The Importance Of The Moon In Teaching Astronomy At The Primary School

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MOON IN TEACHING ASTRONOMY ATTHE PRIMARY SCHOOL

LEOPOLDO BENACCHIOAstronomical Observatory, Vicolo dell’Osservatorio 5, I-35122 Padova, Italy

(E-mail: [email protected])

1. Background and Basic Problems

Teaching Astronomy requires two “actors”: The teacher and a classroom. Dealingwith both these actors generally can present several problems.

Science teachers in fact generally haven’t studied Astronomy at University leveland may have problems to master the contents of this science.

Several problems are present also on the student’s side. Nowadays children livein light polluted cities, where the sky is nearly invisible: Typically in a “clean”night in Milan no more than 70 stars are visible by naked eyes. Moreover they livein a World where images change at very high speed for several hours every day(TV, Videogames). On the contrary the Sky changes but in a slow mode night afternight, and kids seem to ignore the entire phenomenon: Is not the speed they areused to.

Plenty of kids of the developed countries in the northern hemisphere are in thesame situation and think, for example, that the Sun does not change the position inthe sky during the year or that, during the summer, it is “more hot” because the Sunis “very close” to the Earth. Generally a bad approach to science is considered asthe main reason for this situation, but probably the situation is completely differentand the main reason is the life style kids have nowadays in light polluted cities witha social environment full of multimedia and Virtual Worlds.

We all live in a World were the media (Newspapers, books, TV, Internet)privilege the spectacular approach to science: Black Holes, the Big Bang, Extrater-restrial life etc. This fact gives raise to a severe cultural problem: only spectacularphenomena are considered interesting science. For that reason children, but unfor-tunately also plenty of teachers, are bored to learn, or teach, the basic astronomicalphenomena: Day and night, seasons etc. are generally considered a too simpletopic. On the contrary the basic, observable phenomena are the ones teachers andstudents can use to establish basic concepts as: Frame of reference, observer posi-tion, distance scale. To discuss about the nature of black holes is considered easier

Earth, Moon and Planets 85–86: 51–60, 2001.© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

52 LEOPOLDO BENACCHIO

and more interesting than to observe the Moon for a month and try to explain itsphases.

Another important point is that, in the school, the knowledge is frequentlyreproduced by means of abstract models and with the false approach that somephenomena are self-evident: “Earth is round of course”. Students discuss aboutscience, in this case about the Sky, without observing it or measuring the phe-nomena that are under study. It seems that, also when to observe and measurethe phenomena is an easy and relatively uncumbered action, teachers and studentsprefer to avoid an experimental approach to Astronomy. This fact keeps studentsfrom experiencing, in a very easy manner, the experimental method, and they getused to study the science contents in an extremely passive mode. Maybe the mainnegative point we have to outline is that generally the removal of misconceptions,before the study of a new topic, is not adopted. As shown from the seventies thismisconceptions removal is a mandatory step if the teacher wants to build a solidunderstanding of the new matter and concepts.

To introduce the study of Physics or Astronomy in such a situation, usinglessons about abstract models or also hands on activity, without misconceptionsremoval, can be dangerous. Kids hear the explanation given by the teacher aboutthe model, perform hands on activities and put all this stuff over their prejudices.A fragile knowledge is the result of all the process. This fact is more enhanced atthe primary school, where kids have severe problems in imagining phenomena thatoccur “far” from the observer. In other words they are able to repeat the lessonsperfectly without understanding the actual contents.

Let us enumerate only few of the typical misconceptions about the Moon thatItalian children have (but these are typical of children of all developed countries):

• The Moon phases are due to the Earth shadow.• Eclipses of the Moon are a particular case of Moon phases.• Moon is emitting light, exactly as the Sun does.• Different observers see different Moon phases in the same time.• “In” the Moon there is no gravity.

How to explain the Moon motions, for example, having these statements as a back-ground? Removal of misconceptions before learning new concepts is a mandatorytask that teachers must take into account not only when they start teaching to a newclassroom, but also when a new chapter of the science is opened.

A new problem is contained in the report of several authors and teachers thatoutlined how the 6–13 years old students of the last generations have strong prob-lems in understanding basic astronomical phenomena, i.e., Sun and stars motion,eclipses, sunrise at different latitudes, etc. These students have severe problemsto understand images and drawings as a 2-dimensional representation of a 3-dimensional structure. In other words they have problems in describing the realphenomena, or also the model, from drawings in the books or at the blackboard,on the Web, etc. This situation is frequently worsened by a teacher’s fault: they

IMPORTANCE OF THE MOON IN TEACHING ASTRONOMY AT THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 53

frequently use too much abstract models, not suitable for the considered ageinterval.

2. How to Solve the Problem: The Moon as a Didactical Tool

To solve such a complex situation we are experiencing a new approach to theAstronomy teaching at the school, from the primary through the main cursus stu-diorum (6–13 and 14–18 years old students). In the following we will briefly reportabout the starting point, that is the primary school, where we are experimenting theteaching to observe and measure the phenomena before studying models.

In such a framework the Moon is a perfect tool for basic didactics of Astronomy:• Because it is big in the Sky, as big as the Sun is.• Because it appears during the day or/and during the night.• Because it is evidently out of the atmosphere. For example during a cloudy

night.• Because its eclipses and phases give us the means to build the Earth-Moon-Sun

model.• Because its height is opposite to the one of the Sun.• Because it is useful for orienteering.• Because its cycle (29 days) fits perfectly a possible school timetable.• Because is a fascinating celestial body also for nowadays students.

The Moon is a perfect tool for teaching Astronomy at the primary school, forexample. It has an irresistible charm especially for kids. It is easy to find her in thesky during the night or the day. To observe her “face” with a familiar instrument,as a pair of binoculars, is an easy and uncumbered task also for very young people.To follow her motion in the sky, day after day, is very practical because of theshort periodicity: In a school year the observation can be easily done two or threetimes without loosing too much lesson time. Dealing with very young kids aged6–10, moreover, to look at the Moon is safe; the Sun on the contrary can presentsome problem of safety for the eyes. By means of the Moon the teacher and theclassroom can dwell on (and learn) nearly all the positional astronomy.

For these reasons the Moon can be used for an approach to Astronomy based onthe three main steps: (1) observation, (2) measurement, and (3) modeling. Thesesteps are important because give to the students the feeling with a particular methodto approach the study of the Nature: The scientific method. And this result is evenmuch more important than the study of Astronomy.

3. The Three Main Steps in Learning Astronomy at the Primary School

The main point of the solution could be to restart from the primary school, byteaching to observe and then measure before discussing about the phenomena.


To “observe” the Moon is a mandatory action, for example, before “measuring”the sky (Moon or Sun or stars) and especially before introducing the “model” ofthe Earth–Moon–Sun system. Our sons in fact are not familiar with the sky, assaid above, they have a confused idea of the horizon, of the perspective and ofthe relative positions and dimensions of the stars and other bodies (especially Sunand Moon) in the sky. They cannot have a correct vision of the Universe and itsevolution if we are not able to guide the classroom in the correct educational path.

This educational path can be in three phases are:1. Observing activities;2. observing and measuring;3. analyzing and interpreting.

In the following we will give a very short account of an experience of this “typical”path in an 11-years old classroom. Several other, or different, activities can, ofcourse, be proposed. The main point is to respect the three-step order.

3.1. FIRST PHASE: OBSERVING

Some very basic and important points compose this phase:• Learning to observe the astronomical phenomena;• learning to take note of impressions and data related to the observations;• getting acquainted with the experimental method.

The related classroom activities are:a. The Horizon exploration: Students experience and learn that to study the mo-

tion of the celestial bodies, first of all it is necessary to get acquainted withthe local horizon. Then they learn why it is very important to establish a ref-erence point on it: A tree, a house, etc. Students chose an observing positionat a classroom window and drew the horizon on their scrapbooks or on thewindow’s glass.

b. Changes of the diurnal motion of the Sun during the Year: Once they are ac-quainted with the horizon, students are stimulated to study “what happens”,day by day, on that horizon. A really simple activity to realize this point is totake note of the Sun’s height above the horizon during the day on a windowof the classroom of course oriented in the good direction. Day after day theycan collect data, i.e., the Sun position at the same hour as seen on the localhorizon from the same observer position. A typical data collection period forthis activity can be 3 months. A final poster, realized by plotting all the data,resumes this activity and allows students to realize that the arc covered by theSun changes during the year and that sunset and sunrise positions change onthe horizon.

c. Observing the Moon: An important observation activity can be based on theMoon phase. Using the method adopted in the preceding activity, the studentsobserve the Moon every day for a month. They have to take note of the Moon


Figure 1. The local horizon.

Figure 2. The final poster collecting the Sun position observation.

“behavior”, visibility time of the Moon, position of the Moon phase withrespect to the Sun.

3.2. SECOND PHASE: OBSERVING AND MEASURING

In the first phase students are generally left with their doubts on what they haveobserved. This is done because the main point we want to introduce, in the secondphase, is the importance of measurement in science. Three important points arepresent this phase:

• Preparing some instruments and models;• measuring;• comparing different experience results.

Activities related to this second phase are, for example, the following:a. Observing the shades: The gnomon. A very useful activity, after the obser-

vation of the Sun and Moon motion on the Sky, is to study the shades. The


Figure 3. A final classroom poster with the observations of the Moon phases.

students can prepare a gnomon and mark the position of its shades, projectedby the Sun, day after day at the same hours. In this way he/she can observehow the shade’s length changes during the day and, at a given time, during theyear. After three months of observations, that can be taken at the same timeother activities are done, the students can draw the diurnal lines from whichthey realize how also the shades change during the year. The best period forthis activity is November to January.

b. The alternation of day and night: Using the data collected in the previousactivity and using a calendar to cover a one year baseline, students can plotthe diagram of the alternation of day and night, at their latitude. In this waythey can realize, by means of the plot, how the length of day and night changesduring the year. At this point we are in the best position to “build a model”for the first time: the day and night duration model. The students analyzethe results of the observation using a simple tool: A globe and a lamp. Theychange the position of the globe (Earth) with respect to the Sun (lamp) until asatisfactory reciprocal position is assumed, reproducing the observed data.

c. Distances and sizes: simulating a Sun eclipse in scale: After the precedingactivity, students have realized the importance of the reciprocal positions ofthe heavenly bodies, as Sun and Earth or Moon. The next milestone is to studyand understand the distances and sizes of the system itself. To do this, simu-lating a Sun eclipse in scale is a relatively simple experience very useful andappreciated by the classroom. Using a 1:637.800.000 scale the Sun diameteris 218 cm, the Earth and Moon ones are 2 and 0.5 cm respectively. The 2-


Figure 4. Students try to reproduce night and day duration data using a globe and a lamp.

Figure 5. Measurement of the distances starting from the Sun.

cm Earth must be at 234.5 m from the Sun, whereas the Moon is 60 cm farfrom the Earth. Students can “draw” the 2.18 m Sun on a sheet. Then theycan measure the distance, in scale, of the Earth–Moon system from the Sun.At the Earth distance, using a tube containing the Earth and the Moon, (forpractical purposes only, to make easier the Earth–Moon alignment), they caneasily realize how so small a Moon can eclipse so large a Sun at that distance.

3.3. THIRD PHASE: ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING

In the third phase the teacher uses the traditional lessons to resume the observa-tions, the activities and the data collected. A conceptual map of the preceding phase


Figure 6. A simple instrument to describe the Moon motion and phases.

is discussed with the classroom before starting the last phase, comprehensive of thetwo main points:

• Comparing the results of the observations with the concepts;• using the developed models to analyze other different phenomena.

This last is a very important point, and the teacher’s help is very important, tosupport with reasoning and suggestions, the extension and improvement of thesimple models.

Typical topics to be covered at this step are the Earth rotation, the seasons, theMoon motion and the Earth–Sun–Moon final Model.

To make an example, in the Moon motion activity, students can develop a verysimple but effective paper instrument to describe the Moon motion in the Sky andthe Moon phases using the data collected in the previous observations.

Using a small ball and a lamp, students can verify by themselves the sequenceof the lunar phases, changing the position, with respect to the student head, of theMoon (ball).

4. Concluding Remarks and Further Readings

Astronomy is a very fascinating science for students and for this reason it can beused as a leverage to stimulate curiosity on the phenomena that happen in Nature.Our real goal is not only to teach facts or concepts about this science, but especiallyto develop in the student a method of reasoning and to approach the study of thenatural environment.

For this purpose the classical teaching method could be replaced by a differentapproach, in which the observation of the phenomenon and then its measurement is


Figure 7. Trying to reproduce the Moon phases.

the basis of any other more complex reasoning about the phenomenon itself. Onlyafter observation and measurement the spatial model can be introduced in a verysafe and effective manner.

In this framework the Moon, maybe the more fascinating body present in thesky, can be used in several steps and in many activities with very positive results.

To find the appropriate bibliography for didactics and education is generally atricky task, mainly because plenty of important papers and books are not a commonpresence in the Astronomical Institutes. This is the main reason why this paperends with an essential list of suggested readings, compiled taking into account ourexperience in this Project. The list can be useful for people interested in developingactivities in these fields, or only better understanding the background problems.

References

Ahlgren, T.: 1996, ‘Better Rather than More Astronomy Education’, in John R. Percy (ed.), As-tronomy Education: Current Developments, Coordination Future, ASP Conference 89, SanFrancisco, CA.

Atkin J. M. and Karplus R.: 1962, The Science Teacher 29, 45.Ausubel D. P., Novak, J. D., and Hanesian, H.: 1978, Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View,

Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.Benacchio, L., Brolis, M., and Saviane, I.: 1998, ‘Teaching Astronomy via The Internet’, in Albrecht,

Hook, and Bushouse (eds.), Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems, ASP ConferenceSeries, Vol. 145.


Boyce, W. et al.: 1997, ‘Multimedia Interactive Modules in Mathematics, Engineering and Science’,Comput. Phys. 11, 51.

Coyle, H. P.: 1994, ‘The Universe in the Students’s Mind’, Mercury 23.Gunstone, R. F. and White, R. T.: 1981, ‘Understanding of Gravity’, Sci. Educ. 65, 291.Karplus, R. et al.: 1976, AESOP Publication ID-32, University of California, Berkeley.Klein, C.: 1982, ‘Children’s Conceptions of the Earth and the Sun: To Cross Cultural Study’, Sci.

Educ. 65, 95.McDermott, L. C.: 1984, ‘Research on Conceptual Understanding in Mechanics’, Phys. Today 37(7),

24.Mestre, J. P.: 1991, ‘Learning and Instruction in Pre-College Physical Science’, Phys. Today 44(9),

56.Nussbaum, J.: 1979, ‘Children’s Conception of the Earth as to Cosmic Body: To Cross-Age Study’,

Sci. Educ. 1, 83.Pennybacker, C. and Asbell-Clarke, J.: 1996, ‘Hands-On Astronomy for Education’, in J. R. Percy

(ed.), Astronomy Education: Current Developments, Coordination Future, ASP Conference 89,San Francisco, CA, p. 61.

Sadler, P. M.: 1996, ‘Astronomy’s Conceptual Hierarchy’, in J. R. Percy (ed.), Astronomy Education:Current Developments, Future Coordination, ASP Conference 89, San Francisco, CA, p. 46.

Shatz, D.: 1996, ‘Education Reform: Implications for the Teaching of Astronomy’, in J. R. Percy(ed.), Astronomy Education: Current Developments, Coordination Future, ASP Conference 89,San Francisco, CA, p. 33.

Shatz, D. and Lawson: 1983, ‘Effective Astronomy Teaching: Intellectual Development and itsImplications’, Mercury 5, 6.

Sneider, C. and Pulos, S.: 1983, ‘Children’s Cosmographies: Understanding the Earth’s Shape andGravity’, Sci. Educ. 67, 205.

Visiting a Classroom: Helpful Guides for Scientists, 1996, Space Telescope Science Institute,Baltimore.

Vosniadou, S. and Brewer, W. F.: 1987, ‘Theories of Knowledge Restructuring in Development’, Rev.Educ. Res. 57, 51.

Documents

The Importance Of The Moon In Teaching Astronomy At The Primary School