Subtropical Queensland: Climatic Diversity and Appropriate Design Responses

Upadhyay, A. K. (2008) Subtropical Queensland: Climatic Diversity and Appropriate Design Responses. Subtropical cities Conference 2008, 3-6 September 2008, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

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SUBTROPICAL QUEENSLAND: CLIMATIC DIVERSITY AND APPROPRIATE DESIGN RESPONSES PAPER Climate zones are defined using a variety of criteria, depending on the purpose. The Bureau of Meteorology has broadly divided Australia into six climate zones (equatorial, tropical, subtropical, desert, grassland, temperate) based on the dry-bulb temperature and humidity. However, these climate classifications are too general to be adopted for climate design strategies. Designing a built environment need more precise information on sky conditions, rainfall and wind, apart from temperature and humidity, necessitating a rigorous climate analysis. Microclimatic characters can not be overlooked, as their influence in built environment has been well established. This paper explores the climate diversity observed in “subtropical”Queensland with the case studies of Mackay, Rockhampton and Brisbane which belong to the climate zone two of the Building Code of Australia (BCA). Climate data has been retrieved from the website of Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. This data is then used for detailed climate analysis in order to make recommendations for each city based on their climate. Mackay experiences hot and humid condition for majority of the period. Higher cooling requirement in Mackay necessitates the use of wind movement to achieve comfort condition. Building orientation should facilitate wind flow inside the building most of the time while allowing solar access in winter. Rockhampton is hot and humid during summer; however, heating and cooling requirements throughout the year are almost equal. Building structure should respond to the large temperature swing to maintain comfortable indoor condition. Evening cooling breezes along with thermal mass can ensure comfort condition for Rockhampton. Brisbane experiences hot and humid summer. Total heating requirements outweigh cooling requirement in a year. Winter solar exposure need to be ensured, similarly, summer cooling breezes need to be incorporated in design. DISCUSSION Introduction Warm humid coastal climate outside the tropics is called "subtropical". In subtropical climate zones annual climate conditions are not usually, as intense or continuous as, in the tropics because of the multiple seasons (Oliver, 1997). The Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) has divided Australia into six broad climate zones (equatorial, tropical, subtropical, desert, grassland, temperate) based on the dry-bulb temperature and humidity. According to the BOM Australia, subtropical climate zone covers most of the eastern belt of Queensland (BOM, 2008). Climate zones are defined using a variety of criteria, depending on the purpose. However, these climate classifications are mostly too general to be adopted for climate design. In designing a built environment, apart from the temperature and humidity, precise information on sky condition, rainfall and wind is also necessary, requiring a rigorous climate analysis. These microclimatic aspects cannot be overlooked, as their influence in the built environment has been well established. For example, location attributes such as, distance from nearby sea has a major influence in the local microclimate. This paper undertakes climate study of three locations Mackay, Rockhampton and Brisbane which fall in the subtropical climate zone in Bureau of Metrology’s climate classification. They also belong to the climate zone two according to the Building Code of Australia, which regulates building construction activities in Australia (BCA, 2008). Mackay is a coastal city while Rockhampton and Brisbane are located approximately 30 Km. and 10 Km. respectively, from the nearby coast. Methodology of the study


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This paper is a part of a larger study, which aims to develop design guidelines for designers/ builders to help them in selecting design options and building elements that are climatically suitable, as well as, efficient from energy usage and conservation perspective. The study will cover the major population locations within Australia and hence encompass all the states and major cities which have distinct climatic conditions. In this paper, climate of Mackay, Rockhampton and Brisbane from Queensland, categorised as the subtropical, is comparatively analysed. These three cities have been especially chosen due to their relative distance from the coast and its implication in microclimate of the cities. The study is carried out in two steps: climate analysis, and formulation of recommendations for planning and building design. In climate analysis, climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology, Australia for each of the locations is summarised in a graphical format. Comfort condition for each location is investigated using Building Bioclimatic charts; and wind roses are prepared to understand the wind flow at different times across different seasons. Final design guidelines are based on preliminary recommendations from Mahoney tables, which formulate design strategies using temperature, humidity and rainfall; and detailed climatic analysis. Climate studies In order to define local climate more precisely than simply according to the generic typologies, detailed information is required about the local air temperature, humidity and wind patterns. It is possible to obtain detailed information on the weather of a location from weather stations. This information is based on hourly monitoring of weather over several decades, although, not all of that information is relevant for design purposes. The requirements depend upon the potential design implications and the level of environmental analysis that needs to be performed. For example, large diurnal temperature variations in hot dry climates are as important as the average daily temperatures, since they will influence the design strategy to maintain comfort by exploiting the time lag characteristics of thermal mass. Conversely, in warm humid climates, the diurnal swings are much smaller and air movement is essential to define comfort. As a result, it is important to know wind speed and directions at different times in a day (Gonzalo and Habermann, 2006). Climate data of Mackay, Rockhampton and Brisbane has been presented in a graphical format for easy understanding during decision making in design.

Mackay Mackay experiences hot, humid summers and mild, dry winters with annual daily temperature swings around 7 degC. Autumn and spring months are warm and humid during daytime and cool and humid at night. The average maximum air temperature ranges from 30°C in December and January to 21°C in July. The highest temperature ever recorded is 39.4°C in January. The average minimum temperature ranges from 13°C in July to 23°C in January. The

Figure 1. Air temperature across months (Mackay)

Summer Autumn Winter Spring

COMFORT ZONE

Mean daily maximum Extreme maximum

Extreme minimum Mean daily minimum

Summer Autumn Winter Spring 9 AM Humidity

3 PM Humidity

COMFORT ZONE

Figure 3. Specific humidity across months (Mackay)


Figure 2. Relative humidity across months (Mackay)


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lowest temperature ever recorded is 3.8°C in July. Humidity has been presented in relative humidity (%) and specific humidity (g/Kg). Specific humidity is the ratio of mass of water vapour to the total mass of the moist air sample (ASHRAE, 2001). It gives an idea of vapour content in the air and allows monitoring of the comfort level of humidity. Humidity in Mackay is high for eight months of the year, i.e. October to May. Winter and early spring humidity remains in the comfortable range. Heating and cooling needs can be best described by heating/ cooling degree hours. Cooling threshold temperature is determined by the neutral temperature (Szokolay, 1982) for each month. The heating threshold temperature has been taken as 18°C for the year round (Hart and de Dear, 2004). In Mackay, summer, autumn and spring months require cooling but from late autumn to early spring, heating is required. In total, cooling demand is 53% and heating requirement is 47%. Summer months get substantial rain, the sky in summer is overcast for about 12 days in a month. In winter, the sky is clear for almost 15 days per month. Clear sky conditions favour passive solar heating techniques in Mackay. Of the annual rainfall of 1557 mm, which is


53%

47%

Heating degree-hours Cooling degree-hours

Figure 4. Heating / cooling degree-hours across months (Mackay)

Figure 7. Wind roses across different time and seasons (Mackay)



Figure 5. Sky conditions across months (Mackay)

Mean clear days Mean cloudy days

Solar Irradiation

Figure 6. Rainfall across months (Mackay)


Mean rainy days

Mean monthly rainfall


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approximately 98 days of rainfall, about 50% usually falls between December and February. It rains more frequently during summer and less during winter. Wind is very strong at all times and is predominantly from the south-east direction. In summer and spring, wind blows from the north to south-east. Afternoon and evening wind blows from the south-east in autumn, and the southerly wind is prominent in the morning. In winter, wind blows from the south-east to south-west. Morning wind is very strong from the south but afternoon and evening wind comes from the south-east and south directions.

Rockhampton Rockhampton experiences hot, humid summers and mild winters. Annual daily temperature swings are around 12 degC. Autumn and spring months are hot during daytime but nights are usually pleasant. The average maximum air temperature ranges from 32.1°C in December to 23.1°C in July. The highest temperature ever recorded is 43.3°C in February. The average minimum temperature

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Figure 8. Air temperature across months (Rockhampton)

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3 PM humidity


Figure 9. Relative Humidity across months (Rockhampton)

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COMFORT ZONE

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3 PM humidity


Figure 10. Specific Humidity across months (Rockhampton)


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Figure 11. Heating/ Cooling degree-hours across months (Rockhampton)

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Figure 12. Sky Conditions across months (Rockhampton)

Figure 13. Rainfall across months (Rockhampton)


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ranges from just 9.5°C in July to 22.1°C in January and February. The lowest temperature ever recorded is -0.4°C in June. Humidity is high in summer months, remains so until mid autumn, and then gradually reduces from May to October thus remaining in the comfortable range for the rest of the year. Summer and mid autumn months require cooling, but from late autumn to early spring, there is a heating demand in Rockhampton. In total, heating requirement is 53% and cooling demand is 47%. Summer months get substantial rain and the sky is cloudy for about 12 days in a month. In winter, the sky is clear for 15 days per month. This availability of clear sky condition favours passive solar heating in Rockhampton. Of the annual rainfall of 800 mm, which is approximately 63 days of rainfall, more than 50% usually fall between December and March. Summer months receive the highest rainfall and winter months get the lowest. The wind direction in Rockhampton is predominantly from the east and south-east. The morning wind is very intense from the south-east throughout the year round. Afternoon wind is generally divided into the east and south–east directions. Evening wind also comes from the south–east. There is no dramatic change in the wind directions across different seasons. Calm periods are usually high in the evenings and early mornings.

Brisbane Brisbane is hot, humid in summer and cool in winter. These seasons extend into autumn and spring months, which are transitional periods between the two main seasons. The average maximum air

Figure 14. Wind roses across different time and seasons (Rockhampton)



COMFORT ZONE


Extreme minimum Mean daily minimum

Figure 15. Air temperature across months (Brisbane)


9 AM Humidity

3 PM Humidity

Figure 16. Relative humidity across months (Brisbane)


9 AM Humidity

3 PM Humidity

COMFORT ZONE

Figure 17. Specific humidity across months (Brisbane)


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temperature ranges from 29°C in February to 21°C in July. The highest temperature ever recorded is 40.2°C in February. The average minimum temperature ranges from just 9°C in July to 21°C in January and February. The lowest temperature ever recorded is 1.6°C in June. Humidity is high in summer and the early autumn months, but then gradually reduces from April to remain in the comfortable range for the rest of the year. Summer and early autumn months require cooling. From late autumn to mid spring, heating demand is high in Brisbane. In total, heating demand is 81% while cooling demand is 19%. Summer months get substantial rain, the sky in summer is cloudy for about 12 days in a month. In winter, the sky is clear for almost 15 days per month. Of the annual rainfall of 957 mm, which is approximately 83 days of rainfall, about 50% usually fall between November and February. Rainfall in summer months is the highest while it is the lowest in winter months. The wind in Brisbane changes its direction in each season. In summer, it comes from the north to south-east. The autumn wind comes mainly from the south. It ranges from the south – east to the south – west. The winter wind pattern is also similar to the autumn. Night and Figure 21. Wind roses across different time and seasons (Brisbane)



Figure 20. Rainfall across months (Brisbane)

Mean rainy days



Figure 19. Sky conditions across months (Brisbane)

Mean clear days Mean cloudy days Solar Irradiation


Figure 18. Heating / cooling degree-hours across months (Brisbane)

Heating degree-hours Cooling degree-hours

81%

19%


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morning wind in autumn is strong and comes from the south-west. The afternoon and evening wind is dispersed and weak. The spring wind basically comes from the north. The afternoon wind blows from the north – east and night wind from the south – west. Climate comparison The temperature data reveals that extreme maximum temperature increases from the coast to towards inland, so do the mean daily maxima in summer. On the other hand, the minimum temperature decreases from the coast to the inland. The extreme minimum temperature is just below zero in Rockhampton, whereas, it is the highest in Mackay. The diurnal temperature range is greater inland than in the coastal area, and is because the water mass moderates the fluctuating diurnal temperature. Heating requirements are fairly high in Brisbane than in Mackay and Rockhampton. Mackay has higher cooling requirement than heating while Rockhampton has higher heating requirement than cooling. Humidity is high in Mackay for longer period of the time while Brisbane and Rockhampton experience humid conditions during summer and early autumn months. Sky conditions and rainfall pattern are almost similar in all the three locations. Wind speed and directions, however, are very different. Mackay and Brisbane experience very windy condition at all times. In Rockhampton, however, there is relatively strong wind from mid morning till the afternoon, and then from the evening, wind speed reduces considerably with extended calm periods. Overall, this comparison shows that diurnal temperature range, humidity levels and the wind characteristics are the most distinguishing climatic features between the coastal and the inland locations.

Table1: Climate comparison of Mackay, Brisbane and Rockhampton

#Neutral temperature (Tn) = 17.6 + 0.31*Tav, where Tav is average monthly temperature. Analysis Climate analysis has been done using Building Bioclimatic chart and Mahoney tables.

Building Bioclimatic chart

Climatic parameters Mackay

(coastal city) Brisbane

(10 Km from sea) Rockhampton

(30 Km from sea) Air Temperature

Extreme maximum Mean daily maximum

summer winter

Mean daily minimum summer

winter Extreme minimum Mean diurnal range

Heating degree hours (base 180C)

Cooling degree hours (base neutral temperature#)

39.40C

300C 210C

23.00C 13.00C 3.80C

6.3 – 8.6 degC 47%

53%

40.20C

290C 210C

210C 90C

1.60C 7.9 – 12.2 degC

81%

19%

45.30C

32.10C 24.70C

22.10C 9.50C -0.40C

9.2 – 14.1 degC 53%

47%

Humidity

Humid for 8 months (October to May)

Humid for 4 months (December to March)

Humid for 4 months (December to March)

Sky Condition

Summer and Autumn months are cloudy; clear days prevail for winter and spring months

Rainfall Rainfall is the highest in summer and lowest in winter

Wind Wind is strong at all the times Wind is strong from morning to afternoon


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Building Bioclimatic chart Givoni (1976) used the Psychrometric chart as the basis for defining the comfort zone and stretched out the probable extent of outdoor conditions under which certain passive control techniques could ensure indoor comfort. The Building Bioclimatic chart derived by Givoni (1976) provides suggestions for building design considering the local climatic conditions. Various control strategies, which ultimately lead to a climate-sensitive design, are suggested. Szokolay (1986) defined control- potential zone to describe the range of outdoor atmospheric conditions within which indoor comfort could be achieved by the various passive control techniques. In the Psychrometric chart, different zones are plotted to indicate different strategies depending upon the monthly temperature–humidity relationships.

To identify comfort conditions, the climatic data of all months are plotted in the Building Bioclimatic chart, as shown in Figures 22-24. The lines represent different months with mean minimum temperature and morning humidity; maximum temperature and afternoon humidity. Temperature – humidity relationships indicate that Mackay requires wind movement from October to April. Night time heating is required from June to August as the temperature drops below the comfortable range. Heating and cooling requirements in Mackay are almost equal for the whole year so the building designers should consider both heating and the cooling strategies. The Building Bioclimatic chart suggests thermal mass along with ventilation to maintain comfortable conditions in Brisbane. Temperature at night drops below the comfortable range which requires some heating strategies. Building Bioclimatic chart recommends wind movement for summer months in Rockhampton. Necessity of thermal mass is also observed for few months in autumn and spring. Heating is primarily suggested for winter nights and mornings. Generally, a building designer should consider both heating and cooling strategies for Rockhampton.

Mahoney tables

The Mahoney tables (Koenigsberger, et al., 1973) provide results of thermal comfort analysis using primarily temperature and humidity data, and make recommendations for pre-design guidelines. These pre-design conditions are classified under certain climatic groups or indicators. The Mahoney tables involve six indicators (i.e., three ‘humidity indicators’, H1- H3, and three ‘arid indicators’, A1 –A3). The Mahoney tables indicate remedial action involving air movements for humid conditions in H1 and H2. Excess downpours may affect the building structure, so adequate rain protection is advised in H3. Similarly, for hot and arid conditions, thermal capacity (A1) is one of the options for making the indoor space comfortable. Climatic zones with nighttime temperature above the comfort limit are advised to make provisions for outdoor

Figure 23. Building Bioclimatic chart (Brisbane)

Figure 22. Building Bioclimatic chart (Mackay)

Figure 24. Building Bioclimatic chart (Rockhampton)


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sleeping (A2). A building in an arid climate with lower temperature needs protection of the building from cold wind (A3).

Table2: Indicators and recommendations from Mahoney tables

From the Mahoney tables, it can be suggested that the buildings in Mackay, Brisbane and Rockhampton need to ensure good cross ventilation for cooling; at the same time there should be some arrangements to protect from hot and cold winds. Mackay has got higher humid indicators which requires for light, low thermal capacity walls, floors and roofs. Brisbane would need heavy external and internal walls but light, insulated roof. A suggestion for Rockhampton is to use the heavy external and internal walls and floors. The diurnal temperature range is more than 10 degC in Rockhampton making it appropriate to use the thermal mass to flatten out the large temperature difference occurring in the buildings. Design strategies The climatic differences do have implications in building design and planning. The large diurnal temperature range, with higher summer mean temperature, in Rockhampton needs special care, in comparison to Mackay and Brisbane. Requirement of thermal mass is significant when the diurnal temperature range is more than 10 degC. Mackay needs design response to address high humidity levels that prevail for eight months in a year. Brisbane and Rockhampton are also humid in summer months. Free flow of air through interior is critical while humidity levels are higher than comfort range. There are opportunities for passive solar heating in all the three locations with the heating requirement highest in Brisbane. Winter clear sky in Mackay, Brisbane and Rockhampton is the most favourable for the use of passive solar heating techniques. In general, all the three cities are recommended to have single banked buildings with permanent provision of air movement. In the local level, wind characteristics are different in all the cities and it has a great influence in street layout, building orientation and the window placement in the buildings. Some of the design strategies are elaborated to make a clear understanding of the differences. The design strategies are formulated based on the climate analysis. Design strategies are meant to be comprehensive and schematic to be helpful in the design process, at the same time they have to be few such that they can be easily memorized to be used effectively.

Building orientation and Street layout

Building orientation and layout of streets have significant effect on accessing sun and wind in the buildings. To maximize solar access and air movement in streets, primary avenues in Mackay, Brisbane and Rockhampton should be oriented at angles west of south. More precisely, this angle is 20 degree for Mackay and Rockhampton, and 30 degree for Brisbane. These orientation angles help to secure both prevailing afternoon wind and night breezes in summer;

Mackay Brisbane Rockhampton

Indicators H1 – 5, H2 – 3, H3 – 3 and A3 – 2

H1 – 4, A1 – 5 and A3 – 1

H1 – 3 and A1 – 9

Recommendations on Layout North and south (long axis east – west) Spacing Open space for breeze penetration but protection from hot and cold winds Air movement Rooms single banked, permanent provision for air movement Openings Medium openings 20-40% Small openings 15-25% Protection of openings Exclude direct sunlight Walls and floors Light walls, short time lag Heavy external and internal walls

Roof Light, insulated roof Heavy roofs, over 8 h time lag


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and winter solar exposure on the north facade. Major street orientation within the angle of approximately 20-30 degree on either direction of the prevailing breezes does not significantly reduce the opportunity of wind movement across the buildings (Brown and DeKay, 2001).

Building structure Mackay and Rockhampton have cooling requirements for seven months in a year and heating requirements in winter months. Brisbane requires more heating demand than cooling. In general, all these cities require both heating and cooling. An experimental study has proved that, even if a building is continuously ventilated, thermal mass plays a significant role in lowering the indoor maximum temperature (Givoni, 1994). Thus, high mass buildings with provision of a good ventilation system can achieve comfortable conditions in hot humid conditions, such as in Mackay. The diurnal temperature range, and summer mean maximum temperature, is higher in Rockhampton than other two cities indicating the requirement of a greater area of thermal mass for Rockhampton. Similarly, evening wind movement to cool the thermal mass is also equally important for Rockhampton.

Fig.27. Building orientation ensuring solar access in winter and wind

movement in summer (Brisbane)


movement in summer (Mackay)


movement in summer kh

Figure 29. Street layout for Brisbane considering sun and wind movement

Figure 30. Street layout for Rockhampton considering sun and wind movement

Figure 28. Street layout for Mackay considering sun and wind movement

Figure 32. Use of thermal mass in winter and summer months

Figure 31. Effective ventilation helps to cool off thermal mass in summer


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The requirement of both heating and cooling necessitates utilization of both radiation and wind effects, as well as, protection from them. Hence, dual role is required of the structure. Thermal mass helps to store daytime heat during the day and releases it at night to balance room temperature in winter months. Thermal mass can be used to absorb heat from a room during the day and to cool off the radiated heat at night with ventilation in summer months. For this, there must be enough mass in the building to absorb the heat gain, and the mass must be distributed over enough surface area so that it can absorb the heat quickly and keep the interior air temperature comfortably low. The opening must be large enough to allow cool outside air to flow past the mass to remove the heat accumulated during the day and carry it outside the building.

Outdoor spaces Outdoor spaces are equally useful in summer and winter months. In summer months, it is highly recommended to have a shaded outdoor space towards windward direction. Wind direction is different in all the locations so outdoor space for each location needs to be specific. In Mackay, summer and winter wind comes from the east and south –east directions. In summer months, outdoor spaces towards south facilitate the cooling breezes while in winter, it should be located on the north securing solar access from north and protecting it from cool breezes. Summer outdoor spaces in Brisbane and Rockhampton are to be located on the east to secure the cooling breeze coming from the east and in winter, outdoor space on the north –west corner allows for the solar exposure and protection from cooling breezes.

Table3: Probable location of outdoor space for summer and winter in Mackay, Brisbane and Rockhampton

CONCLUSION The detailed climate analysis of Mackay, Brisbane and Rockhampton show the climate diversities within the broad ‘subtropical’ climate zone. The climate analysis also reveals the obvious implications of these diversities in building design and planning. This paper has also been able to show the climate characteristics specific to the locations. Coastal city, Mackay, experiences humid conditions for majority of the time during the year, accompanied by a small


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diurnal range. Rockhampton has a lesser influence of nearby water mass which results in a large diurnal temperature range. Humidity levels are high in Rockhampton in summer months when it receives most of the yearly rainfall. Brisbane is located near to the coast but still does not exhibit coastal characteristics. Humidity levels in Brisbane are within comfort zone for majority of the months. Brisbane requires longer period of heating arrangements compared to the other two cities. Significant heating demand starts from May to September. The climate analysis suggests multiple design options for each location considering its microclimatic characteristics. Design recommendations are for variation in building orientation angles and in the street layouts, to facilitate both solar and wind exposure. Climatic consideration for building structure is also very important. The operational mode (i.e. allowing cool outside air to remove the heat accumulated in the building) is critical when using thermal mass to even out the temperature variation. Consideration of evening and night time wind helps to integrate cooling breezes in design to meet the cooling requirements. Similarly, designing outdoor spaces should make considerations of sun and wind movement across a building in different seasons. Cooling breezes should be facilitated in summer while solar exposure needs to be secured in winter, blocking the unpleasant cold winter wind. In conclusion, the broad climate classification has its limitations, as it only provides limited information if a designer tries to integrate climate responsiveness in design. Microclimate study will give a clear picture of the existing climate conditions, which indicates design strategies to exploit the usefulness of climate aspects. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This paper is an outcome of ongoing research on “Climate and design guidelines for major locations in Australia”. I would like to thank Think Brick Australia for funding this research. REFERENCES 1. ASHRAE (2001) Handbook of Fundamentals. Chapter 6: Psychrometrics. 2. Brown, G. Z. and Dekay M. (2001) Sun, Wind and Light: architectural design strategies. 2nd

Ed. USA: John Wiley and sons, Inc 3. Building Code of Australia (BCA), accessed online on 10th March 2008 at

http://www.abcb.gov.au/index.cfm?object id=3525962E-B0A8-49BF-3C29CAC979D811FE 4. Bureau of Meteorology, Australia, accessed online on 1st May 2008 at

http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/koeppen2.htm 5. Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Climate statistics for Australian locations. For Brisbane,

accessed online on 23rd September 2007 at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_040842.shtml; for Mackay, accessed online on 23rd September 2007 at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_033119.shtml; and for Rockhampton, accessed online on 7th April 2008 at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_039083.shtml.

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Documents

Subtropical Queensland: Climatic Diversity and Appropriate Design Responses