furthermore, the buildings standing on downhill slope block the often-beautiful view on the valley beneath.

Figure 7.10: Informal building, little space Figure 7.11: Vertical building expansion Figure 7.12: Small budget (Shock (Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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Figure 7.13: Limitations to expansion of road (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Figure 7.14: Blocking of view into valley (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). CClassification For buildings on a slope, a classification is made by (Von Winterfeldt, 2000) into the categories up-hill slope and downhill slope. These building types demonstrate different challenges and characteristics. Up-hill slope vs. downhill slope Up-slope buildings are built on the slope rising above the street. The building foundation is set immediately on the ground or buildings are built into the ground (excavation). With the aim to minimize access and construction problems caused by the rising up land, main building levels are mostly seen above street level. The building is mostly relatively close to its foundation. Down-slope buildings are built on the hillside that drops down below the street. With the aim to minimize access and construction problems caused by the dropping down land, the main building levels are mostly seen on street level, setting it relatively far from its foundation. For steep slopes, the building is therefore separated from the ground by substantial subfloor structures (irregular due to sloping ground). Down-slope buildings are generally of more storeys than uphill-slope, since downhill storeys sometimes need many stories beneath ground level to get to the road.

Figure 7.15: Building on a slope produces foundation challenges (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Stepback vs. stepback-setback A classification is made between stepback buildings, having foundation on different levels, but one-roof height and stepback-setback buildings, in which also the roof height is setback along the hill. Studies indicate that stepback frame buildings are subjected to higher base shear and higher top storey displacement than step-back set back buildings (Dr. S. A. Halkude et al, 2013). Conclusion is that step back- set back buildings might be favorable on sloping ground (Khadiranaikar & Masali, 2014).

Figure 7.16: Stepback vs. Stepback-setback buildings (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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NNatural hazards

The mountainous areas of Nepal are challenged by multiple natural hazards or challenges, of

which the most important are: earthquake loads, ground instability and monsoon.

Figure 7.17 Seismic hazard Figure 7.18: Monsoon hazard Figure 7.19: Boulder- and rockslide hazard (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Earthquake loads The hilly areas of the Kathmandu valley are classified as a highly seismic region. The seismic response of a building depends on multiple building characteristics amongst which: building configuration, geometry, interaction of the foundation structural (subfloor system) systems with the superstructures, and so on (Liu). Earthquakes movements can be multidirectional. The movement can be decomposed into two principle directions: Shaking in down-slope direction Shaking in cross-slope direction

Figure 7.20: Braced frame – along hill shaking | Source PEER

Figure 7.22. Braced w – along hill shaking | Source PEER

Figure 7.23: Braced wall – along hill shaking | Source PEER Above pictures are representative for buildings on a slope in Los Angeles and are displayed here to illustrate the effect of the two main directions of earthquake motions to slope structures.

Figure 7.21: Braced wall – along hill shaking | Source PEER

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MMonsoon Nepal is characterized by a season of heavy rainfalls (monsoon) from June to September/ mid-October. The monsoon complicates the transport, impairing the unpaved roads. The heavy rainfall increases the risk of land- and rockslides. - Mud- and landslides Seismic movement can decrease the coherency of the ground of a sloped land. Earthquakes can provoke landslides at slopes that are unstable due to loose material. Risks are higher in rainy season, when the soil is wetter than in dry seasons (Brzev, 2011 2002). - Boulder- and rockslides Earthquakes can provoke rock falls, at slopes where fractured rocks and boulders lie in unstable configuration. Boulders can roll down slopes and crush or damage buildings. Risks are higher in rainy season, when the soil is wetter than in dry seasons (Bothara, 2002 2002). Technical challenges Buildings on slopes are generally irregular in configuration; they are unsymmetrical in both horizontal and vertical direction. This results in a centre of mass not coinciding with the centre of rigidity of building storeys and not aligning vertically for the different floors. These irregular configurations induce significant torsional response under cross-slope excitation and additional lateral load, making the buildings more susceptible to damage due to ground motion). The building tends to rotate because the lower subfloor element is more flexible than the higher subfloor element (Liu, 2011). Above-mentioned torsional irregularity in cross-slope direction is even higher for buildings on steep slopes/ vertical cuts, which have two levels of foundation. One at the road level, and one a few storeys beneath (Singh, 2012 2012.).

Figure 7.22: Cross-hill shaking causes torsion due to irregular building configuration (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

- Unequal column heights / unequal height of subfloor system elements Column foundations that stand on different levels within one story characterize buildings standing on a slope. Different foundation levels result in unequal column heights and a drastic deviation in stiffness between these columns. Both tall and short columns undergo the same amount of movement due to excitation. Under along-hill excitation the shorter and stiffer uphill column (element) attracts more earthquake forces; storey shear and bending moments (Gade, 2011 2012) than the longer flexible column (element) and is therefore more vulnerable to damage.

This effect is seen for buildings on piles, buildings on subfloor bracing system and buildings with sheathed timber subfloor walls.

Figure 7.23: Unequal column length cause disproportionate stress to shortest column (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). - Progressive collapse The phenomenon can cause progressive collapse; the shortest and stiffest element will take the most forces. If it fails, the next shortest element will take the majority of forces and fail. This procedure might proceed until the structure has collapsed (Liu, 2011).

Figure 7.24 Potential lack of redundancy in frame structures (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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- (Soft) story at road level Structural analysis has indicated that for downhill-sloped buildings the storeys at road-level are most vulnerable to damage (Singh, 2012 2012). Many buildings have parking spaces, open storefronts, workplaces and restaurants at the roadside. These large open spaces create a soft story at this vulnerable point between hill and building.

Figure 7.25: Soft story failure (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Soft storeys are much less rigid than the floors above, due to unreinforced openings or less infill walls at that storey. Since this story is less resistant to lateral loads it is subjected to a disproportionate amount of lateral drift. In result, the storey will be subjected to higher loads, while it is less capable of resisting these loads. This can cause severe structural damage or collapse (Chen, 2005). The collapse of this soft storey causes the above floors to pancake on top of it, crushing the elements beneath. Subfloor systems to provide foundation on the slope by means of piles without bracing, or with limited infill or shear walls can also be seen as soft stories.

Figure 7.26: Soft story, no infill walls on ground floor for commercial functions (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

- Pounding

Buildings are not provided with seismic gaps, and are therefore susceptible to pounding of adjacent buildings. There is a discussion if neighbouring buildings stabilize each other, creating positive effects for their stability.

Figure 7.28: Pounding of adjacent buildings (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). -Displacement of the floors Displacement of floors and base shear is found to be higher for buildings standing on a slope than for buildings standing on a plain site (Kevyan Ramin 2013). Furthermore, top storey displacement and fundamental time period are seen to increase linearly with the height of the building (Birajdar, 2004). -Overturning of buildings The capacity to resistant overturning is lower than for buildings on a plain ground (Ji, 2012).

Figure 7.29: Risk of building overturning (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 7.27: Soft story failure at Chisapani (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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77.2 Potential solutions For the challenges given in chapter 7.1 a number of solutions are given. A short description of the potential solutions is given Stabilizing the slope -Building measures Both up-hill slope buildings as down-hill slope buildings can require specific structural systems to stabilize the slope and provide a foundation on the sloped site. Several slope-stabilizing measures are:

Figure 7.30: Methods of stabilizing the sloping ground. a) Retaining wall. b) Gravity wall. c) Anchored wall. d) Piling wall (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). -Alteration of slope geometry Slope risks can be lowered by alteration of the slope geometry in the form of excavation, digging out or terracing, lowering of raising land levels. -Grouting, drainage schemes, green barriers The roots of trees (for example bamboo) will penetrate into the soil and improve the stability of the ground.

Figure 7.31: Green barrier (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Foundation systems -Down-hill slope systems Since the main building part is relatively further away from the foundation, down-hill buildings generally need additional provisions to meet the sloped surface. Within the range of potential subfloor systems, the suitable solution depends bearing walls or frame construction and the steepness of the slope). Foundations are characterized by different height of foundation elements; short elements on the uphill side and tall elements on the downhill side. Damage to subfloor systems can cause damage to upper parts of the buildings, or even collapse. Therefore, adequate strength is needed to withstand the earthquake forces and adequate rigidity to prevent excessive displacement (Von Winterfeldt, 2000 2000). The structure should be provided with redundancy to prevent progressive collapse if an element fails. Refer to appendix X to see an overview of subfloor systems, which were encountered in ribbon villages in the surroundings of the Kathmandu valley. On the next page an overview is given of possible foundation systems. A differentiation is seen between systems for steep and moderate slopes.

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MModerate slopes

Figure 7.32: Stepped foundation Figure 7.33: Fill foundation Figure 7.34: Cut-and fill foundation (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Steep slopes

Figure 7.35: Pile structure (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Figure 7.36: Braced pile structure (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 7.37: Retaining wall part of structure Figure 7.38: Retaining wall lose from structure Figure 7.39: Building anchored to stable ground (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure3.40: Avoiding soft story; a) infill walls. b) bracing c) larger dimensions of ground floor columns (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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BBuilding configuration Greater number of bays better performance Increase of the number of bays improves behaviour under seismic excitation, due to a decrease of time period and displacement in hill slope buildings (Dr. S. A. Halkude, 2013). Overall seismic overturning resistant capacity decrease with the increase of unequal story numbers and the decrease of bay numbers (Ji, 2012)

-Unequal column length The section of the shorter columns should be designed with greater resistance (for example with more reinforcement) to withstand these increased forces (Kumar, 2014 2014).

Torsion Providing braced walls, shear walls and infill walls can resist torsion, which is generated by the irregular building configuration.

-Soft story Soft storeys must be avoided by providing enough rigidity to the specific storey. For timber constructions this can be done by means of sturdy plywood diaphragms or diagonal bracing elements. For steel frames, bracing, shear walls and moment resisting connections can be applied. For moment resisting frames, connections and columns must be stronger than the beams, so hinges will form in the beams and not in the columns. Column failure must be avoided, since column failure forms a higher risk of total collapse. For RCC frame buildings shear walls, masonry infill walls and steel frame bracing can be applied

If soft storeys cannot be avoided special design provisions are needed. Several alternative solutions are:

- Increase of the sections at the soft story. Designing the structural elements with much larger dimensions, for substantial higher loads; remaining the frame character.

- Provide composite columns Strengthening the structural elements (columns or walls) of the soft story by providing composite elements. For example, composite concrete

columns with encased H-beams (ArcelorMittal). The addition of steel elements provides the structure with more robustness, rotation capacity and ductility.

-Stiff core Designing a stiff elevator and staircase core to withstand the total base shear. In this way, the columns are only subjected to the gravitational load {Guevara-Perez, 2012}. - Shear walls The application of shear walls and (brick) infill walls are considered to decrease the lateral displacements of storeys and storey drifts by ground motions considerably in comparison to bare frame models (Umar, 2014 2014), (Hassan, 2013). However, base shear may increase demanding special attention in the design (Khadiranaikar, 2014). The bigger the arm of the shear or bracing walls, the larger the capacity to resist overturning forces.

Figure 7.41: Left: Section of steel-concrete composite column, Right: Implementation in the ground floor, or up to half way the second floor of H-beam in concrete column (Arcelor Mittal).

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77.3 Design proposal Based on the prior analysis of the challenges of the chosen building type, and the research on possible solutions, a proposal is done for a building block made with RCC frame. It must be mentioned that this proposal is just an idea that needs verification and validation. The proposal addresses multiple issues, but also evokes some challenges. The coupled block The proposal is to couple 3 individual building blocks (prior of 7,5 m width) into apartment buildings. Building as such could lead to a reduction in construction costs, by decreasing the amount of structural elements needed (reducing the amount of columns and bordering walls), and ordering larger batches of raw materials.

In structural view, this proposal has multiple advantages. Multiple bays have a better earthquake performance (as concluded by multiple research, amongst which (Dr. S. A. Halkude, 2013)). Multiple bays also have a better redundancy, having more building elements to compensate for failure. For building blocks with larger dimensions than a narrow house, stabilizing elements can be placed further apart, creating a larger lever arm to withstand lateral forces in a more effective way (See fig 7.40) Combining several buildings might also provide the possibility to avoid soft-story; open storefronts can be alternated by fronts with more infill, which do not need commercial functions), providing the ground floor with enough ‘body’.

Figure 7.41: More bays provide the opportunity for a larger lever arm to withstand horizontal forces (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

The dimensions are based on the structural restrictions/guidelines provided by the Building Codes, which state that the building length should not be more than 3 times the building width. Also

limitations are placed on the bay length (not larger than 4,5 m).

Figure 7.42: Structural configuration limitations | Source building code NBC 201:1994

This proposal poses some challenges:

The division of construction costs The organization of construction and

multiple future inhabitants/ owners The extendibility and informal

construction possibilities The individual identity of the buildings

(differentiation)

Figure 7.43: Moving from small-scale building to multiple bay building (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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HHybrid solution Measures are proposed to withstand the soft storey, and the additional forces induced by the placement on the hillside. A first proposal is a hybrid structure: to incorporate steel H-beams in the rectangular concrete columns, as also proposed by Arcelor Mittal. Composite columns are provided in the weaker building elements, which are for this building type the columns of the ground floor forming the soft story, and the ‘short ’columns on the slope which are more vulnerable.

Figure 7.44: Unequal column length cause (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

Figure 7.45: Soft story failure (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Disproportionate stress to shortest column The steel H-columns have more stiffness in their main direction, therefore the steel sections could be partially rotated, to provide enough rigidity to withstand lateral forces in both directions.

Figure 7.46: RCC frame with composite columns up to the first floor (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). The hybrid solution is positively addressing the following problems:

Strengthening the elements forming the soft story; while keeping the open storefronts or other commercial functions, parking spaces.

Strengthening the ‘short’ columns on slopes, which are subjected to larger loads

Increase of column capacity (whereas the addition of reinforcement rods has a maximum amount)

Providing extra redundancy to the structure

Providing extra ductility to the columns Posing the following challenges:

Increase of building costs due to additional steel H-columns

Unknown practice

An alternative to the composite columns is to place shear walls at strategic places in the building. This decreases the flexibility of shop openings.

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SShear walls The application of shear walls increases the lateral load resisting capacity of RCC frame buildings significantly (Sud, Shekhawat, & Dhiman, 2014). Shear walls are ideally placed symetrically. Shear walls in the façade are favored above the elevator core; placing stabilizing elements in the perimeter provides a larger lever arm to withstand lateral loads. Sud, Shekhawat & Dhiman (2014) claim on the basis of structural analysis that placing shear walls at midwalls has the best overall earthquake performance. This placement of shear walls has the highest symmetry. In case a shear wall is not possible in the façade facing the street due to commercial functions, 3 shear walls are placed and the side walls should compensate (by means of extra dimensions) for the lacking wall at the storefront. The proposition with composite allows for more flexibility on the ground floor. A feasibility study should be done in order to determine which option is preferred.

Figure 7.48: Frame 1) No shear walls, Frame 2) Shear walls at the core

Figure 7.49: Frame 3) Shear walls at mid walls, Frame 4)Shear walls at corners |Source: (Sud, Shekhawat, & Dhiman, 2014).

RCC-frame exterior The RCC-frame buildings are characterized by brightly coloured ‘candy cane’ architecture. A proposal for the RC-frame exterior is done, which is more in harmony with original architecture, but which does not deny the inherent RCC-frame structure of the building. The proposal also tends to address the following problems; RCC-frame buildings have cantilevers with floating columns. And apartment blocks threaten to diminish the identity and feeling of owning a building of the single house-owner. The idea is to restore the balconies with poles reaching to the ground, avoiding cantilever and creating a shaded spatial enclosure on the extended living space on the doorstep. The alternating balconies cut up the larger apartment volume, contributing to the individual identity of the combined housing blocks. Aspects original architecture:

Pitched roofs Earthen/natural colours for walls,

coloured (for example blue) or timber doors/ window frames

Supported balcony in the form of open colonnade

Open colonnade instead of corrugated steel shopfront

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Figure 7.50: Apartment block proposal with alternating balconies (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Pitched roofs are more in harmony with the original architecture. Furthermore, they provide lighter roofs and with the angle, a better rainwater drainage. However, inhabitants intensively use the flat roof terraces. Therefore a ‘cut-out’ is proposed in the roof, referencing to the Model Village of Rabindra Puri. This cut-out provides the open space on the roof for kiting, sitting in the sun and drying the laundry.

A cluster of apartment blocks is visualized on the sketch below. The apartment blocks have limited length, following the structural principles of the building code. Buildings could be alternated with small squares, which provide meeting points for the community, sparing some space on the road. Furthermore, these squares provide a see-through towards the view on the valley; enhancing the spatial experience and the sense of landscape and nature.

Figure 7.52: Cluster of apartment blocks (Shock Safe Nepal group 1). Positively addressing the following problems:

Creating a lighter roof Avoiding cantilever of balconies Creating a shaded outdoor area By densifying certain buildings,

opportunity is made for public space in the form of squares along the roadside. Offering views into the valley and space for community bonding (games, gathering etc)

Fig 7.51: Sketch of roof terrace use (Shock Safe Nepal group 1).

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77.4 Organisational challenges With the proposal to combine three individual building blocks into a coupled block organisational challenges might arise. In Nepal, families are often the owner of a piece of land where they build their house, with the ownership of land and house passing from father to son. In the case where building blocks are coupled there are some organisational challenges and benefits. Ownership In coupled block proposal an issue in house ownership might arise. Full ownership of the coupled block might be too costly for one family, however shared ownership creates challenges in maintenance and future expansion. In some cases an external investor might be needed to realise the construction. The organisational aspects in which a coupled block building can be realised are formal (official home owners association) and informal (community trust fund). More research is needed to prove if this method could work in Nepal. Repetition of construction The proposal of combining three buildings into a coupled block could work in the entire region. The existing RCC frame houses are already largely standardized regarding grid and column sizes, more or less a copy of each other. The main focus point in the repetition are the changing slope conditions, since the area has a mountainous character each building site will always be unique due to the different slope conditions. Repetition is possible in the preparation before construction: transportation of building materials and training of labour. With an experienced labour force and repetition of the construction the quality will improve while shortening the construction time. Stakeholders To implement the proposal of a coupled block the plan should be issued within the DUDBC, the highest construction authority. On paper the rules of construction are strict and not constructing by the rules could result in cancelling of constructing permits. If the plan can be implemented from a higher level and included into the Nepalese

building code the plan might be successful. The construction of larger building blocks also increases the need for construction knowledge; therefore knowledge institutes should be included in the process. According to the design the building should be able to withstand a serious earthquake but a good design is worth nothing when construction is not properly executed. Life cycle Construction of houses in Nepal often happens in phases; a design is made of a building with four storeys, the construction starts with only the first floor, when over time the resources are available the construction of the next floor will be initiated. When three houses are coupled the expansion should be synchronised, the possibility of building in phases should also be included when looking for a potential investor.

When combining three building blocks into coupled block maintenance does not stop at one section of the house. All the parties should be aware of potential maintenance in structural parts of the building. These parts affect the entire block of building and are therefore a shared responsibility. All the inhabitants in the coupled building have a shared responsibility over the building; this should prevent inhabitants from construction informal expansions, which could diminish the structural strength of the building.

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CCost – Benefits Financial analysis should point out whether construction costs are feasible for average house owners in Dhunche. In order to perform this analysis actual data on construction costs are needed, as described in the limitations of report 1 actual data is missing due to the unstable market and project scope. Also the government has not given clarity on the exact amounts people will receive or able to loan. Since Dhunche is located outside of the Kathmandu Valley the promised loan amount can be up to 1,5 million Rupee (which is more or less equal to €12,500), as described in rapport one.

For people to construct their house the financial analysis should have a positive outcome, so A<B. In case only the costs for the standard construction costs of RCC Frame are feasible for the house owners (C1+C3<B, but A>B), we could propose a subsidizing plan to make it feasible. Due to the subsidy plan house owners should be able to use

steel and additional concrete for steel-concrete composite columns and shear walls.

This subsidy plan is only feasible for Nepal if C<D. Even with a negative balance there could be reason to still adopt the subsidy plan. Somewhat comparable are the Dutch water defence systems (Deltawerken), which had a negative balance, however were adopted anyways since the loss of life and local economy were undesirable (also due to social pressure). A reference for such a subsidy plan is the Japanese program after the 1995 Great Hansin earthquake that struck Kobe, in which they proposed subsidies (mainly) for inspection and retrofitting of existing housing to make them earthquake resistant {Suganuma, 2006}. Such a subsidy and tax breaks encourage inhabitants to make the necessary changes to make their house earthquake safe.

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8. Discussion The conducted research contains a general research setup and three main steps; Solution Space, Multi Criteria Analysis, and conceptual design. Within each step there are a larger number of smaller steps leading to the answering of the proposed research question. During the execution of the research a number of limitations and setbacks were encountered, in this chapter we critically look back on the work that has been done. The main components of this discussion will be scope definition, the requirements solution space, the multiple criteria analysis and the conceptual design. TThe scope definition During the initiation of this project many vision, goals and ideas were discussed, combined, rejected and accepted. During the course of the preparations a very clear understanding and vision was formed regarding Shock Safe Nepal as a knowledge platform. During the translation of the scope to practical tasks some differences in expectations emerged which needed to be settled. One extreme of the discussion was focusing only on the creation of a solid base which would serve as a tool for following groups while on the other end of the discussion the focus was put on delivering a full design on a preferred building method. The final conclusion was the creation of two reports: one being the base of Shock Safe Nepal and one being a showcase of more elaborated research on a specific topic. In the end we discovered that doing both was a larger task than we had expected, resulting in much time being spent on the development of the reports, with more limitations than we had wanted. Limitations of the Solution Space and building methods The Requirements Solution Space is a tool which can eliminate solutions based on the requirements set by the owner, rules and regulations, user demands and other binding criteria. The exclusion by Solution Space is generally based on crisp requirements and needs, and focuses more on the hard boundaries.

However it creates difficulties when bordering with subjective and/or qualitative values, in this research this is an issue we have encountered several times. Lack of quantitative data regarding building

methods made it difficult to compare the performance of a building method with the harder and crisper requirement. A manner to solve this issue without resulting in very complex theories e.g. fuzzy sets was by creating a semi-quantitative scoring system. This allowed for the valuation of building methods in classes representing a quantitative or qualitative performance range.

Subjectivity of classifying building methods was a limitation that arose with the creation of the semi-quantitative scoring system. Setting the initial scale was a difficult job due to interpretation errors and the scoring according to this scoring system sometimes proved even more difficult due to interdependencies and combinations of several elements within one score. Therefore the outcomes of the Solution Space and MCA are very dependent on the awarded scores.

The validation of minimum requirement values was an important step in the process. The data used for the defining of these minimum values was obtained from several types of sources. Some more reliable than others. Much of the data was verified by means of a questionnaire and the plan was to use a different type of questionnaire to check if the chosen minimum values corresponded with the reality. However an attempt to validate data by means of a questionnaire back-fired due to difficulty of the questionnaire (which was already adapted so it would not be too difficult), resulting in flawed answers. The lack of validated minimum values was accepted as a limitation and the second attempt was never finalized.

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LLimitations of MCA The Multi Criteria Analysis is a ranking tool which is based on the semi quantitative scores corresponding with the building methods. It determines the ranking of a number of variants by using assigned scores and assigned weights per score. The method has some limitations and dependencies however the tool is intended to assist the decision maker instead of giving an absolute answer. The dependency on the assigned scores can

have a serious impact on the reliability of the outcomes. When the grading person is biased towards a certain building method, this person can influence the assigned scores which may have consequences for the final ranking position. The sensitivity analysis has shown that the final outcome can be significantly different if an aspect that has received much weighting scores a point more or less. To prevent this; the grading have been cross checked and rechecked after some time period to see if views were still the same and there was still an agreement on the scores. When a final decision was taken regarding the scores, the motivations were registered for future reference.

Scaling of qualitative values is quite subjective; therefore generating scales with comparable ratios for each requirement is difficult.

The weights of the aspects are determined by the Shock Safe Nepal team members after all the experiences in Nepal, these views are validated with Nepali architects and corrected accordingly. However the assigning of the sub-weights for some requirements are based on interviews only or solely on the view of the Shock Safe Nepal team, affecting the final outcome. As with the validation of the minimum requirement values, many difficulties were experienced in the validation of the main weights. Eventually this validation worked for the main weights but also gave the understanding that it would be too difficult to accomplish a validation for all sub-aspects in the short time period that was remaining. This lack of validation in the determination of the sub-weights has been accepted as a limitation.

Limitations of the conceptual design The conceptual design is intended as a showcase of the possibilities when more elaborated research is done on the topic. It shows the possibilities of a solution space and MCA approach in the identification of possible and preferred building methods and it shows the room for analysis on organisational and technical aspects. The design mainly followed from findings

however some elements in the design were more an architectural choice than based on direct findings. This limitation was accepted due to the fact the design serves more as a showcase than in fact an actual proposal.

The validation of designs was also not performed for the same reasons as the design principles and this limitation was also accepted for the same reasons.

Force majeure limitation The cause of some of the limitations was the blockade making travel extremely difficult and leading to a lack of information and validation possibilities. This limitation was partially solved by reducing the field study radius to 50 km from the residence of the students, only visiting villages that were within cycling distance. This enabled us to obtain data by combining information found in ribbon developments that were not built on a slope and non-ribbon developments that were built on a slope. However some pieces of information could not be obtained and the validation process was partially hampered.

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9. Conclusion In the conclusions an effort will be made to answer the research question with the information from all previous chapters. The proposed research question is: “What are the preferred post-earthquake reconstruction solutions, which are distilled from the solution space bound by social-cultural, financially feasible, technical, resource, functional and sustainable aspects, for Ribbon Development in Dhunche which can be representative for all Ribbon Developed Settlements in post-earthquake Nepal?” In the process of answering this research question much information has been uncovered by means of interviews, meetings, questionnaires, observations and literature. This information was used to determine the solutions space requirements and criteria, the minimum values for these requirements and the weights for the Multi Criteria Analysis (MCA). To determine the preferred solution, first all possible and realistic solutions needed to be identified. This was done by grading the criteria of the building methods from report one and matching these grades to the minimum requirement values. The minimum requirement values span the solution space of minimum criteria the building methods need to meet. This resulted in the exclusion of the following building methods with respective reasoning:

Low strength stone masonry, due to insufficient seismic performance, lacking possibilities regarding expandability and workspace;

Low strength brick masonry, due to insufficient seismic performance, lacking possibilities regarding expandability and workspace;

Adobe, due to insufficient seismic performance, amount of required maintenance, limitations regarding storeys, vertical expansion and workspace;

Rammed earth, due to insufficient seismic performance, amount of required

maintenance, limitations regarding storeys, vertical expansion and workspace;

Bamboo, due to the short lifespan and extensive amounts of maintenance needed;

Earthbags, due to the proven seismic performance, the possibilities regarding storeys, vertical expansion and workspace.

The remaining building methods are considered to be acceptable for rebuilding in Nepal. However some were accepted to be allocated within the solution space with a remark due to ‘failure’ on one of the aspects. This failure however is considered to be ‘fixable’. After all possible and realistic solutions were identified, the question remained which would be the most fitting solutions for the chosen case village. For this a MCA was executed.

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The MCA contained criteria based on the solution space aspects with weights based on obtained viewpoints validated by Nepali architectural students. To incorporate a degree of reality in the outcome of the MCA four scenario are designed to represent several realistic possible futures. The first scenario is the “current situation” where subsidy is still uncertain and there are limitations on material availability. The second scenario where “no subsidy” would be appointed by the government for the rebuilding of houses resulting in limited resources. The third scenario where “subsidy” would be appointed by the government and on top of this some additional external funding is possible e.g. loans, resulting in sufficient financial resources. And the fourth scenario where “material availability” would not be an issue taking away import related restraints. The MCA resulted in the top five ranking of building methods per scenario as seen in table 8.1. Current

situation No subsidy

Subsidy Material available

1. RCC frames

Stone cement masonry

RCC frames

RCC frames

2. Stone cement masonry

RCC frames

Steel Confined masonry

3. Confined masonry

Confined masonry

Stone cement masonry

Steel

4. Steel Brick cement masonry

Confined masonry

Timber

5. In-situ shear walls

Hollow concrete bricks

In-situ shear walls

Light weight steel profiles

Table 8.1: top five ranking Based on these outcomes and the obtained knowledge regarding construction in Nepal a shortlist of preferred building methods can be formulated that can be considered the most suitable solution, providing an answer to the research question. The following short list is proposed as the preferred post-earthquake reconstruction solutions for Ribbon Development Dhunche which can be representative for all Ribbon Developed Settlements in post-earthquake Nepal.

Reinforced Cement Concrete frames Steel (with a remark on feasibility) Confined masonry Stone cement masonry (with a remark on

technical aspect) To showcase the possibilities of a more extensive research, one of the building methods out of the MCA short-list was chosen for further elaboration. Before the creation of a conceptual design some characteristics and challenges of the case village and function were mentioned to aid in the designing process. Buildings are preferably not built on sloping grounds in seismic areas. However, due to increasing population and a scarcity of flat buildings sites building on slopes might become unavoidable. Therefore first the problems and characteristics of the case study context are mapped which should be taken into account in the proposed solution.

CCharacteristics and challenges Social cultural characteristics: Commercial

use of ground floor (shops, restaurants, workplaces), extension of doorstep as living area, intensive use of rooftop.

Building and economical: Extra foundation measures needed for building on a slope, construction practice characterized by informal and incremental building, limited financial means.

Natural hazards: Earthquake loads, monsoons, and land/ rockslides.

Structural challenges: Irregular building configuration inducing torsion, unequal column length, commercial functions ground floor increasing the risk of soft storey collapse, pounding

Challenges of building along a road: block of view into the valley, limited possibility of road expansion, elongated social scene

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DDesign proposal Out of the overview which is made of partial solutions to solve the before mentioned characteristics and challenges, an integral design proposal is made. The design proposal is an coupled apartment block. By coupling the narrow apartment, many structural challenges are addressed such as; pounding, creating a larger lever arm, creating more opportunity to prevent soft-story. Also construction costs can be saved by eliminating the double columns and boundary walls. Where this proposal addresses many structural challenges, it also poses some organization and cultural challenges. How do people feel about living in an apartment? How to safeguard the individual identity of the house? Who pays for what? The soft storey can be addressed by placing shear-walls somewhere in the building. A hybrid solution is proposed, applying steel-concrete composite columns in the first storey columns which are subjected to lateral displacement. An alternative are the application of shear walls, to increase the resistance to torsion. Further study is necessary to determine whether these measures are economically feasible. For the exterior of the building a proposal is done to provide an alternative from the brightly coloured concrete architecture towards an aesthetic which is more in harmony with traditional aesthetics. Instead of cantilevers and floating columns, balconies are supported by poles which reach to the ground, creating a shaded area on the extended doorstep. By alternating the balconies, the larger building mass can be cut up, creating some individual identity for the building blocks. Light pitched roof, conflicts with the intensive use of roof terraces; therefore a cut-out is proposed to provide outdoor space on the roof.

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10. Recommendations This chapter will elaborate on the recommendations for further work and research. These recommendations can be divided into seven items: VValidation of proposed design The concept design should be validated by Nepali experts (engineers, students, professors) and by home owners in the intended case village. Validation will provide input for further architectural and functional designing before further and more complex analysis are made. Variant development The results of this research have shown that there are more solutions possible for the selected case village. An elaboration of two or more variants can lead to interesting comparisons between different building methods in which more detailed information can be used in the decision of preferred building method. Architectural design The concept design should be developed towards final designs. What variations can be made in the layout of the building? Should blocks just be joined or should they also share entrances and staircases? What is the best roof solution since there are conflicts in architectural, climatological (pitched roof) and functional aspects (flat roof). More studies should be done on usage of houses and characteristic floor plans. How can facades of RCC frame buildings be adapted to more cultural and historical architecture? Structural analysis of proposed design The concept design does not give answer on the amount and level of additional measures. A structural analysis should point out to which extend shear walls and steel-concrete composite columns should be applied for the seismic activity of Nepal. Could one of the two measures be sufficient? If so, a feasibility study should point out which measure is the most feasible regarding material (availability, transport) and cost. What is the overall seismic performance of a usual RCC frame compared to an upgraded hybrid RCC?

Feasibility study on proposed design If the hybrid RCC frame is to be implemented on large scale a feasibility study should point out whether sufficient resources (material and capital) are present. Large scale construction demands availability of material. A financial analysis should give clarity on feasibility for the home owner. A Cost Benefit Analysis should give an overview of the economic consequences and provide ground for possible governmental subsidies (on construction material for instance). Uphill vs downhill The proposed concept design addresses mainly the more challenging problems of the downhill located houses. Further research and design should point out whether the proposed downhill design is also the most suitable solution for uphill located houses. Is the downhill concept design over dimensioned when used for uphill locations? Implementation plan/Execution of construction Execution of construction has problems concerning lacking quality and knowledge. Obvious mistakes are made: rebar to close to the concrete surface, too large aggregates, plastics and corrugated sheets poured in concrete etc. How can a proper execution be guaranteed; training, quality management, site management etc.? Since expandability (by adding a floor) is common development in RCC frame buildings it is important to guide this process in order to avoid unsafe structures. Potential expansion should be taken into account upfront, in order to properly dimension the structural elements. What construction and organisational methods can provide flexibility in extending?

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Appendix Report One

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Appendix Report 1 AAppendix 1.A. The values given in this appendix are only applicable for report one. This means that in other kind of situations the values can differ.

Appendix 1.A.1. – Commonly used building methods in earthquake affected area Nepal In this section commonly used building methods in earthquake-affected area Nepal are highlighted, this section includes traditional masonry buildings to reinforced concrete frame structures. Criteria are developed to check if the already used building methods are suited for earthquake safe construction.

Low strength (stone) masonry

Introduction This building style is mostly found on foothills, hills and mountains in the rural and remote areas of Nepal {Parajuli, Bothara, & Upadhyay, 2015}. The buildings typically consist of river stone foundations, load bearing stone walls, timber window frames, and varying roof/flooring systems. The walls are composed of two layers of mountain stone and the space between is frequently filled with mud, small stones and pieces of rubble {Bothara & Brzev}. Category Description Val

ue Technical Building components

Typical elements are foundations, load bearing stone walls, timber window frames, and varying roof/flooring systems. The heavy building method demands a sufficient foundation on a firm base {DUDBC, 1994). The walls are composed of two walls and space between is frequently filled with mud, small stones and pieces of rubble {Bothara & Brzev}. The load bearing walls usually have above average redundancy but the weakness of the mortar has a negative effect on this. This building type is included in the BC with thumb rules and limitations.

Redundancy 2 Building code 4

Seismic Performance Standard

Buildings are mostly regular in plan and elevation (no cantilevers/ overhang). Load bearing stone masonry walls provide the lateral load resisting system. This building method has a high seismic vulnerability due to the following factors: High inertia loads due to heavy weight of stones. Lack of structural integrity out of plane collapse, in-plane shear cracking delamination of wall walls (two layer without proper bonding in between), failure due to irregular stone shapes {Bothara & Brzev}.

Performance 1

Improved Seismic Performance

The structural Integrity and seismic resistance can be strengthened by means of vertical and horizontal reinforcement (timber, bamboo, reinforced concrete). Stiff diaphragms such as concrete slabs are favoured above flexible diaphragms. The out-of-plane capacity can be improved by adding of wall meshes (experimental techniques).

Possible 2

Sensitivity to surface

Soil slopes of 20° maximum (1:3, Vertical: Horizontal) are stable suitable for construction. In case of proper retaining walls, steeper slopes are allowed {DUDBC, 1994}. Typically it is found on sloping terrain.

Performance 3

Climate With respect to daylight entrance, the size of wall openings is limited (15-25% of the wall). Thick stone walls can have favourable thermal mass and insulation properties.

Openings (ventilation and sunlight)

3

Thermal 3

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The stones can keep the moisture out. The mortar (or lack of mortar, dry stacking) influences the wind and rain proofing of this building methods. The walls can be plastered, to increase the wind proofing.

Life span Stone masonry structures can be highly durable with long lifespan due to the non-deteriorating character of stones, when not exposed to extreme events(force majeure)

Lifespan 5

Maintenance The stone walls require little maintenance, additional timber elements or bamboo elements do need regular maintenance. The performance of maintenance can be difficult due to the replacement of stones or additional elements covered by heavy stones. The building is accessible during most types of smaller maintenance.

Reliability 3 Maintainability

3

Availability 2

Complexity This construction type is incorporated in the building code (Nepal National Building code NBC 203: 1994 Low strength masonry). The know-how is mainly passed on informally {Parajuli, Bothara, & Upadhyay, 2015}, and skills vary per person. House-owners are mostly part of the construction team, often they are helped by local artisans/ masons. It is learnable in short time but expertise comes with the years.

Ease of learning

3

Resources Material The walls are built with river stones or boulder stones. A classification can be

made between random rubble stone, semi-dressed stone, and dressed stone {Bothara & Brzev}. Random stones are irregular shaped, randomly placed stones whereas coursed and dressed stones are cut to regular (rectangular) shapes and placed regularly. More rectangular shapes of stones are favoured with respect to structural performance. In most areas, the stones are held together with the locally available mud mortar. Where no mud of sufficient bonding quality is available the stones are dry-stacked. Building which stand near roads more frequently have cement mortar as bonding. Mud mortar is relatively weak. It can be beneficial if small cracks occur in the mud mortar, dissipating energy through frictional sliding. The stones and mud are locally available throughout the year, also from the debris of the collapsed houses. Availability and reliability of timber for seismic bands and timber framing is low due to anti-deforestation programs and prices are high due to permits.

Quality 5

Availability 5

Reliability 5

Labour Masonry is labour-intensive, not suitable for mechanization or prefabrication. The stone masonry buildings are mostly built by a construction team including a mason and usually the owner himself. The owner can therefore contribute to the provision of labour. However, not so much masons are familiar with the proper reinforcement techniques. Mason-training programs are therefore being set-up by several organisations.

Experience 5

Intensity 4 Time Stone masonry is not a fast assembled construction method. It requires the

collection or alteration of rocks fit for building and the drying of Mortar. Technical period

3

Feasibility Price Label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 5 Local economy

Stone masonry involves local materials (boulders stones and mud mortar). Since the method is familiar with local builder’s builders and masons it stimulates the local economy.

Use of local resources

5

National economy

Stones and masonry skills does not have to be imported from other countries. Stones are mined near the construction site in most cases, or transported from a near location. Cash flow remains within Nepal and is beneficial for the economy.

Use of national resources

4

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

The walls can be plastered or finishing can be applied to allow the appropriate social/ cultural aesthetics. For example the thick wall allows the placement of niches for religious attributes. Also different shapes of the building are possible.

Adaptability

2

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Architectural embedding

Stone masonry is a commonly used building practice and is embedded in local building traditional and architectural identity.

Embedding 5

Functional Building height

Low-strength masonry buildings which are conform to building code NBC 203: 1994: maximum allowed to have up to two storeys with an additional attic floor. {Nepal building code, 1994}

Amount of storeys

2

Expandability

The building can be vertically expanded but the building code limits the amount of storeys. Therefor expansion is only possible at a one storey building.

Possibilities

1

Workspace

According to the Nepalese building code should the combined width of wall openings not exceed 25% of the total wall length, based on a two storey building.

Opportunity

2

Protection Rain can wash away mud mortar, wind can penetrate through crevices in low strength masonry wall. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens, but can be easily removed.

Elements 2 Safety 3

Utilities The structure is not able to withstand vertical loads and is for that reason not able to bear loads on the roof. Utilities are only available on ground level or externally.

Possibilities

2

Sustainable Recyclable The stones which are held by mud mortar can be recycled / reused on large

scale. They can be re-used for new buildings, walls, road fill-up etc., or be recycled into smaller material like aggregates for instance. Mud mortar is reusable as new mud mortar by adding water.

Re-usable 5 Recyclable 5

Environmental

The building construction has a low CO2 footprint and impact on the environment. Only large amounts of stone mining can create an 'ugly' landscape.

Impact 4 Sustainabl

e 3

Images

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LLow strength (brick) masonry

Introduction This building style is very common in old villages and towns of the Kathmandu valley. The buildings typically consist of river stone foundations, a combination of burned brick on the outer wall and sun dried brick masonry on the inner wall, the brick masonry is often held together with mud mortar. The space between is frequently filled with mud, small stones and pieces of rubble. The average low strength brick masonry house has a basic rectangular design. Within this category the traditional Newari building style can be classified. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Typical elements are foundations, load bearing brick masonry walls, timber window frames, and varying roof/flooring systems. The heavy building method demands a sufficient foundation on a firm base {DUDBC, 1994). The walls are composed of two walls, one baked, one sun dried brick. The space between is frequently filled with mud, small stones and pieces of rubble {Bothara & Brzev}. The load bearing walls usually have above average redundancy but the weakness of the mortar has a negative effect on this. This building type is included in the BC with thumb rules and limitations.

Redundancy

2

Building code

4

Seismic Performance Standard

Buildings are mostly regular in plan and elevation (few cantilevers/ overhang). Load bearing brick masonry walls provide the lateral load resisting system. Lighter structures will induce less seismic loads, and therefore less damage. Hence the wall thickness should be as thin as possible, with a minimum of 300 mm. The type and quality of the bond within the wall units contribute most to the integrity and strength of the walls. All the bricks units should be properly laid in order to provide sufficient integrity {DUDBC, 1994). High seismic vulnerability due to high inertia loads due to heavy weight of bricks. Buildings lack adequate connections between building elements (for example side and front facade, floors and walls).

Performance

2

Improved Seismic Performance

The structural Integrity and seismic resistance can be strengthened by means of vertical and horizontal reinforcement (timber, bamboo, reinforced concrete). Stiff diaphragms such as concrete slabs are favoured above flexible diaphragms. The out-of-plane capacity can be improved by adding of wall meshes (experimental techniques).

Possible 3

Building on a slope

Soil slopes of 20° maximum (1:3, Vertical: Horizontal) are stable suitable for construction. In case of proper retaining walls, steeper slopes are allowed {DUDBC, 1994}.

Performance

3

Climate Ability for making openings with respect to daylight entrance, the size of wall openings is limited (15-25% of the wall). Traditional masonry is not humidity-proof the ground floor is therefore exposed to the atmosphere. The wall can be plastered, but this is not considered good practice.

Openings (ventilation and sunlight)

3

Thermal 2

Life span Brick masonry structures can have a long lifespan when maintained and not exposed to extreme events (force majeure)

Lifespan 5

Maintenance

Timber elements are vulnerable to rotting when exposed to moisture; therefore need regular checking and maintenance. The maintainability is good due to the fact that structural elements are reachable without much trouble and maintenance does not necessarily require workmanship. The building is available during most structural maintenance.

Reliability 2 Maintainability

3

Complexit This construction type is incorporated in the building code (Nepal National Ease of 3

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y Building code NBC 203: 1994 Low strength masonry). The know-how is mainly passed on informally {Parajuli, Bothara, & Upadhyay, 2015}, and skills vary per person. House-owners are mostly part of the construction team, often they are helped by local artisans/ masons. It is learnable in short time but expertise comes with the years.

learning

Resources Material The building stands on a foundation of river stones, sometimes until a meter

or so to keep the moisture out. The wall build up is mostly done by sun-dried bricks on the inside of the buildings, and baked bricks on the outside. The availability of both sun dried as baked brick is high respectively due to local production and production in Nepali brick kilns. The reliability of availability is different for both sun dried as baked brick, as sun dried bricks are not producible in the monsoon season due to heavy rainfall. Whereas baked bricks are producible all year through. However in the current situation of Nepal the baked brick have become scarce.

Quality 3

Availability

4

Reliability 4

Labour Masonry is labour-intensive, not suitable for mechanization or prefabrication. The brick masonry buildings are mostly built by a construction team including a mason and usually the owner himself. The owner can therefore contribute to the provision of labour. However, not so much masons are familiar with the proper reinforcement techniques. Mason-training programs are therefore being set-up by several organisations.

Experience 5

Intensity 4 Time Brick masonry is not a fast assembled construction method. Construction

speed is dependent on the drying time of mud mortar before being able to apply the next layer.

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 5 Local economy

This building method can be executed with local materials, by local masons benefitting the local economy. Low strength masonry uses sun dried bricks or a combination of sun dried and burnt bricks, which all are fabricated locally. Masonry is a well-known profession, frequently seen locally.

Use of local resources

4

National economy

There are many brick kilns in the Kathmandu valley producing fire-burnt bricks from the local clay, however due to the large demand, bricks might be imported from India. Sun dried bricks however are produced nationally. In general the cash flow remains within Nepal to build low strength masonry.

Use of national resources

4

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

The walls can be plastered or finishing can be applied to allow the appropriate social/ cultural aesthetics. For example the thick wall allows the placement of niches for religious attributes. Also different shapes of the building are possible.

Adaptability

2

Architectural embedding

Brick masonry is a commonly used building practice and is embedded in local building traditional and architectural identity.

Embedding

5

Functional Building height

Low-strength masonry buildings which are conform to building code NBC 203: 1994: maximum allowed to have up to two storeys with an additional attic floor. {Nepal building code, 1994}

Amount of storeys

2

Expandability

The building can be vertically expanded but the building code limits the amount of storeys. Therefor expansion is only possible at a one storey building.

Possibilities

2

Workspace

According to the Nepalese building code should the combined width of wall openings not exceed 25% of the total wall length, based on a two storey building.

Opportunity

2

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Protection Rain can wash away mud mortar, wind can penetrate through crevices in low strength masonry wall. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens, but can be easily removed.

Elements 2 Safety 3

Utilities The structure is not able to withstand vertical loads and is for that reason not able to bear loads on the roof. Utilities are only available on ground level or externally.

Possibilities

2

Sustainable Recyclable Due to the mud mortar the bricks are not damaged as they would have with

cement mortar. Parts of the bricks can be re-used or recycled for road fill-up for instance.

Re-usable 4 Recyclable 4

Environmental

The brick kilns for fire burnt bricks however cause smog and climate pollution. However the low-strength masonry buildings also use sun dried bricks which do not have a negative impact on the environment.

Impact 4 Sustainabl

e 3

Images

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SStone masonry in cement mortar

Introduction This building style is similar to stone masonry and mostly found in the more mountainous parts of Nepal. The houses consists of stacked mountain stones held together by cement instead of mud mortar. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Typical elements are sturdy foundations, load bearing stone masonry walls, held together by cement, timber window frames, and varying roof/flooring systems. Some buildings have applied horizontal bands at sill, lintel and floor level. The heavy building method demands a sufficient foundation on a firm base {DUDBC, 1994). The load bearing walls usually have above average redundancy. This building type is included in the BC.

Redundanc

y 3

Building

code 5

Seismic Performance Standard

The materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. Sufficient bonding between mortar and stones is needed to resist shear cracking. Seismic performance is influenced by the bond between mortar and stone connection, the connection between building elements such as walls, corners and junctions, and between walls and floors, roofs {D’ayala}. Very low or no tensile strength is mostly the cause of shear failure of wall elements in the case of stone masonry. Combined with the irregular shape of stones, further destabilizes the wall by their movements. (NSET, 1994)

Performance

3

Improved Seismic Performance

The structural integrity and seismic resistance can be strengthened by means of vertical and horizontal reinforcement (timber, bamboo, reinforced concrete). Stiff diaphragms such as concrete slabs are favoured above flexible diaphragms and light roofs systems are preferred.

Possible 4

Slope sensitivity

Soil slopes of 20° maximum (1:3, Vertical : Horizontal) are stable suitable for construction. In case of proper retaining walls, steeper slopes are allowed {DUDBC, 1994}.

Performance

3

Climate Wall openings should be as small and as centrally located as practicable, the limits on opening size are: total width of openings should be less than 0,3 of the total width of the wall. Openings should preferably be at the same level, for the continuation of lintels. Ventilators shall be 450x450mm or smaller {DUDBC, 1994}

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

3

Thermal 4

Life span Masonry structures held together with lime mortar can be highly durable, with an extremely high potential lifespan of more than 500 years, if well-constructed and maintained and if not damaged or destructed by force majeure events {J.Morton, 1990}. On the other hand the functional lifespan is presumed to be shorter.

Lifespan 4

Maintenance

The stone walls need limited maintenance when constructed in the right manner only regular check for cracks is needed. Timber elements are vulnerable to rotting due to moisture; therefore need regular checking and maintenance.

The maintainability is good due to the fact that structural elements are reachable with some effort and maintenance does not necessarily require

Reliability

3

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workmanship. The building is available during limited structural maintenance. The cement bonding increases the difficulty due to the effort required to remove specific stones.

Maintainability

2

Complexity

This construction type is incorporated in the building code (Nepal National Building code NBC 109 : 1994 Unreinforced masonry); the codes specify substantial constraints on unreinforced masonry construction to improve seismic resistance {DÁyala}. The skill to build unreinforced stone masonry houses is limited, the addition of reinforcement makes the building method more complex.

Ease of learning

3

Resources Material The stones are mostly coursed and dressed into rectangular shapes. The bonding

material cement is executed as 1:6 cement sand mortar. Mortars are subject to greater variation, but the basic materials used in mortar mixes are sand, water, and one or more of the bonding agents, mud, clay, or cement, depending on local availability. The proportion of bonding agent’s to sand determines the compressive and bonding strength of the mortar {D’ayala}.

Quality 4

Availability 5

Labour Masonry is labour-intensive and not suitable for mechanization or prefabrication. Nepal has a lot of experience with masonry.

Experience 5 Intensity 3

Time Stone masonry is not a fast assembled construction method. Limited layers of stones can be placed, cement mortar needs to dry before next layer. Many slaps and lintels need to be constructed for the building to be earthquake safe.

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price Label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 4 Local economy

This building method can be executed with local materials, by local masons. Stones are mined locally. Cement is produced locally within the Kathmandu Valley, however in cases is imported from India.

Use of local

resources

4

National economy

The stones are locally produced and the quality of Nepalese cement is sufficient, in the case of improved seismic performance cement can also be imported. Importing would lead to some cash flow leaving Nepal.

Use of national

resources

4

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

The walls can be plastered or finishing can be applied to allow the appropriate social/ cultural aesthetics. The use of clean mountain stone as exterior is often seen in the cultural history of Nepal. For example the thick wall allows the placement of niches for religious attributes. Also different divisions of spaces and shapes of the building are easily possible.

Adaptability

3

Architectural embedding

Stone masonry is a commonly used building practice and is embedded in local building traditional and architectural identity.

Embedding 5

Functional Building height

Building codes for load-bearing masonry (NBC 202:1994) limit stone masonry houses with cement mortar to two storeys with an additional attic floor. {Nepal building code, 1994}

Amount of storeys

2

Expandability

The building can be vertically expanded but the building code limits the amount of storeys. Therefor expansion is only possible at a one storey building. However storeys are added informally, sometimes with heavy materials, adding vertical load. This is not considered a good practice for the structural performance of the buildings.

Possibilities

3

Workspace

According to the Nepalese building code should the combined width of wall openings not exceed 25% of the total wall length, based on a two storey

Opportunity

3

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building. Protection Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry wall are

filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetrated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 4 Safety 3

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

3

Sustainable Recyclable Mountain stones are re-usable if their shape is still intact. Damaged stones can

be used for building retaining walls or road fill-up for instance. Cement mortar is useless after demolition.

Re-usable 4 Recyclable 3

Environmental

Same description as 'low strength stone masonry' however due to the cement mortar there is a bigger impact on the environment.

Impact 4 Sustainabl

e 4

Images

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BBrick masonry in cement mortar

Introduction This building style is similar to brick masonry and mostly found the villages and towns of the Kathmandu Valley. The brick masonry is held together with cement instead of mud mortar to construct load bearing walls. The walls usually exist out of multiple layers of brick. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Typical elements are foundations, load bearing brick walls, timber window frames, and varying roof/flooring systems. The walls are composed of two walls and space between is frequently filled with mud, small stones and pieces of rubble {Bothara & Brzev}. The load bearing walls usually have above average redundancy. This building type is included in the BC.

Redundanc

y 3

Building code

5

Seismic Performance Standard

The materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. Sufficient bonding between mortar and bricks is needed to resist shear cracking (D’Ayala). Seismic performance is influenced by the bond between mortar and bricks connection between wall connection between building elements (connections between walls, corners and junctions, and between walls and floors, roofs) {D’ayala}

Performance

3

Improved Seismic Performance

The structural integrity and seismic resistance can be strengthened by means of vertical and horizontal reinforcement (timber, bamboo, reinforced concrete). Refer to chapter on masonry reinforcement. Stiff diaphragms such as concrete slabs are favoured above flexible diaphragms and light roofs systems are preferred.

Possible 4

Slope sensitivity

Soil slopes of 20° maximum (1:3, Vertical: Horizontal) are stable suitable for construction. In case of proper retaining walls, steeper slopes are allowed {DUDBC, 1994}.

Performance

3

Climate Wall openings should be as small and as centrally located as practicable, the limits on opening size are: total width of openings should be less than 0,3 of the total width of the wall. Openings should preferably be at the same level, for the continuation of lintels. Ventilators shall be 450x450mm or smaller {DUDBC, 1994} Use of brick masonry can increase the thermal mass of a building and its fire resistance.

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

4

Thermal 4

Life span Masonry structures held together with lime mortar can be highly durable, with an extremely high potential lifespan of more than 500 years, if well-constructed and maintained and if not damaged or destructed by force majeure events {J.Morton, 1990}. On the other hand the functional lifespan is presumed to be shorter.

Lifespan 4

Maintenance

The stone walls need limited maintenance when constructed in the right manner only regular check for cracks is needed. Timber elements are vulnerable to rotting due to moisture; therefore need regular checking and maintenance. The maintainability is good due to the fact that structural elements are reachable

Reliability 3

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 118

with some effort and maintenance does not necessarily require workmanship. The building is available during limited structural maintenance. The cement bonding increases the difficulty due to the effort required to remove specific bricks.

Maintainability

2

Complexity

This construction type is incorporated in the building code (Nepal National Building code NBC 109: 1994 Unreinforced masonry); the codes specify substantial constraints on unreinforced masonry construction to improve seismic resistance {DÁyala}.

Ease of learning

3

Resources Material Building blocks bricks. Bricks are mainly of sufficient quality, having a crushing

strength of above 7.5 N/mm2 (NSET, 2009). The bonding material cement is executed as 1:6 cement sand mortar. The major factors influencing the strength of the bricks are the purity of the clay and the firing temperature. Mortars are subject to greater variation, but the basic materials used in mortar mixes are sand, water, and one or more of the bonding agents, mud, clay, or cement, depending on local availability. The proportion of bonding agent/s to sand determines the compressive and bonding strength of the mortar. {D’ayala} The bricks are made of local clay, good quality clay is available seen the fact that the Kathmandu valley used to be a lake. Over-burnt, Under-burnt and deformed bricks are not suitable for good construction. The availability of baked brick is high due to local production and the reliability of availability is high given that baked bricks are producible all year through.

Quality 3

Availability 3

Reliability 3

Labour Masonry is labour-intensive, not suitable for mechanization or prefabrication. Nepal has a lot of experienced with masonry.

Experience 5 Intensity 4

Time Brick masonry is not a fast assembled construction method. Limited layers of bricks can be placed, cement mortar needs to dry before next layer.

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price Lable The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 4 Local economy

Brick and cement are not local since they have to come from outside the 50 km range. Labour however is local.

Use of local

resources

3

National economy

There are many brick kilns in the Kathmandu valley producing fire-burnt bricks from the local clay, however due to the large demand, cement might be imported from India.

Use of national

resources

3

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

The walls can be plastered or finishing can be applied to allow the appropriate social/ cultural aesthetics. The walls can be plastered or finishing can be applied to allow the appropriate social/ cultural aesthetics. The use of clean bricks as exterior is often seen in the cultural history of Nepal. For example the thick wall allows the placement of niches for religious attributes. Also different divisions of spaces and shapes of the building are easily possible.

Adaptability

4

Architectural embedding

Brick masonry is a commonly used building practice and is embedded in local building traditional and architectural identity.

Embedding 5

Functional Building height

Building codes for load-bearing masonry (NBC 202:1994) limits fired brick masonry to three storeys high. {Nepal building code, 1994}

Amount of storeys

3

Expandability

Building can be vertically expanded but the building code limits the amount of storeys. Expansion is possible when the maximum building height is not reached. Storey can be easily expanded by proceeding on the existing structure. Often

Possibilities

3

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 119

storeys are added informally, sometimes with heavy materials, adding vertical load. This is not considered a good practice for the structural performance of the buildings.

Workspace

According to the Nepalese building code should the combined width of wall openings not exceed 25% of the total wall length, based on a two storey building.

Opportunity

3

Protection Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry wall are filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetrated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 4 Safety 4

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

4

Sustainable Recyclable Bricks with cement mortar are not easily re-usable, the cement mortar needs to

be removed before the bricks can be re-used, and this is not always possible. According to Nepalese building code: Masonry units that have been previously used should not be re-used in brickwork or brickwork construction unless they have been thoroughly cleaned and shown to conform to the Nepal Standard Brick Masonry NS: 1/2035.

Re-usable 2 Recyclable 2

Environmental

The brick kilns for fire burnt bricks contribute to the smog and pollution of the Kathmandu Valley.

Impact 3 Sustainabl

e 4

Reference This traditional building style is mostly found in the urban areas of the Kathmandu Valley. In the old city cores of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur, but also in urban heritage towns such as Bungamati and Sankhu. Many traditional brick buildings collapsed due to the 2015 earthquake. The buildings were vulnerable to earthquakes since many are quite old and ill-maintained. The structural integrity is threatened when existing houses are divided amongst sons. Building of additional storeys (and additional load) due to family expansion also negatively affects the structure’s performance. Floors are not considered to be rigid diaphragms: often constructed of wooden logs, topped with wooden chips and a relatively heavy layer of mud. These floors do not comply with modern wishes. Floor heights (2.20 to 2.50) are also too low for modern demands. Some buildings are equipped with a Dalan frame, a double timber frame within the wall structure, masonry only being the outer shell {D’Ayala & Bajracharya, 2015}. Horizontal timber bands can be applied to tie the masonry leaves together. In good construction practice, one can find closely spacing of timber floor joists. The joints are connected to the walls by means of timber pegs, which ensure a uniform redistribution of horizontal loads and ensure integrity between building elements. {D’Ayala & Bajracharya, 2015}. Originally self-built structures, nowadays repair and building of this traditional style will be executed by a contractor. Knowledge on this building method was locally widespread available, but will get lost with the up rise of concrete structures. Rebuilding in this method can contribute to the preservation of living heritage and local identity. Integration with modern techniques, new ways to treat timber can enhance its seismic strength.

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HHollow concrete brick masonry

Introduction Hollow concrete blocks are used around the Kathmandu Valley and are popular in certain areas {Habitat Nepal}. The blocks are designed to have hollow compartments inside in order to reduce cost, the addition of these air pockets also makes the blocks fire resistant provides insulation. {Hornbostel, 1991} The blocks are held together by cement mortar and allow for incorporation of rebar and cement in the air pockets for additional strength. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Typical elements are foundations, load bearing hollow concrete brick walls and varying roof/flooring systems. The load bearing walls usually have above average redundancy. The bricks are available in numerous rectangular dimensions and specially shaped corner blocks. The cement bricks are bound together with mortar and the cavities in the bricks can be used for filling with rebar and concrete for extra strength. This building type is included in the BC.

Redundanc

y 4

Building

code 5

Seismic Performance Standard

Structurally each concrete block wall behaves as shear wall, reducing the vulnerability of the structure. Due to the uniform distribution of reinforcement in both vertical and horizontal directions increased tensile resistance and ductile behaviour of the elements. (Ecologic, n.d.) Shake Table testing of the Indian University proved that the seismic resistance of a hollow concrete brick wall is less than a brick masonry wall (Ahmad, 2013)

Performance

3

Improved Seismic Performance

The structural Integrity and seismic resistance can be strengthened by means of vertical and horizontal reinforcement (timber, bamboo, reinforced concrete). Stiff diaphragms such as concrete slabs are favored above flexible diaphragms. Hollow blocks can be reinforced with steel to increase their seismic performance. {Global Shelter Cluster, 2014}

Possible 4

Building on a slope

The base of a hollow concrete brick structured needs to be flat to distribute the loads in vertical and horizontal directions. In case of proper retaining walls, steeper slopes are allowed {DUDBC, 1994}.

Performance

3

Climate Similar openings to brick masonry can be managed. Hollow concrete provides thermal and sound insulation: the air pockets in the hollow blocks keeps the house cool in the summer and warm in the winter. (Ahmad, 2013) Although several households are very unhappy with their experience of the thermal performance of hollow concrete block construction (Hiçyılmaz, Bothara, & Stephenson , 2012).

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

3

Thermal 4

Life span A lifespan of 20+ years can be managed {Global Shelter Cluster, 2014} Lifespan 3 Maintenance

The amount and cost of maintenance of hollow concrete brick masonry is less than brick masonry because of efflorescence in brick masonry wall. (Ahmad, 2013) When plastered the CHB walls don't absorb much moisture decreasing the need for maintenance. {Global Shelter Cluster}

Reliability 4 Maintaina

bility 2

Availability 3

Complexity

Hollow concrete bricks are already used in Nepal, the blocks are locally produced and the method of masonry is similar to brick masonry.

Ease of learning

3

Resources Material Waste products like fly ash can be used in the production process of hollow

concrete bricks. The masonry with blocks consumes less mortar than traditional masonry styles because of the limited volume of the joints. The blocks can be

Quality 4

Availability 4

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filled with concrete and steel rods for reinforcement. The availability of these materials is high and comparable to the availability of concrete, which can be considered high due to local cement factories in Nepal and the large availability of cement in India and China. The reliability can be very good when road conditions and political situations are good, but during monsoon season many roads are damaged and limit the flow of products coming from India and China.

Reliability 4

Labour Only semi-skilled labour is required for the construction with hollow concrete bricks and often the constructions built with hollow cement blocks are of simple nature, also reducing the labour required.

Experience 4

Intensity 4 Time The production and construction of concrete blocks is faster compared to brick

masonry buildings. Let alone by the less amount of actions needed to finish construction.

Technical period

4

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 4 Local economy

Because only semi-skilled labour is required for construction with hollow concrete bricks, a large part of the work force can be utilised. The bricks can also be locally produced and are not bound to a location, the cement however comes from outside the 50 km range.

Use of local

resources

3

National economy

For the production of hollow concrete bricks cement and sand is necessary these product are nationally produced in Nepal. Cement is also often imported from India, therefore some cash flow is leaving Nepal.

Use of national

resources

3

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Buildings constructed with hollow concrete bricks are bound to the dimensions of the bricks, the walls can be plastered to allow the appropriate social/cultural aesthetics. The walls do not allow the placement of niches for religious attributes.

Adaptability

4

Architectural embedding

Hollow concrete bricks are used as a building method in Nepal, however not very widely spread. Masonry structure is seen as embedded in the local building tradition.

Embedding 3

Functional Building height

Unreinforced hollow concrete bricks are comparable with traditional brick masonry buildings. (Koski, 1992) and (Nepal building code, 1994) Building codes for load-bearing masonry (NBC 202:1994) limits fired brick masonry to three storeys high. {Nepal building code, 1994} Reinforced hollow concrete brick buildings are suited for tall buildings, examples of 10 plus story buildings are seen in the USA.

Amount of storeys

3

Expandability

Unreinforced hollow concrete bricks are easy to expand if the structural strength of the building is not compromised. When the structure is reinforced this expansion is seen as more difficult. Since the building method is not included in the building code but performs similar to brick masonry, the expendability also seen as similar.

Possibilities

3

Workspace

According to the Nepalese building code should the combined width of wall openings not exceed 25% of the total wall length, based on a two storey building.

Opportunity

3

Protection Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry wall are filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetrated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 4 Safety 4

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

4

Sustainable Recyclable Hollow concrete bricks are placed with cement mortar and especially with Re-usable 4

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reinforcement hardly recyclable. It is however re-usable for retaining walls, road fill-up etc.

Recyclable 2

Environmental

Hollow concrete bricks can be made with fly ash, a waste material and part replacement of cement. (Ahmad, 2013) Without waste material concrete has an impact on the environment.

Impact 3 Sustainabl

e 3

Images

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RReinforced Cement Concrete Frames

Introduction This building type can be found widespread in urban and semi-urban areas of Nepal, and is one of the most emerging building methods {Marhatta, Bothara, Magar, & Chapagain}. An important distinction can be made between engineered and non-engineered (informally constructed) concrete frames. The main structural system is a moment-resisting reinforced cement concrete skeletal frame of cast-in-place concrete beams and columns with masonry infill walls. Infill is mostly solid clay bricks, infill with stone masonry is also seen in informal structures. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

The main structural system is a moment-resisting reinforced concrete (RC) skeletal frame of cast-in-place concrete beams and columns with masonry infill walls. Infill is mostly solid clay bricks, infill with stone masonry is also seen in informal structures. The walls can be painted and plastered. Floor and roof slabs are mostly cast-in-place concrete slabs. Roof and floor diaphragms are considered to be stiff and rigid, able to distribute lateral forces. When RCC is performed with the minimum amount of columns they don't offer much redundancy, however increasing the amount of columns and adding shear walls has a positive influence on redundancy. RCC frames are incorporated in the building code.

Redundanc

y 3

Building

code 5

Seismic Performance Standard

For non-engineered structures the frame is usually designed for gravity loads only {Marhatta, Bothara, Magar, & Chapagain}. For engineered structures the monolithic beam-column connections. The lateral load system is officially the concrete frame, in reality combined action with the brick masonry infill walls - resembling a shear wall structure. The infill walls actually have to take quite a portion of the lateral load. Class C

Performance

3

Improved Seismic Performance

Seismic performance can be considerably improved by good construction practice, adequate detailing and sufficient reinforcement. The addition of shear walls is found to significantly reduce lateral displacement.

Possible 5

Building on a slope

Building on slopes is not advised with a reinforced concrete construction due to column failures. During an earthquake the columns in a cross section move by the same amount in a horizontal direction. This causes for columns of different lengths to attract different horizontal forces, resulting in different stresses being exerted on different column lengths.{SUJIT KUMAR et al.} This can be compensated by several advanced methods or by construction of braces or a plane foundation with retaining walls.

Performance

4

Climate Window openings are quite flexible due to the frame construction. The frame however must be designed on lateral load. Often it is only for gravitational loads and then the structure is also dependent on the masonry infill; decreasing flexibility of window openings. Insulation and acoustic properties depend mostly on type of infill. When bricks see brick masonry

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

5

Thermal 3

Life span Life span of RC frame construction is lower than masonry building methods. Estimated lifespans are 30-100 years

Lifespan 4

Maintenance

RCC frame building require little maintenance, because the structural elements consist of and are protected by the concrete. However when the concrete is damaged or is in need of maintenance the work requires workmanship and

Reliability 5 Maintaina

bility 2

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much resources such as concrete injections, rebar replacements, poor quality or limited cover could result in corrosion of the reinforcement. The accessibility of the construction is good due to open spaces and the supporting elements being limited to the columns and floors.

Complexity

Reinforced concrete frame with masonry infill is addressed in the national building code. Design and construction expertise is limited available due to a lack of engineers. Engineers are (if at all) involved for drawings and permits and structural design, construction monitoring and quality control. Non-engineered building practice forms a risk, since RC frame construction requires sufficient level of ‘technology, expertise, and workmanship, particularly in the field during construction’ (Yakut).

Ease of learning

2

Resources Material The concrete is made of a mixture of sand, cement and water. (Mixtures

combined with waste products are also possible.) The concrete is strengthened by steel reinforcement. The infill walls are often made of baked bricks, although block and stone infills are also seen. In rural villages, combinations of stone and brick infill can be found. Availability of concrete can be considered high due to local cement factories in Nepal and the large availability of cement in India and China. The reliability can be very good when road conditions and political situations are good, but during monsoon season many roads are damaged and limit the flow of products coming from India and China. The availability of steel rods for rebar is good due to much local production.

Quality 5

Availability 4

Reliability 4

Labour Building with Reinforced Concrete Frames is a labour intensive building method due to the specificity of activities such as correctly making the cement or the placement of casts. The placement of rebar is considered to be one of the most labour intensive activities seeing that the typical unit rate costs is more expensive than other structural elements (Jarkas, 2012)

Experience 4

Intensity 3

Time According to a study performed for the British Association of Reinforcements the construction speed when working with reinforced concrete is relatively fast (http://uk-bar.org/frame_costs.htm). The construction time can be even faster than other methods such as steel and prefab when taking into account lead times and procurement. The construction speeds can be optimized when performed by an experienced team building in a systematic manner with extreme examples such as the Burj Khalifa with 160+ floors within 6 years.

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 3 Local economy

Brick and cement are not local since they have to come from outside the 50 km range. Labour however is local. Wall infill can be done with a local product.

Use of local

resources

3

National economy

Most materials are available in Nepal, however large quantities are imported from India. Especially for RCC large amounts of cement is required, as well as for the concrete as for the mortar.

Use of national

resources

2

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

RCC is a method that can be altered in many different ways allowing for the use of almost any desired exterior and interior. In Bhaktapur (historic settlement) that was damaged by the earthquake RCC frames are used to rebuild the historic centre by applying traditional exterior elements as if it were built in a traditional building style.

Adaptability

5

Architectural embedding

RCC has been used for some decades in Nepal, mostly used in the bigger cities and urban outskirts that have quickly developed due to economic growth. It is a method that is known to most people living in larger settlements of Nepal and the characteristics of this methods are widely known. It depends largely how the structures are finished. That shows that a lot of different kind of appearances are possible with this method.

Embedding 3

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Functional Building height

If well-constructed and designed, this building type is internationally suitable for low-rise and high-rise when constructed in the appropriate manner. There is not limitation in the building height according to the Nepalese building code. It is recommended to have a maximum height of three stories. (DUDBC, 1994)

Amount of storeys

5

Expandability

This building method is extendable, future extension should be taken in to account during a earlier construction phase by leaving out reinforcement bars at the main columns. If not the expendability is experienced as difficult.

Possibilities

5

Workspace

The frame structure should be able to withstand all the loads with the frame column structure. This offers flexibility for the incorporation for space for shops and workspaces.

Opportunity

5

Protection Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry infill walls are filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetrated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 4 Safety 4

Utilities Utilities are possible at any level of the building, structure is designed to withstand loads at the rooftop.

Possibilities

5

Sustainable Recyclable The building method does not have the opportunity to re-use material. If

collapsed, the debris of concrete frame structures is hard to remove and mostly unable to reuse. Specialized equipment is needed to remove the debris, in Kathmandu experts and equipment from other countries had to be called for. From interviews it became clear that regular people and small organisations such as schools do not have the means or knowledge to remove RCC debris on their own.

Re-usable 2 Recyclable 2

Environmental

Environmental impact is dependent on the production of construction materials, the construction itself, the life cycle and the demolition of a construction. The production of materials used for concrete has relatively low impact due to the natural availability of the materials however some chemicals are needed in the process. Construction with concrete needs relatively much transport and machinery resulting in more impact.{Struble, L., & Godfrey, J. (2004, May)} Activities relted to repairs of RCC constructions can increase the environmental impact associated with this building method. Hossain, K. and Gencturk, B. (2014) And the demolition of Reinforced Concrete requires brute force and the use of machinery. According to a study done by Struble, L., & Godfrey, J. (2004, May) the use of concrete has less environmental impact than the use of steel.

Impact 3

Sustainable

5

Images

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TTimber construction

Introduction Common Nepali building practise in areas where trees are abundant. Often constructed in stud wall frame or wood frame construction, with either concrete or stone foundations. Walls are built out of vertical timber elements and are stiffened by plywood or gypsum board sheathing. The roofs are often executed out of timber joists or prefab timber trusses {Arnold}. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Key-building components are: usually concrete (reinforced concrete stip-footing foundations), sometimes stone foundations. Walls are built out of vertical timber elements (rectangular cross-sections), and are covered (stiffened) by plywood/ gypsum board sheathing. An alternative seen in Japan is bracing of the timber wall with diagonal members. Floor are made with joists, covered with plywood or OSB, Roofs are executed out of timber joists or prefab timber trusses {Arnold}.

Strength Redundanc

y 3

Non-structural elements

1

Building code

5

Seismic Performance Standard

The seismic performance is relatively high {Arnold} in case of sufficient material- and construction quality. The lateral load-bearing system if formed by plywood/ OSB panels nailed to the vertical member which act as shear walls. Also diagonal timber braces can be applied. Structures have satisfactory redundancy due to the typically large number of walls and nailed connections {Arnold}. Seismic deficiencies are inadequate connections to foundation causing the building to move of the foundation, inadequate shear resistance, lacking of bracing, inadequate Joints without mechanical fasteners, lack of proper maintenance {Arnold}

Performance

4

Improved Seismic Performance

The seismic performance can be enhanced by application of the adequate finishing; the non-load bearing walls can provide significant dissipation of energy when they are damaged {Arnold}.

Possible 5

Building on a slope

Timber structures can be built on slopes, however the vertical forces need to be distributed in a correct manner. A way to achieve this is the use of braces or by constructing a level foundation on which the main structure can be placed.

Performance

5

Climate Location of window openings is very flexible due to the timber braced frame. In a timber construction the infill of walls can be of any desired material, often it is seen that infill consists of rocks. The rock walls are lighter with respect to stone masonry structures, therefore they have lesser thermal mass and insulation properties.

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

5

Thermal 3

Life span The life span of timber is subjected to the amount of maintenance and the kind of wood used. With the use of the right wood and properly maintained the life span could reach to 80 years.

Lifespan 4

Maintenance Timber is highly subject to maintenance, it requires regular maintenance to prevent the structural elements from rotting requiring maintenance every 3 to 5 years. Maintenance can be done by the owners themselves if they have the knowhow and it does not require much resources. The availability of the structure during maintenance is good except when concerning the maintenance of roof or floor elements.

Reliability 3 Maintaina

bility 5

Availability 3

Complexity This construction type is incorporated in the building code (Nepal National Building code NBC 112: 1994 Timber). The know-how is mainly passed on informally {Parajuli, Bothara, & Upadhyay, 2015}, and skills vary per person. House-owners are mostly part of the construction team, often they are helped by local artisans/

Ease of learning

3

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masons. It is learnable in short time but expertise comes with the years.

Resources Material For structural elements such as beams, columns, bands etc. hardwood, such as the

locally available Sal wood, should be used (not soft-wood) (DUDBC, 1994). Timber should be adequately treated to prevent decay. The availability and reliability of proper timber for seismic bands and timber framing is low due to anti-deforestation programs and prices are high due to transportation costs.

Quality 5

Availability 2 Reliability 4

Labour Timber is locally known as a building material, there are special carpenters who are able to build with timber frames and connections. Due to the fact that timber is relatively light weight it can be done with few people, however the processing of wood for a timber frame can be time costly requiring a small team of 5 - 10 people.

Experience 5

Intensity 3

Time Timber construction is a 'dry' construction method and can therefore quickly be assembled and executed.

Technical period

4

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 1 Local economy

Timber might be imported from other parts of the country, however might give an impulse to local carpenters

Use of local

resources

3

National economy

In large scale, timber should probably be imported Use of national

resources

3

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Wood is used for decades in Nepal for finishing and decoration of the houses and temples. Therefore it has the ability to meet the social and cultural requirements of Nepali housing in terms of social status or ethnic identity.

Adaptability

4

Architectural embedding

Wood is already used in the construction sector in Nepal for decades. Therefore it is possible to blend in with surrounding, be embedded in traditional building or considered acceptable.

Embedding 4

Functional Building height

The maximum building height of timber buildings is not described in the Nepalese building code. Typically and internationally wood frame structures are 3 storeys high. This height is taken in to consideration for the Nepalese situation.

Amount of storeys

2

Expandability Since the maximum building height is not limited by the building code and the effort for extending a timber frame structure is low, the expandability is high.

Possibilities

4

Workspace Timber frame structures can create a large over span which can be used as openings for workspace. Timber elements longer than four meters are costly and therefore not recommended in construction

Opportunity

4

Protection Timber elements provide shelter against rain and wind but are not fully protective against the elements because they can be penetrated by wind and rain. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 3 Safety 3

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

3

Sustainable Recyclable When properly maintained the material is highly re-usable. In case of damage it is

also recyclable as firewood for instance. Re-usable 5

Recyclable 4 Environmental Timber is a renewable material, which also provides temporary storing of CO2. In a

controlled way large amounts of timber can be used. Impact 4

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Sustainable

4

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AAppendix 1.A.2. – Reference building methods Criteria of the reference building methods in more rich earthquake-prone areas like Santiago, Los Angeles and Tokyo the added expense in the building sector to make a building earthquake safe has become normal. Due to reinforced concrete, strong steel structures and innovative techniques like shock absorbers buildings are withstanding greater tensions due to earthquakes. Also strict building codes, which are also strictly followed thousands of lives were saved during previous earthquakes, such as a quake with a magnitude of 8,8 hit Chile in February 2010, and japan 9.0 earthquake in march 2011. It is important for Nepal to use cheap and innovative methods that are used in earthquake-prone areas around the world. In this paragraph various building methods will be elaborated on the criteria of geography (mountains, plat land etc.) and income. As reference countries Chili, Pakistan, Haiti, North India, Japan, Rest of Nepal, Peru, Indonesia are chose.

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AAdobe

Introduction This building method is common for low-income rural populations. The Adobe building method uses building materials such as earth, un stabilized mud-like blocks or sun-dried bricks. This building method is one of the earliest building methods in the world, dating back to 8000B.C. {Houben and Guillard 1994}. The typical building consists of a strip footing foundation, adobe material walls and floors spanned with wood joists. The roof is usually clad with clay tiles or corrugated sheet metal. {Blondet & Villa Garcia} Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Adobe buildings exist of (strip-footing) foundations, load-bearing walls and varying floor- and roof systems. The heavy structures demands a firm soil as a base and concrete or stone foundation. The sun dried adobe blocks are used for both walls and roofs. The thickness of walls is limited by the thickness to height ratio of 1:8 by building codes 204:1994. Floors are mostly spanned with wood joists (or locally found tree trunks). The roof is clad with corrugated sheet metal clay tiles {Blondet & Villa Garcia}. The roofs can also be adobe domes or cylindrical. The load bearing walls usually have average redundancy and is comparable to low strength brick masonry. This building method is in the building code with thumb rules and limitations on design.

Strength Redundanc

y 2

Building

code 4

Seismic Performance Standard

Traditional adobe buildings perform poor seismic behaviour, causing loss in lives and property. The earthen walls are the main seismic resistant elements; traditional structures do not have additional systems to restrain lateral loads The heavy walls generate high seismic forces. The low-strength and brittle wall experience severe cracking under seismic loads. Further seismic vulnerability is caused by insufficient connection between building elements (roof, wall separation of walls disintegration of walls."

Performance

1

Improved Seismic Performance

The seismic performance can be significantly improved with reinforcement of the walls. Vertical wooden posts and horizontal wooden elements embedded in walls are the expected key earthquake resistant elements in these buildings. There are success stories of Adobe with geomesh for more (EERI)"

Possible 2

Building on a slope

Soil slopes of 20° maximum (1:3, Vertical: Horizontal) are stable suitable for construction. In case of proper retaining walls, steeper slopes are allowed {DUDBC, 1994}.

Performance

2

Climate The window openings should be limited and well-spaced. The length between openings is limited to 1.2 m by the building code. The thick wall (0, 25 - 0, 8 m) provides thermal mass and excellent insulation and acoustic properties. The thickness of the wall will vary per climatic region {Blondet & Villa Garcia}. Walls are vulnerable to moisture; ‘damp rising from the ground, penetration of rainwater into the wall from a leaking roof and splashing of water during rain’, as stated in building code 204:1994. Measures should be adopted to protect the mud/ earthen walls.

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

2

Thermal 4

Life span Lifespan of Adobe structures can be very long when maintained correctly and sufficiently and when not exposed to extreme events (force majeure).

Lifespan 4

Maintenance

For some building a 2-inch straw reinforced mud cover protects the wall against the weather. Every 4 to 6 years this layer has to be replaced. The structural elements require often periodic maintenance. The performance of maintenance is very easy and do not require workmanship and little to no resources. The availability of the structure during maintenance is similar to low strength brick masonry.

Reliability 2 Maintaina

bility 4

Availability 2

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Complexity

The simple construction method is mostly self-made, simple. This method is typically non-engineered. {Blondet & Villa Garcia}

Ease of learning

3

Resources Material Adobe is a building material made of earth, sun-dried blocks. The wall strength

dependent on the local soil quality. The right proportion of clay is essential for the performance of adobe blocks; enough is needed to bond the dry earth material, whereas excessive clay amount can cause cracking due to shrinkage while drying {Blondet & Villa Garcia}. When the right proportion of clay is available this can be a low-cost, readily available construction material.

Quality 4

Availability 5

Reliability 5 Labour Good workmanship has a large influence on the strength of adobe masonry. Nepal is

very experienced with this method. In the last years this method is not used much anymore in the cities. But the knowledge of this building method is still available. Adobe can be built with a small team but the overall building time can be time consuming due to the drying time of the bricks and the mud.

Experience 5

Intensity 4 Time Adobe is a time consuming construction method. As described in the box above it

can be time consuming due to the drying time of each brick and mortar. Technical

period 3

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 5 Local economy

Construction practice can be performed by local builders/ masons. Materials to make adobe are locally available (sand, mud, clay etc.,)

Use of local

resources

5

National economy

Cash flow to build adobe houses remains in Nepal, since material, labour and knowledge is available.

Use of national

resources

4

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Social status of being an unsophisticated lower quality building method in Nepal {Toppa}. However, the method is used in Iran by both poor and wealthy families {Blondet & Villa Garcia}.

Adaptability

2

Architectural embedding

Adobe was already widely used in the building sector in Nepal before the earthquake. A lot of these structures did not survive the earthquake. Before it prevailed many mountainous, rural regions and even sometimes in sub urban areas.

Embedding 5

Functional Building height

Buildings are typically one story (3m high), but are seen to be built 3 storeys high in mountainous regions {Blondet & Villa Garcia}. The buildings in conformity with the code 204:1994 may not exceed 1 storey with an additional attic floor, the corresponding acceptable storey height is between 1.8 - 2.5 meters. {Building Code} According to the world housing net the maximum safe number of storeys is considered to be one storey.

Amount of storeys

1

Expandability

Since the building code limits the building height vertical expansion is also limited. Possibilities

1

Workspace

Opening size and locations are controlled by the building code, limiting the opportunity for workspace, restaurants and shops. Floor to floor height is maximized to 2.5 m by the building code (204:1994).

Opportunity

2

Protection Adobe structures provide shelter against rain and wind but are not fully protective against the elements because they can be penetrated by wind and rain. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 2 Safety 3

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Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

2

Sustainable Recyclable Made of mud, earth or clay, adobe constructions are highly recyclable. Wall

elements however will not be re-used. Re-usable 1

Recyclable 5

Environmental

Low environmental impact, no requirement of additional energy resources. All materials are local and natural

Impact 5 Sustainabl

e 3

Reference Iran Iran has a large amount of dwellings built with adobe and is hit multiple times with

devastating earthquakes. In the 2003 Bam earthquake, over 40.000 people died; in 1990, over 40.000 people dead. Many people were killed in adobe structures due the heavy roof that collapsed (http://db.world-housing.net/building/104, 10/8/2015).

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DDhajji Dewari

Introduction Traditional building method in the western Himalayas, mostly found in both Pakistan and India. Similar building methods can be found in parts of Europe and Central America {Hicyilmaz, Bothara & Stephenson, 2014}. It is largely adopted as a rebuilding method after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. The building method exists of an extensively braced timber frame filled with either stone or brick masonry held together with mud mortar. The method is generally laid on shallow foundations stone masonry {Hicyilmaz, Bothara & Stephenson, 2014}. Flooring is done with timber beams which span wall to wall, timber floor boards on top of the beams are overlain with a layer of clay/ mud. Roof are either flat, timber logs with a mud layer pitched timber constructions with metal roof sheeting. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

The method is generally laid on shallow foundations stone masonry {Hicyilmaz, Bothara & Stephenson, 2014}. Flooring is done with timber beams which span wall to wall, timber floor boards on top of the beams are overlain with a layer of clay/ mud. Roof are either flat, timber logs with a mud layer or pitched timber constructions with metal roof sheeting. Walls consist of a timber frame construction with many braces and infill with irregular shaped rocks. The redundancy is good due to the frame construction and the many braces that distribute the loads evenly. This construction method is not in the building code but acceptable according to general structural principles.

Strength

Redundancy

5

Non-structural elements

3

Building code

3

Seismic Performance Standard

Timber framing combined with the masonry infill provides the main lateral load resisting system. The timber framing acts as a stable confinement, and contributes to the limitation of out-of-plane demands on masonry infill (Hicyilmaz, Bothara & Stephenson, 2012). The low-strength mud allows yielding at relatively small lateral loads, and provides energy dissipation by means of friction between infill pieces.

Performance

3

Improved Seismic Performance

Building method is validated by state of the art engineering analysis {Hicyilmaz, 2011}, and is considered to provide satisfactory earthquake resistance, having more ductility than confined masonry.

Possible 4

Building on a slope

Dhajji Dewari structures are typically built on flat terrain {Hicyilmaz, Bothara & Stephenson, 2014}. This can be accounted to the braces that have to connect to a horizontal surface or optimal load distribution.

Performance

3

Climate Location of window openings is quite flexible due to the timber braced frame however window sizes are limited when wanting to maintain the positive effect of the timber bracings. Walls are lighter with respect to stone masonry structures, therefore also less thermal mass and insulation properties."

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

3

Thermal 3

Life span The timber elements are vulnerable to deterioration however with sufficient maintenance and construction this can be a durable construction method {Hicyilmaz, Bothara & Stephenson, 2014}.

Lifespan 4

Maintenance Due to the large use of timber, maintenance demand is quite high. Lack of maintenance can undermine inherent seismic resistance and general structural safety. The execution of maintenance is relatively easy due to the ease of reaching structural elements. The maintenance does not necessarily require workmanship and some resources due to the many timber elements. The availability of the structure during maintenance is good due to the high redundancy of structural elements.

Reliability 3 Maintaina

bility 3

Availability 2

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Complexity This method is not common or familiar in the affected area of Nepal (2015). However in India the method is known by local builders, included in the building code and regarded as a straightforward construction technology, easy to build from local materials {Hicyilmaz, 2011}. Making transferring of knowledge from Indian builders to Nepali builders realistic and possible.

Ease of learning

2

Resources Material Materials used are timber for the framing, stone or brick masonry infill and local

mud mortar. Materials for infill are locally available in rural and mountainous regions. The feasibility of the building method is largely dependent on the availability and affordability of wood, which is limited by Nepali anti-deforestation programs.

Quality 5

Availability 3 Reliability 4

Labour The construction with Dhajji Dewari is commonly used in South Asia (http://www.world-housing.net/tutorials/other/dhajji-dewari). However this method is not very common in Nepal. Therefore construction workers are not used to this building method.

Experience 2

Intensity 3 Time For the rebuilding after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, Dhajji Dewari was selected

for its speed {Hicyilmaz, Bothara & Stephenson, 2014}. It can be build relatively quick but only with experienced construction workers.

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 3 Local economy

Material for Dhajji Dewari is available (timber to some level, stone). Local carpenters and masons however would need some training, which needs to be imported

Use of local

resources

4

National economy

If sufficient timber is available, all materials could be provided locally. However on large scale construction timber needs to be imported, which leads to some cash flow leaving Nepal.

Use of national

resources

3

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

The walls can be plastered or finishing can be applied to allow the appropriate social/ cultural aesthetics. The thick wall allows for example the placement of niches for religious attributes, although the Dhajji Dewari walls are more slender than stone masonry.

Adaptability

4

Architectural embedding

This building type is widely found in Pakistan and India. The building has strong reference/ remembrance to stone masonry, prevailing many mountainous and rural regions.

Embedding 3

Functional Building height

The maximum building height of timber buildings is not described in the Nepalese building code. Typically and internationally wood frame structures are 3 storeys high. This height is taken in to consideration for the Nepalese situation.

Amount of storeys

3

Expandability Since the maximum building height is not limited by the building code and the effort for extending a timber frame structure is low, the expandability is high.

Possibilities

2

Workspace The building method is considered to have more availability and flexibility for openings for open due to its timber framework.

Opportunity

2

Protection Wind can penetrate through crevices in low strength masonry wall. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens, but can be easily removed.

Elements 3 Safety 3

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

3

Sustainable Recyclable The stones which are held by mud mortar can be re-used. The mortar itself is Re-usable 5

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recyclable into new mortar. Recyclable 5

Environmental

The building construction has a low footprint. Stone and timber are natural and local materials. Although the amount of used wood should be monitored to prevent deforestation.

Impact 4 Sustainabl

e 4

Reference North-Pakistan

This building method performed relatively well in the earthquake of October 2005 (magnitude 7.6) in North Pakistan.

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RRammed earth

Introduction This ancient technique is mostly used for residential purposes in many different countries. Also in Nepal it is used in many places ranging from the Terai (plains) to the Himalayas. Rammed earth is the in-situ ramming of moist soil into a placed mold (Sassu & Ngoma, 2015) to make foundations, floors and walls. Rammed earth is gaining renewed interest, due to its usage of sustainable and locally available building material. The roofs are mostly made of timber or bamboo structure (pitched) and clad with corrugated iron sheets. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Rammed earth buildings exist of sturdy stone or concrete foundations, load-bearing rammed earth walls and varying floor- and roof systems. The heavy structures demands a firm soil as a base and concrete or stone foundation. Wall height is approximately 2.5 m and wall thickness ranges from 0.20 to 0.30 m. Floors are mostly spanned with wood joists (or locally found tree trunks). Roofs are mostly made of timber or bamboo structure (pitched) and clad with corrugated iron sheets. The load bearing walls usually have average redundancy and is comparable to low strength brick masonry and adobe. This building method is in the building code with thumb rules and limitations on design.

Redundanc

y 3

Building

code 3

Seismic Performance Standard

The load bearing system consists of rammed earth walls. The strength of the wall is low and depends on compacting and quality of soil. The structures generally have little lateral load bearing capacity.

Performance

2

Improved Seismic Performance

The seismic performance can be significantly improved with reinforcement of the walls. Vertical wooden posts and horizontal wooden elements embedded in walls are the expected key earthquake resistant elements in these buildings. Another way of increasing the strength is the use of stabilized rammed earth method which incorporates the use of concrete to bond the rammed earth.

Possible 3

Building on a slope

Requires levelling of sloping terrain, is never seen on sloped terrain (Sassu & Ngoma, 2014).

Performance

1

Climate The window openings should be limited and well-spaced. Walls can have good thermal properties due to thickness of the walls resulting in good thermal mass. The walls are susceptible for water damage if not well protected requiring an overhanging roof overhang or other protective measures to protect it from the rain/ moisture.

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

2

Thermal 4

Life span Rammed earth structures are considered durable with lifespan considered to be over 100 years {http://www.forgreenies.com/rammed-earth-houses} and some promoters even claiming that the structures can maintain their integrity for over 1000 years. {http://www.rammedearth.info/rammed-earth-FAQ.htm}

Lifespan 4

Maintenance

Once a wall is rammed and sealed it requires little to no maintenance for a period between 10 to 20 years. Performing maintenance is considered to be easy because it only requires resealing of the rammed earth wall. This can be done with little to no workmanship and some resources. The availability of the structure is low during maintenance due to the average redundancy.

Reliability 2 Maintaina

bility 5

Availability 2

Complexity The building method requires many experience (THD, 2015), and the quality is dependent on consistent workmanship.

Ease of learning

2

Resources

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Material The technique makes use of locally available clay, sand, gravel and some cement. The wall strength dependent on the local soil quality and the compacting effort. The method can be considered low-cost with readily available construction materials that are available during the dryer periods in the year. Limiting the possibility to construct in the monsoon season.

Quality 5

Availability 4 Reliability 4

Labour The technique requires in-situ ramming and is considered labour intensive if there is no machinery available (powered tampers).

Experience 3 Intensity 2

Time Speed of construction depends on how fast the ramming can be done, if machinery is available the ramming can be done much quicker. Construction time for a simple house is considered 2 weeks for the wall construction 1 week for the roof.

Technical period

4

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 5 Local economy

External training and mentoring is needed to perform this technique with local builders

Use of local

resources

4

National economy

Since rammed earth makes mainly use of materials like sand, mud and clay cash flow is not leaving Nepal.

Use of national

resources

4

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Social status of being an unsophisticated lower quality building method {Toppa}, perceived as a old-fashioned building method with respect to concrete. The use of rammed earth can have quite the same appearance as adobe which is commonly known in Nepal.

Adaptability

2

Architectural embedding

Rammed earth can look quite similar to adobe. Both make use of the earth/clay that is available nearby the construction site. Adobe was already widely used in the building sector in Nepal before the earthquake. A lot of these structures did not survive the earthquake. Before it prevailed in many mountainous, rural regions and even sometimes in sub urban areas.

Embedding 2

Functional Building height

The buildings in conformity with the code 204:1994 may not exceed 1 storey with an additional attic floor, the corresponding acceptable storey height is between 1.8 - 2.5 meters. {Building Code} According to the world housing net the maximum safe number of storeys is considered to be one storey.

Amount of storeys

1

Expandability

Since the building code limits the building height vertical expansion is also limited. Possibilities

1

Workspace Opening size and locations are controlled by the building code, limiting the opportunity for workspace, restaurants and shops. Floor to floor height is maximized to 2.5 m by the building code (204:1994).

Opportunity

2

Protection Soil structures provide shelter against rain and wind but are not fully protective against the elements because they can be penetrated by wind and rain. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 2 Safety 3

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

2

Sustainable Recyclable Made of mud, earth or clay, are highly recyclable. However wall elements of rammed

earth cannot be re-used Re-usable 1

Recyclable 5

Environmen Low environmental impact, no requirement of additional energy resources. All used Impact 5

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tal materials are local and natural. Sustainable

3

Reference Project: Abari

The firm Abari is experimenting with rammed earth structures combined with bamboo roofs in Nepal.

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SSteel

Introduction Structural steel was predominately used for industrial and agricultural structures and found it’s up rise in the second world war. {http://www.ncibuildingsystems.com/careers/campus/mbi_history.html} After the war the use of steel as a construction material for buildings, bridges and other structures was widely accepted and accessible due to its cost- efficiency. Nowadays steel is not only used for complex structures but also for regular housing projects in seismically active areas, such as Japan where the use of steel in building housing is subsidized. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Steel construction with shear walls or steel braces, often combined with a reinforced concrete foundation. The basic structure is consisting of steel braced frame with reinforcements to make the constructing resistant to lateral and transversal loads. Up to 5 storeys cross braces or shear walls are used. Over 5 storeys reinforced concrete slips or jump formed wall are commonly used {10/5/2015, http://db.world-housing.net/building/3#tabs-4}.

Strength Redundan

cy 3

Non-structural elements

3

Building code

5

Seismic Performance Standard

Seismic performance of structural steel constructions can be considered very good due to a number of desirable attributes. It is relatively lightweight, while providing great strength. Steel has a high ductility which is a favourable trait during an earthquake.

Performance

5

Improved Seismic Performance

The performance during an earthquake can be increased by use of special moment resisting frames and different types of braces such the V-brace, inverted V-brace, X-brace, and two storied X-brace etc. A combination of the properties of steel and the possibilities to enhance the frame make steel frame buildings a good construction type for seismically active areas.{lecture by Michael D Engelhardt Michael D. Engelhardt University of Texas at Austin, Design of Seismic Design of SeismicResistant Steel Building Structures}

Possible 5

Building on a slope

Steel structures can be built on slopes, however the vertical forces need to be distributed in a correct manner. A way to achieve this is by using bracings and constructing a level foundation on which the main structure can be placed. {http://web.mit.edu/cron/Backup/project/zalewski/layouts/slopes01d.pdf}

Performance

5

Climate Openings in exterior walls can easily be made due to the openness of steel frames, only limited by possible placement of braces. The interior climate of a steel structure can be easily regulated depending on the choices for interior and exterior wall covering and choice of insulating layers. A disadvantage of steel construction frames is the ability of steel to conduct heat, having possible negative effects on the interior climate.

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

5

Thermal 3

Life span Steel structures can have a very long lifespan (exceeding 100 years) when maintained properly.

Lifespan 4

Maintena Steel structures have some disadvantages when it comes to maintenance. Steel is Reliability 3

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nce vulnerable to corrosion when exposed to oxygen, water and humidity, to prevent corrosion periodic painting is needed. Another issue that needs periodic maintenance is the fire protective coating that ensures the structural integrity of steel during a fire. The amount of maintenance and the consequences of not performing maintenance are both large. The maintainability of steel is relatively easy when it comes to treating the steel with a protective layer, however the maintenance that requires welding does require more workmanship and resources. The availability of the structure during maintenance is good and comparable to the RCC frame.

Maintainability

2

Complexity

The complexity of constructing with steel is that it requires knowledge on correctly connecting the frame and braces. Bad detailing, due a lack of knowledge among the construction workers can result in unsafe structures. Building with steel requires special tools and the knowledge on properly handling these tools.

Ease of learning

3

Resources Material The main materials needed are steel beams with the correct quality marks, cement for

the construction of a foundation, welding materials and the materials of choice for flooring, interior and exterior covering. The availability of materials under normal circumstances is good, a threat to the availability is the political situation with neighbouring countries seeing that the beams need to be imported. Another factor playing a role is the conditions of the roads, especially after monsoon season when these can get swiped away by landslides. Steel is a material that is produced and readily available in Nepal, however this only concerns the production of steel rods and rebar. Very little to no producers offer structural steel beams requiring the import of steel beams for construction purposes. {http://www.fncci.org/members/page1.php?op=pageload&file=search_result&type=am&am_catid=18}

Quality 5

Availability

3

Reliability 3

Labour The labour intensity of building with steel is relatively low. A small team of workers 4 to 10 can erect a steel frame for housing. However skilled labour is needed for welding and construction with steel. Right now steel buildings are not very popular in Nepal.

Experience 2

Intensity 3

Time The construction time for a small house built with steel is dependent on the amount of workers, varying between 2 to 6 months making it a relatively quick building method. { http://www.steelconstruction.info/Residential_and_mixed-use_buildings}

Technical period

4

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 1 Local economy

Steel is not a local product, non-structural elements however can be done with local material.

Use of local

resources

3

National economy

On national scale the economy will not necessarily benefit given that the main product needs to be imported.

Use of national

resources

1

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Steel frames allow for many shapes and forms, the materials to fill the frame can be adapted to the owner's preferences allowing for high adaptability. The materials usable for the infilling can be the same as known to the local people.

Adaptability

5

Architectural embedding

Unfamiliar from traditional point of view, however in the urban villages more and more examples of steel frame buildings are seen. Although not always correctly implemented.

Embedding

3

Functional Building height

Steel is not limited by the Nepalese building code in its building height. Internationally steel is used as a building material for high rise structures.

Amount of storeys

5

Expandability

Steel frames are easily expandable when accounted for in the design, extra steel frame elements can be welded on the existing structure

Possibilities

5

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Workspace

Steel frame constructions also work with columns and beams, therefore large spans can be made, the incorporation of space for shops and workspaces is relatively easy.

Opportunity

5

Protection Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry infill walls are filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetreated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 4 Safety 4

Utilities Utilities are possible at any level of the building, structure is designed to withstand loads at the rooftop.

Possibilities

5

Sustainable Recyclable The steel used for the frames is reusable when not damaged and otherwise recyclable

by melting. The materials used for filling the frame can be chosen by the owner and can also be both recyclable and reusable.

Re-usable 4 Recyclable 5

Environmental

Steel is an environmentally beneficial product, allowing for easy recycling and reusing. The construction speed is quicker than traditional labour intensive materials reducing local impact. {http://www.steelconstruction.info/} Compared with concrete it has less associated energy usage due to less mass needing to be transported, less formwork etc. However steel building has more heavy metal emissions due to welding, treatment of steal etc. {Guggemos, A. and Horvath, A. (2005)}

Impact 3 Sustainabl

e 5

Reference Project: japan

Steel structures are dominant in the construction industry in Japan, especially in Japan after WWII steel structures increased enormously. At present it in Japan it accounts for 40 percent of the total amount of building in a year, while wood and concrete are only responsible for 20 percent. This is unique in the world. The reason behind this is the strong support of the government after the Meiji restoration. The idea behind this is that Japan needed a material that should be used to resist the impact of severe earthquakes. Although steel is more expensive to build with than concrete and timber it has been sustained by the nation's wealth of Japan. However these cost can be a problem for Nepal (2009, Earthquake-Resistant Engineering of Steel Structures, Hitoshi Kuwamura, Stock Management for Sustainable Urban Regeneration, Volume 4 of the series cSUR-UT Series: Library for Sustainable Urban Regeneration pp 133-156).

Chile In Chile there was no severe damage in the serious earthquakes of 1960 with a magnitude of 9.5 with these steel constructions (10/5/2015, http://db.world-housing.net/building/3#tabs-4).

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CConcrete in-situ shear wall

Introduction Buildings made with cast-in-situ reinforced concrete walls have been practiced since 1960. This type can be widely found in urban regions of seismic hazard areas such as Canada, Chile, Romania, Turkey, Columbia and the republics of the former soviet Union {Moroni}. Shear walls are usually placed along both length and width of buildings, they carry earthquake loads downwards to the foundation. Shear walls can be executed in several ways such as, all shear wall, tunnel or limited shear wall. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

RCC construction with shear walls, often combined with a reinforced concrete strip or mat foundation. The basic structure is consisting of RCC frame with reinforced concrete load-bearing walls (varying from 140 mm to 500 mm) to make the constructing resistant to lateral and transversal loads. Floors are reinforced concrete slabs and less often precast hollow-core slabs {Moroni}. The redundancy is good due to the use of shear walls. Incorporated in the building code

Strength Redundancy 4

Building

code 5

Seismic Performance Standard

Main lateral load bearing elements are the reinforced shear walls, providing resistance to both gravity and horizontal loads. These shear walls need to be provided in the two principle directions. The seismic resistance is considered adequate, due to very good performance in previous earthquakes in Chile, Turkey {Moroni}. The principle of a shear wall is similar to confined masonry, the walls work to distribute the seismic loads, reinforced concrete shear walls are graded as more seismic resistant than confined masonry. (Build change, n.d.) Seismic vulnerability can be caused by inadequate construction quality, inadequate amount and detailing of wall reinforcement, soft story mechanisms, reduced wall density- torsional effects.

Performance 5

Improved Seismic Performance

Seismic performance can be improved by good construction practice and detailing. Strategic placement of shear walls, providing the largest arm to withstand torsional forces.

Possible 5

Building on a slope

Building on slopes is not advised with a reinforced concrete construction due to column failures. During an earthquake the columns in a cross section move by the same amount in a horizontal direction. This causes for columns of different lengths to attract different horizontal forces, resulting in different stresses being exerted on different column lengths.{SUJIT KUMAR et al.} This can be compensated by several advanced methods or by construction of a plane foundation.

Performance 4

Climate Window openings are quite flexible due to the frame construction. The frame however must be designed on lateral load. Often it is only for gravitational loads and then the structure is also dependent on the masonry infill; decreasing flexibility of window openings. It is not recommended to have openings in shear walls, openings can be provided but their size must be small to ensure the least interruption to force flow through the walls. (IITK, n.d.) Insulation and acoustic properties depend mostly on type of infill. When bricks see brick masonry

Openings (ventilation

and sunlight)

4

Thermal 3

Life span When constructed in the right manner reinforced concrete walls have a long life span. Life span of RC frame construction is lower than masonry building methods. Estimated lifespans are 30-100 years

Lifespan 4

Maintenance RCC shear wall buildings require little maintenance, because the structural elements consist of and are protected by the concrete. However when the

Reliability 5 Maintainabil 2

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concrete is damaged or is in need of maintenance the work requires workmanship and much resources such as concrete injections, rebar replacements.

ity

Complexity Uncommon in settlement typology B, C, D, E. In the city core (A) cast in-situ concrete walls are used. The technique is used in the hydropower industry, therefore the technique is present. Cast in-situ walls are also seen in houses constructed on the downhill side of the road. The wall is the boundary between house and the hill. Non-engineered building practice forms a risk, since RC frame construction requires sufficient level of ‘technology, expertise, and workmanship, particularly in the field during construction’ (Yakut).

Ease of learning

2

Resources Material The concrete is made of a mixture of sand, cement and water. The concrete is

strengthened by steel reinforcement. The infill walls are often made of baked bricks, although block and stone infills are also seen. In rural villages, combinations of stone and brick infill can be found. Availability of concrete can be considered high due to local cement factories in Nepal and the large availability of cement in India and China. The reliability can be very good when road conditions and political situations are good, but during monsoon season many roads are damaged and limit the flow of products coming from India and China. The availability of steel rods for rebar is good due to much local production.

Quality 5

Availability 4

Reliability 4

Labour The place of the walls in the structure combined with the amount of rebar in the wall make the building method labour intensive. But there are less connection to be made compared to a RCC frame building. The building method can be done with local labour but proper training and supervision is needed.

Experience 3

Intensity 2

Time Speed of construction: completion of approximately one floor/week. The application of tunnel-form construction can significantly speed up the pace, by casting the walls and slabs (in an upside down “U”-shape) in a single operation. (moroni, n.d.). The solidification time of concrete is one of the main factors that takes time.

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 2 Local economy

Cement is not local since they have to come from outside the 50 km range. Labour however is local. Wall infill can be done with a local product.

Use of local resources

2

National economy

Most materials are available in Nepal, however large quantities are imported from India. Especially for RCC large amounts of cement is required, as well as for the concrete as for the mortar.

Use of national

resources

2

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Concrete buildings are widely seen in Nepal for the last few decades. Adaptions such as painting, plastering and decorations are possible to allow the appropriate social/cultural aesthetics. This can be quite similar to reinforced concrete structures.

Adaptability 5

Architectural embedding

The building method is used in the more urban areas of Nepal, but also here the usage is limited. In the more remote areas the shear wall is more used as a wall as a retaining wall, than to increase the strength of the building. Apart from this shear walls are not really architectural embedded in Nepal, although it has a lot of the same characteristics as reinforced concrete.

Embedding 3

Functional Building height

If well-constructed and designed, this building type is internationally suitable for low-rise and high-rise when constructed in the appropriate manner. There is not limitation in the building height according to the Nepalese building code. This

Amount of storeys

5

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construction type is used for medium- to high-rise: 4 to 35 storeys high {moroni}. Expandability This building method is extendable, future extension should be taken in to account

during a earlier construction phase by leaving out reinforcement bars at the main columns. If not the expendability is experienced as difficult. The expandability is more difficult than with RCC frames

Possibilities 3

Workspace In general, these walls are continuous throughout the building height; however, some walls are discontinued at the street front or basement level to allow for commercial or parking spaces. {Moroni}

Opportunity 4

Protection Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry infill walls are filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetrated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 4 Safety 4

Utilities Utilities are possible at any level of the building, structure is designed to withstand loads at the rooftop.

Possibilities 4

Sustainable Recyclable The building method does not have the opportunity to re-use material. If

collapsed, the debris of concrete frame structures is hard to remove and mostly unable to reuse. Specialized equipment is needed to remove the debris, in Kathmandu experts and equipment from other countries had to be called for. From interviews it became clear that regular people and small organisations such as schools do not have the means or knowledge to remove RCC debris on their own.

Re-usable 2

Recyclable 2

Environmental

The environmental impact is similar to the RCC frame building method. Impact 3

Sustainable 5

Reference Project Projects in Chile, Kyrgyzstan, Canada and Taiwan.

Images

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CConfined masonry

Introduction This building type is found in urban and rural areas highly seismic areas, for example Chile. This type is practiced in most countries since the last 30-35 years, the building method gets its strength from tie-columns which are cast-in-place after the masonry wall construction has been completed. Tie-columns and tie-beams work as ties that provide reinforcement to the structure. Reinforcement steel is needed to provide this tie function between the columns and beams. {Rodriquez}. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

RCC construction with brick masonry shear walls, often combined with a reinforced concrete strip or mat foundation. The basic structure is consisting of unreinforced masonry load-bearing walls strengthened by a confinement with reinforced concrete tie-columns and -beams, mostly cast-in-place concrete floors and roofs. Also timber roofs are seen, combined with the RC tie-beams. The walls can be consist of several types of building block. The redundancy is good due to the use of shear walls. The method is incorporated in the Building Code

Strength Redundancy 4

Building code 5

Seismic Performance Standard

The seismic behaviour is considered satisfactory, if it is well constructed and if materials are used with sufficient quality {Rodriquez}. In the confined masonry method the walls work as load bearing walls and not only as infills, with this are the walls able to withstand horizontal loads. When the wall is able to withstand load it works as a shear wall which is proven to work during earthquakes. (build change, n.d.) The seismic performance of confined masonry is total depend on the quality of the workmanship. The columns, beams and walls should be bond in the right way. Vulnerability is increased when structures are built without adequate roof-to-wall connection or without adequate wall-to-wall connections.

Performance 4

Improved Seismic Performance

Seismic performance can be improved by adding concrete reinforced bands on different height within a storey and by using load bearing shear walls as inner walls, providing the largest arm to withstand torsional forces.

Possible 5

Building on a slope

A confined masonry wall should be able to withstand a serious earthquake, this is the same effect as the wall tilted at an angle of 20.5 degrees. Building on slopes is not advised with a reinforced concrete construction due to column failures. During an earthquake the columns in a cross section move by the same amount in a horizontal direction. This causes for columns of different lengths to attract different horizontal forces, resulting in different stresses being exerted on different column lengths. {SUJIT KUMAR et al.}

Performance 3

Climate Window openings are limited due to the brick masonry load bearing walls. The integrity of the structure is dependent on the masonry infill, decreasing flexibility in possibilities for window openings. It is not recommended to have openings in the confined walls, openings can be provided but their size must be small to ensure the least interruption to force flow through the walls. Use of brick masonry can increase the thermal mass of a building and its fire resistance.

Openings (ventilation and

sunlight)

2

Thermal 4

Life span The life span of a confined masonry building is similar to a RCC frame building, estimated lifespans are 30-100 years

Lifespan 4

Mainten The building does not require much maintenance, the maintenance that is Reliability 4

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ance done does not necessarily require workmanship and can be done by the owner, there is little or no maintenance done to the exterior wall. (world housing encyclopaedia, 2010). For more structural maintenance, masons or more experienced workers are needed.

Maintainability 2 Availability 3

Complexity

First the brick walls are constructed stand-alone, after these are finished the concrete columns combine the walls into a building. This method increases the complexity since the stand-alone walls need to be constructed aligned to the columns. Especially the connection of the beams with the columns requires quality workmanship since this is critical to the construction. The building method requires skilled masons. (build change, n.d.)

Ease of learning 2

Resources Material Brick: In confined masonry the brick wall works with the columns and ties to

increase the strength of the building. Therefore the bricks need to be baked to withstand the load bearing capacity. Bricks are mainly of sufficient quality, having a crushing strength of above 7.5 N/mm2 (NSET, 2009). The stones are mostly coursed and dressed into rectangular shapes. The bonding material cement is executed as 1:6 cement sand mortar. The availability of baked brick is high due to local production and the reliability of availability is high given that baked bricks are producible all year through. Concrete: The concrete is made of a mixture of water, cement and sand (1:2:3). The concrete is strengthened by steel reinforcement. Availability of concrete can be considered high due to local cement factories in Nepal and the large availability of cement in India and China. The reliability can be very good when road conditions and political situations are good, but during monsoon season many roads are damaged and limit the flow of products coming from India and China. The availability of steel rods for rebar is good due to much local production.

Quality 3

Availability 3 Reliability 3

Labour The higher complexity in the building method requires for the skilled masons, these masons are less available and higher paid. If the skilled masons are not available training is required to ensure the quality of the structure.

Experience 3

Intensity 3 Time The construction time is similar to RCC frame with brick masonry infill. Technical period 3

Feasibility Price label

The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 3

Local economy

Local masons are able to work with the building method, since it is similar. Bricks are transported mainly from Kathmandu and surroundings.

Use of local resources

3

National economy

The national brick and concrete sector benefit from the construction of confined masonry. However cement is frequently imported from India.

Use of national resources

3

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

The walls can be plastered or finishing can be applied to allow the appropriate social/ cultural aesthetics. For example the thick wall allows the placement of niches for religious attributes.

Adaptability 4

Architectural embedding

Brick masonry is a commonly used building practice and is embedded in local building traditional and architectural identity. Combined with the increasingly embedded concrete building method.

Embedding 4

Functional Building height

Confined masonry is typically seen as a building method for low-rise construction (2 to 4 storeys) In Mexico, up to 7 stories are seen, where the first two floors are strengthened with RC shear walls. (Rodriquez) Concluding: When properly designed and constructed up to seven storeys is reachable.

Amount of storeys 5

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Expandability

This building method is extendable, future extension should be taken in to account during an earlier construction phase by leaving out reinforcement bars at the main columns. If not the expendability is experienced as difficult.

Possibilities 5

Workspace

The load bearing strength is distributed through the walls, therefore there is open space and opportunity for workspace. The correct positioning of the load bearing wall is essential to guarantee enough workspace.

Opportunity 3

Protection

Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry infill walls are filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetrated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 4 Safety 4

Utilities Utilities are possible at any level of the building, structure is designed to withstand loads at the rooftop.

Possibilities 4

Sustainable Recyclable

For confined masonry it is not able to recycle the materials after construction. Removing cement mortar in general causes the bricks to break or crack. In the building method only recycled bricks that are able to withstand a crushing strength of 7, 5 N/mm2 are allowed. (NSET, 2009)

Re-usable 2

Recyclable 2 Environmental

The environmental impact is similar to the RCC frame building method. Impact 3 Sustainable 5

Reference Project Projects in Mexico, (Tena-Colunga, 2010)

BBamboo

Introduction

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Bamboo is found in several forms in the construction practice in Nepal {Pokhrel}. It can be used as building material in combination with other materials. Floor or roof systems, or as an reinforcement for methods such as adobe or stone. Bamboo can be used practically for the majority of the housing components (walls, floors, roof, doors, windows, and stairs) but in practise is most common in the Terai region as building method and only as scaffolding in other parts of Nepal. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Key building elements are: (individual column footings) foundation, vertical bamboo culm members set in concrete footing, varying wall infill, varying floor systems, bamboo rafters or truss, purlins. Wall infill could be executed as a grid of split bamboo/ weaving bamboo strips plastered with cement, clay or mud. The redundancy is average to good when more columns are used for the structural frame.

Strength

Redundancy

3

Building

code 3

Seismic Performance Standard

Bamboo has a very high strength-to-weight ratio {Lakkad, 1981}. This is favourable for earthquake construction. Its compressive strength outperforms wood, brick and concrete, and peers with steel in tensile strength (Rottke, 2002). Designs are made in America which are earthquake-resistant and verified.

Performance

3

Improved Seismic Performance

The seismic performance can be enhanced by application of the adequate finishing; the non-load bearing walls can provide significant dissipation of energy when they are damaged {Arnold}.

Possible 4

Building on a slope

Bamboo structures are similar to timber structures and can be built on slopes, however the vertical forces need to be distributed in a correct manner. A way to achieve this is the use of braces or by constructing a level foundation on which the main structure can be placed.

Performance

5

Climate The light bamboo frame structure allows for flexible location of window openings due to the framed construction. In a bamboo construction the infill of walls can be of many desired material, often it is seen that infill consists of boards or bamboo sheets. The walls are light and have lesser thermal mass and insulation properties.

Openings (ventilati

on and sunlight)

5

Thermal 2

Life span Bamboo structures are extremely susceptible to moisture and decay by insects, significantly limiting its life span. Protection can be provided by means of roof overhangs, drainage gutters, raised footings. There are also several ways to treat the bamboo. Treatment and design of bamboo construction largely influences the life span. The lifespan of natural bamboo is maximum 36 months, the development on treatment methods is ongoing but since the results are not visible yet the natural lifespan is considered. (National building code of India, 2005)

Lifespan 1

Maintenance Bamboo has high maintenance and treatment requirements The firm Abari has developed a promising method for bamboo treatment (Abari)

Reliability

1

Maintainability

4

Complexity Bamboo is widely used in Nepal as scaffolding and it is therefore an important material in the construction industry of Nepal. International standards for bamboo as a construction material and Nepal national building codes for Bamboo are lacking.

Ease of learing

3

Resources

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Material Matured bamboo should be used with a minimum of 3 years old. Bamboo needs to be treated properly, otherwise the material is highly vulnerable to decay by fungus and termite attacks. The natural building material does not come in a uniform shape, size or age. Processing into building panels would evade disadvantages such as uniformity and vulnerability to decay. Bamboo is one of the fastest growing plant species, and it grows on poor soil. It matures within 3 years. Bamboo is widely available in the southern part of Nepal {Habitat for Humanity, 2007}.

Quality 5

Availability

5

Reliability

4

Labour Due to the trait that bamboo is a light weight material it can easily be executed by a small team of people (5-10). The cutting of the bamboo can be done by one person and the carrying to location by 2 or 3 depending on the size. The experience required to build with bamboo is available in most parts of Nepal as scaffolding and simple constructions are built with bamboo.

Experience

4

Intensity 3 Time Bamboo construction allows for quick assembly due to its light weight and assembly

with simple tools. Technical

period 5

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 5 Local economy

Promotion of bamboo construction could stimulate bamboo farming and thereby the local economy. Farmers and agricultural land is commonly seen in the area.

Use of local

resources

5

National economy

Bamboo is a locally available building material in Nepal. Cash flow of bamboo harvest will remain in Nepal.

Use of national

resources

4

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Bamboo has a poor status perception as a long term building solution {Pokhrel}, it is seen as a material to be used for temporary structures and scaffolding. This perception is considered to differ per area (rural, urban areas).

Adaptability

2

Architectural embedding

Whole buildings can be constructed with bamboo, however also only the structural elements can be built with bamboo. The exterior can be adjusted to local demands. In the south of Nepal (Terai) a lot of bamboo dwellings do exist. In the north bamboo is less commonly used in the construction sector

Embedding

4

Functional Building height

Bamboo is not included in the Nepalese building code, typically Bamboo houses are 1 to two storeys high.

Amount of

storeys

3

Expandability For this case the maximum storey height of two storeys is taken in to consideration. Due to this limited storey height vertical expansion options are not high.

Possibilities

4

Workspace Using bamboo for truss structures allows sufficient light-weight spans to create open space for workspace

Opportunity

4

Protection Bamboo elements provide shelter against rain and wind but are not fully protective against the elements because they can be penetrated by wind and rain. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 2 Safety 3

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

2

Sustainable Recyclable Natural material of bamboo has a high rate of recyclability, and can be easily Re- 4

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disassembled for re-use due to its tied joints. usable

Recyclable

3

Environmental Environmentally friendly building material: bamboo is one of the fastest growing species - growth rates ranging from 30 cm to 100 cm per day. Use of bamboo provides temporary storage of CO2. Use of bamboo will help lowering deforestation.

Impact 5 Sustaina

ble 3

Reference

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AAppendix 1.A.3. – New building methods New building methods can be profitable for rebuilding Nepal back better. These are quite new methods that are not widely used right now but may have a potential for rebuilding the country. In this paragraph a selection is made of different building methods that are tested on the following criteria: quick building time, easy, costs, prefab, lightweight, earthquake resistance and local building materials. Different meeting with builders and factories were planned to discuss their options. Moreover different meetings of Shelter Cluster and the DUBDC (Department of Urban Development and Building Constructions) were attended to see the different methods that are used and proposed right now for the rebuilding of Nepal. Below this paragraph will elaborate various methods which the authors selected with the criteria described above.

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EEarthbags

Introduction The use of piled sandbags for the creation of walls is a technique that has been used for decades in flood protection and by the military in creating strong barriers. However the application of using sturdy bags filled with local materials for use in the construction sector is fairly new. {http://www.earthbagbuilding.com/} In building with earthbags different kind of methods are developed such as regular earthbags, super earthbags, hyper earthbags and sandsbags. Earthbags have been used in many countries to develop cheap and easy to construct houses. They can incorporate barbed wire and/or rebar for the strengthening of weak spots. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Gravel filled bags or nets that are wider than the bag walls are used for foundation purposes. Earth filled bags are used as load bearing walls, window frames and non-structural walls held together with barbed wire to prevent shifting of bags and rebar for strengthening weak spots. Concrete lintels over doors and windows and a concrete bonding beam can be used for extra safety. An alternative is the use of frames which can be filled with the earthbags, reducing the need for concrete. The exterior of the structure should be covered. {earthbag structures} The redundancy of the structure is comparable to masonry structures and is considered average. The earthbags structures are not incorporated in the Building Code and are doubtable to fit general structural principles

Strength

Redundancy

3

Non-structural elements

Building code

2

Seismic Performance Standard

Owen Geiger has claimed that more than 50 Earth Bag structures in Nepal have survived the earthquakes of 2015. {buildsimple} Although inertial loads are high.

Performance

2

Improved Seismic Performance

Filling the earthbags with Adobe is called Super adobe this method has been proven to resist earthquakes with 8 on the Richter scale {http://windriche.com/superadobe/advantages_and_disadvantages_of_earthbag_construction.htm}. Several types of vertical and horizontal reinforcement methods are possible.

Possible 2

Building on a slope

Earthbag buildings are substantially heavier than bricks thus require a sturdy soil to be built on. The bags require a flat surface to be built on for good distribution of forces.

Performance

2

Climate Earthbags allow for the making of openings of different sizes however with limitations, the sizes of openings can be compared to that of low strength brick masonry structures. Protection against external elements is done by covering the structure in plaster creating a layer that is resistant against rain and solar exposure. Earth Bag have similar thermal qualities as structures made of mud/ earth, which generally have good thermal capacity. In very cold climates ensuring internal climate can be done by adding insulating layers in the earthbags or against the interior of a wall.

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

2

Thermal 4

Life span Different sources claim different life spans, the fact that earthbags are only used recently make it difficult to give exact numbers on the lifespan. Logically it can be derived from the determination rate of the poly bags that it can vary from decades to a century

Lifespan 3

Maintenance

Earth Bag structures are low maintenance, since there are no hidden structural members, the main structural components are made of earth and the interior is done as desired allowing for replacement when needed. The only difficulty is when rebar is used to connect bags vertically.

Reliability 4 Maintain

ability 5

Availability

2

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Complexity Building with earthbags is relatively easy, except for some crucial guidelines which have to be followed. E.g. placement of bag, manner of sealing bag, manner of placing rebar/barbed wire, testing bags etc. The presence of one or multiple experts is required to ensure the structural elements. Unskilled workers can be used for stacking and preparing the bags. The buildings can be made with little to no electrical or advanced tools, decreasing complexity.

Ease of learning

4

Resources Material "Poly bags (strong, new or unexposed to sunlight), bags in can used in different shapes

and sized, such as long bags, small bags or tube bags. Barbed wire for bounding the bags, Rebar for strengthening the weak points such as corners, Earth, crushed rock, moist soil, clay or similar filling, Plaster, mud or different material for exterior covering, Roofing can be done in a multitude of ways including traditional. Optional: cement for extra bonding seems between bags, steel, bamboo, wood or other material usable for making frame," The availability and reliability of these materials is high because many are locally available, the poly bags can be imported from manufacturers in China. {http://chinawovenbag.com/}

Quality 5

Availability

5

Reliability 5 Labour The labour intensity of Earth Bag structures is low, work includes filling bags with soil,

placement of bags, connecting the bags, plastering the structure. The disadvantage to building with Earth Bags is the physical strain caused by the weight of the bags especially above a certain height. The experience with building with earthbags is not very much present in Nepal.

Experience

3

Intensity 4 Time When performed by 2 unskilled labourers a small Earth Bag house can be constructed

in 6 weeks, however final building time is very dependent on amount of people working, amount of experience, complexity of the structure and size of the structure (book earthbags).

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 5 Local economy

Sand is a local product, only the bags need to be produced for the large scale usage. Use of local

resources

4

National economy

Sand is a national product and bags can be produced in Nepal as well, cash flow is not leaving the country.

Use of national

resources

4

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

Earth Bag structures can be made in many forms and shapes, for the finishing it can be plastered or covered by other materials according to desire. {earthbagbuilding}

Adaptability

3

Architectural embedding

Unfamiliar from traditional point of view, however multiple parties are busy with projects throughout Nepal. Earthbags are used for making retaining walls e.g. garden walls and shelters.

Embedding

2

Functional Building height

Earthbags are not included in the Nepalese building code as a building method. Typically earthbag structures are seen as one storey buildings.

Amount of storeys

1

Expandability

Expanding a structure made from Earth Bags can only be done in a horizontal direction by building against the existing structure. Creating passages from existing to new construction is not advised to maintain structural integrity of the building.

Possibilities

1

Workspace Given that Earth Bag structures can be made in many desired shapes and seized the opportunity to create space for shops and workspaces is relatively easy, however the building method does not provide the ability to create large openings to have a connection with the external infrastructure

Opportunity

2

Protection Earthbags provide shelter against rain and wind but are not fully protective against the elements because they can be penetrated by wind and rain. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 3 Safety 3

Utilities Only utilities at ground level are possible. Possibiliti 3

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es

Sustainable Recyclable The materials used in an Earth Bag structure are mostly recyclable. The plastic of the

bags can be recycled, the filling can be reused in the creation of a new building, the barbed wire and rebar can be reused when fixed with little or no concrete.

Re-usable 5 Recyclabl

e 5

Environmental

The environmental impact of constructing with earthbags is relatively small given that most of the building materials is obtained from the direct environment (excavation of soil or rock). Bags however are made out of polyester.

Impact 4 Sustainab

le 3

Reference "Haiti: http://earthbagstructures.com/projects/johnson.htm Iran/ Mexico/ California: http://www.earthbagbuilding.com/projects/sandbagshelters.htm South Africa: http://www.house-of-sand.com/building-with-sandbags USA/ Colombia/ Mexico http://www.inspirationgreen.com/earthbag-construction.html http://windriche.com/superadobe/advantages_and_disadvantages_of_earthbag_construction.htm http://earthbagstructures.com/ http://buildsimple.org/

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IInterlocking bricks

Introduction Interlocking bricks are bricks that form a connection with each other without necessarily the addition of mortar. The blocks are shaped with projecting parts, which fit exactly into depressions in the blocks placed above, such that they are automatically aligned horizontally and vertically which makes bricklaying possible without special masonry skills. The row interlocking bricks directly on the foundation is done with cement and must be completely straight. On top of that bricks can be laid down. In the end the holes can be filled up with cement and steel barns for reinforcement. Interlocking bricks can be made locally and consist of a mixture of cement and soil. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Typical elements are foundations, load bearing brick walls, timber window frames, and varying roof/flooring systems. The length of each Interlocking Brick is exactly double its width in order to achieve accurate alignment. For the construction of a building there is choice of bricks which can be used for different elements such as Walls, Window Frame, Concrete Joists, Concrete Floor Pans or Stringers, Treads for staircases and Tiles for Roofing (http://www.unicef.org/education/files/Interlocking_Earth_Bricks_technology.pdf). The interlocking brick allows for average redundancy comparable to brick masonry. The method is not incorporated in the building code but is acceptable according to structural principles

Strength

Redundancy

3

Building

code 4

Seismic Performance Standard

The seismic performance of interlocking bricks is not proven however the shape of the bricks can be seen as an effective level of bonding to create mechanical interlocking and resist shear-cracking (D’Ayala, n.d. )

Performance

4

Improved Seismic Performance

Insertion of concrete with steel reinforcement through the holes of the blocks provide reinforcement to the building, increasing the wind and earthquake resistance.

Possible 4

Building on a slope

The foundation of a interlocking brick building needs to be completely level, therefore the method is not suited to build on a slope without the addition of a stable and levelling foundation.

Performance

1

Climate The building method is offers flexibility for openings however some limitations are applicable comparable to brick masonry. Even though the blocks are placed with the right precision, the joints are not entirely resistant to wind, rain and therefore heat penetration. Plastering is needed to provide protection against the elements. The use of certain ingredients in the creation of the interlocking brick can add to the increase of thermal mass and its fire resistance.

Opening 3 Thermal 3

Life span Interlocking bricks can be highly durable, with a long lifespan. Lifespan 5 Maintenance Bricks with the correct ratio of cement are not vulnerable to rotting or breaking,

therefore the need for maintenance is limited. However when the bricks are made more of adobe type of material the need for maintenance increases. For the different use of materials refer to the corresponding comparable building method. The maintainability of interlocking brick is comparable to low strength brick or stone masonry and considered to be relatively easily maintainable

Reliability

4

Maintainability

2

Complexity This method is already used in Nepal. Nevertheless it is not widely known and therefore not a lot of knowledge is available among the local masons however the use of interlocking bricks is claimed to be relatively easy when supervised by an expert.

Ease of learning

4

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Resources Material Based on raw materials there are various types of bricks: - Soil-cement bricks

(cement-to-soil ratio is depending on the soil quality, lies between 1:6 and 1:10) - Concrete bricks (typically mixed in Cement-to-sand-to-gravel 1:5:3) - Rice Husk Ash - cement bricks (cement-to-RHA lies around 1:4) - Clay cement bricks. To improve the strength of a building reinforcement steel and cement mortar can be used. The flexibility of materials usable for making interlocking bricks makes the availability and reliability of materials very good. Soil and clay are readily available in many places and cement can be bought from local producers or be imported from India or China with the latter being less reliable due to dependence on political situation and road conditions.

Quality 4

availability

4

Reliability

5

Labour Designed to reduce the need for skilled labour and maximize the use of the unskilled labour force. Certain amount of training is required to ensure that walls are properly aligned and no gaps are left. Training needed in the production of blocks, mix proportions and moisture content. Also in producing uniform sized blocks

Experience

3

Intensity

4

Time According to the Habitech Center Interlocking bricks have the ability to utilise a large workforce and the advantage of sequential actions shortens the construction time.

Technical

period

4

Feasibility Price Lable The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 4 Local economy

When the brick producing machine is available the bricks can be produced by local labourers, also local labour can be used in the placement of the blocks. However local skilled masons and carpenters are not used when building with this building method, which might have negative effects for them.

Use of local

resources

3

National economy

The production of cement and steel reinforcement is guaranteed, although it is less than constructing a RCC frame building.

Use of national resourc

es

3

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

There are not much alterations possible in the architecture of a interlocking brick building, although the walls can be plastered to allow the appropriate social/cultural aesthetics.

Adaptability

3

Architectural embedding

Interlocking bricks are not commonly used as a building method and is therefore not embedded in the local building tradition. However the appearance of an interlocking brick building can be compared with brick buildings and depends on the finishing.

Embedding

3

Functional Building height

Interlocking bricks are suited for two or more storey buildings, with as a rule of thumb that the height of the wall does not exceed 20 times its thickness. Interlocking bricks are not included in the Nepalese building code and therefore not limited in their height. In this case the building height is considered to be two storeys with an attic.

Amount of

storeys

2

Expandability

When the construction is finished it is not possible to create additional openings for horizontal expandability. Vertical expandability depends on the wall thickness of the structure, but is possible when the interlocking ability of the top bricks is still intact.

Possibilities

3

Workspace The same layout as a brick masonry building can be achieved when building with interlocking bricks

Opportunity

3

Protection Rain cannot wash away cement mortar and the crevices in the masonry wall are filled with cement mortar and cannot be penetrated by wind. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements

3

Safety 4 Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand

gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level. Possibili

ties 3

Sustainable

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Recyclable The blocks are placed without mortar, when their shape is still intact they are re-usable. The blocks which are reinforced by reinforcement steel and cement are not re-usable.

Re-usable

4

Recyclable

2

Environmental

When the location has proper soil conditions the building can be made with local and natural materials, with the addition of cement for the base.

Impact 4 Sustain

able 4

Reference "NepalThis method is already fewly used in Nepal. A typical three-room house can be built in two weeks because the bricks self-align, and can cost up to 40 per cent less than a conventional brick-cement house. (http://www.nepalitimes.com/blogs/thebrief/2015/05/26/the-building-blocks-of-reconstruction/, 10/8/2015) ThailandInterlocking bricks has been used for post-tsunami reconstruction in Thailand in 2008 and after Cyclone Nargis ravaged Burma in 2010 to build more than 1,000 homes, schools, health clinics. (http://www.nepalitimes.com/blogs/thebrief/2015/05/26/the-building-blocks-of-reconstruction/, 10/8/2015) 56 houses and one community house were build in the of Baan Nam Khem Vilage in the Phang-nga Province is build with interlocking ricks.Each plot size is 120 sq. m. and the house size of two storey is 74 sq. m.. The cost per sq. m. was US 100 dollar and it took 10 months to complete (http://www.unicef.org/education/files/Interlocking_Earth_Bricks_technology.pdf, 10/08/2015)."

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PPrefab-framed in-situ concrete

Introduction Prefab-sandwich concrete panels are currently not used in Nepal but is used in countries with similar conditions. The frame exists of a simple construction made of hollow steel wire/ Styrofoam panels which should be filled with concrete, the method allows for the use of rebar and other strengthening. To be able to construct these houses in Nepal a new factory and office need to be realized that works by importing styrene fluid for the creation of foam panels. The steel wire is the same as used in car tires and therefore a material that should be locally present. For harder to reach areas a mobile production system can be attached to a truck. The interior and exterior walls can be finished in any way, giving the opportunity to safeguard the Nepali architecture and culture. Category Description Val

ue Technical

Building components

Modules have a width of 1200 mm, and can be 12 meter long. However the normal length is one floor height (ca 3 m). The thickness of the wall depends on the required strength (seismic risk) and insulation (national climate), in total 55 different variations are possible. Facades, load bearing walls, interior walls, floors and the roof can be built with this system. The average weight of each element before concrete is poured in is around 30 to 35 kg per panel. The interior and exterior walls can be finished in any way, giving the opportunity to safeguard the Nepali architecture and culture.

Strength

Redundancy

5

Non-structural elements

5

Building code

4

Seismic Performance Standard

Calculation of the University of Leuven have shown that the building method is resistant to earthquakes, also the structures built with this method have performed in earthquake prone countries over the years. (Sismouk, n.d.)

Performance

5

Improved Seismic Performance

The structural Integrity and seismic resistance can be strengthened by means of vertical and horizontal reinforcement (timber, bamboo, reinforced concrete). Stiff diaphragms such as concrete slabs are favoured above flexible diaphragms. The out-of-plane capacity can be improved by adding of wall meshes (experimental techniques).

Possible 5

Building on a slope

Monolith structure, freedom in making a variety of forms Performance

3

Climate Openings can be easily included in the building method, the width of the openings is limited due to the structural integrity of the building. The building method provides insulation against temperatures, this insulation can be improved with the addition of the wall finish.

Openings (ventilatio

n and sunlight)

4

Thermal 4

Life span Prefab-sandwich concrete frames structures can be highly durable, with a long potential useful lifespan.

Lifespan 4

Maintenance The infill panels are filled with concrete and do not require much maintenance. The exterior walls do require maintenance. However when maintenance is needed it requires workmanship or even specialized expertise and resources.

Reliability 5 Maintaina

bility 2

Complexity The method is not used in Nepal right now, however masons are used to work with

concrete. All materials, except the styrene fluids are well known. For the fabrication of the panels a local factory is needed, as well as training for the placement of the panels.

Ease of learning

4

Resources

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Material This method makes use of prefab panels that are filled with concrete that can be reinforced with rebar. These panels consist of Styrofoam that is hold together with steel wire. Steel-wire: to give form to the panels and create the monolith system Styrofoam: insulates the panels, creates the hollow space to pour concrete Concrete: to fill up all panels, floors etc. Reinforced steel: could be added in the panels while pouring concrete in case of building in high seismic areas. Wood: window frames, doors etc. The availability of materials can

Quality 3

Availability

3

Reliability 3 Labour Since the method is not familiar in Nepal the local work force needs to be trained in

working with the new building method. Experience 2

Intensity 3 Time The method is designed to be quick and flexible, because of the high repetition

possibilities and the presence of infill panels the method could reduce the construction time. But because all the panels are filled with concrete there is a required waiting time between the pouring of each section.

Technical period

3

Feasibility Price Label The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries. The price is

dependent on large scale production. When producing in large numbers (800.000 m2/ year) the depreciation of the investment can become less than 1 euro {SISMO}.

Ranking 2

Local economy

Locals will be trained to work with the building method. Skilled masons and carpenters are not used when building with this building method. Also large amounts of cement will probably lead to an increase of import from India.

Use of local

resources

2

National economy

The placement of a factory will create jobs and income for the national economy. It might also create exportable knowledge.

Use of national

resources

5

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

There are not much alterations possible in the architecture the building method. On the exterior walls all possible finishes are possible to allow the appropriate social/cultural aesthetics. The wall do not allow the placement of niches for religious attributes.

Adaptability

5

Architectural embedding

The building method is not commonly used as a building method and is therefore not embedded in the local building tradition.

Embedding

1

Functional Building height

The building method is not included in the Nepalese building code. For the construction of houses typically 3 to 4 storied buildings are seen.

Amount of storeys

5

Expandability The building method is not designed to be extendable, but an effort can be made to design the construction extendable, as well horizontal as vertical,

Possibilities

3

Workspace In the design large openings can be included when extra measures are taken into consideration. These extra measures are mainly strengthening by adding extra rebar.

Opportunity

4

Protection The protection depends on the infill walls, for this case brick infill walls are taken into consideration.

Elements 5 Safety 4

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Possibilities

3

Sustainable Recyclable Since the building method is poured in concrete it is not recyclable, but some recycled

materials can be used for the infill of the panels Re-usable 1

Recyclable 2 Environmental The production process is non-polluting and reduces jobsite waste, the insulating

quality reduces energy consumption. (Sismouk, n.d.) Production of concrete has some impact on the environment.

Impact 4 Sustainabl

e 5

Reference Project Coralform has experience with building SISMO houses in seismic active regions such

as Europe (France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, Turkey), Asia (South Korea) and

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the Middle East (Iraq)

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SSingle Panel Walling System

Introduction Rapid Building Systems make use of Gypsum plaster products that are present in debris in the building and construction industry. The panel serves both as the internal and external wall and eliminates the need for bricks, blocks, timber wall frames. The panels are load bearing and can be used in single, double, or multi storey construction. RapidWall is mainly used in India and China, the two countries in which between Nepal is landlocked. Also both surrounding countries have RapidWall factories (2009, RapidWall, presentation UN-Habitat). Category Description Value

Technical Building components

The panels are 12 by 3 metre and 120mm thick. The panel serves both as the internal and external wall and eliminates the need for bricks, blocks, timber wall frames. The panels are load bearing and can be used in single, double, or multi storey construction. This is a representation of a RapidWall panel. In the cavities different building services can be put such as plumbing, electrical, isolation or concrete for increasing the load bearing (2009, RapidWall, presentation UN-Habitat). Light weight (44kg/m2). Pre-fabricated (12m X 3m X 124mm)

Strength 4 Redunda

ncy 5

Non-structura

l elements

-

Building code

4

Seismic Performance Standard

Rapidwall underwent earthquake testing and achieved a maximum peak ground acceleration of 0.36g’s and as a result Rapidwall was rated for the equivalent of a magnitude 7 earthquake on the Richter scale. A 12 m x 3 m x 120 mm reinforced concrete wall panel weighs over 10 tonnes. A similarly sized Rapidwall panel weighs only 1.5 tonnes. This means the Rapidwall panels are very light which can be a positive aspect for seismic performance.

Performance

4

Improved Seismic Performance

The voids in Rapidwall panels can be used to add concrete with steel bars for load bearing capacity.

Possible 5

Building on a slope

The prefab panels require a good flat foundation for optimal distribution of forces. Performance

2

Climate Openings in exterior walls can easily be made when incorporated in the design, only limited by possible placement of extra rebar. The interior climate of the structure can be easily regulated depending on the choices for interior and exterior wall filling for insulating layers.

Openings (ventilati

on and sunlight)

3

Thermal 4

Life span Unknown Lifespan 3 Maintenance

The panels do not require much maintenance but when maintenance is needed it requires workmanship and some resources. This can be more depending on the finishing of the exterior wall.

Reliability

5

Maintainability

2

Complexity

The method is not used in Nepal right now, however it is quite an easy building method. The panels are delivered as prefab panels at the building site.

Ease of learning

4

Resources Material Rapidwall panels are made of gypsum plaster and fibreglass. The prefab panels can be

imported from either India or China with good availability however the reliability is Quality 3

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susceptible to uncertainty due to road conditions and political situation. At only 44 kg per square metre, a single B-double truck can transport over 570 square metres of Rapidwall compared to 125 square metres of 120 mm thick precast concrete hollow blockwork.

Availability

4

Reliability

4

Labour Since the method is not familiar in Nepal the local work force needs to be trained in working with the new building method. In the Rapidwall plant manufacturing rate of 108 m2 /hr for a three table plant. At the building site a installation rate (two man crew) up to 45 m2 /hr is possible (rapidwall construction manual, 2014)

Experience

2

Intensity 3

Time The method is designed to be quick and flexible, because of the high repetition possibilities and the presence of infill panels the method could reduce the construction time.

Technical period

5

Feasibility Price Label

The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 3

Local economy

Local labourers need training to perform this construction method, also skilled masons and carpenters are not used. Local material are in general not used

Use of local

resources

2

National economy

The placement of a factory will create jobs and income for the national economy. However right now the factory of panels are located in India and China, meaning that money will also flows to these factories. However the final idea of this building system is that it will start a plant in the country for which it is producing.

Use of national

resources

2

Social / cultural Social/ cultural

The finishing of Rapidwall is equivalent to precast concrete, in-situ concrete. Adaptions such as painting, plastering and decorations are possible to allow the appropriate social/cultural aesthetics.

Adaptability

4

Architectural embedding

The building method is not commonly used as a building method and is therefore not embedded in the local building tradition.

Embedding

2

Functional Building height

Unreinforced structures used as load bearings wall can go up to three storeys. Reinforced site-filled concrete structures with sufficient axial strength can support buildings up to 15 storeys.

Amount of

storeys

5

Expandability

The building method comes in prefab elements, therefore the expandability is limited. Possibilities

2

Workspace

In the design large openings can be included when extra measures are taken into consideration. These extra measures are mainly strengthening by adding extra rebar.

Opportunity

4

Protection

Rain and wind cannot penetrate the concrete shell. Safety is provided with locks, bars and insect screens.

Elements 5 Safety 4

Utilities Utilities are possible at any level of the building, structure is designed to withstand loads at the rooftop.

Possibilities

5

Sustainable Recyclable

Rapidwall claims to be 100% recyclable and manufactured from natural and/or waste raw materials (PDF Document Rapidwall® The world’s most environmentally friendly, versatile and cost effective prefabricated walling system).

Re-usable

2

Recyclable

5

Environmental

Is made of waste and/or raw material. However at the moment the panels should be imported from India or China.

Impact 4 Sustaina 4

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ble

Reference Project In China, where clay brick production has been outlawed, Rapidwall has been selected

as one of the preferred building materials. A plant in Jianan was constructed in 2002 and underwent significant earthquake testing prior to approval.

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LLight Weight Steel Profile Building Systems

Introduction This method is currently not widely used in Nepal but has been used in many disaster struck countries for rapid rebuilding. The building method makes use of steel plate rolls which can be bended into profiles on location, the profiles are easily connected by bolts and nuts, the walls can be filled in with any type of material from local to styrofoam. Category Description Value

Technical Building components

Light weight steel construction with steel braces are often combined with a reinforced concrete foundation. The basic structure is consisting of a lightweight steel braced frame that creates resistance to lateral and transversal loads. The main structure is made of steel profiles that are pressed by a machine on location. The main structure walls and floors can be filled in with any kind of material desired by the owner. The building method is not incorporated in the building code but the structural principles are accepted internationally thus incorporation can be a quick process.

Strength

Redundancy 5

Building code 3

Seismic Performance Standard

The Steel frame building systems claim to be earthquake resistant due to their lightweight construction while providing great strength. Steel has a high ductility which is a favorable trait during an earthquake allowing for the building to withstand lateral and transversal loads.

Performance 4

Improved Seismic Performance

The performance during an earthquake can be increased by use of special moment resisting frames and different types of braces such the V-brace, inverted V-brace, X-brace, two storied X-brace etc. A combination of the properties of steel and the possibilities to enhance the frame make steel frame buildings a good construction type for seismically active areas.{lecture by Michael D Engelhardt Michael D. Engelhardt University of Texas at Austin, Design of Seismic Design of SeismicResistant Steel Building Structures} However light weight steel profile building systems often already have many braces, the improvement during seismic activity is marginal.

Possible 5

Building on a slope

All references are built on level ground or concrete foundations Performance 3

Climate Openings in exterior walls are only limited by possible placement of braces. Protection against external elements can be done by any kind of exterior covering material such as wood, bricks, mud or clay. Regulating of internal climate can be done by using materials with good thermal properties, a material that is advocated by promoters of the steel profile building systems is styrofoam panels.

Openings (ventilation and

sunlight)

4

Thermal 3

Life span According to manufacturers the lifespan is “long” and they offer a 50 year warranty on the steel frame

Lifespan 4

Maintenance The steel frame requires little maintenance, maintenance of this building type would be dependent of the choice of the frame filling materials. The execution of maintenance would be a relatively easy task requiring little workmanship and some resources.

Reliability 5 Maintainability 3

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Complexity Building with steel profile building systems is relatively easy. The designer of the house programmes the steel pressing machine to produce the frame components and provides the drawings with coded components. Trained workers assemble the frame by connecting the joints with nuts and bolts. The infilling of the house can be done as desired by the owner and only requires experts when using complex filling materials. The method is easily teachable to workers and requires the presence of a trainng center which can train workers but also train trainers.

Ease of learing 4

Resources Material The resources required for light weight steel profile buildings are

rolls of steel plating, material for frame filling, roofing material, exterior covering material and mortars. The availability of required materials is good given that much of the steel products and wall infill can be locally produced or is importable. The reliability can be less good due to dependence on road conditions and political situation for the import of steel.

Quality 4

Availibility 3 Reliability 3

Labor The labour intensity of steel profile building systems is low, work includes feeding the machine with steel, putting the frame components in place, bolting the components together and placing of interior, exterior and roof filling. The frame components are lightweight and easy to lift by a construction worker.

Experience 3

Intensity 4

Time A house for a family can be constructed in 6 days by a team of trained workers. {http://www.veerhuis.eu/portfolio/cite-soleil/}

Technical period 5

Feasibility Price Lable The ranking is based on price indications and reference countries Ranking 2 Local economy Steel bending machine can be bought and used for local

production, however requires training. Wall infill can be done with local materials.

Use of local recources

3

National economy

Light weight steel needs to be imported, togheter with machinery.It can create a new sector, with new jobs. Investments are maid in Nepal. Possibility to export knowledge.

Use of national recources

5

Social / cultural Social/ cultural Steel profile building systems allow for many shapes and forms,

the materials to fill the frame can be adapted to the owners preferences allowing for high adaptability. The materials usable for infiling can be the same as known to the local people.

Adaptability 5

Architectural embedding

Unfamiliar from traditional point of view, however multiple parties are busy with projects throughout Nepal.

Embedding 3

Functional Building height The building method is not included in the building code, for this

case light pile construction around 2 to 3 storeys is taken into consideration.

Amount of storeys

2

Expandability The typical structures built with steel profile building systems do not allow for expansion after construction, however the design of these buildings is very adaptable and possibilities for expandable houses might easily be designed.

Possibilities 4

Workspace Given that steel profile building systems allow for structures to be made in many desired shapes and sized the creation of space for shops and workspaces is relatively easy

Opportunity 4

Protection The protection depends on the infill walls, for this case brick infill walls are taken into consideration.

Elements 4 Safety 3

Utilities If constructed in the right manner, the building method is able to Possibilities 2

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withstand gravitational forces. For this reason the utilities are possible beyond ground level.

Sustainable Recyclable The steel used for the frames is reusable when not damaged and

otherwise recyclable. the materials used for filling the frame can be chosen by the owner and can also be both recyclable and reusable.

Re-usable 3 Recycable 5

Environmental According to the manufacturers the building system reduces the emissions of CO2 depended on the insulation materials. The materials save natural resources(such as water, sand, wood, cement) compared to most traditional building styles, when damaged or destroyed the buildings generate less solid waste, due to good climate control improvement of health and safety can be achieved.

Impact 4 Sustainable 4

Images

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AAppendix 1.B. - Damage assessment The basic factors of seismic vulnerability are mentioned with their associated damage patterns.

0: Building location Vulnerability factors Associated damage Pounding of adjacent buildings - No gap provided between the building and the adjacent building - The gap is filled with rigid material (concrete/ brick) or is made rigid by using rigid materials

Damage due to pounding of an adjacent building

Building site (steep slope, land slide risk) Movement of whole building due to liquefaction, landslide or sliding of foundation

A. Global strength, stiffness, stability and ductility Vulnerability factors Associated damage Weak- or no application of seismic-resisting elements Total or partial building collapse Unfavorable choice of material and detailing

B. Building configuration and mass distribution Vulnerability factors Associated damage Building mass distribution (compliance center of mass/ inertia?) - Mass concentration - Mass asymmetry

Local cracks or failure due to high stress concentrations Collapse or partial failure due to torsional forces Collapse/ implosion of a weak or soft story Building configuration: regularity in plan

- Re-entrant corners - Irregular geometry - Irregular distribution of lateral load resisting elements (frames/ shear walls) Building configuration: regularity in elevation - Cantilever - Set-back or stepped elevation - Weak story, change in strength (change in structural components) - Soft story, change in stiffness (ground floor open for commercial purposes) Distribution of live loads - such as large water-tanks or swimming pools on the roof

C. Load path Vulnerability factors Associated damage Continuity of load path

Are there masonry walls in cantilevers Are there masonry walls which do not

continue to the foundation Are there any columns starting from a beam

Interconnection of members Separation of connecting walls Lack of stiff diaphragms Redundancy

Is there a single bay in one or both directions?

Total building collapse

D. Building components Vulnerability factors Associated damage Condition of materials

Deterioration of concrete Corrosion of reinforcement

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Deterioration of wood Weak building members Brittle building members Opening of existing cracks of other defects

Crushing and ‘X’ pattern of walls between openings

Crushing of infill walls Delamination of wall wythes Out-of-plane or in-plane wall failure

Amount and location of window openings E. Non-structural elements

Vulnerability factors Associated damage Falling hazard of non-structural elements Shearing of chimneys and towers Weak / brittle non-structural elements Collapse of internal non-structural walls

Insufficiently connected non-structural elements

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ZZone A: Urban core (Kathmandu center)

Characteristic building methods: RCC frame buildings Brick masonry buildings / some traditional brick masonry Historical heritage sites

RC-frame buildings Many vulnerable factors are seen with respect to discontinuous load paths (cantilevers), lack of redundancy and bad quality of construction and detailing. Vulnerable factor Potential reason Discontinuous load paths (cantilevers) Creating more surface area on the rented plot Weak/soft storeys Commercial use of ground floor in the form of open

storefronts, work places and restaurants at the street side Lack of redundancy slender frame structures Having own plot is favored above apartment buildings,

resulting in slender buildings Low quality RC- construction and detailing Lack of skilled engineers and building code inspectors Brick masonry and traditional brick masonry buildings Most of the severe damage caused in the urban core can be found in the old masonry structures. Many of these older buildings were built in the traditional Newari style (timber decorations). Newer brick masonry buildings are made with sober timber window frames and sometimes concrete slabs as flooring. Many vulnerable factors are seen with respect to lack of maintenance and lack of coherency between building elements. Vulnerable factor Potential reason Thick and heavy walls, high inertia loads To provide sufficient insulation and strength Later addition of storeys and vertical load Expansion of family, need for more space Lack of maintenance Trouble and effort of regular maintenance

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 172

RRC-frame buildings (masonry infill)

Location Urban core: Thamel, Kathmandu Building method

RCC frame masonry infill, 5 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B. Building configuration Soft story (shop front) C. Load path Discontinuous load path

Masonry wall on cantilever

First floor cantilever on extended slab

Damage / observation

X

Location Urban core: Thamel, Kathmandu Building method

RCC frame masonry infill, 9 storeys

Vulnerability factors

C. Load path Discontinuous load path

Masonry wall on cantilever Redundancy

Single bay in one direction Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 173

Location Urban core: Thamel, Kathmandu Building method

RCC frame masonry infill, plastered, 8 storeys

Vulnerability factors

Redundancy One bay in one direction

Configuration Very slender in

transverse direction Damage / observation

X

Location Urban core: Thamel, Kathmandu Building method

RCC frame masonry infill, plastered, 7 storeys

Vulnerability factors

C. Load path Discontinuous load path

Masonry wall on cantilever

Damage / observation

Temporary strutting necessary to provide stability

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 174

Location Urban core: Thamel, Kathmandu Building method

RCC frame masonry infill, plastered, 4 storeys

Vulnerability factors

Soft/ weak story Sudden change of

stiffness Parking garage without

infill walls at ground story Building configuration

L-shaped Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 175

BBrick masonry

Location Urban core: Thamel, Kathmandu Building method

Brick masonry, timber window frames and vertical timber posts >2nd floor

Vulnerability factors

C. Discontinuous load path Masonry wall on

cantilever Timber cantilever

Damage / observation

X

Location Urban core: Thamel, Kathmandu Building method

Brick Masonry, traditional Newari style

Vulnerability factors

D. Building components Condition of materials

(maintenance) Damage / observation

Deterioration and damage of timber balustrade and timber frames

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 176

Location Urban core: Patan, Lalitpur Building method

Traditional brick masonry (Newari), 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

D. Building components Condition of materials

(maintenance) Damage / observation

Instability: temporary strutting to prevent collapse

Location Urban core: Kathmandu, near Bagmati river

Building method

Traditional brick masonry, 2,5 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B. Building configuration Length/ width ratio

Long unsupported masonry wall

Damage / observation

Partial collapse of the building

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 177

Location Urban core: Kathmandu, near

Bagmati river Building method

Traditional brick masonry (Newari), 2,5 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B. Building configuration Length/ width ratio Too long unsupported

masonry wall D. Building components

Lack of coherence in brick bonding

Damage / observation

Partial collapse of the building

Location Urban core: Patan, Kathmandu Building method

Traditional brick masonry (Newari), 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B. Mass distribution Heavy floors causing horizontal thrust force D. Building components Condition of materials (maintenance)

Damage / observation

Instability: temporary strutting to prevent collapse Outward bulging of exterior wall

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 178

Location Urban core: Patan, Kathmandu Building method

Traditional brick masonry (Newari), 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B. Load path Lack of Interconnection of side and front wall D. Building components Placement of window openings

Damage / observation

Vertical tear above door lintel Vertical tear in front wall, near the side wall

Location Urban core: Patan,

Kathmandu Building method

Traditional brick masonry (Newari), 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

x

Damage / observation

Temporary strutting to prevent collapse

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 179

Location Urban core: Patan, Kathmandu Building method

Traditional brick masonry (Newari), 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

D. Load path Insufficient connection/ ties between walls

Damage / observation

Outward building of the exterior wall / corner Vertical tear at building corner Temporary strutting to prevent collapse

Location Urban core: Patan, Kathmandu Building method

Traditional brick masonry (Newari), 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B. Mass distribution Floor causing horizontal thrust forces D. Building components Deterioration of building materials (timber)

Damage / observation

Temporary diagonal strutting to prevent collapse Outward bulging of the exterior wall

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 180

ZZone B: Urban village (Outside ring road)

Characteristic building methods: Concrete frame buildings Brick masonry buildings Corrugated sheet shelters

The outskirts are characterized by an urban sprawl of non-engineered buildings. Most problems are seen due to informal construction, discontinuous load paths, unfavorable configurations and building on slopes

Vulnerable factor Reason Non-engineered, informal building

Lack of skilled masons, engineers, building code inspectors

Building on slopes Scarcity of plain building sites, building along roadside is favorable Soft/ weak storeys Commercial use of ground floor in the form of open storefronts, work places and

restaurants at the street side

Location Urban outskirts: Kathmandu

Building method

Brick masonry, 1 or 2 storeys

Vulnerability factors

Informal/ non-engineered building Bad construction quality

Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 181

Location Urban outskirts: Kathmandu

Building method RCC frame buildings with masonry infill, 3 to 4 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0. Site Building on a slope, unequal height of columns / foundation B. Building configuration Soft story, no infill walls

Damage / observation

X

Location Urban outskirts: Kathmandu

Building method

RCC frame buildings with masonry infill, plastered, 6 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B. Building configuration L-shaped plan

Torsional forces High stress concentrations

in re-entrant corner Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 182

Location Urban outskirts: Kathmandu

Building method

RCC frame buildings with masonry infill, 3 to 4 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0. Site Building on a slope, unequal height of columns

Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 183

ZZone C: Urban historical

settlements

Characteristic building methods: Traditional building methods (for

example Newari) Unreinforced brick masonry Rc-frame construction with

masonry infill Non-engineered

These settlements are characterized by clusters of traditional brick masonry buildings (Newari style) and newer RC-frame buildings. Many traditional buildings have collapsed or are severely damaged. The main reason is bad maintenance of timber elements and inadequate connections between building elements. The relatively newer concrete buildings have performed better during this quake, also due to their smaller age. But also these buildings form a threat in future quakes due to discontinuous load paths, weak storeys and low quality of construction and detailing. Traditional brick masonry Vulnerable factor Reason Thick and heavy building walls, high inertia loads To provide sufficient insulation and strength Later addition of storeys and vertical load Expansion of family, need for more space Lack of maintenance Trouble and effort of regular maintenance Soft/ weak storeys Commercial use of ground floor in the form of open

storefronts, work places and restaurants at the street side Discontinuous load paths (cantilevers) Creating more surface area on the rented plot RC-construction Vulnerable factor Reason Discontinuous load paths (cantilevers) Creating more surface area on the rented plot Weak storeys locating shops, work places and restaurants with at the

street Low quality RC construction and detailing Lack of skilled engineers and building code inspectors

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 184

PPreliminary rebuilding activities

Location Urban heritage settlement: Sankhu Building method

Temporary rebuilding, one story high brick masonry with mud mortar and timer poles

Location Urban core: Sankhu Building method

Temporary rebuilding, one story high brick masonry with mud mortar

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 185

TTraditional brick masonry (Newari)

Location Urban heritage: Sankhu Building method

Traditional brick masonry Newari

Vulnerability factors

B. Mass distribution - Heavy overhanging window units

D. Building components - Deterioration of timber elements

Damage / observation

D. Building components - Collapse of side wall - Diagonal tears in masonry - Decay of timber elements

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 186

Location Urban heritage: Kirtipur Building method

Brick masonry, 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0. Building placement Lack of seismic gap, risk of pounding of adjacent buildings

Damage / observation

Tear at junction of two buildings

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 187

Location Urban heritage: Kirtipur Building method

Brick masonry, 3 +1 storeys

Vulnerability factors

B.Building and construction materials Heavy incremental additional storey, addition of vertical load

Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 188

BBrick masonry

Location Urban heritage: Sankhu Building method

Combination of brick masonry and RCC frame

Vulnerability factors

A. Too many storeys for brick masonry building

Damage / observation

Building is tilting over causing secondary moments

Location Urban heritage: Sankhu Building method

Brick masonry

Vulnerability factors

A. too many storeys for unreinforced masonry building B. Building configuration Vertical irregularity; set back building Incremental building

Damage / observation

Diagonal tear in masonry ground floor (in-plane) Vertical tear under window lintel Diagonal tears in corner peers

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 189

Location Urban heritage: Sankhu Building method Brick masonry Vulnerability factors E. Non-structural elements

Bad construction practice of overhang/ balcony Slab is filled with bricks as cheaper infill alternative of concrete

Damage / observation

Damage and partial collapse of cantilever

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 190

Location Urban heritage: Kirtipur Building method

Brick masonry, 4 storeys

Vulnerability factors

A. Building materials and construction

Exposed wall infill of sun-dried bricks (vulnerable to moisture B. Building configuration Vertical irregularity C. load path Masonry wall standing on cantilever Cantilever balcony on thin concrete slab

Damage / observation

X (whole town not that damaged by earthquake)

Location Urban heritage: Sankhu Building method

Brick masonry, 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

D. load path Insufficient corner connections and corner ties

Damage / observation

Large vertical tear at corner junction of walls

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 191

RRC-frame construction with masonry infill walls

Location Urban heritage: Sankhu Building method RC frame construction, brick masonry infill, 4 storeys Vulnerability factors A. Low quality construction and concrete detailing

- Non optimal spacing of stirrups - Too little concrete cover - Insufficient ties of concrete stirrups

Damage / observation

X-tears in masonry infill walls (in-plain failure) Bursting out of masonry walls Tears in plasterwork Splitting of concrete, expose of reinforcement

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 192

Location Urban heritage: Kirtipur Building method RC frame, masonry infill, 2 storeys Vulnerability factors B.Mass distribution

Distribution of live loads, heavy water tanks on slender cantilever slab Damage / observation X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 193

ZZone D: Rural village

Characteristic building methods: Concrete frame buildings Stone masonry houses Brick masonry Corrugated sheet temporary shelters

In these settlements vulnerabilities are seen in construction quality and building configuration; soft/weak storeys, and discontinuous load paths in the form of cantilevers.

Vulnerable factor Reason Building on a slope Building along the road is favorable for commercial

reasons Lack of flat building plots in hilly/ mountainous areas

A. Building construction and materials Lack of skilled builders and code inspectors B. Building configuration Soft/ weak storeys

Commercial use of the ground floor

Location Rural village: ribbon development, Dhunce Building method

RCC frame, masonry infill plastered, 3 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0. Building site Building on a slope

Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 194

Location Rural village: ribbon development, Dunche

Building method

RCC frame, masonry infill, 5 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0. Building site Building on a slope

(downhill) D. Building components

One layer masonry infill, lateral forces

Damage / observation

X

Location Rural village: ribbon development, Dunche

Building method

RCC frame, masonry infill, 5 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0. Building site Building on/ near a slope

(uphill) Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 195

< Location Rural village: ribbon development, Dunche

Building method

RCC frame, masonry infill, 5 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0. Building site Building on a slope

(downhill) D. Building components

One layer masonry infill, lateral forces

Damage / observation

X

Location /\ Rural village: ribbon development, Dunche

Building method RCC frame, masonry infill, 5 storeys

Vulnerability factors B. Building configuration Building extensions on non-engineered RCC structure

Damage / observation

X

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 196

Location Rural (mountain) village:Chisapani Building method RCC frame, masonry infill, plastered, 4 storeys Vulnerability factors Building configuration:

Weak/ soft story Damage / observation

Failure of columns ground floor Collapse of building

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 197

Location Rural (mountain) village:Chisapani Building method

RCC frame, masonry infille, plastered, 4 storeys

Vulnerability factors

0.Building site Building on a slope A.Building construction and material use Stiff masonry infill with respect to concrete columns

Damage / observation

Bursting out of masonry infill wall

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 198

Location Rural (mountain) village Building method RCC frame, masonry infill, plastered, 2 storeys Vulnerability factors X Damage / observation Diagonal tears near window openings

Vertical tear near change in stiffness of elevation

Location Rural (mountain) village Building method Stone masonry, plastered, x storeys Vulnerability factors A. Building construction and materials Damage / observation

Tiered / diagonal cracks X-cracks between windows

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 199

ZZone E: Remote village (mountain villages)

Characteristic building methods: Rubble stone houses Rubble stone with timber elements

Remote settlements are threatened by site hazards such as land- (mud) and rock-slides. Risks are higher during Monsoon season when the rains decrease the ground stability, and for building slopes which have little vegetation holding the ground together with its roots. The majority of buildings is made of rubble stone masonry. These buildings are highly vulnerable to earthquakes due to heavy material, irregular stones and lack of coherency between building elements. Vulnerable factors Reason C.Load path Lack of seismic elements

Scarcity and high prices of timber Difficult transportability and high prices of cement and reinforcement

Dry stacked stones without bonding No adequate mud-mortar available High inertia loads due to heavy stones Stones are locally available, and thick walls provide

insulation Irregular stones Cutting irregular stones to regular shapes is labor-

intensive and costly Site hazard: landslides and rockslides

Risk Mud-, landslide

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 200

Risk Dislocation of trees

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 201

Risk Rock avalanche

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 202

SStone masonry

Location Remote village: Goisakunda Building method

Stone masonry, dry stacked, 1 story

Vulnerability factors

0. Building site Building on a slope

C. Load path Integrity of building

elements Lack of (horizontal) seismic ties

D. Building components High inertia loads due to

stones No bonding between

building blocks Irregular shape of stones

causes stress concentrations

Damage / observation

Collapse of head walls

Location Remote village: Goisakunda Building method

Stone masonry, cement mortar, 1 story

Vulnerability factors

C. Load path Integrity of building

elements (lack of seismic ties) Lack of horizontal seismic bands (lintel)

Load path above window opening

D. Building components High inertia loads –

heavy stones Damage / observation

Collapse of head wall/ pitched roof

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 203

Location Remote village: Goisakunda Building method Stone masonry, cement mortar, 1 story Vulnerability factors C. Load path

Integrity of building elements (lack of seismic ties) Lack of horizontal seismic bands (lintel)

Load path above window opening D. Building components

High inertia loads – heavy stones Damage / observation Vertical tear above weak spot (window opening)

Diagonal tear Collapse of head wall/ pitched roof

Location Remote village: Goisakunda Building method

Stone masonry, timber planks interior, dry stacked, 1 story

Vulnerability factors

D. Building components High inertia loads – heavy stones No bonding (mortar) of stones

Damage / observation

Stones have fallen outwards, timber interior structures is still standing

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 205

AAppendix 1.C. - Solution Space

ID Aspect Sub-aspect Requirement Requirement Value Qualitative

Technical

TE-1011 Structural Building Components

Strength Loading types and loads withstandable by construction

Construction should minimally be able to withstand the constant and variable loads as given by the Building Code

TE-1012 Structural Building Components

Redundancy Presence of redundancy regarding structural elements

Structure should atleast allow some redundant elements to relieve structure´s dependency on a single structural element in its imagined form.

TE-1013 Structural Building Components

Non-structural elements

Placement and amount of non structural elements

Non-structural elements should not diminish the inherent properties of structural elements or general safety

TE-1014 Structural Building Components

Regulated safety

Level of safety needed in regular usage of building according to buildingcode

If building type is mentioned in the building code then compliance with minimal requirements as stated in most recent version of the Nepali Building Code If not mentioned in building code then according to general structural principles

TE-1020 Seismic Performance

General seismic performance

Structure should be able to withstand seismic activity

Combination of aspects TE-1021 - TE-1025 determine the performance during seismic activity, the structure should at least be considered categorie C according to the Worldhousing.net classification

TE-1021 Seismic Performance

Seismic elements

Application of seismic elements Combination of seismic elements must resist lateral loads

TE-1022 Seismic Performance

Diaphragms Degree of stiffness of diaphragms Must allow for diaphragms that can provide ensure a uniform redistribution of lateral loads amongst structural elements

TE-1023 Seismic Performance

Mass distribution

Manner in which mass is distributed within the structure

Mass of the structure should be distributed as evenly and low as possible within the structure

TE-1024 Seismic Performance

Load Amount of continuity within loadpath of structural elements

Continuity in structural elements must be guarenteed

TE-1025 Seismic Performance

Building plan Structure should consist of or should be partitionable into symetrical shapes

The construction method should offer possibilities to make a symetrical floor plan

TE-1026 Seismic Performance

Possibility to increase seismic performance

Seismic Performance Possibility of adding realistic improvements for Nepal to increase performance of aspects TE-1021 - TE-1025. The structure should at least be considered categorie D according to the Worldhousing.net classification

TE-1041 Climate Openings (ventilation & sunlight penetration)

Controle of interior climate and level of humidity inside structure Adaptation of exterior wall openings to regulate penetration

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 206

of sunlight into building

TE-1042 Climate Thermal capacity

Regulation of temperature in different seasons needed to ensure acceptable living conditions with respect to heat transmission

TE-1051 Construction

Lifespan building

Lifespan of building method when maintained correctly

Minimum lifespan should be around 50 years or equal to at least two generations

TE-1061 Maintenance

Reliability Amount of maintenance required to maintain standard living conditions and safety given the lifespan

Structure should at most require maintenance every 3-5 years

TE-1062 Maintenance

Maintainability

Technical and physical ease of performing maintenance on a structure

Structure should not require extensive and very specialized workmanship and much resources

TE-1063 Maintenance

Availability Availability of the structure during maintenance

TE-1071 Construction

Complexity Ease of learning to correctly implement technique required for building method

The complexity of the construction should at most be so complicated to require some years of training

Resources

RE-2011 Material Initial quality Acceptable quality of a material in its initial state

Used materials require latest NS, IS or other similar approved standard quality certificate. If used material is adapted, innovative, recycled or not provided with mark it may also be used given that the characteristics are tested to be equivalent or higher than the Standards given by the Nepal National Building Code.

RE-2012 Material Processing quality

Building materials should be transportable to building site with minimum damage given transportation conditions

RE-2013 Material Availability Availability of a material when abstracted from the environment in large quantity

Available quantity of building material needs to be just enough to construct the required amount of houses of case village

RE-2014 Material Reliability Material reliable to be available in all situations

Material needed for construction should be available during all situations and seasons but may be susceptible to uncertainty regarding availability

RE-2021 Labour Labour experience

Level of task experience of workers required for construction

The construction should at most require some experts for correct execution of building

RE-2022 Labour Construction intensity

Amount of workers needed at one time to construct a building type

A building method should not be limited by the of workers it requires for safe and qualitative execution

RE-2031 Time Construction time

Technical construction period needed to build one layer

The construction of a technique should at most take up the duration of a Nepalese construction season, which is limited by the monsoon period and harvesting period resulting in a maximum building time of 1-3

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 207

months per storey.

Feasibility

FE-3011 Financial Investment Total investment costs The construction method should maximally allow for the construction (of a livable partition) of a house that is within budget of target group including loans, funds from government and charity funds

FE-3021 Economic Local Beneficial for local economy Construction should at least use some local resources resulting in at least a small benefit for the local economy

FE-3022 Economic National National benefit Construction should atleast add some welfare into Nepalese economy by the use of a mixed local / import cashflow

Social-Cultural

SO-4011 Social Status Ability to meet the social and cultural requirements of Nepali housing in terms of social status or ethnic identity

SO-4031 Social Architectural identity

Ability to meet the architectural needs

SO-4021 Cultural Religious Space to accommodate religious attributes

Functional FU-5011 Building Stories Height of the building meets the

function requirement of the owner

FU-5012 Building Expandability Structure has to offer the possibility for expansion after completion of construction while fitting the technical requirements.

FU-5013 Building Flexibility Structure has to offer flexibility in usage of rooms and partitioning of the living area

Rooms should be changable with the use of some resources.

FU-5021 Working Workspace Structure has to be able to provide a workspace for profession related activities such as workshop, restaurant, shop, animal stal

FU-5031 Protection Rainwater Structure has to provide shelter against monsoon rain with a maximum of acceptable leakage

FU-5032 Protection Wind Structure has to provide shelter against winds

FU-5033 Protection Solar intensity

Structure has to provide shelter against solar intensity

FU-5034 Protection Social Safety Minimum level of personal safety needed in building

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 208

FU-5041 Facilities Utilities Structure has to be able to accommodate the connection of utilities such as gas, water, electricity

FU-5042 Facilities External infrastructure

Construction should accommodate a connection with direct environment

Sustainability

SU-6011 Life cycle Reusability Extent to which used materials are fit to be re-used after demolition

Material do not have to be re-usable after the demolition/end of functional period

SU-6012 Life cycle Recyclability Number of cycles a material can be re-used

There are not restrictions on the recyclability of used materials.

SU-6021 Environment

Impact Damage done to nature by construction

There are no restrictions on damage to the environment however should be avoided where possible

SU-6022 Environment

Sustainability Extent to which the houses can be self sustainable

AAppe

ndix

1.D

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requ

ired

to

() ()

No

We

beca

me

in

cont

act v

ia C

as d

e St

oppe

laar

. The

NR

NA is

pla

nnin

g to

rebu

ild

thou

sand

s of

hous

es. V

ery

inte

rest

ing

to

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

210

rebu

ild N

epal

. sh

are

know

ledg

e.

Suni

r Pan

dey

is in

tere

sted

to k

eep

upda

ted

abou

t our

pr

ogre

ss.

Suni

r Pan

dey

Coor

dina

tor

Secr

etar

iat o

f the

Sp

ecia

l Env

oy

Emai

l: +9

7798

5119

0489

W

ebsit

e:

mitg

roup

foun

datio

n.or

g

Had

a fru

itful

disc

ussin

g ab

out r

ebui

ldin

g Ne

pal

and

the

polit

ical s

ituat

ion

right

now

.

Yes

Univ

ersit

ies a

nd k

now

ledg

e in

stitu

tes

Kath

man

du

Univ

ersit

y Pr

acha

nd M

an

Prad

han,

Ph.

D.

Head

of D

epar

tmen

t (Ac

ting)

& P

rofe

ssor

(A

sst.)

De

part

men

t of C

ivil

& G

eom

atics

En

gine

erin

g, S

choo

l of E

ngin

eerin

g

prac

hand

@ku

.edu

.np

Kath

man

du U

nive

rsity

Te

leph

one:

+97

7-11

-66

1399

Ext

.110

5 (O

ffice

) Fa

x:+9

77-1

1-66

1443

Ce

ll:+9

77-9

8510

4917

4

He is

will

ing

to si

gn a

M

OU

with

the

TU D

elft

and

is pr

epar

ed to

gui

de

futu

re S

SN T

eam

s

Yes

Is w

illin

g to

sign

a

MO

U w

ith T

U De

lft

Trib

huva

n Un

iver

sity

Mad

an G

opal

Sh

rest

ha

Pres

iden

t Fr

iend

s of S

ankh

u (N

GO in

Nep

al)

Chai

rper

son:

Nep

al S

eve

Micr

o-fin

ance

Ba

nk

Asso

ciate

pro

fess

or :

Trib

huva

n Un

iver

sity,

Pa

dmak

anya

Mul

tiple

Col

lage

Nepa

l, Ka

thm

andu

, Sa

nkhu

, Puk

hula

chhi

-06

Phon

e no

: 977

-01-

4450

007

/ +97

7985

1066

177

Emai

l: fo

syb@

ntc.

net.n

p w

ebsit

e: w

ww

.fos.o

rg.n

p Fa

cebo

ok:

http

s://w

ww

.face

book

.co

m/f

riend

ssan

khu

We

had

a sit

e vi

sit in

Sa

nkhu

. Mad

an sh

owed

us

aro

und

and

expl

aine

d ab

out w

hat w

as g

oing

on

ther

e.

No

They

hav

e a

lot o

f in

form

atio

n ab

out

Sank

hu. D

amag

e as

sess

men

ts,

map

s, et

c..

Delft

Un

iver

sity

of

Tech

nolo

gy

Bino

d Pr

asad

Ko

irala

, M.S

c.

Nepa

les P

hd a

t TU

Delft

M

ail:

b.p.

koira

la@

tude

lft.n

l Bi

nod

Pras

ad K

oira

la

expl

aine

d th

e sit

uatio

n in

Ne

pal a

fter t

he

eart

hqua

ke

Yes

()

Delft

Un

iver

sity

of

Tech

nolo

gy

(Aca

dem

ic Bo

ard

of

Shoc

k Sa

fe

Nepa

l)

ir dr

s Jul

es V

erla

an

Cons

truc

tion

Man

agem

ent a

nd

Engi

neer

ing

CI

TG -

ople

idin

gsdi

rect

eur

CME

Se

ctie

Inte

graa

l

This

is th

e ac

adem

ic bo

ard

of S

hock

Saf

e Ne

pal.

Ph

one:

06

54 7

21 2

69

Emai

l: j.g

.ver

laan

@tu

delft

.nl

() Ye

s ()

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

211

Ont

wer

p &

Beh

eer

Ir. H

.R. (

Roel

) Sc

hipp

er

BCC

coor

dina

tor

Emai

l: H.

R.Sc

hipp

er@

tude

lft.n

l

Prof

.dr.i

r. A.

R.M

. (R

ogie

r) W

olfe

rt

Grad

ing

Prof

esso

r

Dr.ir

. M.G

.C.

(Mar

ian)

Bos

ch-

Rekv

eldt

In

tern

ship

co

ordi

nato

r

Dr.ir

. G.A

. (Sa

nder

) va

n Ne

derv

een

IDM

coor

dina

tor

KU Le

uven

An

nelie

s Pa

rt-ti

me

empl

oyee

at t

he K

U Le

uven

The

KU Le

uven

was

wor

king

toge

ther

with

th

e UN

-Hab

itat.

() W

e di

scus

sed

our p

roje

ct

and

aske

d fo

r the

ir vi

sion.

Ye

s ()

Stef

anie

Pa

rt-ti

me

empl

oyee

at t

he K

U Le

uven

Emai

l: st

efan

iede

ns@

gmai

l.com

Ph

one

[be]

+32

497

75

21

09

Phon

e [n

pl] +

977

981

031

61 0

8 Sk

ype:

stef

anie

.den

s

Yes

()

Smar

t Sh

elte

r Re

sear

ch

Mar

tijn

Schi

ldka

mp

Mar

tijn

Schi

ldka

mp

is th

e fo

unde

r and

ow

ner o

f Sm

art S

helte

r Fou

ndat

ion.

He

has

build

scho

ols a

nd b

uild

ings

for m

any

year

s al

l ove

r the

wor

ld a

nd is

bus

y w

ith a

pl

atfo

rm fo

r bui

ldin

g m

etho

ds.

Emai

l: in

fo@

smar

tshe

lterf

ound

atio

n.or

g

He g

ave

us a

trai

ning

ab

out '

non -

engi

neer

ed'

eart

hqua

ke p

roof

co

nstr

uctio

n in

Nep

al.

Yes

()

NSET

(N

atio

nal

Socie

ty fo

r Ea

rthq

uake

Te

chno

logy

-

Sury

a Na

raya

n Sh

rest

ha

Depu

ty E

xecu

tive

Dire

ctor

The

NSET

is a

non

-gov

ernm

enta

l ins

titut

e fo

unde

d in

199

8 w

ith th

e vi

sion

to re

alize

ea

rthq

uake

safe

com

mun

ities

in N

epal

by

2020

. The

inst

itute

cons

titut

es

prof

essio

nals

belo

ngin

g to

var

ious

tech

nica

l

Kary

a Bi

naya

k M

unici

palit

y, B

haise

pati

Resid

entia

l Are

a, La

litpu

r GP

O B

ox: 1

3775

, Ka

thm

andu

, Nep

al

No

W

e w

ould

hav

e a

mee

ting

with

Su

rya

in N

epal

but

in

stea

d w

e ha

d a

mee

ting

with

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

212

Ne

pal)

and

socia

l asp

ects

of e

arth

quak

e di

sast

er

man

agem

ent.

Mob

ile: +

977-

9851

1 03

625

Tel:

+977

-1-5

5910

00,

5593

000,

559

2522

Fa

x: +

977-

1-55

9269

2,

5592

693

Emai

l: ss

hres

tha@

nset

.org

.np,

sh

rest

hasn

@gm

ail.c

om

URL:

ww

w.n

set.o

rg.n

p

Him

a an

d Ku

mar

.

Him

a Sh

rest

ha

(M.S

c. S

truc

tura

l En

gine

erin

g)

Dire

ctor

, EER

T Di

visio

n

hshr

esth

a@ns

et.o

rg.n

p,

him

a.sh

rest

ha@

gmai

l.com

(9

77-1

) 559

1000

Ext

205

We

disc

usse

d th

e ro

ll of

NS

ET. N

SET

has a

lot o

f kn

owle

dge

abou

t ea

rthq

uake

tech

nolo

gy in

Ne

pal.

How

ever

is n

ot a

de

part

men

t of t

he

gove

rnm

ent a

nd m

ostly

pa

id b

y US

-AID

. We

disc

usse

d w

hat S

hock

Sa

fe N

epal

coul

d co

ntrib

ute

to th

e kn

owle

dge

right

now

.

Yes

()

Dev

Kum

ar

Mah

arja

n St

ruct

ural

Eng

inee

r

Emai

l: dm

ahar

jan@

nset

.org

.np

Phon

e: (9

77-1

) 559

1000

Ph

one:

984

9531

851

()

Com

pani

es

Arca

dis

(She

lter

Prog

ram

)

Bert

Sm

olde

rs

Shel

ter P

rogr

am

Man

ager

Arca

dis a

nd U

N-Ha

bita

t set

up

the

Shel

ter

Prog

ram

in 2

010.

Ove

r six

ty m

issio

ns,

trai

ning

s and

oth

er S

helte

r act

iviti

es h

ave

been

org

anize

d in

Asia

, Afr

ica a

nd M

iddl

e Am

eric

a. O

ver 5

00 A

RCAD

IS e

xper

ts fr

om a

ra

nge

of d

iscip

lines

hav

e be

en a

ctiv

ely

enga

ged

in th

e p r

ogra

m b

y sh

arin

g th

eir

know

ledg

e, e

xper

tise

and

prov

idin

g ca

pacit

y -bu

ildin

g su

ppor

t ski

lls to

hel

p br

ing

the

UN-H

abita

t miss

ion

forw

ard.

Emai

l: be

rt.sm

olde

rs@

arca

dis.n

l Ph

one :

062

7060

436

We

had

a ve

ry in

tere

stin

g m

eetin

g w

ith U

N -Ha

bita

t an

d Ar

cadi

s to

disc

uss t

he

poss

ibili

ties o

f Sho

ck S

afe

Nepa

l

Yes

()

Abar

i Sa

gar C

hitr

akar

Ar

chite

ct a

t Aba

ri Ab

ari i

s a co

mpa

ny th

at is

spec

ializ

ed in

bu

ildin

g w

ith ra

mm

ed e

arth

and

bam

boo.

Fa

cebo

ok

We

disc

usse

d th

e di

ffere

nt o

ptio

ns o

f ra

mm

ed e

arth

and

ba

mbo

o

NO

Beca

me

frien

ds

with

Sag

ar a

nd

Tenz

ing.

The

y ha

ve a

lot o

f kn

owle

dge

of

Tenz

ing

Yang

cean

Ta

man

g Ar

chite

ct a

t Aba

ri

Face

book

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

213

ram

med

ear

th a

nd

bam

boo

cons

truc

tion

in

Nepa

l Ve

erhu

is Al

bert

Vee

rman

CE

O

Albe

rt V

eerm

an is

the

CEO

and

foun

der o

f Ve

erhu

is Bo

uwsy

stem

en th

at is

bui

ldin

g w

ith st

eel p

rofil

ing

and

styr

ofoa

m a

ll ov

er

the

wor

ld.

Emai

l: a.

veer

man

@ve

erhu

is.eu

Ph

one:

003

1029

9324

243

Had

two

mee

tings

with

Al

bert

. He

join

ed th

e fir

st

mee

ting

of th

e Sh

ock

Safe

Ne

pal p

roje

ct to

giv

e hi

s vi

sion

abou

t reb

uild

ing

Nepa

l.

Yes

()

Sism

o /

Cora

lform

Ni

co v

an V

een

Dire

cteu

r Co

ralfo

rm

Nede

rland

Sism

o / C

oral

form

is a

qui

ck a

nd e

asy

pref

ab b

uild

ing

met

hod

that

is m

uch

used

in

Indi

a an

d Ch

ina

Emai

l: in

fo@

cora

lform

.nl

Phon

e : 0

6382

5029

3 W

e di

scus

sed

the

Sism

o sy

stem

and

its

poss

ibili

ties f

or N

epal

.

Yes

Nico

is v

ery

inte

rest

ed in

bu

ildin

g in

Nep

al.

Cont

acts

are

via

th

e Ne

pale

se

Cons

ulat

e in

Am

ster

dam

EC

ONO

MIC

"B

uild

ing

Gene

ratio

ns"

Rona

ld C

ozijn

Ro

nald

Coz

ijn h

as m

uch

expe

rienc

e w

ith

build

ing

solu

tions

in fo

reig

n co

untr

ies l

ike

Nepa

l.

r.coz

ijn@

econ

omich

ousin

g.n

l Ro

nald

Coz

ijn h

elpe

d us

w

ith se

lect

ing

new

bu

ildin

g m

etho

ds.

No

()

Rapi

dwal

l Vi

a Ro

nald

Coz

ijn

() Vi

a Ro

nald

Coz

ijn

() No

()

Fini

sh

Prof

iles

Pras

an C

haw

la

Nepa

lese

Ste

el p

rofil

ing

build

ing

com

pany

. Em

ail:

pras

an31

5@gm

ail.c

om

Disc

usse

d th

e po

ssib

ilitie

s of

stee

l pro

filin

g bu

ildin

g m

etho

ds in

Nep

al.

()

NGO

and

sim

ilar o

rgan

isatio

ns

UN-H

abita

t Pa

dma

Sund

er

Josh

i Ha

bita

t Pro

gram

me

Man

ger f

or N

epal

This

Unite

d Na

tions

pro

gram

me

wor

ks

tow

ards

a b

ette

r urb

an fu

ture

, by

prom

otin

g su

stai

nabl

e hu

man

sett

lem

ents

de

velo

pmen

t and

ach

ievi

ng sh

elte

r for

all.

Al

read

y be

fore

the

eart

hqua

kes U

N-H

abita

t w

as ru

nnin

g 7

proj

ects

bet

wee

n 20

08 a

nd

2013

with

a b

udge

t of $

7.07

4.20

4 {w

ww

.unh

abita

t.org

/nep

al/}

.

UN H

ouse

, Pul

chow

k W

e ha

d a

very

inte

rest

ing

mee

ting

with

UN-

Habi

tat

and

Arca

dis t

o di

scus

s the

po

ssib

ilitie

s of S

hock

Saf

e Ne

pal

Yes

Glob

al

Shel

ter

Clus

ter (

GSC)

Siob

han

Kenn

edy

Tech

nica

l Co

ordi

nato

r

The

GSC

is a

plat

form

with

35

regu

lar

part

ners

, of w

hich

UN

-Hab

itat i

s one

of

them

. On

glob

al le

vel G

SC w

orks

on

Emai

l: te

ch2.

nepa

l@sh

elte

rclu

ste

r.org

|sk

ype:

We

disc

usse

d th

e cu

rren

t sit

uatio

n in

Nep

al w

ith

resp

ect t

o al

l the

NGO

's

Yes

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

214

tech

nica

l cap

acity

and

syst

em-w

ide

prep

ared

ness

in o

rder

to re

spon

d to

hu

man

itaria

n em

erge

ncie

s, th

ey su

ppor

t co

untr

y-le

vel s

helte

r clu

ster

s. Th

ey co

llect

, an

alys

e an

d sh

are

best

pra

ctic

es a

nd

less

ons l

earn

ed v

ia th

eir w

ebsit

e.

Shel

ter C

lust

er is

tryi

ng to

coor

dina

te

siobh

an.k

enne

dy3

Phon

e:(+

977)

981

8414

269

| w

ww

.shel

terc

lust

er.o

rg |

and

diffe

rent

or

gani

satio

ns th

at a

re

curr

ently

act

ive

in N

epal

.

Nep

ales

e or

gani

satio

n in

The

Net

herla

nds

NRNA

(Non

-Re

siden

t Ne

pali

Asso

ciatio

n)

(Also

See

Sh

esh

Ghal

e)

Fani

ndra

Pan

ta

Pres

iden

t NR

NA In

tern

atio

nal C

oord

inat

ion

Coun

cil

Repr

esen

tativ

e of

The

Net

herla

nds

The

NRNA

carr

ies o

ut v

ario

us a

ctiv

ities

to

serv

e th

e in

tere

sts o

f Nep

ali D

iasp

ora

as it

s co

nstit

uent

s in

the

follo

win

g ar

eas

1. O

rgan

izes g

loba

l and

regi

onal

co

nfer

ence

s and

inte

ract

ion

prog

ram

s for

itf

os st

akeh

olde

rs.

2. F

acili

tate

s str

ong

netw

orki

ng a

mon

g th

e NR

Ns, r

esid

ent N

epal

is an

d Ne

pali

orga

niza

tions

wor

ldw

ide.

3.

Liai

se w

ith th

e Na

tiona

l Coo

rdin

atio

n Co

uncil

s, Ne

pali

asso

ciatio

ns a

broa

d,

gove

rnm

ent a

nd in

tern

atio

nal

orga

niza

tions

. 4.

Act

s as a

foru

m fo

r the

pro

mot

ion

and

prot

ectio

n of

the

inte

rest

s of t

he N

RN

com

mun

ity b

oth

in N

epal

and

abr

oad.

Emai

l: pa

nta_

basil

@ho

tmai

l.com

Fa

nind

ra P

anta

gav

e us

a

lot o

f val

uabl

e in

side

info

rmat

ion

abou

t Nep

al

and

cont

acts

in N

epal

.

()

Nepa

l Sam

aj

Nede

rland

Ra

m B

udha

thok

i Pr

esid

ent

NSN

is th

e fir

st N

epal

ese

asso

ciatio

n w

hich

ai

ms t

o pr

omot

e N

epal

ese

cultu

re,

lang

uage

and

trad

ition

am

ong

the

Nepa

lese

an

d ot

hers

in th

e Du

tch

socie

ty. N

SN a

lso

wor

ks to

supp

ort t

he in

tegr

atio

n an

d st

reng

then

the

bond

s bet

wee

n Du

tch

and

Nepa

lese

.

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AAppendix 1.E. – Minutes of conversations All the minutes of the conversations can be find in the google drive of Shock Save Nepal, future teams therefore have easy access to this information. The minutes of conversation in the Netherlands can all be found online. Some of the minutes of conversations that are referred to in this report are selected for this appendix.

UN-Habitat / Arcadis / KU Leuven

Date: 7-9-2015 Location: UN-Habitat, Kathmandu Secretary: Coen Spelt Present SSN-team: Allard de Stoppelaar Arjan Oosterhof Baris Can Düzgün Coen Spelt Emilie van Wijnbergen Interviewed party: Bert Smolders - Arcadis / urban planning

Radbout - Arcadis / construction manual Nienke - Arcadis / urban planning Padma Sunder Joshi - UNhabitat Programme manager Anil Maharjan - UNhabitat Engineer Anatta Shrestacharya - Nepali volunteer Anil - Nepali Volunteer

Stephanie Dens - KULeuven / urban planning Annelies de Nijs - KULeuven / urban planning Introduction about ShockSafeNepal Allard gave a small introduction about the ShockSafeNepal project with the opportunity for Arcadis and UNhabitat to give their opinion. Especially Padma Sunder Joshi shared his knowledge and concerns about the situation in Nepal. The building categories in Nepal can be divided in 3 types of buildings: 1. Concrete frame structure/RCC

o The Nepalese have the illusion that this construction method is much stronger than brick buildings (because most of the brick buildings are collapsed).

o The recent earthquake was not that strong in the Kathmandu valley: in the north it had a 8+, in the valley 7+ magnitude. A stronger earthquake would have resulted in a much bigger devastation.

o The Nepali are comparing old buildings with new buildings, many concrete buildings are not engineered, not maintained and older than the concrete buildings.

o 90% of the houses are owner build, they have not enough construction knowledge: slim Columns, combined with thick beams, quality of cement, sand, to much water because that makes it easier to mix but decreases strength and ability to bond.

o In the north/western part of Kathmandu more concrete structures were collapsed, buildings were tilted because of the clay soil conditions

o A very important point is the condition of the structure before the earthquake.

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o The main risk of constructing with concrete in the urban villages and rural areas is the lack of knowledge.

2. Traditional brick wood mud (especially in the Kathmandu valley o The brick building is mostly seen in clusters of houses. The father divides his property among his

sons vertically. They start building higher and higher. o A lot of buildings mistakes: The floors of original building is made with wooden floors, they

heightened the building by adding an additional floor with a concrete roof and floor. o No damp profile course, emission of damps affect the ground floor, this is been fixed with plaster,

which is not a good technique. o Much of the old buildings collapsed due to bad maintenance, not by bad constructions. o The tallest temple of Baktapur, 5 tiers high, has not collapsed during the earthquakes. We should

try to learn out of these techniques. (wooden skeleton inside brick structure. 3 Stone masonry Dhulika many buildings survived (stone and mud mortar) Newar buildings. Many buildings collapsed because of missed horizontal load capability Previous earthquake in Nepal In 2011 on sept 18 an earthquake occurred in eastern part of Nepal: large number of traditional buildings collapsed. After this building improvements where designed, unfortunately this improvements where never implemented. Introduction about Arcadis project / KULeuven project In the Kathmandu valley there are 3 major towns. There are 53 satellite towns (for example Sankhu and Bungamati. Most of the urban area is neglected by the government and NGO’s, that is why UNhabitat sees this as their responsibility. UNhabitat asked Arcadis and KULeuven to help them with creating a master plan for the city Bungamati. The project looks at the lager picture and zooms in on Bungamati. The focus is not only on the construction of earthquake safe buildings but on all the aspects of the city. (waste water, utility of open spaces, etc) On of the main focuses of the reconstruction is to rebuild in a traditional way. KUleuven: - Framework to start fieldwork

- master plan strategy of which the cities will fit into. - Mapping/understanding – set up systems in order to design

- Detailed assessment (mapping damage assessment) - Deal with temporary shelters - Determine priority projects

Arcadis - Example strategy for all the other towns - Sanitation (first measures) - Urban planning - Public space, no occupied by shelters (memorial park) - Building back better (manual, training)

o To much information § The traditional architecture of the Kathmandu valley (book)

o Adjust out-dated information o Compress the right information on a couple of sheets o Locational training (get their output out in the open)

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o Have not done training in Nepal yet o People interested to meet:

§ Rohit Ranjitkar (Architect Summit Hotel) · Kathmandu vally

§ Rabindra puri - Work on priority projects; focus because otherwise the projects will end up in the shelf. (Priority and how

to finance) - Priority projects are short term - Visitors centre to get people to spent money in the area

Questions from UN-Habitat Risk of using knowledge constructing with concrete in the mountains, (knowledge) Compressed Stabilized earth blocks, we are trying to use it on the inside of buildings, (ambition green construction materials) Question of UN-Habitat, the usage of this earth blocks in the construction of buildings. Clay bricks also help as climate control. If our information is helpful for your project please use it.

Damage assessment (buildings total collapsed, damaged) Additional information Details from the PDNA, government/world bank came up with an estimate. 800k houses are damaged; the average size of an house was 60m2, which costs 10k Rupees per 1m2. This is too expensive to rebuild. - The new houses are 15m2, the government pays 200k Rupees to affected households. NRA: national reconstruction authority decides about payment Follow up after interview - Sent an email with detailed needed information Contact Radboud about the manual! Passed over to Anil Maharjan.

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BBagmati Heritage Walkway

Date: 8 September 2015 Location: Kathmandu Present SSN-team: Allard de Stoppelaar Arjan Oosterhof Baris Can Düzgün Coen Spelt Emilie van Wijnbergen Present other: Cas de Stoppelaar (Consul-General of Nepal to the NL) Kanak Dixit Office meeting 95% of the river water in Kathmandu is contaminated sewer water. Kathmandu is a river civilization and the culture is (/was) closely linked to the river. Economical drive in combination with political chaos (lack of political stability) caused the river (banks) to be polluted. Kathmandu is a former lake: good fertile soil -> rice production -> wealth -> competition between three kingdoms/ cities (stimulating art and architecture) In Nepal, the old traditional culture is still alive. → it is important to save streetscapes River banks have an holy and religious purpose (Buddhist and Hindu), where water and culture meet The ‘Bagmati Heritage Walkway’ or ‘Bagmati hangout’ project revolves around the revival of a specific stretch of river bank between the Radha Krishna Mandir (temple) and thapathall bridge. They want to bring people to the river (especially the middle class). They want to create a promenade connecting all cultural, religious elements along the river bank. The river banks can be a place for hangout, chess, morning walks, yoga. They work in parallel with the municipality to create involvement/commitment parallel: Kathmandu municipality is bureaucratic with lack of leadership Since the Bagmati river is so polluted there is smell nuisance. However they claim the north bank of the river does not have this problem look up their project on facebook: bagmati hangout Kanak: “since the quake there is more interest for renovation (also as career), whereas in the past students were more interested in new building. Site visit

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trapezoidal bricks Typical Newar bricks are not completely rectangular, but sloping down towards the inner facade. Cement (or mud mortar) is only used on the inner half of the bricks, giving it the ‘dry stacked’ look on the outside. These bricks are called Dachi appa.

Clay bricks Soft slippery clay is brought from Kathmandu Lake. Lower origin of the clay lead to better quality. The clay is stored to dry for more than a year, so the moisture is absorbed. Finally, a rectangular shape is made and it is burned to a brick. Plastic garbage The riverbeds are littered with colored plastic bottles, bags and other artifacts. Dogs are wandering the banks looking for food. People are standing in the water looking for metals. Religion/ tradition A tilted carved stone is built/ sunken in the river banks. People on their deathbeds are put on the stone with their feet in the water. The river is believed to be connected to heaven, and this tradition would make it easier to go to heaven. Wooden beams are lying on the banks for cremation of bodies. Two simple pavilions cover the cremation process. Afterwards, the ashes are put in the river. Temples along the river Many religious buildings, temples and shrines are located along the riverside. Historic public buildings are meant to temporarily house travelers visiting the shrines. Openings of temples and shrines are inhabited by people looking for shelter. Plastic canvas are covering openings indicating the temporary shelter. Improvised tents made of plastic canvas are placed along the riverbanks. Damaged masonry temples The weight of the heavy bricks pushes the mortar outward. Some traditional temples have timber framing. This has helped some shrines to withstand from collapsing completely. Batches of masonry exterior have fallen out. The wooden lintels are heavily decorated. Wooden pecks are used to make screwless connections. A gap/ margin is left in the allow some movement during the quakes. This proves that a lot of knowledge is developed over the centuries to cope with quakes. Guide: “this will be lost moving to steel and concrete structures”. Moisture Nepal lies in a humid climate, moisture is a problem. Therefore buildings need renovation in the form of replacing rotten wood, beam lintels, removing grass from roof (attract moisture). Replacing bulging/ tilting walls.

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NNSET

Date: 9-9-2015 Location: UN-Habitat, Kathmandu Secretary: Emilie van Wijnbergen Present SSN-team: Allard de Stoppelaar

Arjan Oosterhof Baris Can Düzgün Coen Spelt Emilie van Wijnbergen

Interviewed party: Dev Kumar Maharjan, Structural engineer NSET Hima Shresha, Director EERT Divison NSET Absent: Surya Narayan Shrestha, Deputy Executive Director of NSET Contact: Mobile: +977-98511 03625 Tel: +977-1-5591000, 5593000, 5592522 Fax: +977-1-5592692, 5592693 e-mail: sshrestha@nset.org.np, shresthasn@gmail.com Background information: Documents on research gate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Surya_Shrestha4

About NSET

The Nepalese people, living in a country of high seismic hazard, have faced the consequences of many earthquakes including those of Great Earthquakes. Therefore, in order to reduce the impacts of future earthquakes; to raise awareness amongst the people on the possibilities of earthquake disaster reduction; to contribute to the development of science and technology related to earthquake disaster mitigation and implementation of earthquake resistant measures in construction; and to fulfil the necessity of a national, professional, non-governmental scientific organization, Nepalese professionals belonging to various technical as well as social aspects of earthquake disaster management decided to constitute the National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal. In order to gain a legal status to this national level organization, the founders of this Society unanimously adopted its Constitution.

Questions for NSET What is the role of NSET? NSET/ UN Habitat / Shelter cluster The NSET is responsible for: Policy of guidelines Research on type of structures Implementation of knowledge Making communities aware of risks, transferring knowledge

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All actions and programs of NSET are done through the government. The building codes are made by the DUDBC (Department of Urban Development and Building Construction), concepts and technical support is prepared by NSET. NSET is mainly funded by USAID (for 80%). Government is not funding the organisation.

PDNA report (Post Disaster Needs Assessment) is made by the National Planning committee. This is a global report: assessing damage for example in categories: collapsed, damaged. Economic loss is considered, the condition of the country is assessed via hired professionals from the Worldbank. NSET performs more detailed damage assessment, classification of levels and information of damage levels. NSET is trying to improve fragility curve by doing detailed damage assessment. (damage assessments are not yet published)

Do you have a good overview of what others are doing? We don’t have a concrete idea on what others are doing. We are members of shelter cluster. Surya is one of

the main bodies in the reconstruction authority national committee. DUDBC (Department of Urban Development and Building Construction) - has the best overview. They have

made prototype building designs according to the building codes. Government website: National information center provides general reports Can you tell us something on how the reconstruction is organized? Most of the buildings are non-engineered buildings which means there is no involvement of engineers.

Instead: petty contractors/ masons/ informal builders. Therefore the NSET has a training program for the district / community people/ mason builders. A house owner training on how the buildings can be made safe.

Programs: NSET is working in 30 municipalities. They are working on effective building code implementation

and providing awareness programs for engineers, contractors. These awareness programs are necessary because people are not aware of the possible risks and the necessary requirements. However, awareness has increased since the past earthquake.

The building codes are only checked in municipalities, not in VDC (Village Development Committee).

However the areas of municipalities are extending. For example, recently (after the earthquake) Bungamati has become part of the municipality.

→ find map of VDCs and municipalities (NSET has it?) VDCs have no technical capacity to check building plans/ construction processes for compliance to building

codes, due to lack of engineers. A training program is planned for them. Implementation is the main problem. Each municipality should have at least one civil engineer. Therefore we (NSET) have to enlarge capacity: provide training to engineers and masons.

3 level of certificates: foundation level, second level plinth, completion certificate Completion. Need electricity and water system IS there another way to get electricity? \ Only if you have permit for building Permit for 3 stories, but build 4 stories but now the municipality is stricter. Do you think the government will keep strict? It has been 4 months, 1 or 2 months scared. They were ready to remove stories

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Now that fear is lower. In what way Nepal construction firms have to comply to the NSET codes? Since the NSET is an NGO what is there power / influence

Is NSET making building codes? Or government The building codes were set up in 1994 with help of a New Zealand team and US, and members of NSET.

DUDBC director team leader There are 4 levels of building code: ABCD A: international state of art B: professional engineered buildings C: mandatory rules of thumb - predesigned building - up to 3 story building 1000 sq feet, span less than

4,5 m, 12 by 12 inch pillar size, 8 number of rebar's with diagonal, grid lines concrete frame/ masonry, also detailing, bans

D: low-strength masonry building, guideline mud-mortar buildings 2 stories +.. floor

SSanchit (Home Makers)

Date: 9-9-2015 Location: Summit Hotel Secretary: Emilie van Wijnbergen Present SSN-team: Allard de Stoppelaar Arjan Oosterhof Baris Can Düzgün Coen Spelt Emilie van Wijnbergen (Cas de Stoppelaar - Consul-General of Nepal to the NL) Interviewed party: Sanchit - Home Makers Preparation:

What is your role in the construction sector?

How does the Nepali/Kathmandu construction sector work in general? Difference in- and outside KTM? Market change before/after earthquake? (price per m2, housing market, material scarcity, cost price, labour etc), what are information sources? Is there a difference in logistics?

How is money distributed for the rebuilding?

How big is the practical influence of organizations such as UN Habitat, NSET, Shelter cluster

How is the materials quality and the balance between import (China/India) and Nepali? Are there technical changes due to the earthquake?

Do you notice changes in procedure?

What are the procedures regarding permits and building codes? And how is the actual practice?

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What do you think of traditional building methods? Compared to ‘modern’ materials such as concrete/

concrete blocks?

What do the Nepali demand in housing regarding the earthquake? in remote areas/ urban outskirts and town center

- What do you think of traditional building methods? Compared to ‘modern’ materials such as

concrete/ concrete blocks? Brick as main building material Sanchit starts explaining the general problems of the building industry. Brick is a heavy building material, not the best choice in terms of safety. However it is the main building material in Nepal, is still being used. The government is promoting lighter structures, for example light partition walls. Change is hard on people, since they (trust?) are accustomed to brick. A lot of products are coming from other countries, but people find it difficult to accept these.

- What are the procedures regarding permits and building codes? And how is the actual practice? Building codes The government sets up the laws with input of NGO’s. After the earthquakes the government handles the building codes/ permits very strict. Before building, the Kathmandu municipality checks if there are drawings, and if the codes have to be followed are followed? . One needs a certificate to start building, a certificate to show the foundations are done correctly, a certificate when the plint is done(until 1e floor) half way certificate and a completion certificate. This last one enables the building to receive electricity and water. Deviate from the codes delivers high risk: an employee from the government can come by to inspect. If the buildings do not comply, you can’t apply for facilities such as water and electricity. The new building codes are driving up the costs of building – in all sectors of the building industry. For example: roads are required to be bigger (for two fire engines to pass). Therefore people could lose parts of their plot. Laws are the same for building types – applied to private individuals /private homes. Applied certified drawings for municipality are necessary to build. Foundation The new building codes subscribe that above 6 floors building foundations have to have piling and not rafting. Piling foundation is more expensive than rafting. Municipalities The implementation of building codes is done in villages which belong or are covered by the Kathmandu municipality. These villages have access to engineers who can perform checks or make drawings. Villages which lie further away do not comply to the municipality (not yet), but to VDCs. Village development committees. Due to a lack of engineers, it is hard to follow/ check building codes. Remote villages are not in the municipality, and are not compliant to the code. The Nepal population is approximately 30 million, fo which 10 million live in VdCs. Construction sector Labor has doubled in costs. The government is trying to stop workers leaving for other countries. By making other countries pay for working visa, they are trying to bring workers back. Material costs, surprisingly not so much. Brick has gone op 300% . An explanation can be that there was no construction going on since the earthquake until now. Only since the past 2 weeks new certificates are issued. The building codes subscribe certain factors allowing

- The percentage of building plot which may be used for the building

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- The amount of floors Both factors have influence on total possible revenue of the owner. A lot of new buildings had no sceptic tanks for drainage. Now it is required to have one. (before sewer water was dumped in mother river Bagmati) Do the same rules apply for new buildings and existing buildings? For existing buildings and renovations, also the new laws should be compliant. How realistic are these laws?/ new building codes It depends on your risk appetite: do you want to lose a building over a permit? Due to the building permit and limitations on number of stories or building area someone might lose 20 rooms. But the total price of the building is much higher. This leads to a negative view on the government. Responsibility of the permits / deaths Building codes Do you think the codes are safe enough? Given the country's limitations, the codes are plausible. It is now an ‘ok’ balance between the costs for safety and the human right to have a shelter or house What are in your view the limitations of this country? (building sector) The country is inflexible in materials use, we have no quarries. These kind of materials have to come from a third country, and the costs of transport are high. The government can’t discourage bricks because there is now no feasible/suitable alternative. Are bricks inavoidable? People just like bricks. Educated people have visited conferences about new materials.. But people stick to brick, is a difficult to break mindset Finance How is money distributed for the rebuilding? Nepal is getting a lot of money. Where does it go? The reconstruction budget is around 6.6 billion dollars. A reconstruction authority is identified, led by several ministerial people. Led by national planning commission (head of this body) From the budget 300 health posts (mini hospitals/ clinics) are being built/ being upgraded. Focus lies on schools, public facilities, and infrastructure. Housing is a touchy issue. Low-cost housing / low-income housing It is not yet clear how this problem will be solved. Up till now only corrugated sheets are distributed. If a people need to rebuild their house, they can apply for a subsidized interest loan from the bank. Himalayan bank can provide loans for housing. up to 2000 to 25000 for one or two years.. (normaly the interest is 12% .. now 5%). This is meant to be distributed on the hand of income. However it is questionable if villagers are eligible for these loans. In remote towns there is little contact with the bank. Furthermore, they need collateral / onderpand which they generally do not have. GTZ – German Aid Agency Health posts are led by Germans. They provide drawings, plans and funding. The plans are handed to the government, put out to tender, bid. Plans are better for public buildings than for housing. Funding for schools is much higher. What are the average costs for normal building house? 220 roepies / square foot residential building 30 roepies /square foot Funding – does it stay in Nepal?

SHOCK SAFE NEPAL 227

If you come as NGO, they can use the money for nonprofit to build and sell As a foreigner you cannot invest and sell … there are legal ways if you don’t take profit The legal advisor present is helping British people to do real estate .. and find loopholes so the profit can be used to expand the project. Prime minister relief fund: Shesh Ghale is building in Thamel. He is a special envoy for the prime minister, earthquake reconstruction. The plan is 10.000 houses.. but where? Which land? … far more complicated! For foreigners it is hard to invest in real estate. The laws are really strict direct after the earthquake. How will these last? risk of diminishing?!..... Some laughter…

Special envoy for the Prime Minister

Date: 10-9-2015 (14:00) Location: Summit Hotel Secretary: Baris Can Düzgün Present SSN-team: Allard de Stoppelaar Arjan Oosterhof Baris Can Düzgün Coen Spelt Emilie van Wijnbergen Interviewed party: Sunir Pandey - Special envoy for the PM Preparation: What does the special envoy do? What are the focus points of the special envoy? Is it correct the government focusses mainly on rural areas? How does large scale construction work on political level after the earthquake? How does your organization work in general, where does the money come from?

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Are there any conditions on spending the funds? How does the plan of the NRNA for spending the (foreign 30mil euro) donations looks like. 10.000 houses / where / for who (rural/urban) / which construction method / which company? Do you trust the collected funds will be spend in the right way or be spend in general? What is your key advice to the PM? What do you think should happen/ is the best for Nepal?

Where do you gather your information for earthquake advice? What is the plan? (Demolition, construction, what periods etc.) What is the procedure for compensation affected families 2000e/family with collateral, accessible by a road. Do you think there are any common grounds? Can you help us? Actual meeting Shesh Gale is the advisor of the PM regarding post-earthquake building, he is the “face” of the campaign. Sunir Pandey is his coordinator of Shesh Gale. The goal of the special envoy is to raise funds and connect donating people/countries to the Nepali government. The special envoy does not have influence on project content like; budget, location, technique etc. The connect people, however there are some issues why this is not working…. Founding of the special envoy: Government is looking for people who want to fund and built houses, schools etc. Because the government is ‘busy’ they’ve set up an authority (special envoy), but there is no real department with responsibility of rebuilding Nepal. The special envoy is responsible for finding those parties who are interested in building and funding. They look for investors who want to do that via the government but that does not happen because people/countries do not trust the government and are therefore not willing to transfer the pledged money. Sunir thinks the government should take the first step (setting up projects and a plan) and then other people will follow. Shesh also set up MIT group foundation, focuses on education and health. They have trouble collecting the pledged funds because no one trusts the government, people say they will help but they don't because of the lack of trust. A lot of countries like india promised funds, 4 billion in total, but because there is no trustworthy governmental body. There should be a commision with a CEO, then there is a trustworthy governmental body and they can start collect the pledged 4 billion. However politically it is difficult to establish this body. It was founded but only had 60 days of authority…. They want to establish this body for at least 5 years (rebuilding period) however both the parliament as the opposition both want the CEO position of this commision. Therefore this commision has not been founded yet…... The plan is to divide the to be collected funds into four sectors: housing (60% of the funds), infra (roads, hydro, phone lines etc, industry, tourism (?) (4th sector was not completely clear…)

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The housing sector (60% of total) focusses mainly on rural area (but also some on urban). Majority will go to rural areas. Building codes are for urban area, proper codes for rural are missing Sankhu is rural, a lot of agriculture This new commission should also make new building codes. NSET recommendations probably will not be adopted because they are US aid and not governmental. The government might use NSET’s case studies. They are independent, Sunir was not that enthusiastic about them. In patan, village: pilatsjee (fonetisch); is a plan for rebuilding, which is a good plan to use, Sunir will send this plan to us. Financial plan of the government: 15.000 Rp. gift to families with damaged/broken house (already handed out to almost everyone, first help package) 185.000 rp. temporary housing - gift (comes later is in the budget) 1 mill rp. village house (loan amount) 1,5 mill city houses (loan amount) 1 or 2 percent loan In 1988 the loan became a gift after the earthquake At the moment the loan plan is absolutely not concrete, local administration units on site are necessary to organize the money flow. This however has ‘no priority’ because of the elections and constitution chaos. PM relief fund is used for flying helicopters, general stuff the government needs to organize right after the earthquake. Anyone can put money in the fund, that however does not happen that much because trust is an issue….. (He’ll ask shesh to show us the Marriott Hotel) 1000 temporary houses for 30 mill dollar/rp ? NRNA project? NRNA Rajesh Rana ed@nrn.org Sunir will also link us to a Nepali guy (Rabindra Pari) who builds locally but earthquake resistant in Bhaktapur Key advice of Sunir to the PM is to get a (working) policy in place, new building code for rural, how to get earthquake resistant techniques and materials to rural places. DRR.portal gov.np it has statistics and maps, is online. (Coen already started analyzing its use) http://drrportal.gov.np/ 14 out of 31 regions that were hit were ‘ crisis hits’ . A till C category. A is highest damaged in the north. The temporary housing loan (185.000 rp.) might become too late, monsoon is already for couple of months…

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1000 - 1500 people leave every day leave to malaysia qatar etc. Rural people definitely depend on funds… otherwise they’ll live in temporary housing for ever... due to earthquake poverty raise from 20 something to 30 something percent SSN will update the special envoy, they can contact us with the government for the coming teams.

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SShelter Cluster Nepal: launch of Reconstruction and Recovery

Committee

Date: 10-9-2015 Location: Department of Urban Development Building Construction Secretary: Baris Can Düzgün Present SSN-team: Baris can Duzgun Emilie van Wijnbergen Summary of event: The Shelter Cluster Nepal group is a group that coordinates humanitarian efforts in disaster struck areas by performing a number of activities. The group in Nepal has 180 partnering organizations (NGO’s etc.) that all have their own area of work where they perform certain types of relief work. The nature of the SCN is of such a form that initially it is very active in coordination and after a certain period/ achievement of goals they stay present in countries in a supporting role. The activities that have been performed by the SCN since the last earthquake are the following.

coordination of efforts by government, NGO’s and private, collecting important information, data analyses, gap analysis, information, education & communication materials, technical guidelines.

Now the efforts will be continued by two governmental groups; the strategic advisory group and the recovery and reconstruction group.

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The Shelter Cluster is lead by the MoUD and DUDBC and they are co-lead by IFRC. The newly formed Recovery and Reconstruction Working Group (R+R WG) is led by UN habitat and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), they are supported by the Shelter Cluster. Their objective is to provide a platform for coordination, strategic planning and technical guidance for agencies involved in longer term recovery and reconstruction, and to engage with the GoN, WB and other stakeholders to inform the wider housing reconstruction plan. The workgroup will decide in the coming weeks how the money available through the government will be distributed among the affected people and what designs will be officially published by the DUDBC as model houses which are in accordance with the building code. The ministry is looking for rural housing types/methods/materials that are earthquake safe. The Vice President of the working group gives a short speech on his vision regarding the reconstruction. He mentions that the government is interested in rebuilding back better, with available and local materials, in a style that is fitting for Nepal and will perform good in an earthquake. He believes that the physical recovery will be the easiest compared to the social and economical reconstruction. He advises reconstructing parties to pay attention to their actions not to cause disharmony in a community. He warns that there are different groups within a community and only helping one will cause friction within the community. He also points out the economical side of reconstruction. A truck bringing bricks from KTM should use the opportunity to also bring back local products to KTM. The meeting is closed off with a summary of the event and the announcement when the next closed meeting will be held.

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SShelter Cluster

Date: 11-9-2015 Location: Summit Hotel, Lalitpur, Kupondole Minutes secretary: Allard de Stoppelaar Present SSN-team: Allard de Stoppelaar

Arjan Oosterhof Baris Can Düzgün Coen Spelt Emilie van Wijnbergen

Interviewed party: Siobhan Kennedy (Shelter Cluster) Questions: What is the role / function/ aim of shelter cluster? How is the organisation of Shelter Cluster set up? What is you opinion on the political promises (2k$)? What is your view on funding of the reconstruction? Difference in approach: classification of rural area/ urban outskirt/ urban Kathmandu What do you see as the biggest obstacles for rebuild? lack of knowledge and skilled masons? How good is your overview of the work done by NGO's and how can you ensure the level of quality they

deliver Which building materials suitable for rebuilding? Research on traditional building methods? What could be an addition to the prototype housing of DUDBC? Which focus? traditional building methods, compliant to building code, good maintenance traditional building methods, strengthened with innovative additions ‘geomesh’ alternative buildings styles, local materials new building styles, not-local materials What is your view on maintenance of timber building elements of existing building styles? It seems as if

rotting of timber elements due to bad maintenance if often a problem. What do you think about shelter/ transition / semi-permanent housing? Are there any gaps in the research? Niches in which students can perform valuable complementary research? Focus on a certain city/ village / area? Interested to function as a client? feedback organization?

Interview How is the process going on with the national disaster committee? We heard from different sources that Nepal must have a committee and a good plan before getting their funds from most of the foreign countries like India, China, Japan etc.?

“The government will have a national disaster committee. But Nepal is political very complex. Political there is a lot discussion of who is going to be the chairman. Two persons who are fighting now to be the CEO. Just after the earthquake Nepal had a similar committee, but that was temporary for 60 days. This one will be more permanent but has to pass the parliament. We are still hopeful and thinking this will happen in a couple of days.”

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“However there is a plan but there has be still has to be damage reports. NSET has done PDA's but those are just estimates.” What is the government promising right now for the people whose house has collapsed?

“The only thing is relatively clear that 2000 dollar will be available for new construction. It is not official. The one I can say is that is going pretty fast comparing to other post disaster companies. Shelter cluster is only talking technical assistants, because we don’t want to interfere in political movements. So with technical assistants we means things as information centres. Finally we want to give collective movement. This is for now the purpose of the cluster.” In what time scope the reconstruction will be?

“First it was just quick response: just blankets, sheets and temporary housing (quite advance to low tech). Now they are preparing houses also for the winter. We start masons training etc. but we also have to update data before we start. We have 4 coordination offices in every region. The main aim of shelter is coordinate and to standardize. Shelter cluster is just trying to coordinate, every NGO is feeling free to join or not.” We are also trying to find our role in this reconstruction process, we of course have some ideas but after telling our story what would be your advice?

“You should go to Sanku, similar as Bungamati but even more devastated. And you should tell NSET, because they are looking for someone over there. Do you more about Dhulikhel?

“I don’t know much about it, but it is devastated. Would just go there and look around.” On what should we focus, rural or urban?

“The government will right now focusing on rural. At the moment rural everything outside of Kathmandu valley. They are also announcing new municipality. So mostly they draw a line around a certain amount of housing. So sometimes it is not very urban at all. So it is a bit complicated to tell you what is urban and rural.” On what is UN habitat focusing?

“UN habitat is more focusing on temporarily. They are now looking for technical assistance. I guess some rural and urban.”

“Most organizations are focusing on rural because it is easier. Target areas along Namche Bazar and Gorka are much tougher because those are very remote.. Helicopters was one way to get there but very expensive. Sherpa’s were used to get everything up. The fastest reconstruction is probably along those parts. Because people have limited expectations for help, so they don’t wait for it.” Is culture an import aspect for rebuilding Nepal?

“There is a very important aspect on rebuilding the culture. It is very important for the close Newari groups. They are very proud on their heritage. Also some people even say that 100 years back were better in building than right now. Bhaktapur is very interesting in a sense that they think it is important to conserve the traditionally style. Government is even paying for 80 percent of the timber. Timber banding is quite important but the problem is treatment of the timber because it often rotten. In rural areas it is even harder to get access to treated timber.” Not possible to treat timber yourself?

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‘Well it is not often done at household level. The other question is if you promote only timber what is that going to do for the environment.” Didn’t the government already provide some examples for designing housing, prototype housing?

“Yes but The designs are a little bit secondary, they fit the building codes. But not always fit the estitics.” Moreover, one of the ideas is to build houses flexible for the future's, so that they are expendable, do you think this would work?

Well I don’t know exactly but you get only the funds when you build compliant to the codes. The aim of the subsidy is support the rebuilding. This way it also worked well after the Kashmir earthquake. Are there also more innovative techniques in the building code, such as confined masonry?

“Not really, stone masonry with mud and stone with cement are popular but confined masonry is not very popular right now.”

“Another example right now is a gabion band. But the code can’t be updated every couple of weeks for every new method. However I think these techniques can be interesting. To look at other ways of banding. Access of timber is hard but cement is even harder. Even bamboo is talked about as banding material.” Can this maybe be interesting for us, these techniques?

“Yes, this could be interesting, but a lot of experts that have looked into this. I will put you in contact to the gabion band people.”

“Nepal has a lot of very senior experts on stone masonry. Tentendera can be interesting for you he is experienced with this. So maybe it is better to continue the research rather than a new piece of research. Or maybe documenting the construction typologies. It is not typically research, but it can help for further research.”

“Another aspect that is interesting is that to document the high rise buildings, how they are repaired. Moreover research can be needed for replacement of steel, so maybe plastic instead of steel.” Is there also a good overview of the research that is going on right now?

“Well no not really because research is less straight. So it is hard to have a good overview. We hope there is getting a better platform, such as the technical platforms. NSET is working on some of it. Surya has probably the best overview of the current situation in terms of research. I will ask Surya. NSET has contacts all over the world. Moreover the universities should have a good network.”

“If Padma Sunder Joshi (UN-Habitat Programme Manager) has something that you can do research, I would advise you this. Because he has a good network.” Further comments of Siobhan:

- “One of fears for situations like Nepal is that temporally shelters are becoming permanent.” - “The positive thing of earthquake is that is improving the construction sector.” - “Retrofitting à Subsidy for retrofitting is lower than building completely new. The cost and level of

technical stuff of big buildings are enormous.” - “Recognize the value of culture - potential topic for research.” - “Local building traditions represent rich sources of knowledge including hazard resistance.” - “Understanding how people live, their cultural and social values and preferences, is critical to

understanding how they will build their homes. “ - “Building codes were quite good but the application was not good. Just as in Ireland, so transfer

knowledge.” - “Traditionally you have two and half stories. Below was animals and stuff. People just repair what is

left. So just put up a lot shelter on a half broken house.” - “PO is the name that the government is using for everyone which is not government.”

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KKU Leuven

Date: 11-9-2015 Location: Arts Bar, Lalitpur next to UN Habitat Minutes secretary: Allard de Stoppelaar Present SSN-team: Allard de Stoppelaar

Arjan Oosterhof Baris can Duzgun Coen Spelt Emilie van Wijnbergen

Interviewed party: Stefanie Dens Annelies de Nijs

Questions

1. Can you tell us something about your role in this project? and the role of your students 2. What is your opinion on building traditions and materials? 3. How can we perform research that is complementary to your project? Same village/ different village 4. Why did you choose this village to do the project? 5. Which building materials are suitable for rebuilding? 6. What do you see as the biggest obstacles for rebuild? lack of knowledge and skilled masons? 7. What is the political/ practical side of you project? 8. How will you get the funding? Or is this only a study project? 9. What do you think about shelter/ transition / semi-permanent housing? 10. Is your contact arcadis or unhabitat? 11. Where do you get your information from, do you believe it to be a reliable source?

Interview Can you tell us something about your role in this project and the role of your students?

“We are from the urban planning department of the KU Leuven, post graduated. Students from all over the world.

“The idea is that students can use this project for their master thesis. Often a collective subject is chosen for a small group of students. We already had collaborations before with UN Habitat. They contacted us to make the framework for this Bungamati project. We linked the thesis of our students to this project. So we have a “double agenda.”

How did you setup your project?

“The framework was already decided by UN-Habitat.”

What is the role of Arcades in this project?

“Arcadis has an understanding with UN Habitat and this is called Shelter. Arcadis gives pro bono advice to UN-Habitat. This a non-profit department of Arcadis.”

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It seems that your project has similar focus points as Shock Safe Nepal, can we help each other?

“Due a lack time we couldn't finish some aspects of our projects. We are busy with the project ‘building back better’. We want to show people how you can achieve this. We would prefer doing his with a test case.”

Why did you choose for Bungamati?

“This came by a hotspot analyse by Arcadis. Arcadis wanted aspects like: historical quality, certain gradient of destruction and medium distance to Kathmandu so there is still a influence from the main capital. Also the community of Bungamati has also set up a relief committee by theirself. Moreover they are planning to put the village on a unesco heritage list.”

“In Bungamati there is still a lot of knowledge about the traditional building methods. There are craftsman who can still make the traditional joints. Those joints still have some space for movements in contrast of the concrete joints in the case of earthquakes. The concrete and brick structures have problematic joints.”

“Moreover we want to use Bungamati as an example for similar villages and cities. There are a lot of similarities between Bungamati and surrounding towns.”

What do you think about our project, do you have any tips regarding SSN after your stay here?

There are many different building technologies in different regions. Bungamati is looking for stakeholders, knowledge etc. but bungamati is not the only town out there. The UN-Habitat choose Bungamati and they want to go to donors for this project. However the UN will stay for a long time in Nepal so they may have also other opportunities for you. I would advise to go to Padma Sunder Joshi (Habitat Programme Manager for Nepal), he has got a big network.

We mapped building materials and a lot more such as collapsed buildings, new buildings etc. The social aspects, temporary shelters. For example the Danish shelters are build so good that we think they can last for at least for 20 years instead the 5 years that they are meant for. All this is very important for the masterplan.

Did your preparation helped you in Nepal?

“In Belgium we had a lot of preparation but actually after a couple of days we had to change everything. Of course we expected that.”

Do you know anything about the cash flows that are used to rebuild Nepal?

“Well, we don’t know much about this, UN Habitat is doing this part of our project. What is interesting is that there are a lot of coorparives of the local people. They all invest money in a local fund and that fund is giving out loans. We are seeing this is getting very popular. You of course have to realize alot of people are not familiair with banks or their loans. Also barter systems are popular. Moreover people lend ‘time’ to each other, they help to rebuild each other houses.”

Are people that you met open to new building techniques?

“We notice that people quickly believe in new techniques, they want to be modern. However there is also a lot of proud about their village. In the centre of bungamati they really wanted to rebuild a newari kind of house.”

Does your project also look into the reinforcement of existing houses?

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“No, we do not have that knowledge. What we noticed that well maintained houses are still standing. People use land seed oil to maintain their house.”

Would people be interested in expandable housing?

“They already use this logic for concrete housing, you see all these steel barns sticking out the houses. It can be an option. Houses often get separated vertically when dividing it among children. They even put extra staircases and front doors in those houses, which of course is affecting the construction.”

Do you have any tips for us?

“Maybe you should focus on public buildings. It is very hard to choose who will get a private house and who will not. Not only hospitals or schools but buildings with a social character, buildings that mean something for the whole community. “

What is the future of this project, will somebody take over this project, be the owner of it?

“Well, that is still an uncertain. Upcoming monday we have an important presentation to all our stakeholders and we hope we will find the answer to that question!”

Moreover:

KU Leuven did not receive the damage report of NSET. Use local people for translation, the interpretation of question however can be different. Be aware of

this. The students of KU Leuven will stay until the 24th of september. Giving money lead to a ‘lazy’ economie. Try to avoid this.

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TTechnical Workshop or Rural Housing

Organized by the National Planning Commission Partner Ministries/ Agencies September 12, 2015 SESSION 1 Brief of introduction Technical Working Committee (TWC) and Review Panel & Workshop objectives - Presentation, discussion and finalization of draft prototypes designs prepared.

Brief presentation of National Building Codes for Housing Construction by NBC representative The NBC is in the final phase of building code revision. Major changes are limits to building height of 2,3 stories masonry.

Presentation of type designs by DUDBC Focus lies on rural areas. The DUDBC will publish 25 prototype housing designs. The designs are technical and standard, compliant to the building code (via mandatory thumb rules). Designs vary in material ( stone masonry, brick masonry), in number of stories (1 or 2- 2,5), reinforcement band material (timber, concrete, bamboo), light roof materials. Reinforced concrete can be used as band if it is accessible, or if people can afford it. Hardwood is too expensive, local (treated) softwood will be used. Q:: Are you also taking into account stonesize? A mismatch in stone sizes can also cause collapse. Q:: The drawings seem architectural, are there also any structural calculations?

1. It is feasible to apply hybrid systems, also systems such as Gabion band.. 2. I do not understand why a T-shaped building is included? 3. The buildings seem to be designed for a hot climate; protecting from the sun. In colder areas the sun has

to get into the building. The DUDBC has made technical reliable non-specific designs. They deliberately do not focus on all cultures, just on basic things and technical aspects. Q:: In the post-earthquake context,

1. Most of the people are poor, how will they be able to afford these houses? 2. How are they going to get technical support?

DUDBC is setting up a program to train trainers. Q:: Why aren’t you looking at new materials? These designs are not enough. More effort needs to be done to make the designs payable. Sustainable, but cost-effective. Q:: some issues with the designs

1. Most of the rural houses are self-built, local artisans, local masons. Prevent disembarking local people in the process.

DUDBC: the prototypes are more a reference how to reconstruct than that they should be strictly followed.

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2. Do the designs facilitate implemental growth? House building in Nepal is incremental; if one gets married or gets children can extra rooms be added? 3. In Pohara for example, a large number of people are wood carvers and work from the house. This is to first priority. Incorporate these things in design! 4. How many houses failed due to bad plans? More on mistakes in compromising construction practices. House owner is mainly concerned how much it will cost. 5. Guidance on siting is needed. Hill, slope, landslide areas. Construction and design comes afterward. Q::

1. Only 1 of 25 is made with traditional mud mortar. No two story buildings. This amount should be more. 2. Is the idea that agencies will teach according to these designs?

Q::

1. Think more on culture/ livelihood. Beware of laying the path in the wrong direction. 2. Animals, agriculture is not so much considered.

Q:: It would be good to have designated engineers at villages for technical support. Q:: The bands are driving up the costs. It is interesting to look at how many are needed. Q:: It is necessary to support on choosing the building plot. Private organisations

Abari Abari is working with rammed earth, combined with bamboo. Choice of rammed earth is based on choice for local materials. Mud/ clay quality can be good in many regions of Kathmandu. Their building in Ghurka have withstood the earthquakes without a scratch. Mud is heterogenous, but when it has good consistency is it a good material! Adobe blocks are combined with reinforcement. Wood = expensive, therefore bamboo and steel. Steel is cheaper, but one should choose what is appropriate for logistics. Sometimes geomesh, or use of plastic mesh. Process: ram the earth from 4 to 2 inch in its formwork. Seismic tests are done on adobe/ rammed earth in Chile. Bamboo is used for roof trusses, strong in tension along their fibre. They have a problem with durability, but we have developed a process to push out the stark. 89% of the budget stimulates local economy. Houses cost only 15% more than regular house.

Hulas steel It is important to keep the costs low. We focus on extendable housing if social situations change. We chose to use pre-engineered steel trusses (low-cost) to stabilize the whole structure. The trusses are identical each section. C-type hot rolled sections. Building in modular units of 3x3 m. Walls made of mud and bricks can be placed around the structure. People are ready for change. Hulas steel buildings are like IKEA buildings, no training needed. One example house in every VDC.

CORD Our designs are intended for rural areas: build back better. Based on local circumstances.

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Cement is a nightmare: storage, maintenance, mixing, logistics… Two technologies:

1. CSEB technology: the stabilized earth block Environmentally friendly, supporting local livelihood. A simple machine needed. Mix+compress manually. Result: really good bricks. 2. Stone masonry with GI wire based on traditional practice. (Galvanized wire). Combine with mesh. Stone is there, mud is there, introduce one easy to introduce technology.

Habitat building technology Important to investigate challenges/ opportunities modern/ traditional. -> technology based on traditional. Choice for CSEB interlocking bricks, made from local resources. The interlock bricks are created with a hand press / hydraulic machines. report FEMA: numerical tests done on interlocking bricks. The bricks lock like lego, reinforcement can be pulled through the holes at specific places. Design is made with separate toilet and animal shelter.

Presentation of type designs by JICA representative JICA does a proposal to make better mortar houses. Also one proposal has a timber second floor.

Presentation by type designs by N-SET representative Basis and scope:

rural cases tentative costs flexibility in lay-out phase wise construction compliant with NBC 203 code provisions

NSET reacts to concerns on the single bar in the corner- coming to the same conclusion. For mud mortar the bar doesn’t change the amount of safety, why spend money? Solution → not to disturb the wall too much. Materials → timber and steel Double timber frame, not in the wall but around and on the inner corner. Extra provisions for big earthquake: combine timber reinforcement with gabion wire mesh on the inside and outside. For wall resistance is created by frictional sliding and energy dissipation. How can you enhance this frictional sliding? Q:: People are not necessarily interested in the designs, but in what of the designs makes the building more earthquake safe. In the basic technical methodologies. Q::

1. How will you get sand, cement and steel into rural areas where there is no road access?

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2. 80% will be building own home, also plans for house owner training? will these technologies match the skills?

3. NSET: great corner posts and GI wire enhancements. ANSWER: owner built means: owner helping a mason. Bamboo is proposed in circular section: banding + vertical posts. Are there different ways to use bamboo / enhance longevity? Q:: Might be interesting to be able to show what is earthquake safe, and what is earthquake resilient. Make a distinction what is safe and what is even safer. Q:: Good job focusing on local materials and the process. Approach should be: tell us what works best for you. ‘In my village I think this will work.’ Let people and local artisans choose. Q:: Request for not only drawings, but real design calculations. Session 2 Discussion on application of flexibility of prototype designs during construction

Draw up guidelines for flexible application of prototype designs, construction materials, technologies; Draw up simple construction processes to be followed during construction

Surya Shresta pleas for flexibility in prototype designs. → allowing people to have their own designs. Showing how it is possible, giving a range of options, taking into account primary conditions geological conditions, etc. Proposal: stepwise requirement (of the codes) = Step 1 - Step 10 Horizontal band is the most important seismic element. Set-up MR: minimum requirements. Guidelines/ rules of thumb. Allow for flexible designs; people will take their own path. Follow ten points and get a safer house.

Siobhan They are working on simplified guidance to people via illustrated posters. People are already starting to rebuild, sheets should be made with specific messages. Q:: How to ensure that people are using the same / right materials? → Confusion on self-build culture: The building process is led by masons, but the house-owner helps by providing labor. Guidelines are useful for mason+owner combinations. Q:: How can you secure that trained trainers will not go work somewhere else? ANSWER: you can’t: therefore massive training is needed. massive scale to provide enough engineers. Session 3

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Endnote by R. Pokharel, Vice Chairman NPC

It is good that many people are focussing on local materials. Request: Please provide us information on where you are working so we can coordinate this. It is important to include incremental growth in reconstruction strategies, due to changing social

situations. Please don’t forget elements such as animal sheds, these our part of the settlements Provide information on life span of proposed structures so people can make rational decisions on what

to build. Conceptual designs are useful: people can use these designs based on a choice of local availability and

local identity. Please keep in mind that the reconstruction task is acute and massive at the moment, but a lot of people

will not be mason all their life once the demand starts to diminish. Combine the mason training with other trainings: like partial farmership. To provide an alternative when mason career is ending.

We need to complete the trainings before the festivals. Otherwise people will already start rebuilding without proper training.

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pone

nts

Red

unda

ncy

Pres

ence

of r

edun

danc

y re

gard

ing

stru

ctur

al

elem

ents

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at l

east

allo

w s

ome

redu

ndan

t ele

men

ts to

relie

ve s

truct

ure´

s de

pend

ency

on

a si

ngle

stru

ctur

al e

lem

ent

in it

s im

agin

ed fo

rm.

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

TE-1

013

Stru

ctur

al

Build

ing

Com

pone

nts

Non

-str

uctu

ral

elem

ents

Pl

acem

ent a

nd a

mou

nt

of n

on s

truct

ural

el

emen

ts

Non

-stru

ctur

al e

lem

ents

sho

uld

not d

imin

ish

the

inhe

rent

pro

perti

es o

f stru

ctur

al

elem

ents

or g

ener

al s

afet

y

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k

TE-1

014

Stru

ctur

al

Build

ing

Com

pone

nts

Reg

ulat

ed s

afet

y Le

vel o

f saf

ety

need

ed

in re

gula

r usa

ge o

f bu

ildin

g ac

cord

ing

to

build

ing

code

If bu

ildin

g ty

pe is

men

tione

d in

the

build

ing

code

then

com

plia

nce

with

min

imal

re

quire

men

ts a

s st

ated

in m

ost r

ecen

t ve

rsio

n of

the

Nep

ali B

uild

ing

Cod

e If

not m

entio

ned

in b

uild

ing

code

then

ac

cord

ing

to g

ener

al s

truct

ural

prin

cipl

es

Lite

ratu

re

TE-1

020

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

G

ener

al s

eism

ic

perf

orm

ance

St

ruct

ure

shou

ld b

e ab

le

to w

ithst

and

seis

mic

ac

tivity

Com

bina

tion

of s

eism

ic e

lem

ents

, di

aphr

agm

s, m

ass

dist

ribut

ion,

load

and

bu

ildin

g pl

an d

eter

min

e th

e pe

rform

ance

du

ring

seis

mic

act

ivity

, the

stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at

leas

t be

cons

ider

ed c

ateg

ory

C a

ccor

ding

to

the

Wor

ldho

usin

g.ne

t cla

ssifi

catio

n

Lite

ratu

re

TE-1

021

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

Se

ism

ic

elem

ents

Ap

plic

atio

n of

sei

smic

el

emen

ts

Com

bina

tion

of s

eism

ic e

lem

ents

mus

t re

sist

late

ral l

oads

Li

tera

ture

Li

tera

ture

TE-1

022

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

D

iaph

ragm

s D

egre

e of

stif

fnes

s of

di

aphr

agm

s M

ust a

llow

for d

iaph

ragm

s th

at c

an p

rovi

de

ensu

re a

uni

form

redi

strib

utio

n of

late

ral

load

s am

ongs

t stru

ctur

al e

lem

ents

Lite

ratu

re

TE-1

023

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

M

ass

dist

ribut

ion

Man

ner i

n w

hich

mas

s is

di

strib

uted

with

in th

e st

ruct

ure

Mas

s of

the

stru

ctur

e sh

ould

be

dist

ribut

ed

as e

venl

y an

d lo

w a

s po

ssib

le w

ithin

the

stru

ctur

e

Lite

ratu

re

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

246

TE

-102

4 Se

ism

ic

Perfo

rman

ce

Load

Am

ount

of c

ontin

uity

w

ithin

load

pat

h of

st

ruct

ural

ele

men

ts

Con

tinui

ty in

stru

ctur

al e

lem

ents

mus

t be

guar

ante

ed

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k

TE-1

025

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

B

uild

ing

plan

St

ruct

ure

shou

ld c

onsi

st

of o

r sho

uld

be p

artit

ion

able

into

sym

met

rical

sh

apes

The

cons

truct

ion

met

hod

shou

ld o

ffer

poss

ibilit

ies

to m

ake

a sy

mm

etric

al fl

oor

plan

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k

TE-1

026

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

Po

ssib

ility

to

incr

ease

sei

smic

pe

rfor

man

ce

Seis

mic

Per

form

ance

Po

ssib

ility

of a

ddin

g re

alis

tic im

prov

emen

ts

to th

e co

mbi

natio

n of

sei

smic

ele

men

ts

, dia

phra

gms,

mas

s di

strib

utio

n, lo

ad a

nd

build

ing

plan

det

erm

ine

the

perfo

rman

ce

durin

g se

ism

ic a

ctiv

ity. T

he s

truct

ure

shou

ld

at le

ast b

e co

nsid

ered

cat

egor

y D

acc

ordi

ng

to th

e W

orld

hous

ing.

net c

lass

ifica

tion

Lite

ratu

re

TE-1

031

Con

stru

ctio

n Se

nsiti

vity

to

surf

ace

The

need

ed ty

pe o

f fo

unda

tion

shou

ld n

ot

exce

ssiv

ely

incr

ease

te

chni

cal d

iffic

ulty

The

build

ing

type

sho

uld

not r

equi

re a

pe

rfect

ly a

ccur

ate

foun

datio

n Li

tera

ture

O

bser

vatio

n In

terv

iew

Fiel

d

TE-1

041

Clim

ate

Ope

ning

s (v

entil

atio

n &

su

nlig

ht

pene

trat

ion)

Con

trol o

f int

erio

r cl

imat

e an

d le

vel o

f hu

mid

ity in

side

stru

ctur

e

Adap

tatio

n of

ext

erio

r w

all o

peni

ngs

to

regu

late

pen

etra

tion

of

sunl

ight

into

bui

ldin

g

Stru

ctur

e m

ust a

llow

for v

entil

atio

n of

in

terio

r for

com

fort

and

regu

late

hum

idity

to

mai

ntai

n qu

ality

of s

truct

ure

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

min

imal

ly a

llow

for

varia

tions

in s

ize

open

ings

dep

ende

nt o

n cl

imat

e an

d so

lar o

rient

atio

n

Obs

erva

tion

Inte

rvie

w

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

TE-1

042

Clim

ate

Ther

mal

cap

acity

Reg

ulat

ion

of

tem

pera

ture

in d

iffer

ent

seas

ons

need

ed to

en

sure

acc

epta

ble

livin

g co

nditi

ons

with

resp

ect

to h

eat t

rans

mis

sion

Min

imum

abl

e to

regu

late

the

tem

pera

ture

s to

som

e de

gree

, poo

r the

rmal

per

form

ance

is

acc

epta

ble

Obs

erva

tion

Inte

rvie

w

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

TE-1

051

Con

stru

ctio

n Li

fesp

an

build

ing

Life

span

of b

uild

ing

met

hod

whe

n m

aint

aine

d co

rrect

ly

Min

imum

life

span

sho

uld

be a

roun

d 50

ye

ars

or e

qual

to a

t lea

st tw

o ge

nera

tions

O

bser

vatio

n In

terv

iew

Li

tera

ture

an

d fie

ldw

ork

TE-1

061

Mai

nten

ance

R

elia

bilit

y Am

ount

of m

aint

enan

ce

requ

ired

to m

aint

ain

stan

dard

livi

ng

cond

ition

s an

d sa

fety

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at m

ost r

equi

re

mai

nten

ance

eve

ry 3

-5 y

ears

O

bser

vatio

n Fi

eldw

ork

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

247

give

n th

e lif

espa

n

TE-1

062

Mai

nten

ance

M

aint

aina

bilit

y Te

chni

cal a

nd p

hysi

cal

ease

of p

erfo

rmin

g m

aint

enan

ce o

n a

stru

ctur

e

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

not

requ

ire e

xten

sive

and

ve

ry s

peci

alis

ed w

orkm

ansh

ip a

nd m

uch

reso

urce

s

Obs

erva

tion

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k

TE-1

063

Mai

nten

ance

Av

aila

bilit

y Av

aila

bilit

y of

the

stru

ctur

e du

ring

mai

nten

ance

Shou

ld b

e av

aila

ble

with

out m

ajor

risk

du

ring

mai

nten

ance

exc

ept f

or v

ery

larg

e m

aint

enan

ce

Obs

erva

tion

TE-1

071

Con

stru

ctio

n C

ompl

exity

Ea

se o

f lea

rnin

g to

co

rrect

ly im

plem

ent

tech

niqu

e re

quire

d fo

r bu

ildin

g m

etho

d

The

com

plex

ity o

f the

con

stru

ctio

n sh

ould

at

mos

t be

so c

ompl

icat

ed to

requ

ire s

ome

year

s of

trai

ning

Obs

erva

tion

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k

Res

ourc

es

RE-

2011

M

ater

ial

Initi

al q

ualit

y Ac

cept

able

qua

lity

of a

m

ater

ial i

n its

initi

al s

tate

Use

d m

ater

ials

requ

ire la

test

NS

IS o

r oth

er

sim

ilar a

ppro

ved

stan

dard

qua

lity

certi

ficat

e.

If us

ed m

ater

ial i

s ad

apte

d, in

nova

tive,

re

cycl

ed o

r not

pro

vide

d w

ith m

ark

it m

ay

also

be

used

giv

en th

at th

e ch

arac

teris

tics

are

test

ed to

be

equi

vale

nt o

r hig

her t

han

the

Stan

dard

s gi

ven

by th

e N

epal

Nat

iona

l Bu

ildin

g C

ode.

Lite

ratu

re

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

RE-

2012

M

ater

ial

Proc

essi

ng

qual

ity

Build

ing

mat

eria

ls

shou

ld b

e tra

nspo

rtabl

e to

bui

ldin

g si

te w

ith

min

imum

dam

age

give

n tra

nspo

rtatio

n co

nditi

ons

Use

d m

ater

ial m

ay b

e vu

lner

able

but

tra

nspo

rtabl

e w

ithou

t too

man

y pr

otec

tive

mea

sure

s su

ch th

at it

can

with

stan

d ru

ral

road

s w

ithou

t dim

inis

hing

the

inhe

rent

m

ater

ial p

rope

rties

Lite

ratu

re

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

RE-

2013

M

ater

ial

Avai

labi

lity

Av

aila

bilit

y of

a m

ater

ial

whe

n ab

stra

cted

from

th

e en

viro

nmen

t in

larg

e qu

antit

y

Avai

labl

e qu

antit

y of

bui

ldin

g m

ater

ial n

eeds

to

be

just

eno

ugh

to c

onst

ruct

the

requ

ired

amou

nt o

f hou

ses

of c

ase

villa

ge ~

eno

ugh

mat

eria

l for

max

100

hou

ses

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

RE-

2014

M

ater

ial

Rel

iabi

lity

Mat

eria

l rel

iabl

e to

be

avai

labl

e in

all

situ

atio

ns M

ater

ial n

eede

d fo

r con

stru

ctio

n sh

ould

be

avai

labl

e du

ring

all s

ituat

ions

and

sea

sons

bu

t may

be

susc

eptib

le to

unc

erta

inty

re

gard

ing

avai

labi

lity

Obs

erva

tion

Inte

rvie

w

Fiel

dwor

k

RE-

2021

La

bour

La

bour

ex

perie

nce

Leve

l of t

ask

expe

rienc

e of

wor

kers

requ

ired

for

cons

truct

ion

The

cons

truct

ion

shou

ld a

t mos

t req

uire

so

me

expe

rts fo

r cor

rect

exe

cutio

n of

bu

ildin

g

Obs

erva

tion

Inte

rvie

w

Fiel

dwor

k

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

248

R

E-20

22

Labo

ur

Con

stru

ctio

n in

tens

ity

Amou

nt o

f wor

kers

ne

eded

at o

ne ti

me

to

cons

truct

a b

uild

ing

type

A bu

ildin

g m

etho

d sh

ould

not

be

limite

d by

th

e of

wor

kers

it re

quire

s fo

r saf

e an

d qu

alita

tive

exec

utio

n

Obs

erva

tion

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k

RE-

2031

Ti

me

Con

stru

ctio

n tim

e Te

chni

cal c

onst

ruct

ion

perio

d ne

eded

to b

uild

on

e la

yer

The

cons

truct

ion

of a

tech

niqu

e sh

ould

at

mos

t tak

e up

the

dura

tion

of a

Nep

ales

e co

nstru

ctio

n se

ason

, whi

ch is

lim

ited

by th

e m

onso

on p

erio

d an

d ha

rves

ting

perio

d re

sulti

ng in

a m

axim

um b

uild

ing

time

of 1

-3

mon

ths

per s

tore

y.

Obs

erva

tion

Inte

rvie

w

Lite

ratu

re

Fiel

dwor

k

Feas

ibili

ty

FE-3

011

Fina

ncia

l In

vest

men

t To

tal i

nves

tmen

t cos

ts

The

cons

truct

ion

met

hod

shou

ld m

axim

ally

al

low

for t

he c

onst

ruct

ion

(of a

live

able

pa

rtitio

n) o

f a h

ouse

that

is w

ithin

bud

get o

f ta

rget

gro

up in

clud

ing

loan

s, fu

nds

from

go

vern

men

t and

cha

rity

fund

s

Lite

ratu

re

Inte

rvie

w

Fix

amou

nt

- Fie

ldw

ork

FE-3

021

Econ

omic

Lo

cal

Bene

ficia

l for

loca

l ec

onom

y C

onst

ruct

ion

shou

ld a

t lea

st u

se s

ome

loca

l re

sour

ces

resu

lting

in a

t lea

st a

sm

all

bene

fit fo

r the

loca

l eco

nom

y. L

ocal

is

cons

ider

ed to

be

with

in a

50

km ra

dius

ar

ound

the

case

villa

ge

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

FE-3

022

Econ

omic

N

atio

nal

Nat

iona

l ben

efit

Con

stru

ctio

n sh

ould

at l

east

add

som

e w

elfa

re in

to N

epal

ese

econ

omy

by th

e us

e of

a m

ixed

loca

l / im

port

cash

flow

Lite

ratu

re

Lite

ratu

re

Soci

al-C

ultu

ral

SO-4

011

Soci

al

Stat

us

Abilit

y to

mee

t the

soc

ial

and

cultu

ral

requ

irem

ents

of N

epal

i ho

usin

g in

term

s of

so

cial

sta

tus

or e

thni

c id

entit

y

Exte

rior s

houl

d be

ada

ptab

le in

per

spec

tive

with

the

alre

ady

used

reso

urce

s in

term

s of

co

sts

and

effo

rt.

Inte

rvie

w

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

SO-4

031

Soci

al

Arch

itect

ural

id

entit

y Ab

ility

to m

eet t

he

arch

itect

ural

nee

ds

Build

ing

met

hod

does

not

hav

e to

ble

nd in

to

surro

undi

ng b

ut s

houl

d be

abl

e to

hav

e sm

all c

ultu

ral h

isto

rical

ele

men

t

Inte

rvie

w

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

SO-4

021

Cul

tura

l R

elig

ious

Sp

ace

to a

ccom

mod

ate

relig

ious

attr

ibut

es

No

spac

e fo

r rel

igio

us a

rtefa

ct o

r con

tain

ing

elem

ents

aga

inst

bel

iefs

of r

elig

ion

need

ed

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

Func

tiona

l

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

249

FU

-501

1 Bu

ildin

g St

orie

s H

eigh

t of t

he b

uild

ing

mee

ts th

e fu

nctio

n re

quire

men

t of t

he

owne

r

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

min

imum

be

able

to h

andl

e 2

stor

ies

with

an

attic

In

terv

iew

O

bser

vatio

n Fi

eldw

ork

FU-5

012

Build

ing

Expa

ndab

ility

St

ruct

ure

has

to o

ffer

the

poss

ibilit

y fo

r ex

pans

ion

afte

r co

mpl

etio

n of

co

nstru

ctio

n w

hile

fitti

ng

the

tech

nica

l re

quire

men

ts.

Verti

cal e

xpan

sion

sho

uld

be p

ossi

ble

afte

r th

e us

e of

som

e re

sour

ces

Inte

rvie

w

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

FU-5

013

Build

ing

Flex

ibili

ty

Stru

ctur

e ha

s to

offe

r fle

xibi

lity

in u

sage

of

room

s an

d pa

rtitio

ning

of

the

livin

g ar

ea

Roo

ms

shou

ld b

e ch

ange

able

with

the

use

of s

ome

reso

urce

s.

Inte

rvie

w

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k or

lite

ratu

re

stud

y

FU-5

021

Wor

king

W

orks

pace

St

ruct

ure

has

to b

e ab

le

to p

rovi

de a

wor

kspa

ce

for p

rofe

ssio

n re

late

d ac

tiviti

es s

uch

as

wor

ksho

p, re

stau

rant

, sh

op, a

nim

al s

tabl

e

Offe

r eno

ugh

open

room

to fa

cilit

ate

the

func

tion

of th

e bu

ildin

g at

stre

et le

vel

Inte

rvie

w

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

FU-5

031

Prot

ectio

n R

ainw

ater

St

ruct

ure

has

to p

rovi

de

shel

ter a

gain

st ra

in

with

out l

eaka

ge

Has

to w

ithst

and

the

rain

iest

mon

ths

in th

e m

onso

on (a

lmos

t 400

mm

/mon

th) w

ith s

ome

leak

age

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

FU-5

032

Prot

ectio

n W

ind

Stru

ctur

e ha

s to

pro

vide

sh

elte

r aga

inst

win

ds

Build

ing

shou

ld n

ot c

olla

pse

durin

g st

orm

w

inds

but

hea

vy d

amag

e is

allo

wed

Li

tera

ture

Li

tera

ture

FU-5

033

Prot

ectio

n So

lar i

nten

sity

St

ruct

ure

has

to p

rovi

de

shel

ter a

gain

st s

olar

in

tens

ity

Build

ing

shou

ld b

e ab

le to

with

stan

d m

uch

sun

but i

s al

low

ed to

with

er h

eavi

ly d

ue to

in

tens

ive

sola

r exp

osur

e

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

FU-5

034

Prot

ectio

n So

cial

Saf

ety

Min

imum

leve

l of s

ocia

l sa

fety

nee

ded

in

build

ing

Plin

th a

nd w

indo

ws

shou

ld b

e lo

ckab

le

Win

dow

s sh

ould

hav

e de

cora

tive

and

prot

ectiv

e ba

rs

Ope

ning

s sh

ould

allo

w in

sect

scr

eens

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k

FU-5

041

Faci

litie

s U

tiliti

es

Stru

ctur

e ha

s to

be

able

to

acc

omm

odat

e th

e co

nnec

tion

of u

tiliti

es

such

as

gas,

wat

er,

Build

ing

shou

ld a

t lea

st a

llow

for g

roun

d le

vel t

anke

d ut

ilitie

s O

bser

vatio

n Fi

eldw

ork

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

250

elec

trici

ty

FU-5

042

Faci

litie

s Ex

tern

al

infr

astr

uctu

re

Con

stru

ctio

n sh

ould

ac

com

mod

ate

a co

nnec

tion

with

dire

ct

envi

ronm

ent

Con

nect

ion

to e

xter

nal i

nfra

stru

ctur

e sh

ould

pr

ovid

e sp

ace

for p

rivat

e us

e O

bser

vatio

n Fi

eldw

ork

Sust

aina

bilit

y

SU-6

011

Life

cyc

le

Reu

sabi

lity

Exte

nt to

whi

ch u

sed

mat

eria

ls a

re fi

t to

be re

-us

ed a

fter d

emol

ition

Mat

eria

l do

not h

ave

to b

e re

-usa

ble

afte

r th

e de

mol

ition

/end

of f

unct

iona

l per

iod

Inte

rvie

w

Fiel

dwor

k

SU-6

012

Life

cyc

le

Rec

ycla

bilit

y N

umbe

r of c

ycle

s a

mat

eria

l can

be

re-u

sed

Ther

e ar

e no

t res

trict

ions

on

the

recy

clab

ility

of u

sed

mat

eria

ls.

Inte

rvie

w

Fiel

dwor

k

SU-6

021

Envi

ronm

ent

Impa

ct

Dam

age

done

to n

atur

e by

con

stru

ctio

n Th

ere

are

no re

stric

tions

on

dam

age

to th

e en

viro

nmen

t how

ever

sho

uld

be a

void

ed

whe

re p

ossi

ble

Obs

erva

tion

Fiel

dwor

k an

d lit

erat

ure

stud

y SU

-602

2 En

viro

nmen

t Su

stai

nabi

lity

Exte

nt to

whi

ch th

e ho

uses

can

be

self

sust

aina

ble

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at l

east

mak

e th

e pl

acem

ent o

f tem

pora

ry s

elf-s

usta

inab

le

equi

pmen

t pos

sibl

e

Inte

rvie

w

Fiel

dwor

k

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

251

AAp

pend

ix 2

.B. E

xpla

natio

n of

val

ues

Req

uire

men

t ID

As

pect

Su

b-as

pect

R

equi

rem

ent

Req

uire

men

t Val

ue Q

ualit

ativ

e Ex

plan

atio

n Sc

ale

Tech

nica

l

TE-1

012

Stru

ctur

al

Build

ing

Com

pone

nts

Red

unda

ncy

Pres

ence

of r

edun

danc

y re

gard

ing

stru

ctur

al

elem

ents

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at l

east

allo

w

som

e re

dund

ant e

lem

ents

to

relie

ve s

truct

ure´

s de

pend

ency

on

a s

ingl

e st

ruct

ural

ele

men

t in

its im

agin

ed fo

rm.

1= N

o re

dund

ancy

, dam

age

to

part

of s

truct

ure

caus

es c

olla

pse

2= P

oor r

edun

danc

y, d

amag

e to

pa

rt of

stru

ctur

e ca

uses

par

tial

colla

pse

3= A

vera

ge re

dund

ancy

, da

mag

e to

par

t of s

truct

ure

may

ca

use

colla

pse

4= A

bove

ave

rage

redu

ndan

cy,

dam

age

to p

art o

f stru

ctur

e sm

all c

hanc

e of

col

laps

e 5=

Goo

d re

dund

ancy

, dam

age

to p

art o

f stru

ctur

e do

es n

ot

caus

e co

llaps

e TE

-101

4 St

ruct

ural

Bu

ildin

g C

ompo

nent

s

Reg

ulat

ed

safe

ty

Leve

l of s

afet

y ne

eded

in

regu

lar u

sage

of b

uild

ing

acco

rdin

g to

bui

ldin

g co

de

If bu

ildin

g ty

pe is

men

tione

d in

th

e bu

ildin

g co

de th

en

com

plia

nce

with

min

imal

re

quire

men

ts a

s st

ated

in m

ost

rece

nt v

ersi

on o

f the

Nep

ali

Build

ing

Cod

e If

not m

entio

ned

in b

uild

ing

code

th

en a

ccor

ding

to g

ener

al

stru

ctur

al p

rinci

ples

1= N

ot in

bui

ldin

g co

de a

nd n

ot

acco

rdin

g to

gen

eral

stru

ctur

al

prin

cipl

es

2= N

ot in

bui

ldin

g co

de a

nd

doub

tab l

e to

fit g

ener

al

stru

ctur

al p

rinci

ples

3=

Not

in b

uild

ing

code

but

ac

cept

ably

acc

ordi

ng to

st

ruct

ural

prin

cipl

es

4= In

bui

ldin

g co

de w

ith th

umb

rule

s an

d lim

itatio

ns o

n de

sign

5=

In b

uild

ing

code

and

ac

cord

ing

to s

truct

ural

prin

cipl

es

TE-1

020

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

G

ener

al

seis

mic

pe

rfor

man

ce

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

be

able

to

with

stan

d se

ism

ic a

ctiv

ity

Com

bina

tion

of s

eism

ic

elem

ents

, dia

phra

gms,

mas

s di

strib

utio

n, lo

ad a

nd b

uild

ing

plan

det

erm

ine

the

perfo

rman

ce

durin

g se

ism

ic a

ctiv

ity, t

he

stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at l

east

be

cons

ider

ed c

ateg

ory

C

1= C

ateg

ory

A 2=

Cat

egor

y B

3= C

ateg

ory

C

4= C

ateg

ory

D

5= C

ateg

ory

E/F

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

252

acco

rdin

g to

the

Wor

ldho

usin

g.ne

t cla

ssifi

catio

n TE

-102

6 Se

ism

ic

Perfo

rman

ce

Poss

ibili

ty to

in

crea

se

seis

mic

pe

rfor

man

ce

Seis

mic

Per

form

ance

Po

ssib

ility

of a

ddin

g re

alis

tic

impr

ovem

ents

to th

e co

mbi

natio

n of

sei

smic

ele

men

ts

, dia

phra

gms,

mas

s di

strib

utio

n,

load

and

bui

ldin

g pl

an d

eter

min

e th

e pe

rform

ance

dur

ing

seis

mic

ac

tivity

. The

stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at

leas

t be

cons

ider

ed c

ateg

ory

D

acco

rdin

g to

the

Wor

ldho

usin

g.ne

t cla

ssifi

catio

n

Cat

egor

y af

ter i

mpr

ovem

ent

1= C

ateg

ory

A 2=

Cat

egor

y B

3= C

ateg

ory

C

4= C

ateg

ory

D

5= C

ateg

ory

E/F

TE-1

031

Con

stru

ctio

n Se

nsiti

vity

to

surf

ace

The

need

ed ty

pe o

f fo

unda

tion

shou

ld n

ot

exce

ssiv

ely

incr

ease

te

chni

cal d

iffic

ulty

The

build

ing

type

sho

uld

not

requ

ire a

per

fect

ly a

ccur

ate

foun

datio

n

1= H

igh

sens

itive

to b

uild

ing

on

a sl

ope

flat f

ound

atio

n ne

eded

2=

Abo

ve a

vera

ge s

ensi

tive

to

build

ing

on a

slo

pe

3= A

vera

ge s

ensi

tive

to b

uild

ing

on a

slo

pe

4= L

ittle

sen

sitiv

e to

bui

ldin

g on

a

slop

e 5=

Not

sen

sitiv

e to

bui

ldin

g on

a

slop

e ro

ugh

foun

datio

n su

ffici

ent

TE-1

041

Clim

ate

Ope

ning

s (v

entil

atio

n &

su

nlig

ht

pene

trat

ion)

Con

trol o

f int

erio

r clim

ate

and

leve

l of h

umid

ity in

side

st

ruct

ure

Ad

apta

tion

of e

xter

ior w

all

open

ings

to re

gula

te

pene

tratio

n of

sun

light

into

bu

ildin

g

Stru

ctur

e m

ust a

llow

for

vent

ilatio

n of

inte

rior f

or c

omfo

rt an

d re

gula

te h

umid

ity to

m

aint

ain

qual

ity o

f stru

ctur

e St

ruct

ure

shou

ld m

inim

ally

allo

w

for v

aria

tions

in s

ize

open

ings

de

pend

ent o

n cl

imat

e an

d so

lar

orie

ntat

ion

1= O

peni

ngs

can

not b

e in

clud

ed in

the

wal

ls

2= T

he m

etho

d lim

its th

e po

ssib

ilitie

s on

incl

udin

g op

enin

gs in

wal

ls

3= T

he m

etho

d of

fers

po

ssib

ilitie

s to

incl

ude

'suf

ficie

nt'

open

ings

4=

Ope

ning

s ca

n ea

sily

and

fle

xibl

e in

clud

ed in

the

wal

ls

5= O

peni

ngs

can

be in

clud

ed in

an

y si

ze a

nd o

n an

y lo

catio

ns

TE-1

042

Clim

ate

Ther

mal

ca

paci

ty

Reg

ulat

ion

of te

mpe

ratu

re

in d

iffer

ent s

easo

ns n

eede

d to

ens

ure

acce

ptab

le li

ving

co

nditi

ons

with

resp

ect t

o he

at tr

ansm

issi

on

Min

imum

abl

e to

regu

late

the

tem

pera

ture

s to

som

e de

gree

, po

or th

erm

al p

erfo

rman

ce is

ac

cept

able

1= B

ad th

erm

al p

erfo

rman

ce

durin

g al

l sea

sons

2=

Poo

r the

rmal

per

form

ance

du

ring

all s

easo

ns

3= M

ediu

m th

erm

al

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

253

perfo

rman

ce d

urin

g al

l sea

sons

4=

Goo

d th

erm

al p

erfo

rman

ce

durin

g al

l sea

sons

5=

Exc

elle

nt th

erm

al

perfo

rman

ce

TE-1

051

Con

stru

ctio

n Li

fesp

an

build

ing

Life

span

of b

uild

ing

met

hod

whe

n m

aint

aine

d co

rrect

ly

Min

imum

life

span

sho

uld

be

arou

nd 5

0 ye

ars

or e

qual

to a

t le

ast t

wo

gene

ratio

ns

1= T

empo

rary

<5

year

s 2=

Mor

e th

an te

mpo

rary

5 -

15

year

s 3=

2 g

ener

atio

ns ~

50

year

s 4=

Lon

g 50

- 10

0 ye

ars

5= V

ery

long

> 1

00 y

ears

TE

-106

1 M

aint

enan

ce

Rel

iabi

lity

Amou

nt o

f mai

nten

ance

re

quire

d to

mai

ntai

n st

anda

rd li

ving

con

ditio

ns

and

safe

ty g

iven

the

lifes

pan

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

at m

ost r

equi

re

mai

nten

ance

eve

ry 3

-5 y

ears

1=

Muc

h pe

riodi

c m

aint

enan

ce

requ

ired

/ mul

tiple

per

yea

r 2=

Ofte

n pe

riodi

c m

aint

enan

ce

requ

ired

/ eac

h ye

ar

3= P

erio

dic

mai

nten

ance

re

quire

d / e

ach

3- 5

yea

rs

4= L

ittle

mai

nten

ance

requ

ired

/ ea

ch 5

- 10

yea

rs

5= N

o m

aint

enan

ce re

quire

d /

afte

r 25

year

s TE

-106

2 M

aint

enan

ce

Mai

ntai

nabi

lity

Tech

nica

l and

phy

sica

l eas

e of

per

form

ing

mai

nten

ance

on

a s

truct

ure

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

not

requ

ire

exte

nsiv

e an

d ve

ry s

peci

alis

ed

wor

kman

ship

and

muc

h re

sour

ces

1= M

aint

enan

ce re

quire

s sp

ecia

l ex

perti

se a

nd m

uch

reso

urce

s 2=

Mai

nten

ance

requ

ires

wor

kman

ship

and

muc

h re

sour

ces

3= M

aint

enan

ce re

quire

s w

orkm

ansh

ip a

nd re

sour

ces

4= M

aint

enan

ce d

oes

not

nece

ssar

ily re

qui re

w

orkm

ansh

ip a

nd s

ome

reso

urce

s 5=

Mai

nten

ance

doe

s no

t re

quire

wor

kman

ship

en

little

to

no re

sour

ces

TE-1

071

Con

stru

ctio

n C

ompl

exity

Ea

se o

f lea

rnin

g to

cor

rect

ly

impl

emen

t tec

hniq

ue

requ

ired

for b

uild

ing

met

hod

The

com

plex

ity o

f the

co

nstru

ctio

n sh

ould

at m

ost b

e so

com

plic

ated

to re

quire

som

e ye

ars

of tr

aini

ng

1= Im

poss

ible

to le

arn

with

out

man

y ye

ars

of tr

aini

ng

2= L

earn

able

but

with

som

e ye

ars

of tr

aini

ng

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

254

3= L

earn

able

to s

ome

exte

nt in

sh

ort t

ime

and

expe

rt in

som

e ye

ars

4= L

earn

able

in s

hort

time,

se

vera

l wee

ks to

mon

ths

5= L

earn

able

and

abl

e to

teac

h in

sho

rt tim

e R

esou

rces

RE-

2011

M

ater

ial

Initi

al q

ualit

y Ac

cept

able

qua

lity

of a

m

ater

ial i

n its

initi

al s

tate

U

sed

mat

eria

ls re

quire

late

st

NS,

IS o

r oth

er s

imila

r app

rove

d st

anda

rd q

ualit

y ce

rtific

ate.

If

used

mat

eria

l is

adap

ted,

in

nova

tive,

recy

cled

or n

ot

prov

ided

with

mar

k it

may

als

o be

use

d gi

ven

that

the

char

acte

ristic

s ar

e te

sted

to b

e eq

uiva

lent

or h

ighe

r tha

n th

e St

anda

rds

give

n by

the

Nep

al

Nat

iona

l Bui

ldin

g C

ode.

1= N

o m

ark

and

no/b

ad te

st

resu

lts

2= M

ark

but n

o/ba

d te

st re

sults

(p

ossi

ble

fake

mar

k)

3= N

o m

ark

but a

ccep

tabl

e te

st

resu

lt 4=

No

mar

k bu

t goo

d te

st re

sult

5= M

ark

and

good

test

resu

lt

RE-

2012

M

ater

ial

Proc

essi

ng

qual

ity

Build

ing

mat

eria

ls s

houl

d be

tra

nspo

rtabl

e to

bui

ldin

g si

te

with

min

imum

dam

age

give

n tra

nspo

rtatio

n co

nditi

ons

Use

d m

ater

ial m

ay b

e vu

lner

able

but

tran

spor

tabl

e w

ithou

t too

man

y pr

otec

tive

mea

sure

s su

ch th

at it

can

w

ithst

and

rura

l roa

ds w

ithou

t di

min

ishi

ng th

e in

here

nt m

ater

ial

prop

ertie

s

1= M

ater

ials

are

ver

y vu

lner

able

bu

t tra

nspo

rtabl

e w

ith e

xtre

me

mea

sure

s 2=

Mat

eria

l is

vuln

erab

le b

ut

trans

porta

ble

with

ext

ra

mea

sure

s 3=

Mat

eria

l is

vuln

erab

le b

ut

trans

porta

ble

with

out t

oo m

uch

extra

mea

sure

s 4=

Mat

eria

l is

slig

htly

vul

nera

ble

but t

rans

porta

ble

with

out a

ny

extra

mea

sure

s 5=

Mat

eria

l is

not v

ulne

rabl

e an

d ea

sily

tran

spor

tabl

e R

E-20

13

Mat

eria

l Av

aila

bilit

y

Avai

labi

lity

of a

mat

eria

l w

hen

abst

ract

ed fr

om th

e en

viro

nmen

t in

larg

e qu

antit

y

Avai

labl

e qu

antit

y of

bui

ldin

g m

ater

ial n

eeds

to b

e ju

st

enou

gh to

con

stru

ct th

e re

quire

d am

ount

of h

ouse

s of

cas

e vi

llage

~ e

noug

h m

ater

ial f

or

max

100

hou

ses

1= M

ater

ial i

s no

t ava

ilabl

e 2=

Mat

eria

l is

scar

ce/in

suffi

cien

t qu

antit

ies

3=

Ava

ilabl

e qu

antit

y is

just

ac

cept

able

4=

Mat

eria

l is

plen

ty a

vaila

ble

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

255

5= S

urpl

us o

f mat

eria

l

RE-

2021

La

bour

La

bour

ex

perie

nce

Leve

l of t

ask

expe

rienc

e of

w

orke

rs re

quire

d fo

r co

nstru

ctio

n

The

cons

truct

ion

shou

ld a

t mos

t re

quire

som

e ex

perts

for c

orre

ct

exec

utio

n of

bui

ldin

g

1= N

o ex

perie

nce/

know

ledg

e is

av

aila

ble

2=

Litt

le e

xper

ienc

e/kn

owle

dge

is a

vaila

ble

3=

Som

e ex

perie

nce/

know

ledg

e is

ava

ilabl

e

4= M

uch

expe

rienc

e/kn

owle

dge

is a

vaila

ble

5= V

ery

muc

h ex

perie

nce/

know

ledg

e is

av

aila

ble

R

E-20

22

Labo

ur

Con

stru

ctio

n in

tens

it y

Amou

nt o

f wor

kers

nee

ded

at o

ne ti

me

to c

onst

ruct

a

build

ing

type

A bu

ildin

g m

etho

d sh

ould

not

be

limite

d by

the

of w

orke

rs it

re

quire

s fo

r saf

e an

d qu

alita

tive

exec

utio

n

1= L

arge

team

requ

ired

>15p

2=

Med

ium

team

10

- 15

peop

le

3= S

mal

l tea

m 5

- 10

peo

ple

4= V

ery

smal

l tea

m 2

-4 p

eopl

e 5=

One

or t

wo

pers

ons

RE-

2031

Ti

me

Con

stru

ctio

n tim

e Te

chni

cal c

onst

ruct

ion

perio

d ne

eded

to b

uild

one

la

yer

The

cons

truct

ion

of a

tech

niqu

e sh

ould

at m

ost t

ake

up th

e du

ratio

n of

a N

epal

ese

cons

truct

ion

seas

on, w

hich

is

limite

d by

the

mon

soon

per

iod

and

harv

estin

g pe

riod

resu

lting

in

a m

axim

um b

uild

ing

time

of 1

-3

mon

ths

per s

tore

y.

1= >

6 m

onth

s 2=

3- 6

mon

ths

3= 1

-3 m

onth

s 4=

1- 4

wee

ks

5= <

1 w

eek

Feas

ibili

ty

FE-3

011

Fina

ncia

l In

vest

men

t To

tal i

nves

tmen

t cos

ts

The

cons

truct

ion

met

hod

shou

ld

max

imal

ly a

llow

for t

he

cons

truct

ion

(of a

live

able

pa

rtitio

n) o

f a h

ouse

that

is

with

in b

udge

t of t

arge

t gro

up

incl

udin

g lo

ans,

fund

s fro

m

gove

rnm

ent a

nd c

harit

y fu

nds

The

inve

stm

ent c

osts

are

in

terd

epen

dent

ly ra

nked

.

FE-3

021

Econ

omic

Lo

cal

Bene

ficia

l for

loca

l eco

nom

y C

onst

ruct

ion

shou

ld a

t lea

st u

se

som

e lo

cal r

esou

rces

resu

lting

in

at l

east

a s

mal

l ben

efit

for t

he

loca

l eco

nom

y. L

ocal

is

cons

ider

ed to

be

with

in a

50

km

1= N

o us

e of

loca

l res

ourc

es

2= S

ome

use

of lo

cal r

esou

rces

3=

Mix

ed u

se o

f loc

al re

sour

ces

and

natio

nal r

esou

rces

4=

Mos

tly u

se o

f loc

al re

sour

ces

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

256

radi

us a

roun

d th

e ca

se v

illage

5=

Onl

y us

e of

loca

l res

ourc

es

FE-3

022

Econ

omic

N

atio

nal

Nat

iona

l ben

efit

Con

stru

ctio

n sh

ould

at l

east

add

so

me

wel

fare

into

Nep

ales

e ec

onom

y by

the

use

of a

mix

ed

loca

l / im

port

cash

flow

1 =

Cas

h flo

w le

avin

g N

epal

, re

sour

ces

are

mai

nly

impo

rted

2 =

Mix

ed c

ash

flow

(loc

al a

nd

impo

rt)

3 =

Cas

h flo

w m

ainl

y st

ayin

g in

N

epal

, res

ourc

es a

re m

ainl

y na

tiona

l 4

= C

ash

flow

sta

ying

, no

impo

rt

5 =

Mak

ing

econ

omic

gro

wth

po

ssib

le d

ue to

reso

urce

cr

eatio

n So

cial

-C

ultu

ral

SO-4

011

Soci

al

Stat

us

Abilit

y to

mee

t the

soc

ial

and

cultu

ral r

equi

rem

ents

of

Nep

ali h

ousi

ng in

term

s of

so

cial

sta

tus

or e

thni

c id

entit

y

Exte

rior s

houl

d be

ada

ptab

le in

pe

rspe

ctiv

e w

ith th

e al

read

y us

ed re

sour

ces

in te

rms

of c

osts

an

d ef

fort.

1= F

ixed

ext

erio

r 2=

3=

Ext

erio

r ada

ptab

le a

gain

st

som

e re

sour

ces

4=

5= E

xter

ior e

asily

ada

ptab

le w

ith

little

to n

o re

sour

ces

SO-4

031

Soci

al

Arch

itect

ural

id

entit

y Ab

ility

to m

eet t

he

arch

itect

ural

nee

ds

Build

ing

met

hod

does

not

hav

e to

ble

nd in

to s

urro

undi

ng b

ut

shou

ld b

e ab

le to

hav

e sm

all

cultu

ral h

isto

rical

ele

men

t

1= C

ontra

stin

g in

sur

roun

ding

s,

not c

ultu

ral h

isto

rical

2=

3=

Ble

nds

into

sur

roun

ding

ex

cept

for s

ome

elem

ents

, kn

own

cultu

ral h

isto

rical

4=

5=

Ble

nds

perfe

ctly

into

su

rroun

ding

, kno

wn

and

prod

ucib

le b

y lo

cals

Fu

nctio

nal

FU-5

011

Build

ing

Stor

ies

Hei

ght o

f the

bui

ldin

g m

eets

th

e fu

nctio

n re

quire

men

t of

the

owne

r

Stru

ctur

e sh

ould

min

imum

be

able

to h

andl

e 2

stor

ies

with

an

attic

1= S

ingl

e st

ory

with

atti

c 2=

Can

max

imal

ly h

andl

e 2

stor

ies

with

atti

c 3=

Can

han

dle

2 to

4 s

torie

s 4=

Can

han

dle

4 to

5 s

torie

s 5=

Can

eas

ily h

andl

e 5

or m

ore

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

257

stor

ies

FU-5

012

Build

ing

Expa

ndab

ility

St

ruct

ure

has

to o

ffer t

he

poss

ibilit

y fo

r exp

ansi

on

afte

r com

plet

ion

of

cons

truct

ion

whi

le fi

tting

the

tech

nica

l req

uire

men

ts.

Verti

cal e

xpan

sion

sho

uld

be

poss

ible

afte

r the

use

of s

ome

reso

urce

s

1= N

o ex

pans

ion

poss

ible

or

allo

wed

by

regu

latio

n 2=

Req

uire

s m

any

alte

ratio

ns

befo

re e

xpan

sion

is p

ossi

ble

3= R

equi

res

som

e al

tera

tions

be

fore

exp

ansi

on is

pos

sibl

e 4=

Req

uire

s lit

tle a

ltera

tions

be

fore

exp

ansi

on is

pos

sibl

e 5=

Exp

ansi

on is

dire

ctly

po

ssib

le

FU-5

021

Wor

king

W

orks

pace

St

ruct

ure

has

to b

e ab

le to

pr

ovid

e a

wor

kspa

ce fo

r pr

ofes

sion

rela

ted

activ

ities

su

ch a

s w

orks

hop,

re

stau

rant

, sho

p, a

nim

al

stal

l

Offe

r eno

ugh

open

room

to

faci

litat

e th

e fu

nctio

n of

the

build

ing

at s

treet

leve

l

1= D

oes

not o

ffer o

pen

wor

kpla

ce

2= O

ffers

littl

e op

en w

orkp

lace

w

ith m

uch

effo

rt 3=

Offe

rs s

ome

open

wor

kspa

ce

with

effo

rt 4=

Offe

rs o

pen

wor

kspa

ce w

ith

little

effo

rt 5=

Offe

rs o

pen

wor

kspa

ce

FU-5

030

Prot

ectio

n El

emen

ts

FU-5

031

Prot

ectio

n R

ainw

ater

St

ruct

ure

has

to p

rovi

de

shel

ter a

gain

st ra

in w

ithou

t le

akag

e

Has

to w

ithst

and

the

rain

iest

m

onth

s in

the

mon

soon

(alm

ost

400m

m/m

onth

) with

som

e le

akag

e

1= B

uild

ing

not s

uita

ble

for r

ainy

en

viro

nmen

t 2=

Bui

ldin

g su

itabl

e fo

r mild

rain

3=

Bui

ldin

g su

itabl

e fo

r m

onso

on ra

ins

with

hea

vy

dam

age/

leak

age

4= B

uild

ing

suita

ble

for

mon

soon

are

as w

ith li

ght

dam

age/

leak

age

5= B

uild

ing

suita

ble

for

mon

soon

are

as w

ithou

t lea

kage

FU

-503

2 Pr

otec

tion

Win

d St

ruct

ure

has

to p

rovi

de

shel

ter a

gain

st w

inds

Bu

ildin

g sh

ould

not

col

laps

e du

ring

stor

m w

inds

but

hea

vy

1= B

uild

ing

not s

uita

ble

for

win

dy e

nviro

nmen

t

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

258

dam

age

is a

llow

ed

2= B

uild

ing

can

with

stan

d m

ild

win

d 3=

Bui

ldin

g ca

n w

ithst

and

stor

m

win

d w

ith h

eavy

dam

age

4= B

uild

ing

can

with

stan

d st

orm

w

ind

with

ligh

t dam

age

5= B

uild

ing

can

with

stan

d st

orm

w

ind

with

no

dam

age

FU-5

033

Prot

ectio

n So

lar i

nten

sity

Stru

ctur

e ha

s to

pro

vide

sh

elte

r aga

inst

sol

ar

inte

nsity

Build

ing

shou

ld b

e ab

le to

w

ithst

and

muc

h su

n bu

t is

allo

wed

to w

ither

hea

vily

due

to

inte

nsiv

e so

lar e

xpos

ure

1= B

uild

ing

not s

uita

ble

for

sunn

y en

viro

nmen

t 2=

Bui

ldin

g ca

n w

ithst

and

mild

su

n 3=

Bui

ldin

g ca

n w

ithst

and

muc

h su

n bu

t with

e rs

heav

ily

4= B

uild

ing

can

with

stan

d m

uch

sun

but w

ither

s 5=

Bui

ldin

g ca

n w

ithst

and

muc

h su

n w

ithou

t with

erin

g FU

-503

4 Pr

otec

tion

Soci

al S

afet

y M

inim

um le

vel o

f soc

ial

safe

ty n

eede

d in

bui

ldin

g Pl

inth

and

win

dow

s sh

ould

be

lock

able

W

indo

ws

shou

ld h

ave

deco

rativ

e an

d pr

otec

tive

bars

O

peni

ngs

shou

ld a

llow

inse

ct

scre

ens

1= B

uild

ing

has

open

ele

men

ts

or n

ot lo

ckab

le /

no in

sect

sc

reen

s ca

n be

fitte

d 2=

Bui

ldin

g is

clo

sabl

e an

d/or

lo

ckab

le b

ut e

asily

bre

akab

le

3= B

uild

ing

can

be lo

cked

but

ca

n be

bro

ken

into

with

som

e ef

fort

4= B

uild

ing

can

be lo

cked

and

on

ly b

e br

oken

into

with

muc

h ef

fort

5= B

uild

ing

can

be lo

ckab

le a

nd

unbr

eaka

ble

and

inse

ct s

cree

ns

FU-5

041

Faci

litie

s U

tiliti

es

Stru

ctur

e ha

s to

be

able

to

acco

mm

odat

e th

e co

nnec

tion

of u

tiliti

es s

uch

as g

as, w

ater

, ele

ctric

ity

Build

ing

shou

ld a

t lea

st a

llow

for

grou

nd le

vel t

anke

d ut

ilitie

s 1=

No

pipi

ng o

r tan

ks p

ossi

ble

only

cen

tral

2= B

uild

ing

allo

ws

for t

anke

d on

gr

ound

leve

l 3=

Bui

ldin

g al

low

s fo

r tan

ked

4= B

uild

ing

allo

ws

for p

ipin

g,

tank

ed a

nd c

entra

l res

ourc

es

with

som

e al

tera

tions

5=

Bui

ldin

g ea

sily

allo

ws

for u

se

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

259

of p

ipin

g, ta

nked

reso

urce

s an

d ce

ntra

l res

ourc

es

FU-5

042

Faci

litie

s Ex

tern

al

infr

astr

uctu

re

Con

stru

ctio

n sh

ould

ac

com

mod

ate

a co

nnec

tion

with

dire

ct e

nviro

nmen

t

Con

nect

ion

to e

xter

nal

infra

stru

ctur

e sh

ould

pro

vide

sp

ace

for p

rivat

e us

e

1= N

o pr

ivat

e sp

ace

due

to

conn

ectio

n 2=

Litt

le p

rivat

e sp

ace

due

to

conn

ectio

n 3=

Som

e sp

ace

due

to

conn

ectio

n 4=

Muc

h sp

ace

for d

ue to

co

nnec

tion

5= O

pen

en p

rivat

e sp

ace

avai

labl

e Su

stai

nabi

lity

SU-6

011

Life

cyc

le

Reu

sabi

lity

Exte

nt to

whi

ch u

sed

mat

eria

ls a

re fi

t to

be re

-us

ed a

fter d

emol

ition

Mat

eria

l do

not h

ave

to b

e re

-us

able

afte

r the

dem

oliti

on/e

nd

of fu

nctio

nal p

erio

d

1= M

ater

ial u

nusa

ble

afte

r de

mol

ition

/use

2=

Litt

le m

ater

ial u

sabl

e af

ter

dem

oliti

on/u

se w

ith m

uch

reso

urce

s re

quire

d fo

r ret

rieva

l 3=

Som

e m

ater

ial u

sabl

e af

ter

dem

oliti

on/u

se w

ith re

sour

ces

requ

ired

for r

etrie

val

4= M

uch

mat

eria

l usa

ble

afte

r de

mol

ition

/use

with

som

e re

sour

ces

requ

ired

for r

etrie

val

5= M

ost m

ater

ials

usa

ble

afte

r de

mol

ition

/use

or l

ittle

to n

o re

sour

ces

requ

ired

for r

etrie

val

SU-6

012

Life

cyc

le

Rec

ycla

bilit

y N

umbe

r of c

ycle

s a

mat

eria

l ca

n be

re-u

sed

Th

ere

are

not r

estri

ctio

ns o

n th

e re

cycl

abilit

y of

use

d m

ater

ials

. 1=

Mat

eria

l not

recy

clab

le

2= M

ater

ial r

ecyc

labl

e fo

r deb

ris

3= M

ater

ial r

ecyc

labl

e fo

r som

e ot

her u

ses

4= M

ater

ial r

ecyc

labl

e fo

r man

y ot

her u

ses

or m

any

cycl

es

5= M

ater

ial r

ecyc

labl

e fo

r sam

e us

e, o

ther

use

or m

any

cycl

es

SU-6

021

Envi

ronm

ent

Impa

ct

Dam

age

done

to n

atur

e by

co

nstru

ctio

n Th

ere

are

no re

stric

tions

on

dam

age

to th

e en

viro

nmen

t ho

wev

er s

houl

d be

avo

ided

w

here

pos

sibl

e

1= V

ery

deva

stat

ing

for n

atur

e 2=

Dev

asta

ting

to n

atur

e 3=

Dam

agin

g to

nat

ure

4= S

ome

dam

age

done

to

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

260

natu

re

5= L

ittle

to n

o da

mag

e do

ne to

na

ture

SU

-602

2 En

viro

nmen

t Su

stai

nabi

lity

Exte

nt to

whi

ch th

e ho

uses

ca

n be

sel

f sus

tain

able

St

ruct

ure

shou

ld a

t lea

st m

ake

the

plac

emen

t of t

empo

rary

sel

f-su

stai

nabl

e eq

uipm

ent p

ossi

ble

1= N

o su

stai

nabl

e re

sour

ces

poss

ible

2=

Tem

pora

ry s

usta

inab

ility

poss

ible

3=

Onl

y so

lar s

usta

inab

ility

poss

ible

4=

Sm

all s

olar

and

wat

er

sust

aina

bilit

y po

ssib

le

5= L

arge

sol

ar a

nd w

ater

su

stai

nabi

lity

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

261

AAp

pend

ix 2

.C. O

verv

iew

scor

es b

uild

ing

met

hods

Minimum values

Low strength (stone) masonry

Low strength (brick) masonry

Stone masonry in cement mortar

Brick masonry in cement mortar

Confined masonry

Hollow concrete brick masonry

Reinforced Cement Concrete Frames

Concrete in-situ shear wall

Timber construction Adobe Dhajji Dewari Rammed earth Steel Bamboo Earth bags

Interlocking bricks

Light Weight Steel Profile Building Systems

Prefab-framed in-situ concrete

Single Panel Walling System

Cat

egor

y M

inim

um v

alue

s Te

chni

cal

Build

ing

com

pone

nts

Red

unda

ncy

2 2

2 3

3 4

4 3

4 3

2 5

3 3

3 3

3 5

5 4

Bui

ldin

g co

de

3 4

4 5

5 5

5 5

5 5

4 3

3 5

3 2

4 3

4 4

Seis

mic

Pe

rform

ance

St

anda

rd

Per

form

ance

3

1 2

3 3

4 3

3 5

4 1

3 2

5 3

2 4

4 5

4 Im

prov

ed S

eism

ic

Perfo

rman

ce

Pos

sibl

e 4

2 3

4 4

5 4

5 5

5 2

4 3

5 4

2 4

5 5

5 Se

nsiti

vity

to

surfa

ce

Foun

datio

n re

sour

ces

2 3

3 3

3 3

3 4

4 5

2 3

1 5

5 2

1 3

3 2

Clim

ate

Ope

ning

s 2

3 3

3 4

2 3

5 4

5 2

3 2

5 5

2 3

4 4

3

Ther

mal

2

3 2

4 4

4 4

3 3

3 4

3 4

3 2

4 3

3 4

4 Li

fe s

pan

Life

span

3

5 5

4 4

4 3

4 4

4 4

4 4

4 1

3 5

4 4

3 M

aint

enan

ce

Rel

iabi

lity

3 3

2 3

3 4

4 5

5 3

2 3

2 3

1 4

4 5

5 5

Mai

ntai

nabi

lity

2 3

3 2

2 2

2 2

2 5

4 3

5 2

4 5

2 3

2 2

Com

plex

ity

Eas

e of

lear

ning

2

3 3

3 3

2 3

2 2

3 3

2 2

3 3

4 4

4 4

4 R

esou

rces

M

ater

ial

Qua

lity

3 5

3 4

3 3

4 5

5 5

4 5

5 5

5 5

4 4

3 3

Ava

ilabi

lity

3 5

4 5

3 3

4 4

4 2

5 3

4 3

5 5

4 3

3 4

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

262

La

bour

E

xper

ienc

e 2

5 5

5 5

3 4

4 3

5 5

2 3

2 4

3 3

3 2

2

Inte

nsity

1

4 4

3 4

3 4

3 2

3 4

3 2

3 3

4 4

4 3

3 Ti

me

Tech

nica

l per

iod

3 3

3 3

3 3

4 3

3 4

3 3

4 4

5 3

4 5

3 5

Feas

ibili

ty

Pric

e La

bel

Ran

king

1

5 5

4 4

3 4

3 2

1 5

3 5

1 5

5 4

2 2

3 Lo

cal e

cono

my

Use

of l

ocal

re

cour

ses

2 5

4 4

3 3

3 3

2 3

5 4

4 3

5 4

3 3

2 2

Nat

iona

l ec

onom

y N

atio

nal b

enef

it 2

4 4

4 3

3 3

2 2

3 4

3 4

1 4

4 3

5 5

2 So

cial

/ cu

ltura

l So

cial

/ cul

tura

l A

dapt

abili

ty

2 2

2 3

4 4

4 5

5 4

2 4

2 5

2 3

3 5

5 4

Arch

itect

ural

em

bedd

ing

Em

bedd

ing

2 5

5 5

5 4

3 3

3 4

5 3

2 3

4 2

3 3

1 2

Func

tiona

l Bu

ildin

g he

ight

A

mou

nt o

f st

orey

s 2

2 2

2 3

5 3

5 5

2 1

3 1

5 3

1 2

2 5

5 Ex

pand

abilit

y P

ossi

bilit

ies

3 1

2 3

3 5

3 5

3 4

1 2

1 5

4 1

3 4

3 2

Wor

kspa

ce

Opp

ortu

nity

3

2 2

3 3

3 3

5 4

4 2

2 2

5 4

2 3

4 4

4 Pr

otec

tion

Ele

men

ts

3 2

2 4

4 4

4 4

4 3

2 3

2 4

2 3

3 4

5 5

Saf

ety

3 3

3 3

4 4

4 4

4 3

3 3

3 4

3 3

4 3

4 4

Util

ities

P

ossi

bilit

ies

2 2

2 3

4 4

4 5

4 3

2 3

2 5

2 3

3 2

3 5

Sust

aina

ble

Rec

ycla

ble

Re-

usab

ility

1 5

4 4

2 2

4 2

2 5

1 5

1 4

4 5

4 3

1 2

Rec

ycla

bilit

y 1

5 4

3 2

2 2

2 2

4 5

5 5

5 3

5 2

5 2

5 En

viro

nmen

tal

Impa

ct

2 4

4 4

3 3

3 3

3 4

5 4

5 3

5 4

4 4

4 4

Sel

f-sus

tain

able

2

3 3

4 4

5 3

5 5

4 3

4 3

5 3

3 4

4 5

4

AAppe

ndix

2.D

. MCA

Sce

nario

Appe

ndix

2.D

.1. M

CA B

asel

ine

scen

ario

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

264

SHHHHHHHSHHHHHHHHHHHHHO

CO

CO

CO

CO

CO

CO

CO

CO

CO

CKKKKKKKKKKKK S

ASAASASASASASAASASASAFEFFEFEFEFEFEFEFFEFEFEFE

NNNNNNNNNNEPEPPEPEPEPEPPEPEPEPEP

ALALALALALALALALALALAL2626626262662626262626

4444444444

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

265

AAppe

ndix

2.D

.2 M

CA M

ater

ial s

cena

rio

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

266

SHO

CKSA

FENE

PAL

266

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

267

AAppe

ndix

2.D

.3 M

CA N

o su

bsid

y sc

enar

io

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

268

SHO

CKSA

FENE

PAL

268

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

269

AAppe

ndix

2.D

.4 M

CA S

ubsid

y sc

enar

io

SHO

CK S

AFE

NEPA

L

270

SH

OCK

SAFE

NEPA

L27

0