Using video-recording method in listening and speaking classes

HONORARY CHAIRPERSON

Prof. Dr. Hüseyin AKAN

CHAIRPERSON

Prof. Dr. Zeki KARAKAYA

VICE CHAIRPERSON

Inst. Yasemin KÜTÜK

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Inst. Tuba ODABAŞ

Inst. Aydan ERMİŞ

Inst. Işıl ATLI

Inst. Emrah EKMEKÇİ

Inst. Salih KILIÇ

Inst. Gregory Thomas SULLIVAN

Inst. İlker CENDER

Inst. Dalga ÖZAL

Inst. Elif GÜVENDİ YALÇIN

Inst. Betül ÖZCAN

Inst. İsmail YAMAN

Inst. Neslihan ACAR

Lect. Ferit BERÇİN

Res. Assist. Adnan OFLAZ

2

ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Dr. Abdulvahit ÇAKIR, Gazi University

Prof. Dr. İbrahim YEREBAKAN, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University

Prof. Dr. Hatice SOFU, Çukurova University

Prof. Dr. Kamil AYDIN, Atatürk University

Prof. Dr. Mehmet DEMİREZEN, Hacettepe University

Prof. Dr. Mehmet TAKKAÇ, Atatürk University

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali GÜNEŞ, Karabük University

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Arif SARIÇOBAN, Hacettepe University

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nalan KIZILTAN, Ondokuz Mayıs University

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Paşa Tevfik CEPHE, Gazi University

Assist. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAKICI, Ondokuz Mayıs University

Assist. Prof. Dr. Doğan BULUT, Melikşah University

Assist. Prof. Dr. İrfan TOSUNCUOĞLU, Karabük University

Assist. Prof. Dr. M. Naci KAYAOĞLU, Karadeniz Technical University

Assist. Prof. Dr. Muzaffer BARIN, Atatürk University

Assist. Prof. Dr. Yusuf ŞEN, Düzce University

Assist. Prof. Dr. Zerrin EREN, Ondokuz Mayıs University

Dr. Deniz KURTOĞLU EKEN, Sabancı University

Mehmet ATASAGUN, Bahçeşehir University

EDITED BY

Inst. Emrah EKMEKÇİ

Inst. Işıl ATLI

Inst. İsmail YAMAN

3

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to publish a selection of diverse papers from the 3rd

Black Sea ELT

Conference “Technology: A Bridge to Language Learning” organized by Ondokuz Mayıs

University School of Foreign Languages on 15-17 December, 2012. We hope that the

conference, with its full program of plenary talks, workshops, oral presentations and poster

presentations was inspiring, informative and enlightening for everyone. In this book of

proceedings, we present a variety of research papers that reflect the changing winds and

shifting sands in foreign language teaching with the integration and application of different

kinds of technology to language teaching.

The nature of educational paradigms as ever changing is particularly true in the field

of foreign and second language teaching. The traditional understanding of teaching and

learning, student-teacher roles and educational materials has changed to a considerable extent

with the profound influence of new developments in technology. It is now widely established

that the use of technology is an indispensable part of the language teaching process for all

skills and settings. Technology helps learners internalize their acquired knowledge, making

them more autonomous, which encourages mutual interaction and communication and

facilitates direct feedback. It also results in communicative and collaborative learning as well

as motivation for both learners and teachers.

Our book of proceedings aims to bring together a variety of research papers presented

in the conference, creating a resource for researchers and teachers in the field of language

teaching. I would like to express my greatest thanks to all presenters and participants for

sharing their valuable work and experience. I would also like to recognize the conference

organizing committee of the conference for their dedication and hard work. To our sponsors, I

extend our deepest gratitude to our sponsors for their constant support.

Prof. Dr. Zeki KARAKAYA

Director of School of Foreign Languages

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Use Of Flipped Classroom In Foreign Language Teaching ........................................................................................... 8

Ahmet BAŞAL

Grammar Lessons with the Flipped Classroom Method .................................................................................................... 13

Alessandra NICOLOSI

Using Video-Recording Method in Listening and Speaking Classes .................................................................................. 18

Betul Ayse SAYIN

Poetry as an Integrative and Supplementary Teaching Resource ........................................................................................ 26

Dalga ÖZAL & Zerrin EREN

Language Learning Strategies Used By Prospective Teachers at English and German Language Teaching Departments

............................................................................................................................................................................................. 37

Dilek ÇAKICI & Adnan OFLAZ

Professional Self-Esteem as A Predictor of Teacher Burnout across Iranian and Turkish Efl Teachers ............................ 50

Ebrahim KHEZERLOU

Reader Response Theory and Its Reflections in A Reading Class ....................................................................................... 59

Emrah EKMEKÇİ & Ömer ŞEKERCİ

A Case Study: Attitudes of Esp Students Towards Call ...................................................................................................... 69

Esra ERDOĞAN & Özge KUTLU

Learning Styles and Strategies of Effective and Less Effective Learners and Gender Differences in Strategy Preferences

............................................................................................................................................................................................. 75

Gökhan ÇETİNKAYA

Students’ Attitudes toward Web-Based Instruction in an Efl Setting ................................................................................. 94

Gülbin ÖZDEMİR

Effective Ways of Teaching Vocabulary ............................................................................................................................ 99

İrfan TOSUNCUOĞLU

Adapting Materials in English Language Teaching .......................................................................................................... 106

İsmail Fırat ALTAY

Gradation of the Course Content in English Language Teaching ..................................................................................... 131


An Intercultural Outlook on the “Native Speaker Instructor” Factor and Its Reflections on the Students’ Attitudes towards

Speaking Course ............................................................................................................................................................... 139

İsmail YAMAN

Clinical Supervision: A Viable Option for Language Teacher Development ................................................................... 151

M. Naci KAYAOGLU & M. Kerem KOBUL

6

Got Poetry? A “Best-Practices” Poetry Lesson ................................................................................................................. 160

Marna BROEKHOFF

The Language Used In Turkish and English Versions of Tourism Brochures ................................................................... 166

Nalan KIZILTAN

The Relationship between Students’ Use of Reading Strategies and Reading Achievement ............................................. 176

Yusuf ŞEN & Mesut KULELİ

7

The 3rd

Black Sea ELT Conference “Technology: A Bridge to Language Learning”

November 15-17, 2012 SAMSUN

THE USE OF FLIPPED CLASSROOM IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE

TEACHING

Ahmet Başal *

ABSTRACT

With the rise of educational technology, many teachers are gradually taking innovative steps to

redesign their teaching methods and language teachers are no exception. Flipped learning or flipped

classroom is one of these steps in which students can watch instructional videos outside the classroom and

can do the assignments and other engaging activities inside the classroom. In foreign language classes, such

an approach may offer great benefits both for the language teachers and for the students since they can use

classroom time to do more engaging activities. This would also help language teachers to complete all the

subjects in the curriculum by extending the classroom hours. The videos used in a flipped classroom can be

either recorded by the teachers or chosen from a variety of Internet resources with some or no modifications.

The aim of this study is to introduce the implementation of a flipped classroom in English Language classes

and offer some suggestions. To this end, accounts of previous experiences and excerpts from the students’

reflections on the flipped classroom are presented.

Keywords: Flipped learning, elt classroom, web 2.0 tools

1. INTRODUCTION

The use of technology has becoming an indispensable part of educational settings and

language teaching is no exception. English language teachers increasingly use the technology to

make their lessons more attractive. Video, one of those technologies, is an effective teaching tool

if/when used properly (Hartsell & Yuen 2006; Shephard 2003). Teachers all over the world have

been using videos to support their instruction. Video lectures which seem different from using

videos in the classroom is not a new concept; however, the technology used in the production,

editing and distribution of these videos are easier for the teachers with the rapid developments in

technology (Whitley-Grassi & Baizer, 2010). Here comes the new term flipped or inverted

classroom. Flipped classroom has brought an innovative perspective to the traditional lectures.

Many scholars have mentioned the ineffectiveness of lectures in traditional learning environments

(eg: Berryman,1993; Millis, 1995). Flipped classroom may be used as a new approach to eliminate

the ineffectiveness of the traditional face-to-face lessons. In the literature, there are findings that

flipped classroom is effective in terms of increasing the grades of the students when compared

traditional lecture-based class (eg: Day & Foley, 2006). In addition, students prefer the flipped

classroom to traditional lecture (Lage, Platt, & Treglia, 2000).

Flipped classroom have mainly perceived as using recorded lecture videos for instruction.

However, this is seeing the tip of an iceberg. Actually, flipped classroom is not just recording the

didactic content of the lesson in front of a computer and sending it as pre-lecture videos to the

students before the lesson. If this is the case, there must be a misunderstanding in the flipped

* Asst. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Başal , Yıldız Technical University – Faculty of Education – Department of Foreign Languages

Education – [email protected]

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classroom model and it is useless. In a flipped classroom, the time spent in class is actually more

important than the videos recorded. When using flipped classroom model, classroom time can be

used for dealing with engaging activities, discussing the concepts, working on the hard-to-

understand information, answering students’ questions related the content etc. These videos can

free the teachers and leave the class time for problem solving and hands-on activities, converting

the classroom a place where active learning takes place. Bergmann and Sams (2012) described

flipped classroom simply as “which is traditionally done in class is now done at home, and that

which is traditionally done as homework is now completed in class”.

Flipped classroom seems pedagogically sound since it serves the principles of

personalized-differentiated learning, student-centered instruction and constructivism in which

students take more responsibility for their learning. It is personalized because students can learn at

their own pace. It is student-centered because the class time can be used as an environment where

students participate in many engaging activities and the role of the teachers turns to a facilitator and

observer allowing students to be more active in the class. The class will be suitable for the

constructivist approach because the class time is freed from the didactic lecturing of the teacher

allowing a huge variety of activities, group work and discussions that provides an interactive

environment for the students. However, teachers cannot see flipping classroom as a solution to all

their teaching problems. On the other hand, it is obvious that it allows teachers to free their class-

time and present choices to the students in their learning rather than just informing them about the

lesson subject in sit-and-listen lesson format. With the flipped classroom model, Elt teachers can

record their videos, add interactive elements into these videos and other previously recorded video

segments of other teachers. Therefore, the video will include to some extent “bring the world

approach” and may become more engaging, motivating and attractive to the students.

2. IMPLEMENTATION OF FLIPPED CLASSROOM

In the literature, there are many models for the flipped classroom, that is, no single model

for it. It can even be stated that there are as many approaches as the number of researchers

implementing it. Actually, the term flipped classroom is commonly used for any classes in which

videos are used as pre-prepared lessons. However, the magic in flipped classroom is not just the

pre-recorded videos but the free class-time and integration of both by adopting an overall approach.

The researcher is of the opinion that pre-recorded videos should be combined with class-time

activities and other elements of technology should be integrated into this process in order it to be

virtuous cycle. Otherwise, just using the videos and the class-time may turn to be ineffective and

time-consuming process, that is, a vicious cycle. Flipped classroom has an underlying idea that

instruction should not be limited to class-time but should take place outside the classroom by using

different mediums that are not just the pre-recorded lecture videos.

Flipped classroom can be divided into two learning environments: outside and inside. Both

sides should be perfectly integrated into each other in order this model to be effective. The first step

for teachers is Planning. Teachers should plan in detail what to the inside and outside. The second

step is selecting appropriate activities. The activities should include a huge variety as far as

possible to address the needs of all learners. Such an approach may provide rich learning

opportunities for all of the students having different learning styles. The third is to think on how to

completely integrate things in outside and inside. This is especially important since flipped

classroom is a blended learning and teaching approach. Therefore, no part can be planned and

implemented separately. The fourth step is to use a Learning Management System (LMS),

allowing to present all the learning and teaching activities to the students in an organized way.

LMS is an integral part of flipped classroom, because it has a function of connecting outside and

inside part of the flipped classroom like a bridge. Without LMS, it is hard to blend these two parts

effectively. An example of practical implementation model for flipped classroom can be seen in

fig. 1.

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Fig. 1: A Practical Implementation Model for Flipped ELT Classroom

In a flipped classroom, videos are recorded before the lesson and sent to the students

mostly through the Internet. These videos should not be just the recordings of the lectures. They

must include animations, quizzes, other videos etc. to be engaging for the students. Otherwise,

students will watch monotonous videos that make them become passive learners again. These

videos can not have the desired effect on the learning outcomes. Therefore, they should also be

supported by other tools such as wallwisher, voxopop, jogtheweb etc. that are called as Web 2.0

Tools. It is good to use a Learning Management System (LMS) to have all these things under

control.

On the Internet, there are many LMSs which are free to use. Using an LMS such as

engrade (www.engrade.com) or schoology (www.schoology.com) , user friendly and free web sites

for conducting your flip classroom in an organized way, helps teachers to fully integrate all those

things at one place. With an LMS, teachers can send their videos, activities and assignments,

contact with their students, check and grade assignments and give links to other resources. This can

be seen as a learning environment open 7/24. In flipped classroom, the underlying idea is also

providing a non-stop connection between the teachers, the students and the teaching-learning

materials. This can only be achieved through an LMS.

3. ATTITUDES OF ELT STUDENTS TOWARDS FLIPPED CLASSROOM

I used the flipped model in 2012-2013 fall semester in Foreign Languages Education

Department of Yıldız Technical University in “Advanced Reading and Writing I” course. In order

to learn the opinions of my students on the use flipped learning model, wallwisher, a web 2.0 tool,

was used. Depending on the opinions of my students, it is concluded that the attitudes of the

majority of the students towards using a flipped learning model is mostly positive (Fig. 2).

10

http://www.engrade.com/

http://www.schoology.com/

The 3rd


Fig 2: Screen-capture of the Opinions of the Students on the Use of Flipped ELT Classroom

5. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Flipped learning or flipped classroom is a kind of blended learning in essence. It is actually

not a new discovery, but the term is a recent one. Generally, the flipped model is understood as

using lecture-videos outside the classroom, which is in fact more than that. There are some

important benefits that flipped classroom can provide;

- freed-classroom time.

- opportunities for personalized learning.

- opportunities for a more student-centered learning.

- a continuous connection between the students and the teachers.

- an increase in the motivation of the students.

- a learning environment full of tools students are accustomed to.

- a variety in lecture content for different learning needs and styles.

In order to derive the above-mentioned benefits from the flip classroom, teachers should

first know the theories of learning and then flip their classrooms depending on the how learning

takes place. The teachers wanting to flip their classrooms should bear in mind that flip learning is

not just using the lecture videos outside the classroom. In this model, choosing the appropriate

engaging activities in the classroom time is also important. Moreover, having connection 24/7 with

students through the use of an LMS integrated with other web 2.0 tools providing engaging

activities is also important. The role of the teacher in this model is to guide the students. Therefore,

the teacher in the flip model is actually the most important element. Otherwise, the flipped

classroom model does not provide the desired outcomes. Flipped classroom may bring about many

benefits for ELT teachers including using videos of real life situations. Moreover, students can

listen to native speakers and teachers can take advantage of the ready-to-use rich content from the

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internet. Once ELT teachers are comfortable with the use of flipped learning model, they can

discover many new and creative ways to improve the effectiveness the model.

Some suggestions for ELT teachers wishing to flip their classrooms;

1. take into account the learning styles of your students.

2. learn to use basic technological tools.

3. plan in detail what to the inside and outside the classroom. 4. choose appropriate activities depending on the learning styles of the students.

5. use a great variety of activities to engage all of the students.

6. integrate the appropriate web 2.0 tools.

7. use an LMS (learning management system) to integrate inside and outside the

classroom.

REFERENCES

Bergmann, J. & Sams, A. (2012). Flip Your Classroom: Reach Every Student in Every Class Every

Day. Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in Education.

Berryman, S.E. (1993). Designing Effective Learning Environments: Cognitive Apprenticeship

Models. New York, New York: Institute on Education and the Economy. Available at

http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/K12/livetext/ docs/berry1.html

Day, J., & Foley, J. (2006). Evaluating web lectures: a case study from HCI. Paper presented at the

Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Available at http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1125451.1125493

Hartsell, T. & Yuen, S. (2006). Video Streaming in Online Learning. Association for the

Advancement of Computing (AACE) Journal, 14(1), 31-43.

Lage, M.J., Platt, G.J., & Treglia, M. (2000). Inverting the classroom: a gateway to creating an

inclusive learning environment. The Journal of Economic Education, 31(1), Available at

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1183338

Millis, B.J. (1995). Introducing faculty to cooperative learning. In W.A. Wright (Ed.), Teaching

Improvement Practices: Successful Strategies for Higher Education (pp. 127–154). Boston,

MA: Anker Publishing Company.

Shephard, K. (2003). Questioning, promoting and evaluating the use of streaming video to support

student learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34 (3), 295–308.

Whitley-Grassi, N., & Baizer, J. S. (2010). Video lecture capture in physiology courses: student

attendance, video viewing and correlations to course performance. International Journal of

Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 7(10), 31-38.

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http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1125451.1125493

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1183338

The 3rd



GRAMMAR LESSONS WITH THE FLIPPED CLASSROOM METHOD

Alessandra NICOLOSI

Metu University, Ankara

[email protected] ame

ABSTRACT

My talk will be focusing on a technique called “the flipped classroom”. I will draw attention to the statement

that the flipped classroom is not all about watching videos at home and doing homework in the classroom. In

fact this powerful method involves a sustain change of mentality not only in the methodology of delivering

information but also in the students’ learning process.

For years I asked myself if my students were really actively participating while I was explaining them

grammar or if they just were sitting passively. I was stuck doing examples after examples so I decided to flip

my grammar lessons. My lessons now are recorded/screen cast and put in the Internet in a ‘collaborative

environment’ where students can watch/listen and where feedback is provided with the help of technology.

“Screen cast-o-matic” is one of the amazing free teaching tools which allow me to manipulate my lessons

outside the classroom walls.

On one hand the flipped method has given me the great chance to get more aware of my students’ meta-

cognition abilities. On the other hand has provided the students with the most significant learning

opportunity; their teacher’s support when needed.

Keywords: flipped classroom; grammar; screen cast; record; video.

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper delineates a significant shift I underwent towards the way my grammar lessons

are submitted in the class. I began with a conjecture about what was the main difficulty I

experienced while delivering grammar lessons. Evaluating this factor, I concluded that my

discontent may have risen in part because everyday classroom experience rarely affords

opportunities to engage students with time practice and instead time in class is mainly used for

lecturing grammar. Thus, students lack appropriate experiences to interact dynamically.

Accordingly, I sought to devise, an experience to construct these target goals. Then I started to flip

my grammar lessons.

The experience involved a routine screen cast record of the grammar to be given at home as

homework. Students were asked to watch the video and synchronously interact with it. So doing, I

expected students would have coped with the task in authentic contexts and especially in an

environment which would have respected their cognitive ability.

2. THE FLIPPED CLASSROOM

The term ‘flipped classroom’ or ‘inverted classroom’ (Strayer, 2009) as such has gained lot

of popularity in the last ten years. According to Bermann & Sams (2012) Flipped Learning happens

when the teacher’s lecture is delivered to students via video outside of the classroom. Then

traditional class time is used for active problem solving and one-to-one or small group tutoring

with the teacher. What I would like to argue is that ‘flipped classroom’ method requires much more

than a simple change of directions of instructions.

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Teachers tent to monopolize class-period duration by overusing instructional time whereas

students’ participation is reduced to listening. Concurrently, when concepts are presented in a

structured manner during direct instruction a student may feel frightened because it may appear that

everybody in class understand and he may argue to himself he does not. In such a case he will

doubtfully request for a clarification not to put himself in ridiculous. In other circumstances a

student, during class time, may just meditate over personal daily life engagement and may not be

attentive to the lesson. Teachers, on the other hand, may talk too fast to be followed or handwriting

on the blackboard can be misread.

In all these above-mentioned cases students are missing something. In and of itself, the

source of information is the teacher and there is one-way flow, usually from teacher to students.

Being a language teacher requires a big portion of time lecturing grammar. Grammar lessons are

unavoidable in a language syllabus. As a teacher there are opportunities to vary exercises, to

change book, to create on line platforms and to generate extracurricular activities. Teachers can

also contribute to improve themselves in a myriad of forms, but as regard as for grammar lessons it

is only possible to reorganize the inputs while the topic must stay unaltered. Flipped classroom

method offers an opportunity to avoid partially some of the common quoted difficulties.

2.1. How to implement the Flipped method in class.

In order to perform the flipped method in class, it is necessary to inspect the range of

possible tools available. For the purpose the best tools are: video record, ready videos, vodcast or

podcast, screen cast.

As for myself I experienced that my students prefer their teacher talking, this is why I

opted for screen cast record. Although this option was the most suitable for me I must declare that

having students create videos is a great opportunity to apply the content themselves. To prepare the

screen cast a free on-line tool was used: ‘screen-o-matic’. Screen-o-matic is a flexible and intuitive

tool which offers to the user many features. It has a fifteen minutes record availability, a shared

account and a playlist. Furthermore it has a functional microphone adjustable directly from the

same recording page, a camera and an editable page which allows the user to correct mistakes

while recording. Last but not least, there is no need of downloading on the computer.

Now, given the tool, we must focus on the educational challenge in class and consequently

at home. As language teachers and educators what we do next? I explained, in the section above,

that the method is often simplified as videos being watched at home and homework being done at

school. In fact to flip a lesson you require activities to be done before, during and after the actual

lecture. The first step should be to give pre-training in the class. This could be key words, a small

introduction, and an example of the grammar. Alternatively it could be a brief presentation through

a reading or a video. In any case it should be a sort of guidelines to direct and brainstorm students

and to prepare them for the actual video. It is a fact of reality that delaying the direct instruction as

much as possible increases students’ curiosity.

The second step is the screen cast itself. Armed with the criteria that simply watching an

unattractive lecture video will not get students excited about this process we must set out a new

bridging task. After a long process of trials and errors I finally finalized a set of procedures which I

felt had a good chance of satisfying me. To begin, it is not tolerable to replace an hour classroom

lecture with an hour video. Audio and video should be used in short, five to ten minutes, segments.

Video must cover one topic at once. Content delivery must be clear and concise and should not

require a student to pause every few sentences. There should be opportunities for students to

interact with the information in these videos in a range of forms. Teachers also play a didactic role

and have huge responsibilities for the success of the screen cast. These roles include the ability to

set clear and detailed goals, to improvise if necessary, to have a personality and a bit of humor and

eventually the overall competence to be unambiguous. Teachers also must decide whether to write

or not the transcript to allow students to follow the flow of speaking.

A final step is to deliver the screen cast. A few on line free tools may serve the purpose.

Screen cast can be embedded in an editable web page or can be posted in You-Tube, Teacher-Tube,

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School-Tube or Vimeo. Screen cast can also be sent as an e-mail to students or can be downloaded

to computers as an Mp3 file.

And now we are ready to whittle down forty minutes lecture to ten minutes video

2.2. Assimilate the video home lecture.

Because the work at home should not be without some sort of focus, opportunities must be

set up for students to think deeply and question what they have learned at home before coming to

class.

To interact with the videos, students are asked to take notes of important concepts and

examples and to answer questions posed to them. The quality and depth of their answers inform the

teacher of how much they truly comprehend and what misconceptions need to be further explained.

After this first approach, students may be asked to write at least one question regarding the content.

Questions are shared in the Internet where they are commented and elucidated by other students,

becoming an opportunity for everybody to deepen their misunderstanding. This method can be

easily associated with the asynchronous online tutoring which according to Macdonald offers an

occasion for reflection and flexibility (Macdonald, 2006). Teachers may also want students to

underline unclear parts of the transcript.

2.3. Back to class: The post-video lesson

The above explained process need to be reworded in class so that is the group or single

student that becomes the focus and not the lessons itself (Gerstein, 2000).

Back in class means that teachers will benefit from the use of additional time. The aim is to

use this time in the most advantageous form. When students come to class, their understanding is

reviewed. First they work in group to retrieve from their memory the learning material acquired as

well as to clarify anything that was not comprehensible during the video lesson. Questions that

students had asked are clarified. Problems are discussed among themselves or asked to the teacher

but in both cases the actual practice and feedback are given forthwith. It is believed that this

discussing factor have more impact on students achievement than the content-specific factor. In

fact, after learning concepts, students may conceptualize better through the process of ‘meaning

making,’ that is, they may need time to process and internalize their learning through discussions.

This can also be revealed from the questions sample the students utter which now change impact to

sound more specific and acute. Students not only are encouraged to work with one another, thus

helping them to develop peer interaction, but also they are constantly reminded that one way they

can really became aware of a concept is by explaining the same concept to someone else (Mazur,

1997). Time in class is also spared to design tasks that challenge students and force them to use the

language for a real communicative purpose, within a significant context. Eventually class time may

be use to perform experiential exercises, to debate or to test through quizzes

Generally speaking, the teacher devotes more meaningful time to the students personal and

specific questions by providing more elaborated conceptual explanations on students’ requirement.

Physically, teachers who were working at their desk now will be circulating the room.


In the present article, I investigated an alternate way of lecturing grammar in a language

class. Recapitulating, the flipped classroom method helps students to switch from passive to active

lecturing mode. Based on the recognition that sitting and listening to a lecture is not the most

productive opportunity to learn, here are some of the critical questions to be taken into account

both as a language teacher and as a teacher in general terms. Do we want the students to master the

subject? Do we want to increase students understanding? Do we want to let them to own the

content? Do we want to create an environment that is student centered? If teaching is not a

‘transfer of knowledge’ it is obvious to conclude that a learner must own the information and make

sense of it. Teachers may decide then to have the information examined at home and alone instead

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of using time in class. I believe that a crucial part of the learning take place in those occasions.

Unfortunately many teachers make many efforts to prepare lessons plan, they concentrate on what

to say forgetting what their students may need. Then they deliver what they consider important. But

we know that curriculum planning is not always reflected on the students learning speed of

information. The flipped classroom method encourages a different approach of delivering and

assimilating information.

Based on the above analysis, here are some of the benefits and drawbacks of using such a

model. It may be argued that, as far as the cognitive ability is concerned, students are not

confronted with spontaneous questions during the interaction with the video. But, it is interesting to

notice that engaging with the video will lead to the maximum retention of information and will

inspire high level thinking skills. Still, when considering the unusualness of the method of

‘teaching with the flipped classroom model’ some issues become particularly problematic. Because

it absorbs more time for the students to watch and work on the video they might refuse it. Honestly

and according to my experience, students do not refuse the method if the amount of time they have

to spend at home is cleverly balance. Eventually learners need to be conduct carefully through a

new way of teaching and learning altogether. Another contradictory aspect is the internet access.

Some students may complain about lacking a wireless connection at home. Yet despite the

polemical perspective, there is a remedy for this situation. Video material can be burned to DVDs

and can be gained access on students’ home DVD player. Having debated the plausibility of

various negative possibilities, one question remains unsolved. If students refuse to watch or just do

not watch the video, how is the situation handled? Theoretically, motivation may fall at any time

but in my view, it is necessary to move beyond the simple statement that student must study. If we

teach them to manipulate their time and organize it in a more systematic way this eventually and

evidently, will benefit their learning process and their motivation. If not, practically, students who

come unprepared can be involved in group discussion as peer-observer and they can be asked to

take notes.

Focusing now on the advantages of teaching with the flipped classroom it is correct to say

that the content, often the theoretical/lecture-based component of the lesson, becomes more easily

controlled by the learner. Because students learn at different speed, they might miss a piece of

information while in class but with a video they have control over the medium. They have the

ability to review parts that are misunderstood or which need reinforcement or those parts that are of

particular interest. Students can watch or listen over and over, pause, working a bit, and then play

the video again. This helps students to become active learners and to develop learning autonomy

because they have control over their input and they know when to learn and how to learn

(Pacansky-Brock, 2012, Chapter 1). Moreover most of the students who are struggling in class are

offered a safe place where they can ask questions and share their confusion anonymously and

without ridicule from peers. These same students may also need more time and individual attention

to learn material. Besides, videos play a big role for those students who miss school and need

assistance and support. If videos are placed all together and forthcoming subjects are collected

students may want to challenge themselves and study alone as well as review any time past

concepts.

From the previous discussion, we can draw a main conclusion; although teachers may

believe their content, once created, will last for many years, the ‘flipped classroom’ is successful

only when resources are updated with the need of students in mind. The flipped classroom method

must be evaluated as an extra educational opportunity available and not as the opportunity to avoid

lecturing grammar in class. As Wolk (2011) reported, “The more educational opportunities

available to young people both in and out of school, the more likely to find a path-way to success

that is compatible with their unique needs and talent”

Deciding to flip part of the lesson will not automatically make it a better lesson. It is

important to be intentional about when to flip and clear about what the benefits will be for students.

16

http://www.google.com.tr/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Michelle+Pacansky-Brock%22

http://www.google.com.tr/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Ronald+A.+Wolk%22

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REFERENCES

Bergmann J, & Sams A. (2012). Flip your classroom: reach every student in every class every day.

International Society for Technology in Educa.

Gerstein, J. (2000). Work in progress: facilitating the human side of experience-based training. (3rd

ed.). Wood & Barnes Publishing. Oklahoma City.

MacDonald, J. (2006). Blended learning and online tutoring: a good practice guide. Gower.Mazur,

E. (1997). Peer instruction: A user's manual. Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Mull, B. (2012, January 11). Webinar with Alan November and Dr. Eric Mazur. E. [video file].

Retrived from http://novemberlearning.com/webinar-with-alan-november-and-dr-eric-

mazur/.

Pacansky-Brock, M. (2012). Best practices for teaching with emerging technologies. Routledge.

School Tube. (2011, December 6). Flip your classroom with online discussions. [video file].

Retrived from http://bit.ly/tkVu6a

Smith, C. (2012). Screencasting. Retrived from http://prezi.com/sqwbsy0zqqt6/screencasting/.

Smith, C. (2012). Flipped-classroom. Retrived from http://prezi.com/-vbtn0xnnyzx/my-flipped

classroom/.

Strayer, J. (2009). Inverting the classroom: A study of the learning environment when an intelligent

tutoring system is used to help students learn. Lightning Source Incorporated.

Wolk, R. A. (2011). Wasting minds: why our education system is failing and what we can do about

it. ASCD.

17

http://novemberlearning.com/webinar-with-alan-november-and-dr-eric-mazur/

http://novemberlearning.com/webinar-with-alan-november-and-dr-eric-mazur/

http://www.google.com.tr/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Michelle+Pacansky-Brock%22

http://bit.ly/tkVu6a

http://prezi.com/sqwbsy0zqqt6/screencasting/

http://prezi.com/-vbtn0xnnyzx/my-flipped%20classroom/

http://prezi.com/-vbtn0xnnyzx/my-flipped%20classroom/

http://www.google.com.tr/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Ronald+A.+Wolk%22

The 3rd



USING VIDEO-RECORDING METHOD IN LISTENING AND SPEAKING

CLASSES

Betul Ayse SAYIN*

ABSTRACT

Learning is driven by what teachers and pupils do in classrooms. Here, teachers have to manage

complicated and demanding situations, channeling the personal, emotional and social pressures amongst a

group of 30 or so youngsters in order to help them to learn now, and to become better learners in the future.

In terms of systems engineering, present policy seems to treat the classroom as a black box. What is

happening inside the classroom is not clear enough to compare the certain input with a particular output

(Wiliam, 2001). Reflective teaching sheds light to the dark sides of the classroom and fosters teaching.

Reflective practice is an integral component of a teacher’s classroom success. Video-enhanced reflection is a

process that uses video analysis to stimulate reflective thought.

Listening and speaking are not only the important forms of communication, but also the most direct

language activities for people to convey information and express their ideas (JIA Xiao-yun, 2011). We have

made a research on the importance of these skills and since the 1970s, emphasis on teaching languages for

proficiency and stress on language as a means of communication have given a new dimension to the

importance of receptive skills in communication. Since then, the foreign language teaching field set aside a

response-oriented paradigm and adopted an input, or stimulus oriented learning one, in which listening

comprehension and delayed oral practice are the basis of instruction (Feyten, 1991). Video-enhanced

reflective practice is used to check how video-recording method effects the acquisition of these skills

together with bringing success for the teacher from the sphere of teaching practices.

In this article, I would like to mention the role of video-recording method of reflective teaching, its

usability and benefits for teaching listening and speaking skills in EFL classes.

Keywords: video-recording, reflective teaching, reflective practice, listening, speaking, listening

and speaking skills.

1. INTRODUCTION

Classroom observation and looking into the depths of classes so as to feel the atmosphere

there and understand what’s going on beyond what we know is part of action researches.

Observation has always been necessary to develop new methods and approaches in teaching and

improve professional development of teachers.

Observation can encourage teacher trainees and in service teachers to reflect upon their

teaching and make such reflection a permanent part of their teaching regimen. A developmental

model of observation ensures that teachers are given the chance to “develop their own judgments

of what goes on in their own classroom…sharpen their awareness of what their pupils are doing

and the interactions that take place in their classes…and heighten their ability to evaluate their own

teaching practices (Williams 1989, p.85). Especially, trainees who sense that observations are

* Instructor, Canik Basari University

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based on their real instructional context and who are involved in all stages of the process will be

more inclined to reflect on their roles as teachers and to grow from the experience (Ali, 2007).

According to Wallace (1991, 82), reflection is key to teacher development because “it is

through reflection on professional action that professional expertise is developed.” Critical

reflection encourages educators “to develop the skills of considering the teaching process

thoughtfully, analytically, and objectively as a way of improving classroom practices” (Richards

2002, 23).

Hatton and Smith (1995) suggest the educational system needs to continue to train teachers

on reflection, and more importantly create a system where in-service teachers are supported,

recognized, and provided the tools to effectively and consistently engage in reflective practices.

Zeichner and Liston (1987) maintain that to simply have "teachers try to 'reflect' on their actions

and purposes" is not enough (p. 236).

The first barrier refers to the false notion that reflection is not considered an essential

component of a teacher's job. Hatton and Smith (1995) further discussed this issue, suggesting that

in the current educational system "teaching is seen to be primarily about the immediate present and

instant pragmatic action, while reflecting is perceived as a more academic pursuit" that most

teachers do not have time nor support to engage (Hatton & Smith, 1995, p. 36). Hatton and Smith

(1995) suggest the educational system needs to continue to train teachers on reflection, and more

importantly create a system where in-service teachers are supported, recognized, and provided the

tools to effectively and consistently engage in reflective practices (Wright, 2008).

The second barrier to reflective practice arises from the cost (i.e., time and effort) of

reflection. Many teachers have claimed that the benefits of reflecting are out-weighed by the

investment cost (Ross, 2007). Hatton and Smith (1995) further clarify the issue, arguing that

"reflection is unlikely to develop as a professional perspective in today's busy and demanding

world of teacher's work" (p. 38). The video-enhanced reflection process used in this study is

believed to address this barrier by providing a tool and process that creates the motivation

necessary to engage teachers in reflective practice where the benefits outweigh the costs (Wright,

2008).

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Using Video-recording Method of Reflective Teaching

Sherin and Van Es (2003) define the benefits and relationship video has on teacher

reflective practices by suggesting that video improves a teacher's ability to notice and interpret

what is happening in their classroom. In addition, it promotes discussion that leads to implementing

new strategies and techniques.

Observing, analyzing, and discussing classroom performance is enhanced by the use of

videotaping. Recording lessons for self-observation:

• allows students to distance themselves and be dispassionate about their teaching (van Lier

1988);

• helps trainees notice and respond to both strong and weak aspects of their teaching;

• allows trainees to view a DVD immediately and re-examine it many times; and

• has a well-known motivating effect (Wallace 1981; Murphey 2000; Bailey, Curtis, and

Nunan 2001; Maclean and White 2007).

Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very useful information for reflection.

You may do things in class you are not aware of or there may be things happening in the class that

as the teacher you do not normally see.

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Audio recordings can be useful for considering aspects of teacher talk.

• How much do you talk?

• What about?

• Are instructions and explanations clear?

• How much time do you allocate to student talk?

• How do you respond to student talk?

• Video recordings can be useful in showing you aspects of your own behaviour.

• Where do you stand?

• Who do you speak to?

• How do you come across to the students? (Tice, 2011)

Farrell (2004, 27) identifies the following fundamental questions that a teacher should

reflect on:

1. What am I doing in the classroom?

2. Why am I doing this?

3. What is the result?

4. Will I change anything based on the information gathered from answering the first three

questions?

Though the majority are yes/no questions, they still direct trainees’ attention towards their

classroom behavior and make them focus on and review particular moments of the microteaching

(Orlova, 2009).

Schratz (1992: 89) comments:

Audio-visual recordings are powerful instruments in the development of a lecturer’s self-

reflective competence. They confront him or her with a mirror-like “objective” view of what goes

on in class. Moreover, class recordings which are kept for later use, can give a valuable insight into

an individual teacher’s growth in experience over years (Jack Richard, 1996).

2.2. The Importance of Listening and Speaking Skills

Ever-growing needs for fluency in English around the world because of the role of English

as the world’s international language have given priority to finding more effective ways to teach

English. It is therefore timely to review what our current assumptions and practices are concerning

the teaching of these crucial language skills (Richards, 2008).

When we look through the nature of a language, we realize that majority of people listen

and speak more than they write and read. This is certainly true with regard to our mother-tongue;

but how about the foreign languages? Stager mentions that Professor von Jagemann, who thinks it

very important that the student should become acquainted with the spoken idiom, an opinion

generally held among the modern philologists both of America and Europe. Speaking above all

other things makes us acquainted with the spoken language (L. A. Stäger, 1886). In speaking and

listening we tend to be getting something done, exploring ideas, working out some aspect of the

world, or simply being together (Jones, 1996).

It has been claimed that over 50 percent of the time that students spend functioning in a

foreign language will be devoted to listening (Nunan, 1998). Despite this, we often take the

importance of listening for granted, and it is arguably the least understood and most overlooked of

the four skills in the language classroom.

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Listening is the natural precursor to speaking; the early stages of language development in

a person’s first language (and in naturalistic acquisition of other languages) are dependent on

listening (I.S.P. Nation, 2009). Similarly, in second language learning, several writers and

researchers in the early 1980s suggested that listening had a very important role (Winitz, 1981).

The listening-only period is a time of observation and learning which provides the basis for the

other language skills.

Listening is an activity that is both reflective and reflexive. The ways in which we listen

not only make us receptive to the sounds and meanings of others, but they also provide the contexts

for shaping speech acts that make it possible for others to listen to us. Listening is a form of

attention, not only in the sense that we await and focus on what someone else is saying but also in

the sense that the utterance of another takes shape in our own mind.

The act of listening is social as well as physical. In addition to hearing the sounds that

others produce, the act of listening implies an interaction that creates context and meaning. Just as

we listen to the overtones of an acoustic guitar for the full shaping of even a single note, so we

listen most acutely when we are sensitive not only to another’s voice but also to the intention and

implications of what we’re hearing.

Listening is a dialogic art. The art of that listening, broadly speaking, takes two different

forms. On the one hand, we often find ourselves listening for something. Every time a teacher asks

a question to which she knows the answer, she is listening for an answer. She attends not only to

the student’s voice but also to the answer she is waiting to hear (Kaplan, 2009).

Approaches to the teaching of speaking in ELT have been more strongly influenced by fads

and fashions than the teaching of listening. “Speaking” in traditional methodologies usually meant

repeating after the teacher, memorizing a dialog, or responding to drills, all of which reflect the

sentence-based view of proficiency prevailing in the audio-lingual and other drill-based or

repetition-based methodologies of the 1970s. The emergence of communicative language teaching

in the 1980s led to changed views of syllabuses and methodology, which are continuing to shape

approaches to teaching speaking skills today. Grammar-based syllabuses were replaced by

communicative ones built around notions, functions, skills, tasks, and other non-grammatical units

of organization (Richards, 2008).

According to the research we did on the importance of language skills among 52

elementary and pre-intermediate level university students, the results have shown that two third of

the students see the ‘speaking skill’ as the most important to acquire and the listening skill either in

the first or second rank. They both are seen as the main skills in learning English as a foreign

language (EFL). But again the same study has shown that they are not successful in speaking and

listening as they are in other skills. We have seen that they are very enthusiastic to acquire these

skills and to communicate in a foreign language. Importance of oral practice and communication

are their reasons to rank these skills as the first according to the questionnaire. After this we

decided to use video-recording method of reflective teaching in listening and speaking classes in

order to check its use for the urgency of the improvement of these skills.

3.METHODOLOGY

3.1. The Methods of Teaching Listening and Speaking

Many traditional classroom listening activities focus primarily on bottom-up processing,

with exercises such as dictation, cloze listening, the use of multiple-choice questions after a text,

and similar activities that require close and detailed recognition, an processing of the input.

Top-down processing on the other hand, refers to the use of background knowledge in

understanding the meaning of a message. Whereas bottom-up processing goes from language to

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meaning, top-down processing goes from meaning to language. In real-world listening, both

bottom-up and top-down processing generally occur together (Richards, 2008).

Successful listening can also be looked at in terms of the strategies the listener uses when

listening. Does the learner focus mainly on the content of a text, or does he or she also consider

how to listen? A focus on how to listen raises the issues of listening strategies. Strategies can be

thought of as the ways in which a learner approaches and manages a task, and listeners can be

taught effective ways of approaching and managing their listening (Richards, 2008). There are two

kinds of strategies identified in listening: Cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies (Buck,

2001).

Here, we focused on metacognitive listening strategies. Metacognitive strategies are

conscious or unconscious mental activities that perform an executive function in the management

of cognitive strategies (Richards, 2008). It has four phases: Assessing the situation, monitoring,

self-evaluating, self-testing.

When we look at teaching speaking, since each skill has its own methods to teach, we see

that speaking is categorized according to its functions. Richards (2008:20) states that in designing

speaking activities or instructional materials for second-language or foreign-language teaching, it is

also necessary to recognize the very different functions speaking performs in daily communication

and the different purposes for which our students need speaking skills. These functions of speaking

are listed as “talk as interaction, talk as transaction, talk as performance” in the framework of

Brown and Yule (Richards, 2008).

Talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by “conversation” and describes

interaction that serves a primarily social function. When people meet, they exchange greetings,

engage in small talk, recount recent experiences, and so on, because they wish to be friendly and to

establish a comfortable zone of interaction with others. Talk as transaction refers to situations

where the focus is on what is said or done. The message and making oneself understood clearly and

accurately is the central focus, rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each

other. The third type of talk, talk as performance refers to public talk, that is, talk that transmits

information before an audience, such as classroom presentations, public announcements, and

speeches (Richards, 2008).

3.2. Participants and Data Collection Analysis for both Listening and Speaking Skills

with the use of Video-recording

We used the video-recording method of reflective teaching for the monitoring phase of

metacognitive listening strategies. The observation was held among 21 pre-intermediate level

university preparation course students consisting of four different departments. After the planning

phase in which the objectives are determined and the short-term and long-term goals are identified,

the teacher checks in the monitoring phase how the tasks are carried out. At that stage, video-

recordings have been helpful to collect the data both to handle the planning and the monitoring

phases. Teachers can see the weakness in themselves and in students vividly. They have seen what

the students needed during the listening classes. What was decided to be checked was whether the

students understood the listening text after the second listening, whether there were many unknown

words or the words were explained before and tangible for them, whether the pronunciation of the

listening text was understandable and whether the length of the listenings were enough for the level

of students or not. And also whether the majority (nearly all of the students) understood the

listening text and reached the correct answer for the task was controlled, as well. With the help of

video-recordings, what had been planned to check was looked through in the monitoring phase in

several lessons. The teacher watched the videos and made a critique of herself.

It is seen that recordings were helpful and easy for the teacher to see her competence in

teaching listening and to take the right action for the previous wrong attitude such as listening the

answers of half of the class. She started questioning each student about the number of answers they

understood and checking the written activity on their desks.

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Being recorded was a control over the teacher and kept the teacher always aware of her goals

and the target group. Students were observed that they liked the listening tasks since they began to

understand the texts with the effort of the teacher, and when their unvoiced demands were met.

In class practice for video-recording we used the talk for transaction function of speaking

since it focuses on the message, employs communication strategies for participants, includes

frequent repetition, checks comprehension and explains a need or intention. Besides, the students

have elementary – pre-intermediate level and they need more to focus on the situations and to learn

how to respond to situations. The study was conducted by a female teacher among her students.

The teacher used pair-work activities and group activities, role-plays, and in-class competitions

while recording both the students and herself, as well.

With the aid of recording, teacher managed to make her students to focus on the activity.

They handled it more realistic, paid attention to their roles and listened to each other. Group

activities for speaking always cause a noisy atmosphere in the classroom, though. Yet what was

aimed was reached. Teacher had the chance to see herself as a facilitator and decide whether she

was sufficient to facilitate the conversations and talks. She saw how much time she allocated for

the activities, she decided later on whether it was less or more for the activities and whether the

students’ performance worked out the way she expected.

Both in listening and speaking classes, the first several recordings are used first to see the

problem during the learning and teaching phases of these skills; they shed light to identify the

weaknesses of both the teacher and the students. Next recordings were used to monitor both the

teacher and the students in order to see the improvements in actions towards the target behaviour.

After every recording, we see that the teacher masters in situation, controls his/her behaviours and

facilitates the class in the way she wants. Even the minor change in the method of teaching after the

teacher’s own comments for recordings is enough both to please the teacher and to provide students

with improved skills.

4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Both in listening and speaking classes, the first several recordings are used first to see the

problem during the learning and teaching phases of these skills; they shed light to identify the

weaknesses of both the teacher and the students. Next recordings were used to monitor both the

teacher and the students in order to see the improvements in actions towards the target behaviour.

After every recording, we see that the teacher masters in situation, controls his/her behaviours and

facilitates the class in the way she wants. Even the minor change in the method of teaching after the

teacher’s own comments for recordings is enough both to please the teacher and to provide students

with improved skills.


Reflective practice is an integral component of a teacher’s classroom success (Zeichner,

Valli). Current research has shown that when teachers are reflective practitioners, their teaching

improves (Wright, 2008). Video-recording method of reflective teaching has shown that teachers

can use this method in order to improve the quality of their teaching methods of listening and

speaking which are seen as the major skills nowadays, yet for other skills, as well.

Instead of keeping diaries, writing comments and asking colleagues for peer observation

for each target lesson as part of reflective teaching, video-recording is more objective, less time

consuming and more practical for peer comments.

Additionally, video recording has special value for non-native English speaking trainees

because it enables them to focus not only on the nonverbal aspects of their teaching but also to

reflect on their communicative competence, including their language proficiency, knowledge of

essential language functions, and their style of teacher-student interaction (Orlova, 2009).

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REFERENCES

Ali, S. (2007). Ref lective Teacher Observation Model for In-Service Teacher Trainees.

English Teaching Forum, 1, 16-24.

Buck, G. (2001). Assessing Listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Feyten, C. M. (1991). The Power of Listening Ability: An Overlooked Dimension in Language

Acquisition, The Modern Language Journal, Vol.75, Issue 2, pages 173-180, 1991. The

Modern Language Journal, 75(2), 173-180.

Harris, A. (1998). Effective Teaching: A review of the literature. School Leadership &

Management, 169-183.

I.S.P. Nation, J. N. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. New York: Routledge

Taylor & Francis.

Jack Richard, C. L. (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. NY, USA:

Cambridge University Press.

JIA Xiao-yun, F. G.-r. (2011). Strategies to Overcome Listening Obstacles and Improve the

Listening Abilities. US-China Foreign Language, 9(5), 315-323.

Jones, P. (1996). Planning an Oral Language Program. In P. Jones, & P. Jones (Ed.), Talking to

Learn (pp. 12-26). Melbourne: PETA.

Kaplan, A. (2009). Editor's Introduction: Acts of Listening. Schools: Studies in Education,

9(1), pp. 1-9.

L. A. Stäger, H. C. (1886). Speaking as Means and End of Language Teaching. Transactions

and Proceedings of the Modern Language Association of America, 2, pp. xviii-xxiv .

Nunan, D. (1998). Approaches to Teaching Listening in the Language Classroom. Korea

TESOL Conference, (pp. 287-297). Taejon, Korea.

Orlova, N. (2009). Video Recording as a Stimulus for Reflection in Pre-Service EFL Teacher

Training. English Teaching Forum, 2, 30-35.

Richards, J. C. (2008). Teaching Listening and Speaking: From Theory to Practice. New York,

USA: Cambridge University Press.

Tice, J. (2011, June 15). British Council, BBC. Retrieved from www.teachenglish.org.

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Wiliam, P. B. (2001). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards Through Classroom

Assessment. King’s College London School of Education.

Winitz, H. (1981). The Comprehension Approach to Foreign Language Instruction. Rowley,

Massachusetts: Newbury House.

Wright, G. A. (2008). How Does Video Analysis Impact Teacher Reflection for-Action?

Brigham Young Institution, Department of Instructional Psychology.

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POETRY AS AN INTEGRATIVE AND SUPPLEMENTARY

TEACHING RESOURCE

Dalga ÖZAL, Zerrin EREN

ABSTRACT

Poetry, if chosen carefully and used properly, can be a striking language teaching resource and this

presentation aims to highlight the effectiveness of contemporary poetry as an integrative and supplementary

teaching resource. Furthermore, this presentation is based on the thesis study titled Using Poetry in Teaching

English to Intermediate Level EFL Students by Dalga Özal, under the supervision of Asst. Prof. Dr. Zerrin

Eren. To indicate the strength of poetry-based activities, a 15-week experimental study was conducted with

the ninth-grader intermediate level EFL students at Samsun Anatolian Fine Arts High School. An

experimental group and a control group were chosen randomly and the experimental group was instructed

through poetry-based activities while the control group was instructed through traditional methods.

Considering the experimental group, activity organization was an important issue as well as the careful text

selection. Throughout the study, both groups were given four progress tests and a final test. The data gathered

from all the tests were analysed with the Levene’s T-test in the statistical analysis program SPSS. As a result,

statistically significant differences were found between the two groups’ tests scores. Based upon these

findings, poetry-based activities can be said to be more effective in developing the ninth-grader intermediate

EFL students’ major language skills than the traditional teaching methods and techniques.

Keywords: literature, poetry, literature and language teaching, poetry and major language skills,

teaching English through poetry.

1. INTRODUCTION

During the compelling and demanding language teaching process, people constantly try to

find different methods and techniques in order to overcome the problems encountered by the

learners while learning a foreign language. There are many language-teaching materials such as

course books on recent methods, and new teaching techniques based on recent technological

developments. Preferring a method to another, or choosing any language teaching material depends

on the teacher, because of the fact that a method or a technique which is effective for a specific

learner group may be ineffective for the other. Poetry, if chosen carefully and used properly, can be

a remarkable language teaching resource in this complicated process since it is universal among all

societies and deals with themes that are common to all cultures and human experiences, such as

love, death, nature, despair, and hope.

Although the use of poetry in language teaching is opposed because of its deviated

language and the use of highly figurative language such as symbols, metaphors, and

personification; the use of semantic ellipsis and unusual collocations; and the collocation of

unfamiliar elements and conventions in poetry, all these difficulties can be overcome using

carefully selected poems along with neatly organized activities.

Instructor, Ondokuz Mayıs University, School of Foreign Languages, [email protected] Asst. Prof. Dr., Ondokuz Mayıs University, The Faculty of Education, Department of Foreign Languages Education,

English Language Education, [email protected]

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Carefully selected poems provide opportunities for learners to examine “the possibilities of

the language uses” (Lems 2001:24). They provide learners with valuable authentic contexts. Using

poetry in the classroom can lead the students naturally to freer, creative writing style as well, which

is distinguished from learners’ course context.

The poetry can be excellent material for promoting the integration of skills for language

learners. As Maley and Duff (1989:7) assert “Poetry offers a rich resource for input to language

learning”. In poetry, almost all the uses of language can be seen. A poem offers a ready-made

semantic field for the learners to enter; it includes the features of vocabulary, expressions, syntax,

structure, morphology, and stylistic devices.

Poetry has some fairly distinctive features, which distinguish it from other discourse and

which can be found in ordinary language, but are more frequent in poetry. They include rhyme,

rhythm, alliteration, and assonance.

Beside the advantage of compactness and brevity, many poems are well suited to a single

classroom lesson (Collie and Slater 1987:227).

It is useful to help our students identify and benefit from the unique features and

advantages of poetry. However, it should be emphasized again, when using poems what is most

important is the students’ response to them. The strategies used to study language with a poem

should allow the student to engage with the poem personally. The most important issue is the

learners’ feelings and personal interpretation of the poem, not the teacher’s analysis and

interpretation. To achieve this, learners should be encouraged to interact with the text and express

their personal response as well as to explore their own experiences in relation to the poem used.

Taking all these advantages into consideration, this study aimed to investigate the

effectiveness of contemporary poetry as an integrative and supplementary teaching resource in

comparison to traditional classroom techniques in teaching English to intermediate level ninth-

grader EFL students at Anatolian High Schools.

1.1 Aim and Significance of the Study

There are some theses on using poetry in the language classroom in Turkey. However, all

those studies were carried out at university level with upper intermediate or advanced level adult or

young adult learners, and they concentrated on grammar teaching, speaking skills and writing

skills. In addition, since the experiments were conducted in one or two lessons with only one or

two poems, these studies are considerably limited in observing the effects of using poetry. What is

different and significant in our study is its intent to enhance the language learning and to provide

skills integration by using poetry as a supplementary and integrative teaching material at

intermediate level with high school students during one educational term of 15 weeks.

1.2 The Scope of the Study

To make use of poetry in the most beneficial and effective way, and to benefit from its

special linguistic devices and figurative language in engendering the learners’ interpretative skills,

the learners should know some basic language structures. Owing to this fact, the students of the

intermediate level were chosen for this study. In addition to this, to avoid the possible ambiguity

and difficulty arising from the archaic words or syntax that older poems may include,

27

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contemporary poetry was chosen. Besides, contemporary poetry has a variety of subject matters;

so, it is easy to choose poems which will appeal to the interest of the students.

The experimental study was conducted at Samsun İlkadım Anatolian Fine Arts High

School during the spring semester of 2004–2005 School Year.

This study investigated the following research questions:

1. May poetry be an applicable and effective supplementary language teaching resource in the

EFL classes of the ninth-grader intermediate level learners at Anatolian High Schools?

2. Will the use of poetry be beneficial in terms of skills integration?

3. Will the themes of contemporary English poetry provide a meaningful context than the

texts in traditional course books for the target learner group?

2. INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURE

Our study was an experimental one, to verify our hypotheses, an experimental group and a

control group were chosen randomly.

Considering the functions to be studied with the ninth graders in the language curriculum1,

we implemented a 15-week experimental study during the spring semester of 2004-2005 School

Year. First of all, the proficiency level of the groups was determined with a standardized

intermediate level Oxford test. After that, they were given a questionnaire, mainly, to reveal their

attitudes toward the traditional language teaching. After each two-week instructional period, they

were given a test to check their progress. Throughout the study, the experimental group was

exposed to an instruction based on the activities developed from English poetry. The activities

aimed at involving the students into learning process interactively. On the other hand, the control

group was taught with the traditional methods and techniques.

As well as a careful text selection, activity organization was another important issue in our

study. To promote learner-centred instruction and interaction, we planned thought provoking,

meaningful and enjoyable warm up activities, which directed them to the content of the poem to be

used. We generally made use of music and pictures at this stage. Sometimes advance organizers

were used as well.

At this stage, to give a detailed example of our activities, the first week’s activities of the

instructional period are going to be illustrated. For the first lesson, we prepared activities developed

from the poem Growing Pain by Vernon Scannel (See Appendix 1). We determined our main

instructional objectives as follows:

To enable the students

to use prior knowledge to understand meaning

to talk about personal experiences

to make comparisons between the present and the past events

to listen for specific information

to transform information into a graphic

to understand and negotiate the meaning of the poem

1 T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Anadolu Lisesi (Hazırlık Sınıfı ve 9, 10, 11. sınıflar)

İngilizce Dersi Programı, Ankara 2002.

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to use some post-writing strategies

At the warming up stage, firstly, a song named Song Instead of a Kiss by Allanah Miles

was played with accompanying pictures on love on the OHP to call up the students’ schemata, and

to help them elicit the theme of the poem. After that, they were asked some questions about their

past experiences such as “Have you ever fallen in love?”, “How old were you when you first fell in

love?”, “Did you fall in love when you were at primary school?”, “Do you have a girl/boy friend

now? / What are your feelings? / What do you feel?”, “Have you ever experienced a platonic

love?”, “Have you ever written something like a poem about the person you loved?”, and so on.

Later, they were asked to compare their feelings about love in the past and at present making use of

a Venn diagram (See Appendix 2), and then they were asked to share their experiences with their

peers to find out if there were any similarities between their attitudes (See Appendix 3).

After the warm-up stage, the students listened to the poem, and they were asked some

comprehension questions such as “Who is the hero of the poem?”, “How old is he?”, “Where was

he sent?”, “What did he do there?” , “why can’t he sleep?”, “Why does he touch between his heart

and stomach?”, and so on.

Later, the students were supplied with the copies of the poem and they were asked to

discuss the questions “Who tells the poem? The little boy’s father or mother, and why do you think

so?” in pairs. Having reported their answers, the students were presented the unusual combination

of words and unusual word uses such as “the darkness whimpered, she hurts, she has been aching

here”, and they were required to work in groups and to try to write what the poet meant in standard

English. When they completed this activity, they reported their ideas to the class and compared

their ideas with the other groups. While they were working in pairs and in groups, the instructor

was checking their study and asking questions or participating in the discussions to promote the

interaction in the target language, and to make sure each member of a group was actively

participating in the work.

Then, the students were required to read the poem quietly to themselves. It was explained

that the overall feeling of a literary work was called the “mood” or the “tone”, and they were asked

to describe the mood of the poem. Although they had some difficulty at first, when it was explained

that the mood of a poem could be happy, sad, sentimental, or angry, they were able to define the

mood that the poet expressed, and the words and phrases conveyed that mood. After eliciting their

responses on the mood, the students were presented a chart, and they were asked to associate the

words about mood to the drawings on the chart as a vocabulary expansion activity.

Finally, as a follow-up activity, the students were asked to work in groups and turn the

poem into a short story in their own words. After they read their stories to the whole class, a poem

in heart shape was presented, and the students were asked to write their concrete love poem. Our

follow-up activities aimed at expanding the opportunity for the learners to relate what they studied

to their own experience. Students were given the chance to freely communicate their ideas and

responses in any way they wish. At this stage, great importance was given in order not to terminate

the students’ responses.

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3. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Evaluation of the Progress Tests and the Final Test Results

As has been stated in the method section, the experimental group and the control group

were given four progress tests and a final test throughout the experiment period, and each test

consisted of four sections: Listening, speaking, reading and writing. Both groups were tested with

the same measurement instruments to compare and contrast their skills improvement levels.

In our study, to evaluate the data gathered with the help of the progress tests and the final

test, we used the “t-test”. The t-test is used for testing differences between two means. A t-test for

independent groups is useful when the same variable has been measured in two independent groups

and the researcher wants to know whether the difference between group means is statistically

significant. “Independent groups” means that the groups have different people in them and that the

people in the different groups have not been matched or paired in any way. Therefore, in this study

students’ skills development in both groups was analysed by SPSS statistical analysis program and

results of the tests were discussed by Levene’s T-Test to see whether there was a significant

difference between the values of the experimental group and the control group. The t- test

significance value has to be “p<0,05” and our progress and final tests were evaluated considering

this value.

At the end of the evaluation period, it was seen that except the first listening and reading

skills progress test, there were statistically significant differences between the experimental group

and the control group; moreover, the experimental group is far more successful in all skills in all

progress tests and the final test. Below are the graphical representations of the total skills tests

scores:

Graph 1: Graphical Representation of the Total Listening Comprehension Test Scores of the

Experimental and the Control Groups:

METHOD

ControlExperimental

Me

an

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

LISTEN1

LISTEN2

LISTEN3

LISTEN4

FINALLIS

As is illustrated in the above graph, the experimental group scored better in all listening

skills tests administered throughout the study. Even in the first test, evaluation of which was not

30

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detected a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the two groups; the

experimental group was more successful than the control group.

Graph 2: Graphical Representation of the Total Speaking Skills Test Scores of the


METHOD

ControlExperimental

Me

an

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

SPEAK1

SPEAK2

SPEAK3

SPEAK4

FINALSPE

Graph 2 illustrates that the experimental group was far more successful than the control

group in all speaking skills tests administered during the study. Thus, our experiment has been

more effective than the traditional methods in developing speaking skills.

Graph 3: Graphical Representation of the Total Reading Comprehension Test Scores of the


METHOD

ControlExperimental

Me

an

26

24

22

20

18

16

READ1

READ2

READ3

READ4

FINALREA

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We can conclude from the above graph that although there have not been statistically

significant differences between the mean scores of the two groups in the first and third reading

comprehension tests, the experimental group has scored better than the control group in all reading

tests.

Graph 4: Graphical Representation of the Total Writing Skills Test Scores of the


METHOD

ControlExperimental

Me

an

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

WRITE1

WRITE2

WRITE3

WRITE4

FINALWRI

Graph 4 exhibits that the experimental group has been more successful than the control

group in all writing tests administered throughout our study; therefore our experiment has worked

better on the development of the writing skills than the traditional methods.

4. CONCLUSION

At the end of the data analyses of the progress tests and the final test we can assert that our

research hypothesis, which is poetry, if chosen carefully and used properly, may be an effective

language teaching tool, and may help the learners better in developing their language skills in the

EFL classroom in comparison with traditional language classroom, has been verified. The

experimental group has scored better than the control group in all progress tests and the final test

administered throughout our study. Therefore, the experimental group has been more successful

than the control group in each language skill test when evaluated independently from the other

skills.

The results of the progress tests and the final test have revealed that our study has achieved

skills integration better than the traditional methods –as a matter of fact, skills integration is not an

aim of the traditional methods. During our experiment, language skills have not been dealt with

separately. They have been presented in an integrated way. The basic framework of our sessions

has consisted of a pre-discussion to activate the students’ schemata making use of some related

materials and activities, listening to or reading the poem, discussing the questions on poem, and

32

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finally performing some follow-up activities such as writing a group poem, creating a story,

making drawings or composing the poems produced.

The students have been given regular feedback; however, since our aim is not to teach

grammar, feedback has been given in the form of paraphrasing student utterances, asking students

for clarification of their own utterances or notes in the margin of student writing requesting

clarification; not in the form of overt correction. In addition, special attention has been paid not to

overwhelm the discourse while giving feedback. To avoid reinforcing their dependence on the

teacher as a constant monitor, peer correction and self-correction have been encouraged.

As well as integrating the four skills, the general framework of our sessions has contributed

to the progress of whole language learning and learner centeredness as it has allowed student

creativity and innovation in meaningful communication settings. Therefore, with the help

comprehensible input, namely carefully selected poems and accompanying activities, the students

in the experimental group have interacted with each other for meaningful purposes. As a result,

they have been more successful than the control group; therefore, our study has achieved its aim.

REFERENCES

Lems, Kristin. 2001. An American Poetry Project for Low Intermediate ESL Learners. English

Teaching Forum. 39 (4), 24-29.

Maley, Alan and Alan Duff. 1989. The Inward Ear. Poetry in the Language Classroom.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Collie, Joanne and Stephen Slater. 1987. Literature in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Scannel, Vernon. 1993. Collected Poems 1950-1993. London: Robson Books.

33

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1

Growing Pain

by Vernon Scannel

The boy was barely five years old.

We sent him to the little school

And left him there to learn the names

Of flowers in jam jars on the sill

And learn to do as he was told.

He seemed quite happy there until

Three weeks afterwards, at night,

The darkness whimpered in his room.

I went upstairs, switched on his light,

And found him wide awake, distraught,

Sheets mangled an his eiderdown

Untidy carpet on the floor.

I said ‘Why can’t you sleep? A pain?

He snuffled, gave a little moan,

And then he spoke a single word:

‘Jessica.’ The sound was blurred.

‘Jessica? What do you mean?’

‘A girl at school called Jessica,

She hurts—’ e touched himself between

The heart and stomach ‘—she has been

Aching here and I can see her.’

Nothing I had read or heard

Instructed me in what to do.

I covered him and stroked his head.

‘The pain will go in time.’ I said.

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Appendix 2

Venn Diagram Graphic Organizer by the Researcher

Appendix 3

A Group’s Love Venn

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Appendix 4

A Sample Concrete Love Poem by the Researcher

Appendix 5

A Concrete Love Poem by a student in the Experimental Group

“Broken heart

Needs

A brand new start”

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LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES USED BY PROPECTIVE TEACHERS

AT ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGE TEACHING DEPARTMENTS

Dilek ÇAKICI **

, Adnan OFLAZ ***

ABSTRACT

The subjects of this study are the English Language Teaching (ELT) Prep-classes (day) and the German

Language Teaching (GLT) Prep-classes (day-night) at the Preparatory Class of the School of Foreign

Languages at Ondokuz Mayıs University and the students attending the English Language Teaching Program

(day-night) and the German Language Teaching Program (day-night) in the Department of Foreign

Languages Education at Ondokuz Mayıs University. The subjects of this study are composed of 364 students

( 75 males and 201 females) at English Language department and 212 students ( 40 males and 172 females)

at German Language department (totaly 576 students ). The purpose of this study is to determine the

students’ frequency of language learning strategy use in two language departments in terms of different

variables such as gender, department, types of education program (day-night), grade and types of high school

from which the students have graduated. The data of the research are gathered with

“Strategy Inventory for

Language Learning” (SILL) developed by Oxford (1990). The researchers prepared a personal information

part to get information about students’ departments, gender, program types, grade and types of high school

from which they have graduated. The data analysis done by using SPSS 13.0. The results of the study

indicate that English Language Department reported a higher use of compensation strategies on the SILL

than German Language Department. On the other hand, GLT used social strategies more frequently than ELT

department. Both the students at ELT and GLT departments have used metacognitive strategies at high level.

At the end of the study some recommendations for foreign language teachers were made.

Keywords: Language Learning Strategies, Direct Strategies, Indirect Strategies

1. INTRODUCTION

Research into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. Particularly, developments

in cognitive psychology influenced much of the research done on language learning strategies

(Wiliams and Burden 1997:149). In most of the research on language learning strategies, the

primary concern has been on "identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a

second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or

foreign language" (Rubin and Wenden 1987:19). Learning strategies are defined by Rubin

(1987:23) as ‘’strategies which contribute to the development of language system which the learner

constructs and affect learner directly.’’ According to Oxford, learning strategies are “…. specific

actions taken by the learner to make learning more easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self

directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations”(1989:8). In other words, learning

strategies refer to characteristics we want to stimulate in students to enable them to become more

proficient language learners (Oxford, 1990: 11). Strategies are the tools for active, self-directed

* Assist.Prof.Dr. Dilek ÇAKICI, Ondokuz Mayıs University,English Language Teaching Department,

[email protected] ** Research Assist. Adnan OFLAZ, Ondokuz Mayıs University, German Language Teaching Department,

[email protected]

37

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involvement needed for developing L2 communicative ability (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990).

Research has repeatedly shown that the conscious, tailored use of such strategies is related to

language achievement and proficiency. In addition, Rubin and Wenden view learning strategies as

“behaviours learners engage in to learn and regulate the learning of a second language” (1987:6).

1.1. Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies

Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) have been classified by many scholars (Wenden and

Rubin 1987; O'Malley et al. 1985; Oxford 1990; Stern 1992, etc.). Rubin’s (1987) classification is

one of the earliest ones; and with the inclusion cognitive, metacognitive, communication and social

strategies. O’Malley et al. (1985) classified LLSs under three categories, metacognitive, cognitive

and socioaffective strategies. O’Malley’s classification of LLSs lacks categories like compensation

and memory strategies to compared with that of Oxford (1990); however they put strategies related

to memory or compensation like inferencing, imagery, keyword, etc. under cognitive strategies.

Stern’s classification (1992) resembles that of Oxford (1990) in that the scopes of categories

overlap notably. However, most of these attempts to classify language learning strategies reflect

more or less the same categorizations of language learning strategies without any radical changes.

1.2. Oxfords’ s (1990) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

Oxford sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the

development of communicative competence (1990:9). Oxford divides language learning strategies

into two main groups, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into 6 groups. Direct

strategies are memory, cognitive, compensation. Indirect strategies: are metacognitive, affective,

social (1990:15).

1.3. Direct Strategies

Direct strategies are those behaviors that directly involve the use of the target language,

which directly facilitates language learning. Oxford (1990) resembles the direct strategies to the

performers in a stage play, whereas she takes after the indirect strategies to the director of the same

play. While the performers work with the language itself, they also work with the director who is

responsible for the organization, guidance, checking, correction, and encouragement of performers.

The categorization of direct language strategies are given as follows (Oxford, 1990):

1.4. Memory Strategies

Memory strategies are based on simple principles like laying things out in order, making

association, and reviewing. These principles are employed when a learner faces challenge of

vocabulary learning. The words and phrases can be associated with visual images that can be stored

and retrieved for communication. Many learners make use of visual images, but some find it easy

to connect words and phrases with sound, motion or touch. The use of memory strategies are most

frequently applied in the beginning process of language learning. As the learners advance to higher

level of proficiency memory strategies are mentioned very little. It is not that the use ceases, but the

awareness of its use becomes less.

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1.5. Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways,

e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing

information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings,

and practicing structures and sounds formally. Cognitive strategies were significantly related to L2

proficiency in studies by Oxford, Judd, and Giesen (1998). These are perhaps the most popular

strategies with language learners. The target language is manipulated or transformed by repeating,

analyzing or summarizing. The four sets in this group are: Practicing, Receiving and Sending

Messages, Analyzing and Reasoning, and Creating Structure for Input and Output. Practicing is the

most important in this group which can be achieved by repeating, working with sounds and writing,

and using patterns. The tools of receiving and sending messages are used when learners try to find

the main idea through skimming and scanning. It is not necessary to check every word. The adult

learners commonly use analyzing and reasoning strategies. These are used to understand the

meaning and expression of the target language. These are also used to make new expressions.

1.6. Compensation Strategies

Learners use compensation strategies for comprehension of the target language when they

have insufficient knowledge of the target language. These strategies make up for the deficiency in

grammar and vocabulary. When learners do not know new words and expressions, they guess the

meaning. A learner brings own life experience to interpret data by guessing. Compensation

strategies are also used in production when grammatical knowledge is incomplete. When a learner

does not know the subjunctive form of verb, a different form may be used to convey the message.

1.7. Indirect Language Learning Strategies

Indirect language learning strategies work together with the direct strategies. They help

learner regulate the learning process. These strategies support and manage language learning

without direct engagement and therefore called indirect strategies. The categorization of Indirect

language learning strategies are given as follows:

1.8. Metacognitive Strategies

Metacognitive strategies go beyond the cognitive mechanism and give learners to

coordinate their learning. This helps them to plan language learning in an efficient way. When new

vocabulary, rules, and writing system confuse the learner, these strategies become vital for

successful language learning.

Oxford (1990:136) defines meta-cognitive as ‘’beyond, beside or with the cognitive’’. Three sets of

strategies belong to this group and they are: Centering Your Learning, Arranging and Planning

Your Learning, and Evaluating Your Learning. The aim of centering learning is to give a focus to

the learner so that the attention could be directed toward certain language activities or skills.

Arranging and planning learning help learners to organize so they may get maximum benefit from

their energy and effort. Evaluating learning helps learners with problems like monitoring errors and

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evaluation of progress. Research has found that compared to cognitive strategies metacognitive

strategies are used less consistently by the learners.

1.9. Affective Strategies

Affective refers to emotions, attitudes, motivations and values (Oxford, 1990: 140). The

affective factors like emotion, attitude, motivation, and values influence learning in an important

way. Three sets of strategies are included in this group: Lowering Your Anxiety, Encouraging

Yourself, and Taking Your Emotional Temperature. Good language learners control their attitudes

and emotions about learning and understand that negative feelings retard learning. Teachers can

help generate positive feeling in class by giving students more responsibility, increasing the amount

of natural communication, and teaching affective strategies. Anxiety could be both helpful and

harmful. It is felt that a certain amount of anxiety is helpful for learners because it helps them

obtain their optimum level of performance. Too much anxiety has the opposite effect where it

hinders language learning. Anxiety often takes forms of worry, frustration, insecurity, fear, and

self-doubt. A common high anxiety creating situation for learners is to perform before the peers

and teacher when they are not prepared.

1.10.Social Strategies

Social strategies are very important in learning a language because language is used in

communication and communication occurs between people. Three sets of strategies are included in

this group: Asking Questions, Cooperating with others, and Empathizing with Others.

Among the three, asking questions is the most helpful and comes closest to understanding the

meaning. It also helps in conversation by generating response from the partner and shows interest

and involvement. Cooperation with others eliminates competition and in its place brings group

spirit. Studies show that cooperative learning results in higher self-esteem, increased confidence,

and rapid achievement. Learners do not naturally apply cooperative strategies because of strong

emphasis put on competition by educational institutions. Sometimes competition brings a strong

wish to perform better than others, but it often results in anxiety and fear of failure. It is important

to help learners change their attitudes from confrontation and competition to cooperation. Empathy

is very important in communication. Empathy means to put oneself in someone else’s situation to

understand that person’s point of view. Learners can use social strategies to develop cultural

understanding and become aware of thoughts and feelings of others.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1.Participants

The subjects of this study were the English Language Teaching (ELT) Prep-classes (day)

and the German Language Teaching (GLT) Prep-classes (day-night) at the Preparatory Class of the

School of Foreign Languages and the students attending the English Language Teaching Program

(day-night) and the German Language Teaching Program (day-night) in the Department of Foreign

Languages Education at Ondokuz Mayis University. The subjects of this study were composed of

364 students (75 males and 201 females) at English Language department and 212 students ( 40

males and 172 females) at German Language department (totally 576 students ).

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2.2.Data Collection and Analysis

The data of the research were gathered with “Strategy Inventory for Language Learning”

(SILL) developed by Oxford (1990). The language of SILL is in English originally. With the aim

of preventing any misunderstandings, Turkish version adapted by Yeşilbursa (2000:78-79) is used

for English language teaching department. Researchers adapted Turkish version of SILL to German

language teaching department in this study. Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for the scale was

found 0.81. The researchers prepared a personal information part to get information about

students’ departments, gender, program types, grade and types of high school from which they

have graduated. SILL is a 5 point Likert type scale with 50 items. Nine of these items investigate

the use of memory strategies, 14 of them are related to cognitive strategies, 6 of them measure

compensation strategies, 9 of them measure metacognitive strategies, 6 of the items investigates

affective strategies and the last 6 items try to find social strategies.

The data analysis done by using SPSS 13.0. SILL measures a learner’s frequency of strategy use.

Oxford (1990: 300) identified frequency of strategy use as follows: ‘’1,0 – 2,4” refers to the least

frequent , “2,5 – 3,4” refers to less frequent, 3,5 – 5,0” refers to the most frequent.

3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1.Participants

Table 1: Participants

F English German

Gender M 75 40

F 289 172

Program 1.Day 201 132

2. Night 163 80

Class Prep 42 57

1.Grade 74 34

2. Grade 84 49

3.Grade 99 39

4.Grade 65 33

High School State High School 73 94

Anatolian High

School

165 57

Super High School 82 57

Anatolian Teacher

Training High

School

44 4

Total (N: 576) 364 212

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Table 1 presents the distribution of the participants according to their departments, gender,

types education program, grades and types of high schools from which they have graduated.

3.2. Data Collection and Analysis

Table 2 and Table 3: The Students’ Frequency Of Strategy Use In Terms Of

Department and Gender

The results of the study indicated that English language teaching department reported a higher use

of compensation strategies (3.69) on the SILL than German language teaching department (3.46).

On the other hand, GLT used social strategies (3.50) more frequently than ELT (3.47). According

to results of this study, male students in English language teaching department used cognitive

strategies (3.57) more frequently than males in German language department (2.93). As for social

strategies, males in ELT department (3.54) made a greater use than males in GLT department

(3.41) of social strategies. Females in ELT (3.45) used social strategies less frequent than females

in GLT (3.52). As for metacognitive strategies, males in ELT department (3.63) made a greater use

than males in GLT department (3.35).

Strategies Department N Mean

x

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Memory English 364 3,16 ,552 Medium

German 212 3,11 ,659 Medium

Cognitive English 364 3,40 ,553 Medium


Compensation English 364 3,69 ,651 High


Metacognitive English 364 3,63 ,654 High

German 212 3,54 ,738 High

Affective English 364 2,98 ,600 Medium


Social English 364 3,47 ,775 Medium

German 212 3,50 ,796 High

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Table 4: The Students’ Frequency of Strategy Use In Terms Of Education Program

English German

Gender N Mean

X

Standart

Deviati

on

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Gender N Mea

n

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Memory Male 75 3,10 ,554 Medium Male 40 2,79 ,617 Medium

Female 289 3,17 ,551 Medium Female 172 3,18 ,659 Medium

Cognitive Male 75 3,57 ,620 High Male 40 2,93 ,610 Medium


Compensation Male 75 3,82 ,638 High Male 40 3,39 ,836 Medium

Female 289 3,66 ,651 High Female 172 3,47 ,725 Medium

Metacognitiv Male 75 3,63 ,689 High Male 40 3,35 ,728 Medium

Female 289 3,64 ,646 High Female 172 3,58 ,738 High

Affective Male 75 2,94 ,642 Medium Male 40 2,71 ,528 Medium


Social Male 75 3,54 ,873 High Male 40 3,41 ,796 Medium

Female 289 3,45 ,748 Medium Female 172 3,52 ,868 High

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R

esult

s of

the

stud

y

indi

cate

d

that

day-

time

Engl

ish

depa

rtme

nt

stud

ents (3.75) use compensation strategies more frequently than day time students in German language

department (3.43). On the other hand, there is a difference between the program types and students’

frequency of strategy use. Results showed that English day-time student (3.51) used social

strategies more often than that of German day-time program (3.43). But night time students in GLT

department (3.61) reported a higher use of social strategy than did night ELT department (3.42).

Table 5: The Students’ Frequency of Strategy Use In Terms of High School From

Which They Have Graduated

English German

Program N

Mean

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Progra

m

N

Mean

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequenc

y of

Strategy

Use

Memory Day 20

1

3,20 ,538 Medium Day 132 3,13 ,661 Medium

Night 16

3

3,10 ,565 Medium Night 80 3,07 ,680 Medium

Cognitive Day 20

1


Night 16

3


Compensat

ion

Day 20

1

3,75 ,625 High Day 132 3,43 ,751 Medium

Night 16

3

3,62 ,676 High Night 80 3,50 ,740 High

Metacognit

ive

Day 20

1

3,70 ,624 High Day 132 3,53 ,794 High

Night 16

3

3,55 ,681 High Night 80 3,56 ,647 High

Affective Day 20

1


Night 16

3


Social Day 20

1

3,51 ,767 High Day 132 3,43 ,874 Medium

Night 16

3

3,42 ,785 Medium Night 80 3,61 ,812 High

English German

Type of

School

N

Mean

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of

Strategy

Use

Type of

School N

Mea

n

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Memory

State High

School 73 3,11 ,555 Medium

State High


Anatolian

High School 165 3,08 ,516 Medium

Anatolian


Super High


Super High


Anatolian

Teacher

Training

High School

44 3,19 ,483 Medium

Anatolian

Teacher

Training

High School

4 3,50 ,410 High

44

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This study showed that graduates of Anatolian teacher training high school in ELT

department used cognitive strategies (3.38) less frequently than that of in GLT department (3.55). On

the other hand, State high school graduates in ELT department (3.54) use social strategies more

frequently than that of GLT department (3.45). In addition, it is found that a greater use of social

strategy by Super high school graduates in GLT department (3.64).

Table 6: The Students’ Frequency of Strategy Use In Terms Of Their Grades

Cognitiv

e

State High


State High


Anatolian


Anatolian


Super High


Super High


Anatolian

Teacher

Training

High School

44 3,38 ,508 Medium

Anatolian

Teacher

Training

High School

4 3,55 ,326 High

Compens

ation

State High

School 73 3,59 ,692 High

State High


Anatolian

High School 165 3,66 ,623 High

Anatolian


Super High


Super High


Anatolian

Teacher

Training

High School

44 3,70 ,532 High

Anatolian

Teacher

Training

High School

4 4,12 ,416 High

English German

Grade N Mean

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Grade N Mean

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of

Strategy

Use

Memory

Prep. 42 3,06 ,515 Medium Prep. 57 3,10 ,609 Medium

1.Grade 74 3,09 ,500 Medium 1.Grade 34 2,98 ,746 Medium




Cognitive

Prep. 42 3,36 ,536 Medium Prep. 57 3,27 ,576 Medium


2.Grade 84 3,40 641 Medium 2.Grade 49 3,26 ,642 Medium



Compensation

Prep. 42 3,67 ,717 High Prep. 57 3,42 ,728 Medium

1.Grade 74 3,50 687 High 1.Grade 34 3,53 ,708 High

45

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English German

Grade N

Mean

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Grade N

Mean

X

Standart

Deviation

Frequency

of Strategy

Use

Meta

Cognitive

Prep. 42 3,71 ,515 High Prep. 57 3,73 ,653 High

1.Grade 74 3,64 ,500 High 1.Grade 34 3,70 ,876 High


3.Grade 99 3,60 ,584 High 3.Grade 39 3,47 ,601 Medium


Affective Prep. 42 2,92 ,536 Medium Prep. 57 3,11 ,615 Medium


2.Grade 84 2,97 641 Medium 2.Grade 49 3,03 ,562 Medium



Social Prep. 42 3,47 ,717 Medium Prep. 57 3,58 ,829 High

1.Grade 74 3,56 687 High 1.Grade 34 3,50 ,857 High

2.Grade 84 3,38 ,615 Medium 2.Grade 49 3,65 ,768 High






46

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According to results of the study, ELT Prep classes (3.67) made a greater use than GLT

classes (3.42) of compensation strategies. Also the third (3.72) and fourth grade (3.40) students in

ELT department used compensation strategies more often than the third grade (3.40) fourth grade

(3.43) students in GLT department.

Interestingly, both third (3.72) and fourth (3.96) graders in ELT department used

compensation strategies more frequently than the third grade (3.40) and fourth grade students

(3.43) in GLT department. On the other hand, results indicates the superiority of GLT Prep-classes

(3.58) and second grade students ( 3.65) to ELT prep-classes ( 3.47) and second grade students

(3.38) in the use of social strategies.


The results of the study indicate that English Language Department reported a higher use of

compensation strategies on the SILL than German Language Department. On the other hand, GLT

used social strategies more frequently than ELT department. Both the students at ELT and GLT

departments have problems with the use of affective strategies and social strategies frequently. To

handle that problem, the teachers should strengthen the students’ social strategies preparing group

and peer activities, motivating cooperative working, giving chance the students to take

responsibility with peers and groups, providing active participation in the lesson. As for affective

strategy, high anxiety is a big problem for language learners especially for oral skills (Oxford,

1990). Using progressive relation, deep breathing or mediation, using music, using humour and

laughter are specific and effective strategies to deal with emotional problems that may arise during

learning process. Teachers should train learners to use these strategies efficiently. According to the

result of this study, almost all students from each department do not use affective strategies

frequently. Teachers should create stress-free learning environment and generate positive feeling in

class by giving students more responsibility, increasing the amount of natural communication and

teaching affective strategies.

According to results of the study, male students in ELT used cognitive strategies more

frequently than their female counterparts. Also it is found that a much more frequent use of

compensation strategies by males. Compensation strategies are used to overcome problematic

situation when the learners meet this matter. They should use strategies like avoiding

communication, using mime and gesture, guessing intelligently etc. The students should be

encouraged to use compensation strategies and related activities should be designed. In this study

males in ELT department made a greater use than females of social strategies. The teacher should

encourage learners to work in groups and with their peers to share their ideas In the present study,

the males in ELT department used cognitive strategies at high level but males in GLT department

are less user of cognitive strategies. As for metacognitive strategies, both females and males in

ELT department made a greater use than females and males in GLT department. In terms of

metacognitive strategies, the learners should be trained how to raise their awareness about

metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies are especially crucial in that students will find

the direction of their learning with them. The language teachers should encourage the students to

use metacognitive strategies. For example, before having students start activity, the teacher may

47

The 3rd


demonstrate the think-aloud technique, modeling how the activity can be done, or the students can

have a group discussion about how to accomplish the activity and what to learn from it. It is also

effective to discuss how students have engaged in a language activity after they finish it. How

teachers present language activities are closely related to students’ development of those

metacognitive strategies. As for compensation strategies are used to overcome problematic

situation when the learners meet this matter. They should use strategies like avoiding

communication, using mime and gesture, guessing intelligently etc. The students should be

encouraged to use compensation strategies and related activities should be designed.

Results of the study indicate that day-time ELT department students use compensation

strategies more frequently than GLT day-time students. The reason for this conclusion may be the

fact that ELT students may be afraid of making pronunciation mistake while speaking as they learn

English as a foreign language. Also, it is widely accepted that the students in GLT department

acquired German as most of the students were born in Germany. On the other hand, ELT day-time

students used social strategies more often than that of GLT day-time program. Another difference

between two departments in terms of education program is that night students in GLT department

reported a higher use of social strategy than did night ELT program.

According to results of the present study, graduates of Anatolian teacher training high

school in ELT department used cognitive strategies less frequently than that of in GLT Department.

On the other hand, State high school graduates in ELT department used social strategies more

frequently than that of GLT department. In addition, it is found that a greater use of social

strategies by Super high school in GLT department. The results also indicate that ELT prep class

students, third and fourth class students are high level user of compensation strategies. Especially,

fourth grade students use compensation strategies at the highest level. It is known that when

language related difficulties arise, compensation strategies like avoiding communication, using

mime and gesture can be employed. The reasons why the fourth year students need to use

compensation strategies frequently should be examined. Feeling upset, anxious and demotivated

may cause some problems in language learning process. Being a fourth class student is a

threatening factor in itself. On the other hand, results show the superiority of GLT prep-classes and

second grade students in the use of social strategies.

In conclusion, in order to provide permanent and effective learning, teachers should make

use of language learning strategies. Teachers should gain great deal of knowledge and skill about

language learning strategies. The teachers should discover their own strategies, consider new ones,

learn how to model and teach them, have many opportunities to practice and evaluate teaching

techniques and methods, and plan how they will integrate strategy-based instruction into

curriculum. Besides, foreign language departments should determine and adopt an inclusive point

of view as to language learning strategies and help prospective foreign language teachers to have

an adequate awareness about necessity and use of strategy based instruction. More highly

motivated learners use a significantly greater range of appropriate strategies than do less motivated

learners. Motivation is related to language learning purpose, which is another key to strategy use.

For instance, individuals who want to learn a new language mainly a new language merely to fulfill

a graduation requirement, the learners should be trained to assess themselves objectively.

REFERENCES

O'Malley, J.M., and & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.


O’Malley. J. and Chamot, A. U. (1994). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition.


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Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston, MA:

Heinle & Heinle

Rubin, J. and Wenden, A. (1987) Learner Strategies In Language Learning. Englewoods Hill, NJ:

Prentice Hall

Williams, M. and Robert L. Burden (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social

Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: CUP.

Willing, K. (1987) Language Strategies as information Management. Prentice Hall International

49

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PROFESSIONAL SELF-ESTEEM AS A PREDICTOR OF TEACHER BURNOUT

ACROSS IRANIAN AND TURKISH EFL TEACHERS*

Ebrahim KHEZERLOU**

ABSTRACT

The study aimed at measuring the perceived burnout levels of Iranian (N= 230) and Turkish

(N=156) EFL teachers and determining the cross-cultural role of Professional Self-esteem in predicting EE,

DP, and PA processes of burnout across Iranian and Turkish EFL teachers. The MBI-ES was used to measure

the perceived burnout levels of the participants, and a self-developed a Professional Self-esteem Scale (16

items) was developed to measure the participants’ self-esteem perceptions in five dimensions of satisfaction,

knowledge development, practice, adaptation and communication. The internal reliability of the 16-item

scale was r = 0.821. The results showed that there was a slight significant difference between Iranian and

Turkish groups only in EE burnout processes. Moreover, EE, DP, and PA subscales were better predicted by

Satisfaction, Practice, and Knowledge Development dimensions of Professional Self-esteem in the case of

both Iranian and Turkish teachers, respectively. Finally, the EE and PA prediction variances of Iranian group

were greater than that of Turkish one; whereas, the DP prediction variance of Turkish group was greater than

that of Iranian one.

Keywords: Burnout; MBI-ES; Professional Self-esteem; EFL Teachers; Iran; Turkey.

1. INTRODUCTION

Burnout describes emotional depletion, motivational loss and commitment reduction

experienced by human service workers after prolonged and extensive stress conditions (Soderfelt

and Soderfelt, 1995). Maslach and Jackson (1981) defined burnout as “a syndrome of emotional

exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals who do ‘people-work’ of some

kind” (p. 99).

The study tries to indicate that self-esteem is an important factor in predicting who will be

more likely to develop burnout, and it also tries to suggest the importance of rebuilding self-esteem

as part of the rehabilitation of burned-out employees. Therefore, the general purpose of the study is

to explore how Iranian and Turkish secondary EFL teachers’ evaluation of their profession is

related to EE, DP, and PA burnout processes in the areas of (a) Professional Satisfaction (positive

regards of teachers to teaching and their work), (b) Professional Knowledge Development

(teachers’ desire to develop skills necessary in their job), (c) Professional Practice (a sense of

preparing for the work and performing a qualified work), (d) Professional Adaptation (feeling of

adapting oneself to new work conditions to overcome challenges and problems in the workplace),

and (e) Professional Communication (teachers’ desire to impart and share their knowledge,

information, and experience to and with others). Hence, the paper aims at finding answers to the

following research questions:

1. What is the perceived level of job burnout for Iranian and Turkish secondary EFL

teachers in reference to the three-factor structure of the MBI-ES (i.e. EE, DP, and PA subscales)?

* The study is a part of my Ph.D. dissertation submitted to English Dept. at Hacettepe University. ** Assist. Prof. Dr., Mevlana University, [email protected].

50

The 3rd


2. Are there significant relationships between Iranian and Turkish EFL teachers’ EE, DP

and PA burnout levels while taking into their nationality?

3. Which dimensions of the professional self-esteem scale better predict the EE, DP, and

PA burnout subscales across Iranian and Turkish teachers?

4. To what extent do the dimensions of the professional self-esteem scale account for the

prediction variance of EE, DP, and PA subscales across Iranian and Turkish teachers?


2.1. Theoretical Framework

Maslach and Jackson (1981) put forward the most widely accepted conceptualization of

burnout that has three dimensions: emotional exhaustion (EE) referring to feelings of being

emotionally drained by intense contact with other people, depersonalization (DP) referring to

negative attitudes or callous responses toward people, and reduced personal accomplishment (PA)

referring to a decline in one’s sense of competence and of successful achievement in working with

people (Maslach, 1982; Maslach and Leiter, 1997; Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter, 2001).

Burnout among teachers has been associated with many factors. One of them is

‘professional self-esteem’ which is generally defined as a global self-evaluation. In other words, it

indicates the extent to which an individual believes the self to be capable, significant, successful

and worthy. Psychologically, it is a state of mind that prepares the person to respond according to

expectations of success, acceptance, and personal strength (Rosse et al., 1991; Harter, 1999; Hoyle

et al., 1999; Leary and McDonald, 2003). Professional self-esteem describes the importance and

value one attaches to one’s profession and is related to professional adaptation and satisfaction

(Koc, 1994; Aricak and Dilmac, 2003).

It has been argued that individuals with low self-esteem are emotionally more vulnerable

and interact less adequately with others in their workplace. Therefore, people with low self-esteem

are probably more susceptible to burnout. As Rosse et al (1991) posit that individuals with low

self-esteem tend to be less effective in interpersonal relationships. They may be predisposed both to

depersonalize people and to experience feelings of incompetence in their relationships with others.

They may also have fewer resources to help them to cope with these feelings as well as with other

stressors that produce burnout. Furthermore, individuals with low self-esteem tend to be extremely

dependent on others for validation, thus, making them particularly vulnerable in the emotionally

charged environments that are characteristic of burnout. Perception of high self-esteem, on the

other hand, has been associated with positive characteristics such as initiative, strong coping skills,

feelings of confidence, feeling of worthiness, persistence in the face of challenges, feeling of

positive regard about oneself, feeling of happiness, and longevity (Baumeister et al., 2003).

Moreover, people with high self-esteem feel good about themselves, feel a sense of belonging and

security, and respect and appreciate others. They also tend to be successful in life because they feel

confident in taking on challenges and risking failure to achieve what they want (Janssen et al.,

1999).

2.2. Relevant Studies

There exists some evidence that self-esteem is related to burnout. In their study of self-

esteem as an antecedent, moderator, or consequence of employee burnout among police officers (N

= 1,163) and hospital employees (N = 494), Rosse et al (1991) reported significant correlations

between self-esteem and all three burnout dimensions (i.e., EE, DP, and PA). Moreover,

Golembiewski and Kim (1989) found that self-esteem acts both as an antecedent and as an effect of

burnout. Furthermore, Villa and Calvete (2001) studied teacher self-esteem in relation to burnout

among secondary school teachers (n=278). The results of their study showed that teachers with

positive self-esteem believed that they were able to influence their students and experienced lower

51

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level of burnout, while teachers with negative self-esteem were found to perceive dissatisfaction

with their job. Finally, Cowin (2001) found that low self-esteem among nurses implicated in high

stress, increased burnout, attrition and low professional status.

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Participants

The participants were Iranian (N=230) and Turkish (N=156) teachers teaching English as a

foreign language in state high schools during 2011-2012 academic year. The data for the study

were collected from North West provinces of Iran (East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Erdebil,

Zenjan, Kazvin, and Tehran) and four city regions of Ankara (Mamak, Çankaya, Altındağ, and

Balgat) in Turkey.


The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (MBI-ES) was employed to measure

self-perceived burnout levels of the participants through 22 items in three dimensions of EE, DP

and PA. The internal reliability of these dimensions was checked in the study: EE (α= 0.882), DP

(α= 0.722), and PA (α= 0.745). Additionally, a self-developed Professional Self-esteem Scale (16

items) was employed to measure the participants’ self-esteem perceptions in five dimensions of (a)

satisfaction = 2 items (e.g., “I’m pretty happy with my job”), (b) knowledge development = 4 items

(e.g., “I am enthusiastic to learn new skills necessary to my work”), (c) practice = 4 items (e.g., “I

am a teacher who prepares very well for the work I do”), (d) adaptation = 4 items (e.g., “I can make

up my mind without too much trouble for changes in my work”), and (e) communication = 2 items

(e.g., “I am able and eager to impart what I know to others”). The internal consistency reliability of

the 16-item scale was r = 0.821. The collected data were entered into the SPSS version 17.0 for

Windows for analysis. Descriptive and inferential statistics such as per cent, mean, t-test, ANOVA,

and standard multiple regression were used for determining and explaining burnout levels of

Iranian and Turkish Teachers.


4.1. Findings

4.1.1. General Burnout Perceptions of Iranian and Turkish Teachers

Maslach, Jackson, and Leiter (1996) suggested three score cut-off points for each burnout

subscale (See Table 1), where high scores for EE and DP subscales along with low scores for PA

subscale indicate greater feelings of burnout. Based on this model, the results of descriptive

statistics for burnout perceptions of Iranian teachers in the three subscales of EE, DP and PA were

as: EE (Low=50.0 %, Moderate=21.3 %, and High= 28.7 %), DP (Low=56.5 %, Moderate= 22.2

%, and High= 21.3 %), and PA (Low= 29.1 %, Moderate=27.0 %, and High= 43.9 %), while for

Turkish teachers they were as: EE (Low= 28.8 %, Moderate=32.7 %, and High= 38.5 %), DP

(Low= 44.9 %, Moderate=34.0 %, and High= 21.2%), and PA (Low=27.6 %, Moderate=32.7 %,

and High= 39.7 %). See Table 2.

Table 1: Score Categories of Burnout Subscales

Subscales Range Low Moderate High

Emotional Exhaustion (EE) 0-54 0 – 16 17 – 26 27 and over

Depersonalization (DP) 0-30 0 – 6 7 – 12 13 and over

Personal Accomplishment (PA)* 0-48 39 and over 32 – 38 0 - 31

*Indicating the positively-worded subscale

(Maslach, Jackson, and Leiter, 1996)

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The summative burnout scores of the participants were also computed here. Scores were

considered ‘high’ if they were within the 25% of high scores of the total range (0-132), ‘moderate’

if they were within the 50% of middle scores of the total range, and ‘low’ if they were within the

25% of low scores of the total range. Based on this self-developed cut-off points, the results of

Iranian teachers’ overall burnout were as: (Low=38.3 %, Moderate=60.0 % and High= 1.7 %) and

for Turkish teachers were as (Low=23.7 %, Moderate= 74.4 % and High= 1.9 %). See Table 2.

Table 2: Frequency and Percentage of Iranian and Turkish Teachers’ Burnout Perceptions

Subscales Observed

Ranges

Low

Moderate

High

Ir. Tr. Ir. Tr. Ir. Tr. Ir. Tr.

F % F % F % F % F % F %

EE 0-48

2-53 115 50.0 45 28.8 49 21.3 51 32.7 66 28.7 60 38.5

DP 0-27

0-24 130 56.5 70 44.9 51 22.2 53 34.0 49 21.3 33 21.2

PA* 10-48

13-48 67 29.1 43 27.6 62 27.0 51 32.7 101 43.9 62 39.7

Overall

Burnout**

1-99 7-104 88 38.3 37 23.7 138 60.0 116 74.4 4 1.7 3 1.9

(N Ir. =230, 100% & N Tr. =156, 100%)

*The scores of this subscale were reversed to calculate the summative score of burnout.

** The cut-off points belong to the researcher (Low= 0-32, Moderate= 33-87, High= 88-132).

4.1.2. Nationality and burnout subscales

There was statistically a significant difference between Iranian (N = 230; 59.6 %) and

Turkish (N = 156; 40.4 %) EFL teachers’ perceptions on burnout only in the subscale of EE (t = -

3.36; P = 0.001, P< 0.05). However, no significant differences were observed between the groups

in the subscales of DP (t = -1.00; P = 0.316, P> 0.05) and PA (t = -.42; P = 0.674, P> 0.05) because

their P-values were more than 0.05. See Table 3.

Table 3: Nationality and Teacher Burnout

Burnout

Subscales

Group statistics t-test

Nationality N

Mean

Std.

Deviation

t df

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Eta

square

1. EE Iranian

Turkish

Total

230

156

386

19.53

23.57

12.49197

10.94505

-3.365

359.79

.001

.0286

2. DP Iranian

Turkish

Total

230

156

386

7.42

8.02

6.30661

5.31640

-1.004

366.25

.316

-

3. PA Iranian

Turkish

Total

230

156

386

32.76

33.10

8.57242

7.46102

-.421

360.96

.674

-

Moreover, ‘Effect Size’ statistic based on the ‘Eta Square’ value (ƞ2) of Cohen (1988)

indicated a slight significant difference for Iranian and Turkish groups in the EE subscale (ƞ2=

0.0286; ƞ2 < 0.059). Cohen’s (1988) effect size indexes for the ratio of variance between the

dependent and independent variables are as: small=0.01to 0.059, medium = 0.06 to 0.139 and large

= 0.14 to 1. It is computed through the ‘ƞ2= t2/t2 + (N1-N2-2)’ formula for t-tests. See Table 3.

53

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4.1.3. Professional Self-esteem as a Predictor of Burnout across Iranian and Turkish

Teachers

The results of multiple stepwise-method regression analyses for determining the role of the

five dimensions of Professional Self-esteem in predicting EE burnout subscale across Iranian and

Turkish teachers revealed that there was significant linear relationship between the EE subscale and

Professional Self-esteem dimensions of Satisfaction (t = -12.337; P = .000, P< 0.05) and

Adaptation (t = -4.975; P = .000, P< 0.05) in the case of Iranian participants and between the EE

subscale and Professional Self-esteem dimensions of Satisfaction (t = -5.947; P = .000, P< 0.05),

Practice (t = -3.134; P = .000, P< 0.05) and Communication (t = 2.036; P = .043, P< 0.05) in the

case of Turkish participants. See Table 4.

Table 4: Coefficients of EE Subscale and Professional Self-esteem across Ir. & Tr.

Groups

Subscales Ir. Tr.

Beta t Sig. R2

Beta t Sig. R2

1. Satisfaction -.603 -12.337 .000 .350 -.439 -5.947 .000 .158

2. Knowledge Development -.019 -.349 .727 - .088 .892 .374 -

3. Practice -.017 -.301 .763 - -.249 -3.134 .002 .044

4. Adaptation -.243 -4.975 .000 .057 -.063 -.781 .436 -

5. Communication .044 .863 .389 - .148 2.036 .043 .019

Sig. subscales Total R2 = .477 Total R

2 = .323

The results also showed that the significant dimensions of EE accounted for 47.7 per cent

of the subscale’s total prediction variance in the case of Iranian participants and 32.3 per cent in the

case of Turkish ones. Moreover, Satisfaction was the strongest predictor of EE subscale among

Iranian and Turkish teachers (Iranian ►t = -12.337, Beta = -.603 and Turkish ►t = -5.947, Beta = -

.439), while the weakest predictor of EE among Iranian teachers was Practice (t = -.301, Beta = -

.017) and among Turkish teachers was Adaptation (t = -.781, Beta = -.063). See Table 4.

Moreover, the results of multiple stepwise-method regression analyses represented that

there was significant linear relationship between the DP subscale and Professional Self-esteem

dimensions of Practice (t = -4.990; P = .000, P< 0.05), Adaptation (t = -2.761; P = .006, P< 0.05),

and Communication (t = -2.334; P = .020, P< 0.05) in the case of Iranian participants and between

the DP subscale and Professional Self-esteem dimensions of Satisfaction (t = -4.371; P = .000, P<

0.05), Practice (t = -4.077; P = .000, P< 0.05), and Communication (t = -2.905; P = .004, P< 0.05)

in the case of Turkish participants. See Table 5.

Table 5: Coefficients of DP Subscale and Professional Self-esteem across Ir. & Tr.

Groups

Subscales Ir. Tr.

Beta t Sig. R2

Beta t Sig. R2

1. Satisfaction -.117 -1.877 .062 - -.309 -4.371 .000 .078

2. Knowledge Development -.062 -.853 .394 - -.083 -.875 .383 -

3. Practice -.321 -4.990 .000 .082 -.310 -4.077 .000 .067

4. Adaptation -.178 -2.761 .006 .025 -.140 -1.844 .067 -

5. Communication -.148 -2.334 .020 .018 -.202 -2.905 .004 .034


2 = .381

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The 3rd


The results also demonstrated that the significant dimensions of DP in the case of Iranian

participants explained 25.3 per cent of the subscale’s total variance, while the significant

dimensions of DP in the case of Turkish participants explained 38.1 per cent of the subscale’s total

prediction variance. Moreover, Practice was the strongest predictor of DP among Iranian and

Turkish teachers (Iranian ►t = -4.990, Beta = -.321 and Turkish ►t = -4.077, Beta = -.310),

whereas the weakest predictor of DP among them was Knowledge Development (Iranian ►t = -

.853, Beta = -.062 and Turkish ►t = -.875, Beta = -.083). See Table 5.

Finally, the results of multiple stepwise-method regression analyses disclosed that there

was significant linear relationship between the PA subscale and Professional Self-esteem

dimensions of Satisfaction (t = 3.898; P = .000, P< 0.05), Knowledge Development (t = 5.363; P =

.000, P< 0.05), and Practice (t = 4.298; P = .000, P< 0.05) in the case of Iranian participants and

between the PA subscale and Professional Self-esteem dimensions of Satisfaction (t = 3.566; P =

.000, P< 0.05) and Knowledge Development (t = 7.346; P = .000, P< 0.05) in the case of Turkish

participants. See Table 6.

Table 6: Coefficients of PA Subscale and Professional Self-esteem across Ir. & Tr.

Groups

Subscales Ir. Tr.

Beta t Sig. R2

Beta t Sig. R2

1. Satisfaction .221 3.898 .000 .041 .239 3.566 .000 .053

2. Knowledge Development .320 5.363 .000 .077 .492 7.346 .000 .228

3. Practice .268 4.298 .000 .050 .140 1.600 .112 -

4. Adaptation .070 1.177 .240 - .128 1.742 .084 -

5. Communication .039 .663 .508 - .138 1.672 .097 -


2 = .355

The results also revealed that the significant dimensions of PA explained 39.2 per cent of

the subscale’s total prediction variance in the case of Iranian participants and 35.5 per cent in the

case of Turkish ones. Moreover, Knowledge Development was the strongest predictor of PA

subscale among both Iranian and Turkish teachers (Iranian ►t = 5.363, Beta = .320; Turkish ► t =

7.346, Beta = .492), whereas the weakest predictor of PA among Iranian teachers was

Communication (t = .663, Beta = .039) and among Turkish teachers was Adaptation (t = 1.742,

Beta = .128). See Table 6.

4.2. Discussion

The significant findings are discussed here to find answers to the four research questions

which were the objectives of this study. The percentage scores of EE, DP and PA subscales

revealed that Turkish teachers perceive more EE burnout than Iranian teachers (High Level ► Ir. =

28.7 %; High► Tr. = 38.5 %), Iranian teachers perceive more PA than Turkish teachers (High

Level ►Ir. = 43.9 %; High ►Tr. = 39.7 %), and Iranian and Turkish teachers perceive DP burnout

almost equally (High Level ►Ir. = 21.3 %; High Level ►Tr. = 21.2 %). This implies that Turkish

teachers feel more drained from their job emotionally than Iranian teaches because of feeling

emotional exhaustion, Iranian teachers sense more competence than Turkish teachers and also

achieve more successful results from working with their students, but they feel cynical toward

their students almost equally (research question one).

However, the results of t-test analyses for determining significant differences between

Iranian and Turkish teachers’ burnout levels in reference to the three-factor structure of the MBI-

ES (research question two) revealed that there was statistically slight significant difference between

the groups only in the subscale of EE, but not in the subscales of DP and PA. The mean scores of

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Iranian (Mean= 20.45) and Turkish (Mean= 23.70) teachers showed that the Turkish teachers’

scores were greater than that of Iranian ones. As with the percentage results, it implies that Turkish

teachers feel emotionally drained from their job and are unable to give of themselves

psychologically more than that of Iranian teachers. This may be attributed to the demanding EFL

programs in Turkish context or Turkish teachers’ lack of seriousness in taking responsibility for the

work they do because Turkish teachers offer 15-hour obligatory teaching per week, while Iranian

teachers offer 24-hour obligatory teaching per week with a low amount of salary than that of

Turkish teachers.

With regard to which dimensions of Professional Self-esteem better predict the EE, DP,

and PA burnout processes across Iranian and Turkish teachers (research question three), the

findings demonstrated that EE subscale of burnout is better predicted by the Satisfaction dimension

of Professional Self-esteem in the case of Iranian and Turkish teachers (Iranian Beta= -.603 and

Turkish Beta = -.439). This means that Iranian and Turkish teachers are emotionally drained from

their job mainly as a result of not possessing positive regards toward their work. Moreover, Iranian

teachers’ lack of desire to develop skills necessary in their job also depletes them emotionally, and

Turkish teachers’ lack of desire to prepare themselves well for their work and to impart their

knowledge, information, and experience to others lead them to emotional exhaustion. Therefore, to

deal with EE burnout among Iranian and Turkish teachers, they should principally be encouraged

to increase their satisfaction in their job through meeting their desires and needs. Additionally,

Iranian teachers should specifically be motivated to adopt and adapt to new work conditions to

overcome emotional exhaustion, and Turkish teachers should specifically be motivated to prepare

themselves for their work for a qualified work performance and to impart and share their

knowledge, information, and experience to and with the students and colleagues to the same end.

Furthermore, the results disclosed that DP subscale of burnout is better predicted by the

Practice dimension of Professional Self-esteem in the case of Iranian and Turkish teachers (Iranian

Beta = -.321 and Turkish Beta = -.310). That is to say that Iranian and Turkish teachers commit

student depersonalization mainly as a result of not preparing themselves for their work well.

Moreover, Iranian and Turkish teachers do not care for their students adequately for not being able

to or lack of desire to share their knowledge, information, and experience with them. Further, lack

of enough job satisfaction among Turkish teachers and work-condition adaptation among Iranian

teaches causes them to commit student depersonalization. To avoid or control DP burnout among

Iranian and Turkish teachers, however, they should mainly be motivated to perform a qualified

work through preparing themselves well for their classes. Moreover, Iranian teachers should

specifically be helped in adopting and adapting to new work conditions and sharing their

knowledge and experience with their students to get away from student depersonalization, and

Turkish teachers should also specifically be helped in increasing their job satisfaction and

imparting their knowledge, information, and experience to their students for the same reason.

Finally, the results revealed that PA subscale of burnout is better predicted by the

Knowledge Development dimension of Professional Self-esteem in the case of both Iranian and

Turkish teachers (Iranian Beta= .320 and Turkish Beta = .492). This means that Iranian and Turkish

teachers’ lack of desire to develop skills necessary in their job mainly affects their work

accomplishment and performance. Further, Turkish teachers’ work performance is specifically

affected as a result of job dissatisfaction, and Iranian teachers’ as a result of job dissatisfaction and

poor work preparedness. Therefore, to combat PA burnout among both Iranian and Turkish

teachers, they should mainly be encouraged to develop necessary work skills. Moreover, job

satisfaction should also be increased among both Iranian and Turkish teachers so that they could be

encouraged to develop their teaching activities and work performance. Finally, Iranian teachers

should specifically be helped in accomplishing a qualified work.

In short, regarding the prediction variance of EE, DP, and PA subscales by the dimensions

of the professional self-esteem scale across Iranian and Turkish teachers (research question four),

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the results released that the significant dimensions of EE, DP, and PA subscales accounted for 47.7,

25.3, and 39.2 per cent of each subscale’s total prediction variance in the case of Iranian

participants and 32.3, 38.1, and 35.5 per cent in the case of Turkish participants, respectively. As

shown, the EE and PA prediction variances of Iranian group were greater than that of Turkish one,

that is, Iranian teachers’ emotional exhaustion and work accomplishment perceptions were more

than that of Turkish teachers as the result of the involved dimensions of the professional self-

esteem, respectively; whereas, the DP prediction variance of Turkish group was greater than that of

Iranian one, i.e., Turkish teachers committed student depersonalization more than Iranian teachers

as the result of the involved dimensions of the professional self-esteem.


The aim of this study was to measure the perceived EE, DP, and PA burnout levels of

Iranian and Turkish teachers and to explore which of these burnout processes is better predicted by

the dimensions of a Professional Self-esteem Scale in the areas of (a) Satisfaction, (b) Knowledge

Development, (c) Practice, (d) Adaptation, and (e) Communication across Iranian and Turkish

teachers. The results revealed that there was a slight difference between Iranian and Turkish

teachers in the EE subscale. Moreover, EE, DP, and PA subscales were better predicted by

Satisfaction, Practice, and Knowledge Development dimensions of Professional Self-esteem in the

case of both Iranian and Turkish teachers, respectively. Finally, the EE and PA prediction variances

of Iranian group were greater than that of Turkish one; whereas, the DP prediction variance of

Turkish group was greater than that of Iranian one. However, these findings may especially be

beneficial to policy makers, program designers, and language practitioner.

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Golembiewski, R.T., and Kim, B. (1989). Self-esteem and Phases of Burnout.

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Hoyle, R., Kernis, M. H., Leary, M. R. and Baldwin, M. W. (1999). Selfhood: Identity,

Esteem, Control. Boulder, Westwood.

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Individual Determinants of the Three Burnout Dimensions. Work and Stress, 13: 1,

74-86.

Koc, M. (1994). Factors Affecting Vocation Choices of Karadeniz Technical University

Fatih Education Faculty First-year Students. Modern Education Journal, 204, 27-30.

Leary, M. R., McDonald, G. (2003). Individual Differences in Self-esteem: a Review

and Theoretical Integration. In M. R. Leary and P.J. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of

Self and Identity. New York: Guilford Press.

Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The Cost of Caring. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Maslach, C. & Jackson, S. (1981). The Measurement of Experienced Burnout. Journal

of Occupational Behavior, 2, 99-113.

Maslach, C. & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The Truth about Burnout. How Organizations

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Maslach, C., Schaefeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. (2001). Job Burnout. Annual Review of

Psychology, 52(1), 397-422.

Rosse, G. J., Boss, W. R., Johnson, E. A. and Crown, F. D, (1991). Conceptualizing the

Role of Self-Esteem in the Burnout Process. Group Organization Management, Vol.

16, No: 4, 428-451.

Soderfelt, M. & Soderfelt, B. (1995). Burnout in Social Work. Social Work, 40, 638-

647.

Villa, A. and Calvete, E. (2001). Development of the Teacher Self-concept Evaluation

Scale and Its Relation to Burnout.’ Studies in Educational Evaluation. 27, 239-255.

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READER RESPONSE THEORY AND ITS REFLECTIONS IN A READING

CLASS*

Emrah EKMEKÇİ**

, Ömer ŞEKERCİ***

ABSTRACT

Reader Response Theory is a literary theory which focuses on the role of the readers as active

participants in reading and literature classes. The theory is a reaction to New Criticism which emphasizes that

the text reveals its own meaning without considering any other extrinsic factors such as historical, social,

context, authorial intention and readers. Contrary to New Criticism, Reader Response Theory describes what

happens in the reader’s mind while interpreting a text. It describes reading as a creative process like writing

and reading is considered as a transaction between the reader and the text. Different readers react to the same

text in different ways, depending upon their interests and experiences. The theory has been adapted to

classrooms by several researches but there has not been a step- by- step application of the theory so far.

The present study, therefore, suggests an additional initial stage for the proposed classroom

applications by collecting and analysing the written responses of the junior and senior students to Henrik

Ibsen‘s play A Doll’s House through the assumptions of the Reader Response Theory. Data are gathered from

32 junior and senior students studying at Süleyman Demirel University, Department of English Language

and Literature through a questionnaire consisting of 30 open-ended questions. Data are qualitatively

analyzed. The results of the study indicate that it is possible to receive as many responses as the number of

the students in reading classes, confirming the claims of the Reader Response Theory. The findings reveal

that no one true interpretation of a text exists despite the fact that the text is the same for all students in terms

of the lexis and the structure. The students’ different approaches to text are linked to the personal factors such

as social background, gender, age, past experiences, current circumstances, regional origins and previous

reading experiences. The study suggests collecting the written responses of students as an initial stage for the

application of the Reader-Response Theory in reading and literature classes. Teachers can organize a reading

lesson by following the suggested initial stage in this study and they can let the students respond to the text

within the framework of their cultural and social background. Since what the students understand from a

book or a play may be different from the author’s intention and teacher’s interpretation, teachers should

permit the students to respond freely without limiting and imposing their own views.

Keywords: Reader Response Theory, New Criticism, Written Responses, Transaction.

* This study has been partly produced from a master thesis prepared in Süleyman Demirel University at the Department

of English Language and Literature in 2010. ** Inst. Emrah EKMEKÇİ, Ondokuz Mayis University, School of Foreign Languages, [email protected] *** Assist. Prof. Dr. Ömer ŞEKERCİ, Suleyman Demirel University, Department of English Language and Literature,

[email protected]

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1. INTRODUCTION

The Reader Response Theory describes what happens in readers’ mind while interpreting a

literary text. It assumes that no text provides self-contained meaning, and literary texts do not have

meaning independently from readers’ interpretations. Rosenblatt (1978), one of the most important

proponents of the theory, and several other scholars (Britton, 1984; Harste, 1985; Dillon, 1978)

state that the act of reading is a transaction between the reader and the text. Neither the reader nor

the text is the mere source of meaning and the reader is no longer the receiver of the meaning but

rather the maker of the meaning. As the focus of the theory is mainly on the reader, the theory has

been adapted to reading and literature classrooms by several researchers and a number of different

classroom activities have been suggested so far. For example, Elliot (1990) offers to use drama,

role-play and letter-writing in conjunction with the text, Carlisse (1999) proposes to prepare

reading logs for student activities in the classroom, and Oster (1989) suggests the task of rewriting

short narratives from another character’s point of view. Hirvela (1996) proposes a change in the

style of questioning a teacher uses, for example, asking ‘How did you feel while reading?’ rather

than ‘What does the author mean?’ However, the question of how best to apply the theory in

practice is still unanswered. Most of the above-mentioned researchers follow the assumptions of

the theory but they do not offer any step- by- step procedures in the classroom.

The primary focus of this paper is, therefore, to suggest an additional initial stage for the

proposed applications of the reader-response theory in the classroom. As an additional initial stage,

students’ written responses will be collected as they may not feel secure in sharing their responses

orally due to the lack of linguistic competence. This study also attempts to indicate the variety and

diversity of students’ responses, the existence of more than one true interpretation of a literary text,

the extrinsic factors affecting the students’ point of view and finally some classroom implications

and suggestions for literature and reading teachers.

1.1. Overview of the Reader-Response Theory

The Reader-Response Theory is a reaction to the New Criticism which emphasizes that the

text itself is enough to get meaning. According to the New Critics, the text reveals its own meaning

and it can be analyzed and dissected so it becomes autonomous. Proponents of the New Criticism,

Ransom (1937), Wellek (1978) and Cleanth (1979) point out that the text itself contains whatever

the readers need to discover. While examining a literary text, the reader searches for both

denotative and connotative meanings, possible allusions within the text, individual words, phrases,

sentences, figures of speech, symbols, point of view and tone. The reader tries to uncover the

meaning of any literary texts without considering the author’s life, times and any other extraneous

information. (Bressler, 1999). Some extrinsic factors such as historical, social, contextual, authorial

intention, authorial biography, readers’ psychology and the response upon reading matter little.

On the other hand, the Reader-Response Theory tries to describe what happens in the

reader’s mind while interpreting a text. It assumes that reading is a creative process like writing. No

text provides self-contained meaning, and literary texts do not have meaning independent from the

readers’ interpretations. Meaning is context - dependent and intricately associated with the reading

process. (Bressler, 1999). The Reader Response Theory pays attention to the areas of psychology,

history, and sociology. In so doing, it turns into an interdisciplinary activity. It develops open-

ended problem solving strategies. Bleich (1981) states that readers are affected by the texts in

unique and subjective ways and they play an important role in determining the meaning of literary

works. Anything that contributes to the development of a reader influences his/her interpretation of

a reading selection. An individual's social class, racial background, ethnicity, gender, nationality,

age, physical condition, employment, vocational interests, and so on, make a profound impact on

how that person sees and understands the world. The impact of these individual differences among

the readers is confirmed by Prince (1981) who is one of the exponents of the Reader Response

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Theory. Prince (1981) states that not only the narrator, which means the author, but also narratee,

which means the reader, is attached importance in the reading process as well.

There are two groups of view which ascribe varying degrees of importance to reader and

text in the creation of meaning. Rosenblatt (1978), Iser (1974) and Holland (1968) give equal

importance to the reader and the text in interpretation process while Bleich (1978) and Fish (1980)

put the primary focus on the reader. For example, Norman Holland (1968) and Wolfgang Iser

(1974) suggest that the meaning of a literary text is created within the relationship between the text

and the reader. They believe that the text contains its own themes, unity and structure so it is very

important. However, a reader transforms the text into a private world. Therefore, the reader and the

text interact with each other to get the meaning. However, David Bleich (1978) states that there is

no objective existence of a text. One cannot find meaning in the text but it is developed only if the

reader interacts with the other readers to get the text’s meaning. The meaning can be obtained if the

reader negotiates and discusses on the text within the group. Stanley Fish (1980) supports Bleich in

that it is the interpretative community that creates its own reality. Fish’s theory is sometimes called

reception aesthetics which means that a text is not simply passively accepted by the audience but

the reader or viewer interprets the meanings of the text based on their individual cultural

background and life experiences.

The most important contribution to Reader-Response is made by Louise Rosenblatt (1978)

with her term “transaction”. She asserts that a literary work exists in the transaction between the

reader and the text and she considers reading as an interaction between the reader and the text. She

states that there are no generic readers or generic interpretations but there are countless

relationships between readers and texts. What the student brings to a literary work is very

significant for “the equation represented by book plus reader.”(p.75). Some questions must be

taken into consideration during the reading process such as: why one student’s reaction is different

from another student, why one student chooses one particular slant rather than another, why certain

phases of the book or poem strike some students more forcibly than others, why a student

misinterprets or ignores certain elements, what state of the mind leads students to a distorted or

partial view of the work, what in students’ temperaments and past experiences help them

understand it more adequately, and what questions and obscurities remain. (Rosenblatt, 1978)

Furthermore she states that student’s particular community background, whether they come from

the North or the South, from city or country, from a middle-class or underprivileged home, will

affect the nature of the understanding and the prejudices that they bring to the literary work.

According to Rosenblatt, students must be free while responding to texts even though their

responses do not resemble the ‘standard critical comments’ (p.42). They should be able to express

themselves freely and they should know in advance that their responses are also worth expressing.

Rosenblatt states that literature or reading classes where students feel that everything they think or

say are equally valuable might possibly have a therapeutic effect. Teachers must be aware of the

fact that the students who have a rural or urban background or regional loyalty will tend to build up

stock responses. The fixed ideas and emotional associations that cluster about family and sex

relations may lead to irrelevant responses. Readers must be helped to develop ‘flexibility of mind’

(p.44). At this point, Rosenblatt’s suggestions seem to be practical for reading and literature

classrooms. Her approach insists on the reader’s role in conjunction with the text, the reader’s

individuality affecting and being affected by the text. Therefore, her transactional theory is

pedagogically the most meaningful for teachers.

1.2. Some Practical Classroom Applications of Reader-Response Theory

As a pedagogical tool, the Reader- Response Theory has had a significant impact on both

teaching of reading and literature. Probst (1994) suggests including the assumptions of the theory

in reading and writing curriculum to have independent and self-reliant readers and thinkers.

Supporting Probst’s suggestions, Mishra (2010), upon applying the theory in a reading class,

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summarizes its strong points as it provides interpretative freedom and makes students active

learners, individualizes learning, triggers creative and critical abilities and encourages critical and

creative reading habits among students. In the same way, Hirvela (1996) mentions the fruitfulness

of the theory by making a comparative research between the personal-response approach and

reader-response approach. She finds out that types of questions addressed to the students change in

reader-response, which affects the students’ point of view. She states that personal-response

approach causes students to give artificial responses but with the advent of reader-response, they

begin to give genuine responses as well as personal responses. Another researcher Mitchel (1993)

stresses the importance of learner autonomy by stating that students usually feel very positive

because the talk and the product is theirs. Students are no longer using their energy to guess what

the teacher wants them to think; instead, they are spending energy on creating something that they

have a stake in. This application is for high school literature class and it is based on the oral and

written responses of the students who have read two novels. It is clear that Hirvela and Mitchel’s

research and the applications of the theory are primarily based on the act of reading process and the

interaction between the reader and the text. There exist many other sides for beneficial uses of the

theory in the classroom. For example, Carlisse (1999) looks from another perspective while

applying the assumptions of the Reader-Response Theory. He thinks that Rosenblatt’s

differentiation between efferent reading, which is reading for information, and aesthetic reading,

which is reading for the sake of literature, need to be explained. He points out that students should

be oriented to aesthetic reading as well as efferent reading.

Apart from the above-mentioned research, Reader-Response consists of many other

pedagogical benefits waiting for researchers to be discovered. This study, therefore, aims to find

out the answers of the following questions;

1. Is it possible to receive as many responses as the number of the students?

2. Are there diversities and varieties of responses in the class?

3. Are there any extrinsic factors affecting student’s point of view?

4. Can students’ written responses to a text be used as an initial stage for the

application of Reader- Response Theory in the classroom?

5. Do the initial written responses to a text contribute to classroom discussion?

2.METHODOLOGY

This study is a qualitative case study. This approach is preferred to a quantitative one for

not limiting the students’ responses to a narrow framework since confining students’ responses to

standardized tests is contradictory to the principles of the Reader- Response Theory, which

employs open-ended questions. Analyzing the responses of the students through the principles of

the theory has been debated for a long time. There are contradictory views on response categories,

levels, and processes. For example, Purves and Rippere (1968) and Purves and Beach (1972)

support the use of response category systems such as describing, evaluating certain aspects,

engaging personally, analyzing, and so on. However, Applebee (1977) questions whether such

systems are valid and reliable in that they may fail to capture the readers’ underlying intentions.

Analyzing specific statements is also criticized for being inconsistent with readers’ overall response

orientation (Cooper and Michalak, 1981). Beach and Wendler (1987) use a clustering technique

and focus on categories of reader’s inferences with the questions about a specific character’s acts,

beliefs, and goals. Apart from the category and clustering techniques, some researchers have used

systems judging global response qualities, types, and levels of response according to some criteria,

but these systems are criticized for specifying the ideal response. Most researchers avoid defining

good reading in terms of specific types of response.

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Response category system has been revised and recent studies have defined the processes

in which readers are engaged during reading. These processes include engaging, conceiving,

connecting, problem solving, explaining, interpreting and judging and so on. They are highly

influenced by factors in the reader, the text and instructional content. For this reason, more recent

researchers on response methodology have been in favour of using response category system based

on content analysis since it reflects the genuine interaction between the text and the reader.

Therefore, in this study, we employed the response category system on the basis of social, feminist,

experiential, psychological, and phenomenological content of the students’ responses. We

determined the content types according to the responses we obtained from the students and general

principles of the Reader-Response Theory.

2.1. Participants

The research participants were 20 female and 12 male junior and senior students studying

at Süleyman Demirel University, Department of English Language and Literature in 2009-2010

academic year. Students were following Modern English Drama I course in the fall term when the

study was conducted. They were instructed to have read the play A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen

before the study was applied. Their language proficiency level was upper-intermediate and

advanced. Turkish was the mother tongue of all students participating in the study. Some of them

attended language preparatory classes before the university but most of them did not follow a

preparatory class before studying at the department. In Turkey, departments of English Language

Teaching and English Language and Literature are generally preferred by female students. It might

be the reason of why the number of females was more than males in our study.

2.2. A Doll’s House

A Doll’s House is a social realist play published in 1879. It has been noted as a major event

in the development of dramatic literature. The play is sharply critical of 19th century marriage

norms. The main character, Nora’s departure at the end of the play makes an impact throughout

society at that time. The play also manifests Ibsen’s concern for women’s rights and for human

rights in general. We have chosen this play for getting students’ responses since the play presents

its theme of individual worth through the skilful manipulation of the characters’ words and actions.

The topical and timely ideas on love, marriage and individual worth are remarkable when we

consider that it was first performed in 1880. The concepts Ibsen presents in this play stimulate

interesting and useful discussions for adolescents who are themselves trying to answer questions

similar to those encountered by the play’s characters: What is love? What demands can be placed

on a loved one? Is there a difference in society’s standards for males and females? How does one

find his true inner worth? What is maturity? The play also presents students with no serious

problem of literal comprehension. In other words, there are no unfamiliar terms and no confusing

political intrigues.


The data were gathered through a questionnaire consisting of 30 randomly selected general

open-ended questions developed by the proponents of the Reader-Response Theory. The questions

were consistent with the principles of the theory but some of them were modified by the researcher

to relate them with the play to which the students’ responded. In the application process of the

questionnaire, we let the students use their mother tongue in order to make them feel more

comfortable while expressing themselves. However, only twelve out of thirty-two students

preferred using English while twenty of them answered the questions in Turkish.

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3.1. Social Content

Students’ social roles and the society in which they live are somehow reflected in the

students’ responses. 26 students out of 32 thought that the most important event in the play was

Nora’s (main character in the play) leaving her children and home. Most of the students did not

approve of her behavior because of the values and morals of the society they live in. This indicates

the effects of social norms on students. 3 students regarded Torwald’s (Nora’s husband) reaction to

Nora’s act when he learned the truth as the most important event while the other 3 thought Nora’s

forgery was the most important one. Regarding the question on which character the students would

like to be in the play, 13 female students thought that they would like to be Nora as she ran for her

freedom. The others would like to be Kristine (a friend of Nora), babysitter or one of the children in

the play. 8 of the students thought that they did not want to be any of the characters. This result

indicates that students’ preferences are influenced by the social roles the characters have in society.

They prefer the one who is socially powerful by comparing them with the ones in their lives.

According to 11 students, the play made them reconsider or think twice about the marriage because

of Nora’s position in society. With regard to this question, there is a variety of responses such as

the women and their roles, men, life, family relations, and freedom. This diversity of responses

shows that each student as a social individual interprets the events or phenomena according to the

degree of importance they attach to in their lives.

It can be inferred from the responses that conservative family structure and some values

and beliefs considered as sacred in Turkish culture had a remarkable effect on students. Turkish

culture is less forgiving about women’s leaving their home and children for the sake of freedom or

whatever it is. For this reason, Nora’s leaving her home and children was not regarded as a simple

issue by the students since Turkish culture is very sensitive about family, women, and children. The

effects of morals, values and societal attitudes are reflected in responses in different ways. Some

students especially female ones supported Nora while male students were in favour of her husband.

This also indicates the relationship between the responses and gender.

3.2. Experiential Content

Students’ past experiences and present preoccupations are reflected in their responses. 13

out of 32 stated that there was a connection between the play and their lives. They thought that they

were treated like Nora at home, so they could understand Nora’s situation very well. One of the

students whose mother and father passed away said “No motherhood anymore in children’s lives.

A life without mum is unbearable” This indicates that students’ past and present experiences lead

them to respond to the play from different perspectives. Rest of the students thought that there was

an indirect connection between the play and their lives. They stated that they were just familiar

with these kinds of people around them. 11 students stated that the play reminded them of their

relatives while 2 students pointed out that Nora resembled them in terms of her courage and self-

confidence. It is clear from this result that most of the students find some common points between

the characters in the play and the people they know in their lives. With regard to the question about

in which part of the play the students feel worried, furious, and surprised, there is a vast variety of

responses. There are responses as many as the number of the students; however there are some

common responses as well. 18 thought that they felt like crying when Nora left her home, husband

and children. 11 thought that they felt furious when Torwald humiliated Nora constantly

throughout the play. Some examples of other individual responses were Nora’s telling a lie, her

attempts to affect Dr. Rank (Nora’s husband’s friend), Torwald’s deception, and so on. The vast

variety and diversity of the responses indicate how students relate their real life experiences to the

characters and events in the play. They approach the play with these sets of experiences and read

the play in this way.

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3.3. Feminist Content

Male and female students interact with the play differently, which indicates the existence of

gender-related responses. 18 out of 32 students supported and appreciated Nora’s behavior and

courage. It was striking that these students were all female. This result suggests that gender plays

an important role in approaching the literary texts. The responses of the rest of 14 students

supported Nora, too but they stated that they were against her leaving the children. 24 students

thought that Nora was not silly but her behaviors were normal for a person who was in love. They

stated that Nora was a symbol of great personal sacrifice. 15 students thought that Torwald did not

seem to love Nora at all and he regarded Nora as a doll. Most of the female students pointed out

that the situation in real life is the same with Nora’s.

3.4. Psychological Content

Students’ emotional experiences are generally reflected in their responses. 15 students

stated that they felt sorry for Nora while 7 students felt confused about their feelings. 4 students got

surprised and 5 students cheered on behalf of Nora. 4 students thought that they felt extremely

sorry when Nora was aware of the facts that she was not taken seriously. 2 students pointed out that

they were about to cry when they were reading the parts in which Torwald treated Nora badly.

However, 3 students stated that they laughed a lot when Torwald treated Nora badly. These two

controversial results signify different psychological moods the students have while responding to

the play. This confirms that each student reads the text with different psychological moods and this

affects their point of views and interpretations of the text.

3.5. Phenomenological Content

There are some gaps for readers to be filled in the literary works. Authors give opportunity

to the readers to enter into the work. The students responding to the play commented on the

purpose of the writer. 24 students thought that the writer’s purpose was to emphasize feminist point

of view. 3 students pointed out that the writer wanted the readers to see how couples behaved each

other. One of the students stated that the writer wanted to make the end of the play more attractive

by using Nora. The other one stated that people determine their own destinies. 15 students pointed

out that the writer wanted the reader to realize women’s place in society. 5 students thought that the

author was the supporter of the weak. Another student pointed out that the author helped readers

see how complicated the marriages were. This result indicates that almost each reader fills in the

gaps provided by the author in their own way and with their own philosophy of life.


In this paper, our goal was to find out whether it is possible to receive as many responses as

the number of the students, whether there are diversities and varieties of responses in the class,

whether there are any extrinsic factors affecting students’ point of view, whether student’s written

responses to a text can be used as an initial stage for the application of Reader-Response Theory in

the classroom and finally whether the initial written responses to a text contribute to classroom

discussion.

The results suggest, overall, that responding to a particular text is a unique process for each

student. Teachers may receive as many responses as the number of the students which indicates the

existence of diversities and varieties of responses in the classroom. It seems that diversities and

varieties of responses are in relation to students’ gender, age, pschology, experiences, and societal

attitudes, which can be accepted as extrinsic factors affecting the responses of the students. Our

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findings demonstrate that these extrinsic factors have a great impact on students’ responses,

therefore teachers should take them into consideration while evaluating the students’ responses.

In terms of the varieties and diversities of responses, our study is consistent with the

previous ones. For example, Bleich (1981), Prince (1981), Rosenblatt (1978), Hirvela (1996),

Probst (1994) and Mishra (2010) reported similar results. Our study also confirms Bleich (1981)

and Prince’s (1981) attaching importance to individual differences on students’ responses. With

regard to classroom applications of the Reader-Response Theory, our results show that the

students’ written responses can be used as an initial stage for the application of the theory since the

responses obtained from the students constitute a road map for the teachers. Teachers can collect

necessary information for the classroom discussion of the reading material or the literary text in

advance. In so doing, they can pre-plan the following discussion activities according to students’

reactions, caring for their prerequisites, expectations and feelings. Similar to Mishra (2010),

Probst(1994), Hirvela (1996), Mitchel (1993), and Carlisse’s (1999) different techniques on the

application of the principles of Reader-response in the classroom, our study presents another

technique. However, our study is different from the others in that we suggest using written

responses before the classroom discussion activities. This technique can be applicable to reading

and literature classes as a prior activity for above-mentioned techniques proposed by several

researchers.

In summary, social, experiential, psychological, feminist, and phenomenological content of

students’ written responses can be a guiding light for language teachers applying the principles of

Reader-Response Theory in the classrooms. Our study is significant in that it helps teachers

organize a Reader-Response class effectively and students know in advance that whatever they

think or state is attached importance by the teacher in the classroom. They become more involved

in the process and learn to respect their friends’ different views for the same issue.

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REFERENCES

Applebee, A. (1977). The elements of response to a literary work: What we have learned. Research

in the teaching of English, 11, 255-271.

Beach, R. & Wendler, L. (1987). Developmental differences in response to a short story. Research

in the teaching of English, 21, 286-298.

Bleich, D. (1978). Subjective Criticism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Britton, J. (1984). Viewpoints: The distinction between participant and spectator role language in

research and practice. Research in the teaching of English. , 18, 320-331.

Brooks, Cleanth. "The New Criticism." The Sewanee Review 87: 4 (1979): 592

Carlisse, A. (1999). Reading logs: an application of reader-response theory in ELT, ELTJournal,

54/1:12-9

Charles E. Bressler (1999). Literary Criticism.An Introduction to Theory and Practice, 2nd. Ed.

Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Cooper, C. & Michalak, D. (1981). A note on determining response styles in research on response

to literature. Research in the teaching of English, 15, 163-169.

Dana Gioia , R.S. Gwynn (2001), The Longman Anthology of Short Fiction, Compact Ed.,

Toronto, New York.

Dillon, G. (1978). Language processing and the reading of literature. Bloomington, IN: Indiana

University Pres

Elliot, R. (1990). Encouraging reader-response to literature in ESL situations. ELT Journal 44/3:

191-8.

Fish, S. (1980). Is There a Text in This Class?Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Harste, N. (1985)Portrait of a new paradigm: Reading Comprehension Research. In A. Crismore

(Ed),Landscapes: A state of the art assessment of reading comprehension research, 1974

1984 (pp.12:1-24) Bloomington: Center for Reading and Language Studies, University of

Indiana.

Hirvela, A. (1996). Reader-response Theory and ELT, ELT Journal, 50(2), 127-134.

Holland, N. (1968). The Dynamics of Literary Response. New York: Oxford University Press.

Iser, W. (1974). The Implied Reader. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Mishra, P. (2010) Reader Response and Its Relevance for Communicative Language Teaching in

the Context of EFL Learners, ELTWeekly, 2, 62(18).

Mitchell, Diana (1993) Reader Response Theory: Some Practical Applications for the High School

Literature Classroom, Language Arts Journal of Michigan: Vol. 9: Iss. 1, Article 6.

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Oster, J. (1989). Seeing with different eyes: another view of literature in the ESL class. TESOL

Quarterly 23: 85-103.

Probst, R. E. (1994). Reader-Response Theory and the English Curriculum. The English Journal

83/3.

Purves, A. & Beach, R. (1972). Literature and the reader: Research on response to literature,

reading interests, and teaching of literature. Urbana, II. National Council of Teachers of

English.

Purves, A. & Rippere, V. (1968). Elements of writing about a literary work: A study of response to

literature. Urbana, II. National Council of Teachers of English.

Ransom, John Crowe. "Criticism, Inc." The Virginia Quarterly Review, Autumn 1937.

Rosenblatt, Louise M. (1978). The Reader, the Text, the Poem: TheTransactiortal Theory of the

Literary Work. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press

Wellek, René. “The New Criticism: Pro and Contra.” Critical Inquiry, Vol. 4, No. 4. (Summer,

1978), pp. 611-624

Approaches to Reading and Interpretation retrieved from March 17, 2009 from

http://www1.assumption.edu/users/ady/hhgateway/gateway/Approaches.html

Reader Response Theory retrieved from

http://www.llp.armstrong.edu/reese/courses/1102/2008Win1102/readerresponse.pdf

68

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Virginia_Quarterly_Review

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A CASE STUDY: ATTITUDES OF ESP STUDENTS TOWARDS CALL

Esra ERDOĞAN 1*, Özge KUTLU 2

**

ABSTRACT During the last few decades, language classrooms have been shaped in line with various methodologies. The

roles of the teachers and learners have been affected to a great extent; thus, there has been a shift in various

aspects of the language learning process. Meanwhile, CALL genre has emerged thanks to the contributions of

technology. With the emergence of CALL, many language classrooms’ atmosphere has altered. In the present

study, the effects of CALL to the attitudes of ESP students are going to be dealt with. As the qualitative data

collection tool, a questionnaire designed by Levine & Donitsa-Schmidt (1998) is going to be used. Moreover,

the views of the students are going to provide qualitative data of the study.

Keywords: CALL, attitudes, ESP, technology.

1. INTRODUCTION

The emergence of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has had a tremendous

effect on language learning throughout the world. Along with the vast usage of English around the

world, various communication tools have been provided for people’s use. The success of call

application does not occur on its own as there are some prerequisites to be met in order to

understand the nature of learning and teaching; for our case, the integration of technology, namely

computers, into language instruction. In this study, the attitudes and self-confidence are the main

parameters to see whether computers have a positive effect on learning a foreign language or not,

and whether computers facilitate the learning process or hinder it. Furthermore, this study is going

to demonstrate statistically to what extent attitudes and confidence are influenced by using

computers as an aid to learn and improve the language skills. The research questions of the current

study are as follows:

1. Is there a change between the attitudes of the ESP students towards technology before and

after the application?

2. What are the views of ESP students towards technology usage in the class?



According to Tılfarlıoğlu (2011), the attempt to use systematical technology in language

classrooms started with CALL. As for this attempt, Chiu (2003) states that chronologically CALL

developed through an electronic extension of programmed language learning or programmed

instruction. In that sense, Warschauer and Healey (1998) divides these CALL periods into three

groups. The first period was Behaviourist CALL, which was driven by behaviorisim. The second

period was Communicative CALL, which was deeply affected by cognitivism, focused on using

forms rejecting the behaviourism’s focus on drills and forms themselves. While Integrative CALL,

as the third group, switched from cognitive perspectives into socio-cognitive view. Meanwhile, it

was also getting the benefit of authentic language use in meaningful contexts (Akbulut, 2008).

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When ESP applications of CALL are considered, there are varios studies. Among these,

Luzón (2007) states that ICT provides related, rich and complex learning ways when compared

with traditional media types. In that sense, Vaičiūnienė & Užpalienė (2010) states the advantage of

websites for ESP classes as follows:

With the advantage of the world websites, ESP teachers/students have at their disposal large amount

and variety of material available: texts, visual materials, newspapers, magazines, live radio and TV,

video clips and much more. Throwing ESP students in at the deep end of authenticity makes them

develop their own strategies for dealing with real language and on the other hand prevents students

from being reliant on simplified language (p. 95).

Askari Arani (2004) conducted pre and post tests as for the identification of achievement

levels with traditional texts and articles from the internet. The majority of the students pointed out

that ICT based ESP teaching is more efficient and motivating. Ming & Bidmeshki (2006) also

points out that students find online English learning experience as fun, entertaining and flexible. A

study in a similar vein, Dayd (1994) states that ESP enables “livelier and more enjoyable, and thus,

create a more effective environment for the learner”

3. METHODOLOGY

With the issues on the agenda, the aim of this case study is to investigate the attitudes of

ESP students towards the use of technology in the classroom settings. Focus on attitudes towards

CALL, quantitative differences of attitudes were measured through Computer Attitudes and

Confidence Questionnaire (Levine & Donitsa-Schmidt, 1998).The reliability of this questionnaire

ranges between 0.65 and 0.90. As the study is planned as a preliminary study, the qualitative data

(as students’ views) and quantitative data (as pre-post test results) are going to be gathered in line

with the results. Fraenkel & Wallen (2001) suggests case study as a tool for enabling

generalizations for a particular school, student group. Thus, in the present study, case study is

chosen as a method to pave the way for learning attitudes of the students. Apart from this method,

interviews with students chosen randomly were held before and after the instruction in order to

elicit student responses to have clearer insights into their attitudes towards CALL and language

learning.

3.1. Participants

Participants of the present study are false beginner ESP students in their first year at Hitit

University in Çorum/Turkey. They comprise the population (n=148) of the study. As deduced from

participants’ accounts, most of them had little or no instruction in terms of integrating technology

into language classes prior to this class. Students varied greatly in their computer skills, yet all of

them had been exposed to computer instruction before. Besides, they took part in computer

instruction class in the first term just like the English course.


This study was conducted over a month; Computer Attitudes and Confidence Questionnaire

was applied in the first week, and then two-weeks long video instruction was held during the

English course given by the researcher, already working at university. Videos about health and

nursing care downloaded from various internet sites were shown to the students. Furthermore,

comprehension questions were asked, and related vocabulary was elicited by the instructor. This

instruction went on for two weeks, and then the same questionnaire was given again in order to see

if there were any differences regarding the participants’ attitudes towards computer usage in the

course of language instruction. Before and after video instructions, some students were interviewed

about the relevance and usefulness of the videos. The procedure applied in this case study is

illustrated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: The procedure cycle of the case study


The reliability of this questionnaire was found between 0.65 and 0.90. Frequency analysis

was carried out for this questionnaire, and researchers ended up with 84 different tables in the end.

Since researchers have limited time and space in this article, they determined 4 themes and chose 8

items from the questionnaire in total. With 42 items, CACQ (Levine & Donitsa-Schmidt, 1998)

was used and responses were made on 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1. ‘strongly agree’ to 5.

‘strongly disagree’. These themes could be paraphrased into 4 main questions and 8 items taken

from the questionnaire. The questions and items are listed with tables below:

1. Are computers really necessary?

Table 1: The world would be better off without computers.

1 2 3 4 5

Before 3.6% 1.8% 28.6% 50% 16.1%

After 0% 8.6% 25.7% 40% 25.7%

Table 2: People managed before without computers, so computers are not really necessary

now.

1 2 3 4 5

Before %0 %8.9 %7.1 %62.5 %21.4

After %2.9 %5.7 %11.4 %68.6 %11.4

When the two tables (Table 1-Table 2) are examined, it can be obviously seen that more than

half of the students found computers necessary prior to the video sections. When the survey was

given to the students, they agreed on the computers’ necessity. On the other hand, after the

sessions, there has been a decrease in the first statement, while there has been an increase in the

second statement. This could illustrate the fact that students did not regard these two statements

similar.

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2. Are computers effective and educative tools?

Table 3: The computer is an educational tool.

1 2 3 4 5

Before 17.9% 58.9% 12.5% 7.1% 3.6%

After 17.1% 57.1% 11.4% 11.4% 2.9%

Table 4: The computer is an effective tool.

1 2 3 4 5

Before 25.5% 47.3% 16.4% 9.1% 1.8%

After 14.3% 62.9% 11.4% 11.4% 0%

The second theme is about the effectiveness and educative purpose of the computers. For the

first statement in Table 3, there is a slight decrease among the responses. However, results show

that the students believe that computers could be used in the education. For the second statement in

Table 4, students seem more certain about its effectiveness like in prompts 3, 4, 5. However, there

has been a decrease in prompt 1. This result could demonstrate the fact that the students did not like

them as the teacher expected and they might have linked their opinions to the effectiveness of the

computers.

3. Can you learn from computers?

Table 5: One can learn new things from computers.

1 2 3 4 5

Before 44.6% 51.8% 1.8% 1.8% 0%

After 34.3% 40% 14.3% 5.7% 5.7%

Table 6: You can learn a lot from using a computer

1 2 3 4 5

Before 28.6% 48.2% 12.5% 7.1% 3.6%

After 17.1% 77.1% 2.9% 2.9% 0%

When these two statements are examined in Table 5 and Table 6, one can easily notice that

there is a decline in student responses in terms of learning from the computer factor. Initially,

students considered that one could learn from computers, but surprisingly after video sessions, they

did not share the same view. In other words, videos did not help them to feel confident about the

idea that one could learn via computers. There might be various reasons for this result. Presumably,

they did not find the video sessions fruitful or interesting, or they had technical problems in the

course of the sessions.

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4. Do computers help school subjects?

Table 7: Using the computer in different school subjects makes studying fun.

Table 8: The computer is like a private tutor.

1 2 3 4 5

Before 3,6% 12,5% 10,7% 55,4% 17.9%

After 8,6% 17,1% 28,6% 37,1% 8,6%

For the first item in Table 7, prior to the video sessions, students assumed that using

computers for different school subjects would make studying fun. However, after the sessions,

there has been a sharp decline in their positive beliefs. Moving from their responses, it could be

assumed that students were not that positive after the sessions. This negative attitude might be

attributed not only to video sessions but also to the other experiences they had via using computers.

Students tended to prefer traditional methods.

As for the second item in Table 8, students highly disagreed with the computers’ private and

personal teaching; however, after the sessions, they changed their mind and saw it as a potential

alternative learning tool. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there has been a non-negligible

percentage of uncertainty among the students. Overall results show that the students have had

positive assumptions about the computers, yet it seems that they have not been quite convinced

about their effectiveness, necessity, and educative functions. This might suggest to the researchers

that though 21st

century learners are eager and talented about technology and computers, it is not so

easy to accommodate them in the classes for learning English. As a further remark, it can be said

that computers and their integration into language instruction is a controversial issue. It is obvious

that instructors require a really sound methodology and motivation of the students to accomplish

the integration of ESP to the language classroom.


In conclusion, it can be said that technology use did not affect the students’ learning styles

with computers in the present study. In that sense, technology usage with ESP students needs

further investigation. In the present study, some inconsistencies have been found in the student

responses during the analysis period. Therefore, further investigation like interviews needs to be

conducted to identify the students’ problems. Consequently, instructors need to keep in mind that

ICT opportunities should be used in line with a sound pedagogical criteria and the exact

identification of students’ needs (Luzón, 2007). The studies of the present study might shed light

onto the deeper understanding of the various student needs in the course of CALL applications.

REFERENCES

Akbulut, Y. (2008). Exploration of the attitudes of freshman foreign language students towards

using computers at a Turkish State University. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of

Educational Technology, 7, 2.

Askani Arani, J. (2004). The effect of ICT-based teaching method on medical students' ESP

learning. Journal of Medical Education, 4 (2), 81-83.

1 2 3 4 5

Before 25% 44,6% 17,9% 10,7% 1,8%

After 8,6% 22,9% 51,4% 17,1% 0%

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Chiu, W., M. (2003). Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Attitudes of Taiwanes Students.

Doctoral dissertation: The University of Florida, Florida.

Dayd, N. M. (1994). Integrating CALL into ESP. IATEFL ESP SIG Newsletter, 1.

Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N.E. (2009). How to design and evaluate research in education.

McGraw-Hill.

Levine, T., & Donitsa-Schmidt, S. (1998). Computer use, confidence, attitudes and knowledge: A

causal analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 14, 125–146.

Luzón, María José (2007) Enhancing Webquest for effective ESP learning. CORELL: Computer

Resources for Language Learning, 1, 1-13.

Ming, T. S. & Bidmeshki, L. (2006). Evaluating Malaysian science and technology undergraduates'

reactions towards an online ESP Course. CALL-EJ Online, 7 (2).

Tılfarlıoğlu, F. (2011). An international dimension of the students’ attitudes towards the use of

English in WEB 2.0 Technology. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational

Technology, 10, 1-2.

Vaičiūnienė , V. & Užpalienė, D. (2010). Authentic resources in Technology-based ESP Learning.

Studies About Languages, 17, 94-98.

Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language

Teaching, 31(2), 57–71.

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LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES OF EFFECTIVE AND LESS

EFFECTIVE LEARNERS AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STRATEGY

PREFERENCES

Gökhan ÇETİNKAYA*

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses the learning styles and strategies of effective and less effective learners.

Participants of the study are 74 university students studying English at preparatory class at Düzce University.

The students were categorized as effective and less effective learners based on their scores on a Diagnostic

test designed by Maastricht University in 2002. To collect data on students’ language learning strategy

preferences, learning styles and language practice and use, students were administered Willing’s (1994)

questionnaire. The survey revealed that effective learners don’t have a favorable learning style, but less

effective learners’ dominant learning style is concrete. There are significant differences in strategy

preferences between effective and less effective learners; in addition, within the group of effective and less

effective learners, female students in both groups showed differences in strategy preferences to male

students.

Keywords: Learning style, Language learning strategies, Effective learners, Less effective learners,

Gender differences

1. INTRODUCTION

Understanding the individual differences among language learners in our classes is crucial

for effective teaching and learning. As Carrell et al., (1996) states that teachers of L2s need to learn

to identify and understand their students’ significant individual differences (cited in Joycey and

Kantaridou, 2011). Among the differences of our students that they bring into the classroom, their

learning strategies associated with the learning styles play an important role. Razawi et al. (2011)

state the discussion on the students’ diverse learning styles can have a significant impact on the

teaching and learning process in ESL education. In our study, we will replicate the study carried

out by Wong and Nunan (2011) on the learning style and strategy preferences of effective and less

effective learners in Chinese context and compare the results of this study in Turkish context with

theirs. In addition, we will also analyze the relationship between style and strategy preferences of

female and male students. Then, our research questions are;

1) What are the learning styles of effective and less effective students?

2) What are the language learning strategies associated with appropriate learning styles of

effective and less effective students?

3) Are there any differences among the time that effective and less effective learners spend

outside the school for practicing English?

4) Are there any differences in the perception of importance of English between effective

and less effective learners?

_______________________

* Gökhan ÇETİNKAYA, Düzce University, [email protected]

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5) Are there any differences in the enjoyment of studying English between effective and

less effective learners?

6) Are there any differences in the self-ratings of English proficiency level between

effective and less effective learners?

7) Are there any differences in language learning strategies of male and female students in

the group of effective and less effective learners?


As Entwistle (1981), states learning styles can be defined, classified, and identified in

many different ways (cited in Bailey, Daley and Onwuegbuzie, 1999). However, giving some

definitions of learning styles, Reid (1998) defines learning styles as internally based characteristics,

often not perceived or consciously used by learners, for the intake and comprehension of new

information (p. ix), and according to Dörnyei (2005), they are individual’s approach to learning, a

blueprint of habitual or preferred way the individual perceives, interacts with, and responds to

learning environment (p. 121). Dunn (1989) indicates that it is a set of biological traits that make

teaching ineffective for some ones and effective for others. This affects the quality of learning of

the learners (cited in Farooq and Regnier, 2011).

In relation to language learning styles, Willing (1994) identified four major language

learning styles; communicative, analytical, authority-oriented and concrete (cited in Nunan, 2011),

and he was able to relate it to Kolb’s (1976) cognitive model (cited in Castro and Peck, 2005;

Wong and Nunan, 2011).

Willing’s learning styles for L2 learning: 1. Communicative learners (Accommodators): They are interested in studying language for

language use but are not interested in analytical study. They are holistic learners who are risk

takers and like to learn outside of the classroom, therefore seeking opportunities to engage in

communication with native speakers.

2. Concrete Learners (Divergers): These learners like a classroom with authority and

organization, but also like the social aspect of the classroom. They are people oriented and are

interested in language for communication purposes.

3. Analytical (Assimilators): These are solitary analytical learners who like to learn about the

language rather than use it. They see language learning as a systematic process and rely on others

as experts, therefore seeking authority figures. They look for well-organized teachers who

provide structure. They function well in non-communicative classrooms. They like to follow

instructions and the textbook, preferring a visual style to learning.

4. Authority-Oriented (Convergers): They are active solitary learners who dislike groups. They

see language as an object of study, not something to express affective or personal values. They

would rather learn about the language (meta-linguistic knowledge).

Researchers have studied learning styles in different aspects; such as, its relation to gender,

language learning difficulties, language learning anxiety, culture, teaching styles and language

learning strategies. For example, females and males have different learning style preferences

(Wehrwein, Lujan, & DiCarlo, 2007 as cited in Emamipour and Efsandabad, 2010); furthermore,

Tabanlıoğlu (2003) found out significant differences in the preferences of tactile learning in female

and male students. In addition to these, Emamipour and Efsandabad, (2010) urge that learning

styles are influenced by gender, culture and ethnicity background.

In his longitudinal study, Castro and Peck (2005) found out that regardless of any specific

language learning deficit or difficulty, a student preferred learning styles can hinder or help success

in the foreign language classroom.

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Bailey, Delay and Onwuegbuzie (1999) investigated the relationship between learning

styles and language learning anxiety and found out that only responsibility and peer-orientation

among twenty learning styles variables are associated with language learning anxiety.

In their study Gündüz and Özcan (2010) found out that cultures of the students and

demographic variables affect their learning styles. As a result of their study, they conclude that

each student learns in a different way, and to address these learning styles, teachers should use a

variety of teaching styles.

Peacock (2001) reexamined Reid’s (1987) hypothesis suggesting that all students have

their own learning styles and learning strengths and weaknesses, and a mismatch between teaching

and learning styles causes learning failure, frustration, and demotivation. He had the same results

as Reid and concludes that hypothesis 1 and 2 are generally true for students. He further suggests

that as learning styles within a class generally differ, perhaps a better approach is to strive for a

balanced teaching style that does not excessively favor any one learning style – or rather that tries

to accommodate multiple learning styles.

Bialystok (1990) and Oxford (1990, 1996) states that in the language-learning field,

virtually all definitions of strategies imply conscious movement toward a language goal (cited in

Ehrman, et al., 2003), and we can see this approach to learning strategies in the following

definitions. (Reid, 1998) defines learning strategies as external skills often used consciously by the

students to improve their learning (p. ix). Oxford (1999b) urges that learning strategies are specific

actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that students use to improve their own progress in

developing skills in a second or foreign language (cited in Ehrman et al., 2003). From the

definitions above, we can easily see the differences between learning styles and strategies; while

styles are unconscious and fairly fixed, strategies are learnt and conscious behaviors towards

learning. As Cohen, (2003) and Oxford, (2003) state learning styles are general approaches to

language learning, while learning strategies are specific ways to deal with language tasks in

particular contexts (cited in Wong and Numan, 2011) In addition, Bailey, Daley and Onwuegbuzie,

(1999) also separate strategies from styles as followed “Learning styles represent unintentional or

automatic individual characteristics, whereas learning strategies are actions chosen by students that

are intended to facilitate learning.” The importance of language learning strategies for students own

progress and development can not be underestimated as Dörnyei (2005) states they are learners’

proactive contribution to enhancing the effectiveness of their own learning (p. 166). However, the

use of a specific strategy becomes effective when it suits to the learning styles of the student and to

the language learning task. According to Ehrman, et al. (2003), there are three conditions for a

strategy to be effective and useful; they are (a) the strategy relates well to the L2 task at hand, (b)

the strategy fits the particular student’s learning style preferences to one degree or another, (c) the

student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant strategies.

There are different schemes trying to explain different kinds of language learning strategies

used by students; for example, Oxford (1990, 1992 as cited in Ehrman et al., 2003) has developed

Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) and identified six groups; they are cognitive,

meta-cognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective and social strategies.

Park (1997) investigated the relationship between the use of language learning strategy and

language proficiency by using SILL and TOEFL scores of students and found out a linear

relationship between learning strategies and language proficiency. The finding of his study also

suggests that cognitive and social strategies used by Korean students are more predictive of

language proficiency than other four strategies.

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Rubin (1975) identified seven learning strategies favored by effective learners through

classroom observation and Stern (1975) listed ten learning strategies of good language learners and

described good language learners in the aspects of personal characteristics, style and strategies

(cited in Wong and Nunan, 2011). Abraham and Vann, 1987; Chamot and O’Malley, 1996 urged

that less able learners often use strategies in a random, unconnected, and uncontrolled manner,

while more effective learners show carefully orchestrated, targeted strategies (cited in Ehrman et

al., 2003). However, as Nel (2008) states no one style which typifies good language learner has not

been identified yet (p. 57).

3.METHODOLOGY

3.1. Participants

The participants of the study are seventy -four students from different departments

studying at preparatory classes at Duzce University. Thirty four of them were identified as more

effective, and forty of them as less effective learners based on the results of Diagnostic Test

designed by Maastricht University, and the students had been studying for about six months when

they took the test in April, 2012.

3.2. Instruments

We used two instruments to identify effective and less effective learners and their learning

styles. To identify the proficiency levels of the students, we used ninety-nine-item Diagnostic Test

designed by Maastricht University in 2002.

We used Willing’s (1994) questionnaire adapted from Wong and Nunan’s (2011) study to

collect data about the learning styles of the students. The questionnaire was first translated into

Turkish, and was back translated by two experts in the area. Two questions in the first part which

solicited biographical and attitudinal information about the learners were eliminated since they are

not suitable for our context and don’t serve for our purpose. They are students’ grades and the

faculty and department they belong to. We didn’t include the former question since we already had

the results of test by Maastricht University, and we excluded the latter one because we are not

seeking any correlation between the proficiency level and the department that the students belong.

In addition, we included gender item in Turkish version to analyze the correlation between gender

and strategy preferences. In the first part, at the end, we had the following questions;

Year of study

Gender

Number of hour per week that English is practiced/used off campus

Percentage of lectures/tutorials/workshops conducted in English

Rating of importance of English

Self-rating of language proficiency on a five-point scale

Extent to which the student enjoys English

After we piloted the Turkish version of the questionnaire to 176 students who studied

English at preparatory class in the previous year; 2009-10 academic years, on SPSS, we used

Cronbach Alpha to calculate the reliability of the questionnaire, and it was 0, 905; however, we had

to exclude the item 21 (I like to learn English with the whole class) since it was found out that the

reliability of this item is much lower than the overall questionnaire. Following the reliability test,

we carried out factor analysis on twenty-nine questions, and we had eight factors, three of them

were unrelated and to decrease the number of factors, we had to eliminate four unrelated items in

the questionnaire; as a result, the second part of the questionnaire consisted of five factors with

twenty-five items. We eliminated items 7 (I like to listen and use cassettes in the class), 9 (In class,

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I like to learn by conversation), 18 (In class I like to learn by myself “alone”) and 35 (I like to learn

English outside class in stores etc.) in the original questionnaire.


First, we administered the Diagnostic Test designed by Maastricht University to 320

students at preparatory class at Düzce University in academic year 2011-12. Based on the results of

the test, we categorized the students whose proficiency levels are upper-intermediate as effective

and whose proficiency levels are beginner as less effective learners. As a result, we had 40

effective and 58 less effective learners. The rest of the learners’ proficiency levels change from

elementary to intermediate levels. Then, we administered the learning styles questionnaire by

Willing (1994) to 411 students; however, on the day of the administration, some effective and less

effective learners were absent, so we had 34 effective and 40 less effective learners completing the

questionnaire.

Data obtained through learning style questionnaire was analyzed by using SPSS 16. Chi-

square was used to analyze the correlation between effective and less effective learners’ learning

styles and differences in the strategy preferences of male and female students.


4.1 Differences between male and female students’ proficiency levels and learning

strategies

Chi-square results yielded that there is not a statistically significant relationship between

the gender and the proficiency levels of the students; Df: 1, Sig: 0,131. (See table 1 below for

details.) 52 % of males and only 33 % of females are effective learners. On the other hand, within

the group of effective learners, male and female students showed a difference on item 22 “I like to

learn English words by seeing them”; Df: 3, Sig: 0,045. (See table 2 below for details.) 54 % of

male students assigned as effective often use this strategy, but only 13 % of female students prefer

it. In the group of less effective learners, though, male and female students showed difference on

three items;

Item 10: I like to have my own textbook.

Item 15: I like the teacher to let me find my own mistakes.

Item 19: I like to study grammar.

Table 1: The Ratio Of Male And Female Students In The Group Of Effective And Less

Effective Learners

Gender

Male Female

Effective Count 26 8

% within effective 76,5% 23,5%

% within gender 52,0% 33,3%

Less effective Count 24 16

% within effective 60,0% 40,0%

% within gender 48,0% 66,7%

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Table 2: Gender Difference On Item 22 Within Effective Learners

Gender

Male Female

Effective

No 1 0

A little 3 0

Good 8 7

Best 14 1

less effective

No 2 1

A little 7 2

Good 10 8

Best 5 5

While 75 % of female students chose options good and best for item 10, only 40 % of male

students chose these options for the same item; Df: 3, Sig: 0,001. (See table 3 below for details.)

For item 15, 75 % female students chose good and best, but 66 % of male students selected these

options; Df: 3, Sig: 0,023. (See table 4 below for details.) Also, 72 % of female students chose

options good and best for item 19, but for male students for the same item, the percentage is 33;

Df:3 , Sig: 0,030. (See table 5 below for details.)

Table 3: Gender Differences On Item 10 Within The Group Of Less Effective Learners

Gender

Male Female

Effective

No 1 0

A little 3 0

Good 8 7

Best 14 1

less effective

No 2 1

A little 7 2

Good 10 8

Best 5 5

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Gender

Male Female

Effective

No 1 0

A little 10 5

Good 11 1

Best 4 2

Less effective

No 6 2

A little 10 4

Good 2 8

Best 6 2

4.2. Differences in the amount of time spent outside school for practicing English

According to test results, there is a statistical relationship between the proficiency level of

students and the amount of time they spend outside school for practicing English; Df: 3, Sig: 0,006.

(See table 6 below for details.) While 75 % of less effective learners spend less than one hour

outside school, there is only one student who spends more than ten hours and there is no student

who spends between 5-10 hours outside school for practicing English. On the other hand, majority

of effective learners (41 %) spend between 1-5 hours outside school and the percentage of less

effective learners spending between 1-5 hours is 22, 5 %. 20,6 % of effective learners spend 5-10

hours or more than ten hours outside school. As a result, we can say that more effective learners

spend more time outside school for practicing English than less effective learners. However, this

study can’t give the direction of this relationship; effective learners are good at English because

they study more outside school, or they study more outside school and as a result they are better at

learning English.

Gender

Male Female

Effective

No 1 0

A little 7 1

Good 10 4

Best 8 3

Less effective

No 4 4

A little 9 0

Good 7 2

Best 2 10

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Table 6: Hours Spent Per Week On Using English Off Campus

Less than 1 hour

1

1-5 5-10 More than 10 hours

Effective 13 14 4 3

Less effective 30 9 0 1

4.3 Differences in the perception of importance of English

Chi-square results show that the number of effective learners who perceive English as

important is higher than the number of less effective learners; Df: 4, Sig: 0,043. (See table 7 below

for details.) Learning English is considered as important and extremely important by 94 % of

effective learners but only by 72 % of less effective learners. In addition, none of the effective

learners think that learning English is not important, 10 % of less effective learners consider

learning English as unimportant, though.

Table 7: Perception Of Importance Of Learning English

Not at all Not very Somewhat Very Extremely

Effective 0 0 2 11 21

Less effective 2 2 7 16 12

4.4 Differences in self-rating of language ability

As expected effective learners rate their English proficiency higher than less effective

learners; Df: 4, Sig: 0,001. However, while only one effective learner selected the highest

proficiency level, three less effective learners selected this item. On the other hand, overall self

ratings of effective learners are higher as mentioned above.

4.5 Difference in enjoyment of learning English

According to Chi-square results, there is a statistically significant relationship between the

proficiency level and the enjoyment of learning English; Df: 4, Sig: 0,001. (See table 8 below for

details.) The effective learners have more joy while studying English than less effective learners

do. 62 % of effective learners indicated that they had fun while studying English and only one

indicated that he didn’t have fun. On the other hand, 30 % of less effective learners indicated that

they didn’t have fun and only 25 % have fun while studying English.

Table 8: Enjoyment of Learning English

Not at all Not very Somewhat A lot A great deal



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4.6 Differences in overall learning strategies preferred by effective and less effective

learners

A chi-square analysis revealed significant differences between more and less effective

students on seven items on the questionnaire. They were as follows:

Item 6 In English class, I like to learn by reading.

Item 15 I like the teacher to let me find my mistakes.

Item 20 I like to learn many new words.

Item 21 I like to practice sounds and pronunciation.

Item 23 I like to learn English words by hearing them.

Item 25 At home, I like to learn by reading newspapers, etc.

Item 30 I like to learn by watching, listening to native speakers.

Except for the item 15, scores were significantly higher for more effective learners, and

only for item 15, scores were higher for less effective learners.

In addition, the five most popular strategies of effective learners are

In class, I like to learn by pictures, films, video.

I like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes.

I like to learn many new words.

I like to learn English words by hearing them.

I like to learn by watching, listening to native speakers.

The five most popular strategies of less effective learners are

In class, I like to learn by games.

In class, I like to learn by pictures, films, video.

I like the teacher to help me talk about by interests.

I like to learn English words by seeing them.

I like to learn by watching, listening to native speakers.

Although two strategies “In class, I like to learn by pictures, films, video and I like to learn

by watching, listening to native speakers.” are favored by both groups, the percentages of using

these two items are higher for more effective learners, as in other strategies. The percentages of

effective learners for strategies they prefer are higher than the less effective learners’.

4.7 Learning styles of effective and less effective learners.

Ehrman et al., (2003) state that styles are made manifest by learning strategies (overt

learning behaviors/actions). In accordance with the statement, we identified learning styles of

students based on their strategy preferences. Chi-square results yielded that the effective learners

don’t have a dominant learning style. 38 % of effective students are concrete, 29 % are authority-

oriented and 23 % are communicative learners. In addition, 3 students weren’t assigned any styles

since their scores are equal for two styles. On the other hand, less effective learners’ dominant style

is concrete. 63 % of less effective students are concrete, 18 % are authority-oriented and 8 % are

communicative learners. 5 students weren’t assigned any style since they have equal scores for two

learning styles. Furthermore, none of the students were assigned to analytical learning style since

two of the groups created via factor analysis on SPSS don’t fit into analytical style described by

Willing. The number of the students in each style group is shown in the table 9.

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Table 9: Overall Learning Styles

Concrete Authority-oriented Communicative

Effective 13 10 8

Less effective 25 7 3

The Turkish version of the questionnaire has five factors although the original one by

Willing has four. Each of three groups out of five was given a language learning style described by

Willing (1994). They are concrete, authority-oriented and communicative. However, one item in

concrete and one item in authority-oriented learning style don’t fit into these learning styles, and

while evaluating the language learning styles of students, they weren’t included. The extra item in

concrete style “I like the teacher to give us problems to work on” originally belongs to analytical,

and the extra one in authority-oriented style “I like to learn by watching, listening to native

speakers” belongs to communicative learning style. Two groups which weren’t given a learning

style, on the other hand include strategies belonging to different learning style labels described by

Willing. You can see these two groups below and in parenthesis which learning style the strategies

originally belong to.

Group I

6. In English class, I like to learn by reading. (authority-oriented)

20. I like to learn many new words. (communicative)

21. I like to practice sounds and pronunciation. (analytical)

22. I like to learn English words by seeing them. (concrete)

23. I like to learn English words by hearing them. (communicative)

Group II

11. I like the teacher to explain everything to us. (authority-oriented)

13. I like the teacher to help me talk about by interests. (authority-oriented)

14. I like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes. (authority-oriented)

15. I like the teacher to let me find my mistakes. (analytical)

These two false grouping may have occurred as a result of mis-wording of statements in

Turkish version of the questionnaire, or students may have considered the second group as a whole

as they are all related to teacher. For group 1, we can also say that the students believe that reading

and memorizing vocabulary items are the key elements for high proficiency level and for speaking

the target language, they need to learn how to pronounce the words clearly since there are different

sounds in English from Turkish; these beliefs might have shaped group II.

While the dominant learning style of less effective learners is concrete, we couldn’t

identify a learning style for effective learners since the scores of students for each style is equally

distributed. That is the main difference between the current study and Wong’s and Nunan’s (2011)

study. In their study communicative learning style was assigned as the dominant style of effective

learners, but current study revealed that effective learners don’t have a specific style rather their

preferences vary. In addition, less effective learners’ dominant style is different from the Wong’s

and Nunan’s study. In their study the dominant learning style of less effective learners was

authority-oriented; however, according to the results of current study, it is concrete.

For both groups, concrete learning style is the most favorable one; this might be the result

of extensive use of GTM in primary and high schools although it is severely criticized and there are

many attempts to move to more communicative methods at schools. Even though students have

usually been exposed to explicit teaching of grammar rules, and study the language as they study

other school subjects like physics or math, they are also aware of communication aspects of a

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language and have a desire to speak the target language. To realize this goal, teachers use videos,

flashcards, and students are involved in activities such as information gap. While all these activities

are communicative, teachers usually insist on grammar, and students don’t think that they have

progressed when they don’t cover a grammar point in a class. One of the distinctive features of

GTM is its teacher-centeredness, and the second most favorable style of effective and less effective

students is authority-oriented. Students expect the teacher to be unique source of information about

the language, and to organize and direct all the activities in the class. The students at any level like

having a textbook to have the sense of progress, taking notes and studying grammar. While

teachers try to be more communicative and humanistic, they use GTM in the classroom

extensively; this dilemma can affect and shape students’ strategy and style preferences.

Data revealed that over 50 % of less effective learners are concrete in their overall learning

style, and for effective learners it is the most favorable one although their learning styles vary. In

addition, we should also mention that all styles were represented to varying degrees in all learners

regardless of their proficiency level. Nel (2008) explains that although style preferences are often

presented in dichotomies, many learners, of course, exclusively display one style or its bipolar

opposite, but operate somewhere on an intervening continuum (p. 50). For this reason, as

Christison (2003) states pedagogy should be style-neutral, and that the focus should be on

encouraging learners to ‘stretch their styles’ (cited in Wong and Nunan, 2011).

The most significant differences between effective and less effective learners were

attitudinal on the survey. Clearly, effective learners spend more time studying English outside the

school, have more fun learning English and consider learning a foreign language as more important

than the less effective learners. These attitudinal differences might be the main source of

differences in their proficiency levels, these results are also consistent with Wong’s and Nunan’s

(2011) study.


The study revealed that effective learners don’t have a dominant learning style, but over 50

% of less effective learners are concrete. However, as we mentioned before, all learning styles are

represented in both groups and even in all learners. In addition, in the group of less effective

learners, there are statistically significant differences in three strategy preferences between male

and female students, and in the group of effective learners, there is only one strategy that is more

favorable for female students. In addition, we also found out that students’ attitudes towards

English differ significantly between two groups.

For the implication of these results, teachers who are aware of students’ individual

differences in their classes and want to meet their needs should focus on students’ diverse learning

styles and always try to organize classroom activities appealing to all learners’ learning styles and

strategies. In this respect, Felder & Henriques (1995) state that teachers should arrange learning

activities by considering not only one learning style but also different learning styles (cited in Altun

and Yazıcı, 2010), and such an approach leads the teacher to be style-neutral. Farooq and Regnier

(2011) summarize the point as followed;

Without considering the learning styles of learners, it is not possible to provide them healthy

learning experiences. If the main objective of education is to develop mastery among the learners

about the information being provided, then it is only possible by delivering instruction in such a way

which matches best to each learner’s way of learning information.

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REFERENCES

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Behavioral Sciences 9 (2010) 198–202.

Bailey, P., Daley, C.E. & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (1999). Foreign language anxiety and Learning

styles. Foreign Language Annals 32 (99), 63-76

Castro, O. & Peck, V. (2005). Learning styles and foreign language learning difficulties. Foreign

Language Annals 38 (5), 401-409.

Dörnyei, Z., (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second

Language Acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, N.J.

Ehrman, M.E., Leaver, B.L., Oxford, R.L. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in

second language learning. System 31 (3), 313-330.

Emamipour & Esfandabad, H.S. (2010). A comparative study of learning styles among

monolingual (Persian) and bilingual (Turkish-Persian) secondary school students. Procedia

Social and Behavioral Sciences 5 (2010) 2419–2422.

Farooq, M.S. & Regneir, J. (2011). Role of Learning Styles in the Quality of Learning at Different

Levels. Informatica Economică 15, 28-45.

Gündüz, N. & Özcan, D. (2010). Learning styles of students from different cultures and studying in

Near East University. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 9 (2010) 5–10.

Joycey, P. A. & Kantaridou, Z. (2011). Major, minor, and negative learning style preferences of

university students. System 39 (11), 103-112.

Nel, C. (2008). Learning style and good language learners. In Griffits, C. (Ed.). Lessons from Good

Language Learners. CUP.

Peacock, M. (2011). Match or mismatch? Learning styles and teaching styles in EFL. International

Journal of Applied Linguistics 11, 1-20. Blackwell Publishing.

Razawi, N,A,, Muslim, M., Razali, S.M.C., Husin, N. & Samad, N.Z.A. ().Students’ Diverse

Learning Styles In Learning English As A Second Language. International Journal of

Business and Social Science 2 (2011) 179-186.

Reid, J.M. (Ed.) (1998). Understanding Learning Styles in the Second Language Classroom.

Prentice Hall Regents, Upper Saddle River, N.J.

Tabanlioğlu, S. (2003). The Relationship Between Learning Styles and Language Learning

Strategies of Pre-Intermediate EAP Students. METU

Wong, L.L.C. & Nunan, D. (2011). The learning styles and strategies of effective language

learners. System 39 (2011) 144-163.

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Appendix A: Survey responses and Chi-square statistics

Learning Styles

Concrete Authority-oriented Communicative

Effective 13 10 8


Df: 3 Sig: 0,072

1. Hours spent per week on using English off campus

Less than 1 hour 1-5 5-10 More than 10 hours

Effective 13 14 4 3


Df: 3 Sig: 0,006

2. Regular classes conducted in English

Lectures:

21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100

Effective 0 1 6 26


Df: 3 Sig: 0,495

Tutorials

1-20 61-80 81-100

Effective 12 0 4


Df: 2 Sig: 0,116

3. Perceptions on the importance of English

Not at all Not very Somewhat Very Extremely



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Df: 4 Sig: 0,043

4. Rating of English level

Level 1:I know the vocabulary, expressions, and grammar to talk about basic subjects in English. I

can talk about the past and the future.

Level2: I can participate in short social and business conversations in English. I can use the past

and future to talk about everyday subjects.

Level 3: I have the communication strategies to discuss most subjects in English. I know the

vocabulary and expressions to use in most situations.

Level 4: I can understand long conversations in English on unfamiliar topics. I have a solid

understanding of English vocabulary and expressions.

Level 5: I can participate fluently in English in most conversations and discussions on a variety of

topics.

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5



Df: 4 Sig: 0,001

5. Enjoyment of learning English

Not at all Not very Somewhat A lot A great deal



Df: 4 Sig: 0,006

6. In English class, I like to learn by reading.

No A little Good Best

Effective 0 10 20 3


Df: 3 Sig: 0,002

7. In class, I like to learn by games.

Df: 3 Sig: 0,307


Effective 4 11 11 8


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8. In class, I like to learn by pictures, films, video.


Effective 0 3 14 17


Df: 3 Sig: 0,069

9. I want to write everything in a notebook.


Effective 7 18 3 6


Df: 3 Sig: 0,327

10. I like to have my own textbook.


Effective 1 8 14 11


Df: 3 Sig: 0,92

11. I like the teacher to explain everything to us.


Effective 1 5 11 17


Df: 3 Sig: 0,285

12. I like the teacher to give us problems to work on.


Effective 2 12 14 6


Df: 3 Sig: 0,102

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13. I like the teacher to help me talk about by interests.


Effective 0 8 16 10


Df: 3 Sig: 0,385

14. I like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes.


Effective 0 4 14 16


Df: 3 Sig: 0,105

15. I like the teacher to let me find my mistakes.


Effective 0 9 19 5


Df: 3 Sig: 0,013

16. I like to learn English by talking in pairs.


Effective 2 9 17 6


Df: 3 Sig: 0,202

17. I like to learn English in a small group.


Effective 1 11 13 9


Df: 3 Sig: 0,781

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18. I like to go out with the class and practice English.


Effective 6 7 9 12


Df: 3 Sig: 0,680

19. I like to study grammar.


Effective 1 15 12 6


Df: 3 Sig: 0,139

20. I like to learn many new words.


Effective 0 4 10 20


Df: 3 Sig: 0,008

21. I like to practice sounds and pronunciation.


Effective 1 6 13 14


Df: 3 Sig: 0,041

22. I like to learn English words by seeing them.


Effective 1 3 15 15


Df: 3 Sig: 0,186

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23. I like to learn English words by hearing them.


Effective 1 2 13 18


Df: 3 Sig: 0,012

24. I like to learn English words by doing something.


Effective 1 4 14 15


Df: 3 Sig: 0,066

25. At home, I like to learn by reading newspapers, etc.


Effective 3 8 15 7


Df: 3 Sig: 0,001

26. At home, I like to learn by watching TV in English.


Effective 3 7 11 13


Df: , Sig: 0,334

27. At home, I like to learn by using cassettes.


Effective 6 15 6 7


Df: 3 Sig: 0,222

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28. At home, I like to learn by studying English books.


Effective 1 18 10 5


Df: 3 Sig: 0,076

29. I like to learn by talking to friends in English.


Effective 2 9 13 10


Df: 3 Sig: 0,263

30. I like to learn by watching, listening to native speakers.


Effective 0 1 8 25


Df: 3 Sig:0,000

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STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION IN AN EFL

SETTING

Gülbin ÖZDEMİR

ABSTRACT

Nowadays, e-learning is thought to have gained more importance due to the technological

innovations in education. E-learning has a great role in foreign language learning and teaching as

well, as it provides the learners and teachers with the opportunity to access online resources and

use them in an effective way. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate EFL students’

attitudes toward web-based instruction in an EFL setting in terms of their gender. 55 sophomores

studying at Çukurova University constitute the participants of the study. Sanders and Morrison-

Shetlar’s (2001) Web-Based Instruction Attitude Scale is employed in the study.

Keywords: Web-based instruction, attitude, language learning, foreign language.

1. INTRODUCTION

Recently, e-learning is thought to have gained more importance due to the technological

innovations in education. E-learning has a great role in foreign language learning and teaching as

well, as it provides the learners and teachers with the opportunity to access online resources and

use them in an effective way. In this context, it is thought to be essential to find out about the

computer attitudes of students and some of the factors affecting their attitudes. Many researchers

found out that gender, age and prior computer experience have a strong influence on the students’

computer attitude (Hunt & Bohlin, 1993; Martinez & Mead, 1988; Moon, 1994). Likewise,

attitudes of the students toward the computer use and the Web could influence Web-based

instruction, as well (Sanders & Morrison-Shetlar, 2001).

Therefore, students’ attitudes toward web-based instruction in an EFL setting are thought to

be essential to investigate. Thus, this study aims at answering the following research questions:

1. What attitudes do the ELT students have toward web-based instruction?

2. Is there any significant difference among the attitudes of the ELT students toward web-

based instruction in an EFL setting in terms of gender?



Advancements in technology and internet have encouraged academics to find new ways to

incorporate technology into the curriculum as an extension of the syllabus to enrich the

MA Student, Çukurova University, [email protected]

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instructional experience and promote communication among their students (Karber, 2001; Green,

1996). Therefore, students’ attitudes toward Web-based instruction gained more importance.


Bangery (2004) concluded that the presentation of instructional materials influence the

quality of the students’ learning experience, thus the instructor is expected to help students

understand the instructions in a clear way so that they could be engaged.

Chandler and Maddux (1998) investigated the web use and found that students appreciated

the use of Web as an instructional resource. However, their actual use of the web was relatively

low.

Foster (2003) concluded that there was a positive correlation between instructor’s use of

Web-based training materials and participation of the students and their learning through the Web.

Jiang and Ting (1998) investigated the factors that influence students' perceptions toward

learning through Web-based instruction. They found that students' active participation in online

discussions depends on instructor's emphasis on discussion time and quality.

Sanders and Morrison-Shetlar (2001) examined the students’ attitudes toward Web-

enhanced instruction in an introductory biology course and found that students’ attitudes were

generally positive. Also, female students were found to have more positive attitude than males.

Slattery (1998) suggested that there is a strong connection between the instruction giving

and learning progress, thus the instructor has the responsibility to give the instructions in an

accessible way.

3.METHODOLOGY

3.1. Participants

The population of this study was composed of 55 sophomores in English Language

Teaching Department at Çukurova University in 2012. The majority of the students participating in

the study were female (39 female, 16 male). These students were enrolled in a course entitled

‘Approaches to ELT’. 51 students had their own computers. Most of the students stated that they

had a moderate amount of computer experience.

3.2. The Course

The course required the lecturer and the students to use a blog. During one academic term,

the students found online articles and essays on approaches and methods in language teaching and

share them on the blog. Week by week, they commented on these articles and essays. Also, peer

assessment of the discussion board postings was made.


Web-Based Instruction Attitude Scale developed by Sanders and Morrison-Shetlar’s (2001)

was employed in the study. Its reliability coefficient is 0.78. It consists of 19 questions. 12 uses a

Likert-type response scale with questions about their attitude toward Web-based instruction and

seven questions are about the students’ personal data. The response strongly agree was assigned a

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score of 4, agree a score of 3, disagree a score of 2, and strongly disagree a score of 1. Questions

were written both positively and negatively.

SPSS 11.5 statistical package programme was used in order to analyse the data.

Frequencies and percentages were used. One-way ANOVA was used to figure out if there was a

significant difference in attitudes toward Web-based instruction between females and males.


Table 1: Student Responses in Percentages

No Item SA A D SD p

1 Web-based instruction scares me. 10,6 12,7 49,1 27,3 .365

2 I am uncomfortable answering questions through the

Web. 3,6 21,8 54,5 20,0 .571

3 I am confident about completing assignments through

the Web. 20,0 21,8 54,5 3,6 .337

4 I enjoy taking quizzes through the Web. 30,9 49,1 18,2 1,8 .547

5 I prefer talking to people in person rather than

communicating through a chat room on the Web. 38,2 32,7 23,6 5,5 .894

6 I would rather post questions on the Web through the

bulletin board than ask them during class. 5,5 30,9 50,9 12,7 .366

7 I would rather get class notes from the Web than have

them handed out in class. 14,5 30,9 43,6 10,9 .082

8 I prefer to have the course syllabus handed out to me in

class rather than print it from the Web. 23,6 54,5 16,4 5,5 .600

9 I would rather look up my grades on the Web as

opposed to getting them from the professor.

36,4 45,5 16,4 1,8 .596

10 I am comfortable doing course work through the Web. 18,2 45,5 32,7 3,6 .190

11 I would prefer not to use Web-based instruction in my

classes.

7,3 23,6 43,6 25,5 .499

12 I would rather take quizzes through the Web than on

paper in class.

12,7 27,3 47,3 12,7 .893

SA=Strongly agree, A=Agree, D=Disagree, SD=Strongly disagree

Student attitudes toward Web-based instruction were generally positive. Students seemed

content with the web-based instruction. They felt comfortable working in a Web-based

environment. They agreed that they enjoyed taking quizzes through the Web. They preferred

talking to people in person rather than communicationg in a Web-based environment.

They did not prefer posting questions on the Web to asking them during class. They

disagreed that they would prefer to get class notes from the Web as opposed to have them handed

out in class. In connection with this preference, they stated that they would like to have the course

syllabus handed out in class rather than print it from the Web. However; they preferred to look up

their grades on the Web rather than getting them from the professor. They seemed to prefer to use

Web-based instruction in their classes.

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No specific difference was found between the female and male students. This indicates that

there is an agreement among the female and male students in the context of Web-based instruction.

The study indicates parallel results with the results with some of the previous studies

(Sanders & Morrison-Shetlar, 2001; Chandler & Maddux, 1998). The students were found to have

positive attitudes toward Web-based instruction and they appreciated the use of Web in their

classes. However; no significant difference was found among the female and male students in this

study. This might have been due to the number of female students since there are more female

students than male students who participated in the study.


Student responses were observed to be positive. After the course, the students continued to

take courses requiring Web-based instructional modules and they seemed comfortable and

motivated. Thus, lecturers might use the Web for the course requirements such as syllabi, articles,

essays, activities and grades.

Furthermore, the students stated that they did not prefer to post their questions on the Web

to ask them during class. It could be said that they need simultaneous feedback from the instructor

and therefore they prefer to discuss their questions with the instructor during the class since it

might not be possible to do that on the Web if the instructor is not online at the same time. Also, it

might have resulted from their insufficient technological knowledge or limited access to computer

labs at campus. All in all, simultaneous feedback seems to be essential for the students.

Moreover, the students preferred to have the course syllabus handed out in class rather than

print it from the Web. This might have been due to their financial situation. Not all the students

may be able to have a printer at home or enough money to print the syllabus from the Web.

Additionally, the students stated that they would like to look up their grades on the Web

rather than getting them from the professor. This would be because they would like to learn their

grades on their own and would not like to share the grades with their classmates. Or it could be

tiring if the professor is so busy and his/her office is full of students who would like to hear about

their grades. The Web would provide them with the opportunity to access their grades individually

and they would feel more comfortable.

For further studies, age and different departments would be taken into consideration and

number of the student would be increased.

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REFERENCES

Bangery, A. W. (2004). The Seven Principles of Good Practice: A framework for evaluating online

teaching. Internet & Higher Education, 7(3), 217-232.

Chandler, B., & Maddux, C. D. (1998). Student use of instructors’ Web sites. In S. McNeil, J. D.

Price, S. Boger-Mahall, B. Robin & J. Willis (Eds.) Technology and teacher education

annual 1998. (ERIC No. ED 421 152)

Foster, B. (2003). Online teaching of mathematics and statistics. Teaching mathematics and its

applications, 22(3), 145-153.

Green, K. C. (1996). Campus computing, 1995. The sixth national survey of desktop

computing in higher education. Encino, CA Campus Computing (ERIC NO. ED 394 383)

Hunt, N. P., & Bohlin, R. M. (1993). Teacher education students’ attitudes toward using

computers. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 25(4), 487-497.

Jiang, M., & Ting, E. (1998). Course design, instruction, and students' online behaviors: A study of

instructional variables and student perceptions of online learning. Paper present-ed at the

annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA. (ERIC

No. ED 421 970).

Karber, D. J. (2001). Comparisons and Contrats in Traditional Versus On-Line Teaching in

Management. Higher Education in Europe, 26(4), 533-536.

Martinez, M. E., & Mead, N. A. (1988). Computer competence: The first national assessment

(Report No. ETS-17-CC-01). Princeton, NJ: National Assessment of Educational Progress.

Moon, S. (1994). The relationships among gender, computer experience, and attitudes toward

computers. (ERIC No. ED 381 142)

Sanders, D. W. & Morrison-Shetlar, A. I. (2001). Student Attitudes toward Web-Enhanced

Instruction in an Introductory Biology Course. Journal of Research on Computing in

Education. 33(3), 251-262.

Slattery, J. M. (1998). Developing a Web-assisted class: An interview with Mark Mitchell.

Teaching of Psychology, 25(2), 152-155.

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EFFECTIVE WAYS OF TEACHING VOCABULARY

İrfan TOSUNCUOĞLU

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this presentation is to encourage teachers to teach vocabulary activities into their

classes. Even Robert Lado (1955) talked about patterns of difficulty in vocabulary teaching. He

highlighted key issues related to words, the native language factor and about patterns. We try to present

the ways to help students understand the complexities of vocabulary learning. As we know, the word

learning is a complex task and word knowledge involves a range of skills, and word learning is facilitated

by approaches that provide varied experiences.

Our first idea to realize that it is important for teachers to acknowledge and for students to understand.

Our students realize that the important role vocabulary acquisition plays in all aspects of their language

learning. In our conversation classes we do not always use separate vocabulary builders. Instead, the words

on our vocabulary list come from the different contexts of the reading passages and discussions about

them. It is not enough to do just one activity with a word. Students must learn about the words in a variety

of interactive ways, and their active participation in the learning process plays an important role.

The other objective of this presentation is using useful and more effective ways of teaching vocabulary

and getting all students involved in a group activity. There are many ways to make an activity fun. Well-

chosen pictures, cards, flashcards and other visual aids, as well as realia in general and so on and so forth,

are usually of great help. It is always a good idea to have students change seating arrangements, work in

groups, and complete short activities. Moreover, try to create humorous situations for role-plays and

dialogues. The use of games as an effective learning tool is inestimable and makes their learning more

pleasurable and meaningful.

In conclusion an efficient language teacher can use selected vocabulary activities or can use integrated

activities. All this depends upon ability and level of understanding and interest of the learners. We can say

that vocabulary activities into classes does take extra time of the teacher. However, designing these kinds

of activities becomes easier the more you do them. Helping students understand and giving them the tools

to learn vocabulary effectively, and making them work with the words regularly, can help them develop

more systematic and effective ways of learning vocabulary.

Keywords: Vocabulary, discussion, teaching, effective ways, communication

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this presentation is to encourage teachers to incorporate vocabulary activities

into their classes. Even Robert Lado (1955) talked about patterns of difficulty in vocabulary

teaching. He drew attention to key issues related to words, the native language factor and language

patterns. We try to present ways to help students understand the complexities of vocabulary

learning. As we know, word learning is a complex task, and word knowledge involves a range of

skills. Word learning is facilitated by approaches that provide varied experiences.

Assist Prof. Dr., Karabük University, [email protected]

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Firstly, our students must realize the important role vocabulary acquisition plays in all aspects

of their language learning. In our conversation classes we do not always use separate vocabulary

builders. Instead, the words on our vocabulary lists come from the different contexts of the reading

passages and discussions about them. Teachers must understand that it is not enough to do just one

activity with a word. Students must learn about the words in a variety of interactive ways, and their

active participation in the learning process plays an important role.

The other objective of this presentation is to highlight useful and more effective ways of

teaching vocabulary and getting all students involved in a group activity. There are many ways to

make an activity fun. Well-chosen pictures, posters, flashcards and other visual aids, as well as

paraphernalia in general are usually of great help. It is always a good idea to have students change

seating arrangements, work in groups, and complete short activities. Moreover, one should to try to

create humorous situations for role-plays and dialogues. The use of games as an effective learning

tool is inestimable and makes student learning more pleasurable and meaningful.

2. PROBLEM

The role of the language teacher today is not as simple as it once was. Every day researchers

are discovering new factors that may play a part in language learning. Today, knowledge of the

linguistic structure of the language is only one of the requirements of a good language teacher.

Teachers should also have broad background knowledge of the social environment that

influences their students, different pedagogical techniques, social and cultural aspects of the

language being taught, and techniques for diagnosing certain psychological characteristics of the

learners. For a language is much more than vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules, and

language learning is not simply a matter of acquiring a system of linguistic formulas. Language is

a form of communication among individuals in a specific social context. But even more than that,

language is a way of thinking and of processing information. It is a symbol of a culture and

personal identity.

This new, increased responsibility for language learning does not fall entirely on the teacher,

however. The student must also assume more responsibility for and participate actively in the

learning process. In the final analysis, it is the learner who must assimilate the language and allow

it to become part of him. We, as teachers, can only “facilitate” this process.

At the beginning level, most new words learned by students have obvious and immediate

practical uses; they quickly become part of the learners’ everyday English - their productive

vocabulary. Teachers can facilitate this by giving learners opportunities to practice using new

vocabulary items in spoken communication. Good pronunciation--getting the sounds and the stress

right—can be encouraged. However, as students learn more and more words, they will find that

many items seem less immediately useful and are perhaps only occasionally met within the context

of reading or listening material. There seems to be less need for getting students to practice

speaking and using such words. Work on pronunciation can still be useful, but is more likely to be

analytical (e.g. Which is the stressed part in the word?) rather than part of communication practice.

2.1. The Role of Vocabulary in the Classroom

1. Vocabulary is very important and needs to be dealt with systematically in its own right; it is not

simply an addition to grammar or skills lessons.

2. Our job does not finish as soon as a learner is first introduced to some new vocabulary; we need

to help them practice, learn, store, recall and use the items.

3. Training in the use of English-English dictionaries provides learners with a vital tool for self

study.

4. We need to distinguish between vocabulary for “productive” use and for “receptive”

recognition and adapt our classroom work appropriately. This distinction is an important

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consideration for teachers planning vocabulary work. Our receptive vocabulary is the set of words

that we recognize and understand, but tend not to use ourselves.

5. We need to deal not only with single-word lexical items, but also with longer, multi-word

items.

6. After students have seen and heard a new lexical item for the first time, they will need

opportunities to become more familiar with it, and practice recognizing, manipulating and using it.

2.2.Important Points for Teaching Vocabulary Vocabulary is more important than grammar.

We should not focus on grammar at the expense of vocabulary. New vocabulary should be

introduced in almost every lesson. Fluency is more important than accuracy.

We should be selective in our correction of learners. We need to plan lessons that allow

students to speak freely at times, as well as to speak with restrictions and correction at other times.

Learners should be aware that getting the message across is just as important as getting the English

right.

Learning is more important than teaching.

We should pay more attention to what the students are doing in a lesson, and less to what the

teachers are doing. Student talk is more useful than teacher talk. Learners should get the chance to

answer questions. We should plan our lesson so learners will be able to achieve what they were

unable to do before.

Language is a tool for communication.

Learners need to practice using the language in as realistic and authentic a way as possible.

Grammar study, filling the gaps, etc., are only steps along the way to developing the ability to use

language for real tasks. Classroom language is an important source of input and practice.

Learners are individuals: they learn in different ways and have different needs.

We need to be aware of our individual students’ needs, and cater to them as much as possible.

We need to vary our ways of presenting and practicing language to appeal to different learning

styles. There is no “right way” to learn, and teachers must respect the diverse needs and wants of

our students. We should try as much as possible to get to know our students as people, on a normal

human level.

People learn best when they feel comfortable and relaxed.

We must try to create an atmosphere of trust and mutual respect in our groups. Learners should

feel that they can make mistakes without fear of ridicule. We should not emphasize or exploit the

imbalance in the teacher-learner power relationship. Teachers and learners should be on a first-

name basis. Tasks should be challenging but achievable.

Learners should be involved in the learning process.

We should elicit learners’ input regarding course content. We should give them the opportunity

to evaluate our lessons, and to let us know what they do and do not enjoy about them. We should

respond to and act upon the learners’ input as much as possible. Learners should be aware of their

progress and encouraged to set their own goals.

Learners need to learn how to learn.

We should expose learners to a variety of ways to organize their learning process. Learners

should be aware of the learning strategies they use and we should expose them to other, possibly

better, techniques.

2.3.Suggested Learning Activities Morning Discussion

The morning discussion makes the class more active, as students can exchange their opinions

and everyone can participate in the discussions. This daily event can improve their ability in

expression and speaking skills and it encourages the students to be more active in class.

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For the first time in their experience, the students will have become users of the language

instead of passive learners. This change of status greatly enhances their sense of achievement,

which has the cumulative effect of promoting communication.

The second feature of the morning discussion lies in the authenticity of the student’s

communication. They become very interested in choosing the topics for discussion, which may

cover social, cultural, ethnical, educational and emotional issues. Other topics to be discussed can

include science and technology, business English, events in other parts of the world, music,

literature and arts, public relations, movies and popular personalities, love of nature and problems

in daily life.

The third feature of the morning discussion is that it helps encourage a relaxed classroom

atmosphere, thereby lessening the students’ anxiety when they use English for communication. We

emphasize that no one should be laughed at in class or be interrupted for pronunciation or grammar

correction.

The morning discussion creates opportunities for students to communicate using a variety of

strategies. Students’ own perceptions of the morning discussion have convinced us that such a

carefully designed class activity could meet their needs, motivate them to be responsible for their

own learning and enhance their interest in authentic communication.

Debates

If your students have reached an advanced level in English, they may enjoy participating in

debates. In order for debates to be successful, however, you must make modifications in the

traditional debate format. When we participate in debates in our native language, for instance, we

sometimes speak on the “pro” side of an issue, whereas our true feelings are on the “con” side, and

vice versa. We do this to improve our debating skills.

Students, on the other hand, need practice in speaking English more than on polishing their

debating skills. They will speak more fluently during a debate if they can represent their true

feelings on an issue. Therefore, if they are directed to defend their actual sentiments, in this way

everyone will find the debate more satisfying. Here are some other suggestions:

1. Describe the debate topic. Ask which student would like to be “pro” and which “con”.

2. Select an equal number of students to speak on each of the two debate “teams.” (A team of two

to four people on each side usually works best.)

3. Allow the students sufficient time to prepare their arguments. They can speak from notes, but

they should not read their presentation.

4. Have the two teams sit in front of the class so that everyone can see them.

5. Appoint one member on each team as the “captain”. The captain will give his presentation first

and summarize the team’s views at the end.

6. Set a three-minute time limit for each presentation. Alternate a presentation by a Team I

member with one by a Team II member.

7. After everyone has given his presentation and the captains have summed up their teams’ views,

class members in the audience can question members of either team. The teacher may also want to

direct questions to team members.

8. End the debate when the subject is exhausted or if the students get involved in a heated

argument. Generally speaking, it is best not to have the audience vote on which team they found

the most impressive since this might touch on the speakers’ sensitivities.

3. WAYS OF PRESENTING NEW VOCABULARY

There are many ways to present a new lexical item to learners so that they can grasp its

meaning. The number is limited only by the creativity of the teacher. The following list is therefore

not intended to be all-inclusive. Neither are the various suggested modes of presentation meant to

be used in isolation. It is quite clear that a combination of several different presentation modes will

often be the most effective.

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3.1.Word Relations

A common way for a teacher to elucidate the meaning of a target word is to relate it to another

word that the students already know. The two most common types of word relations are synonyms

(words similar in meaning) and antonyms (words opposite in meaning). Another useful word

relation is that of the lexical set. One can facilitate the identification of an item by showing to what

class of items it belongs; for example, a “rose” belongs to the class of items “flowers.”

Additionally, one can place the item against other items that are in the same set; for example,

“yellow” belongs with “red,” “blue” and “green,” since it is also a color. The main caution about

using word relations is, of course, that any words used to explain the meaning of the target word

should not be more difficult than the target word itself.

3.2. Pictorial Schemata

Explaining the relations that exist between words can be greatly enhanced by the use of some

form of visual display or diagram. Lindstromberg (1985) calls such instruments “pictorial

schemata,” which may include diagrams, grids, tree charts, or stepped scales. Such diagrams that

show the relations between a number of words can be created in a simple way. Students can be

taught the basic schemata, and thus when new words are presented within the schematic frame,

they can be readily interpreted. A good example is adjective intensification. Once students have

been taught the significance of the simple step diagram, items that have the same relationship can

be taught.

3.3. Definition, Explanation, Examples and Anecdotes

In some sense the English teacher can be considered a walking dictionary. The teacher’s

definition may not be as precise as that of the dictionary, but the teacher has the advantage of

being able to give multiple examples of usage and to discuss the target word at length. Some

words that are difficult to define can be brought to life by relating a short story or by having the

students imagine a set of circumstances from which it becomes possible to deduce the meaning of

the item. For example, if the teacher is explaining the item “a guided tour,” the class may be asked

to imagine a museum or an art gallery in which there is a group of people listening to a man

explaining a picture. The man goes from this picture to the next picture and the people follow him.

The teacher explains that the man is called a guide and the group is on a “guided tour”. If this is

not clear, the teacher can illustrate with another example, perhaps of a guided tour of a city.

3.4. Context

A challenging way to present a new item is by embedding the word in a sentence or couple of

sentences in such a way that it may be possible for the students to guess the meaning of the item.

For example, if the target word is “beg,” the teacher may say, “The little boy begged the man to

follow him. He pulled on his arm and said, ‘Please, please come with me.’” This is a good

technique for helping students to use context to guess meanings; however, there is the danger that

your example may be followed by confused silence when students fail to understand the item,

either because the context chosen by the teacher is unclear to the students or because they have a

problem catching the entire meaning upon the first hearing. It is probably advisable to use this

technique with sentences that can be read, thus giving the students adequate time to process them.

3.5. Word Roots and Affixes

Some teachers claim to have great success by teaching students some of the more common

Greek and Latin roots to be found in English. When these are combined with knowledge of the

most common prefixes and suffixes it may be possible to work out the meanings of a large number

of derived words. For example, having been taught the meaning of the prefix “contra” (against),

students might be able to work out in context that the word “contradiction” has something to do

with speaking against, disagreeing, or not being consistent in meaning.

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4. CONLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

In conclusion, it is always a good idea to have students change seating arrangements, work in

groups, and complete short activities. Moreover, try to create humorous situations for role-plays

and dialogues. The use of games as an effective learning tool is inestimable and makes their

learning more pleasurable and meaningful. An efficient language teacher can use selected or

integrated activities to teach vocabulary. All this depends upon the ability, the level of

understanding and the interest of the learners. We can say that vocabulary activities introduced in

the classroom do take extra time and effort on the part of the teacher. However, designing these

kinds of activities becomes easier the more one does them. Helping students understand and giving

them the tools to learn vocabulary effectively, and making them work with the words regularly,

can help them develop more systematic and successful ways of learning vocabulary.

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REFERENCES

Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. MA: Newbury House.

Jiang, N. 2004. Semantic Transfer and Its Implications for Vocabulary Teaching in a Second

Language.

Lado R.1955. Bibliography for teachers of English as a foreign language. Washington.

Larsen - Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. NY;

Oxford University Press.

Lewis, M. 1997. Implementing the lexical approach. Hove, England: Language Teaching

Publications.

Lindstromberg, S. 1985. Schemata for ordering the teaching and learning of vocabulary.

ELT J, Vol. 39, No. 4. (1 October 1985), pp. 235-243, doi:10.1093/elt/39.4.235

McCarthy, M. and O’Dell, F. 2003. English Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge University Press.

Nation, I. S. P., and J. Newton. 2009. Teaching ESL/EFL listening and speaking. New York:

Routledge.

Nunan, David. 1998. Language Teaching and Learning. Edinburgh; Pearson Education Ltd.

Onushco, Michael, Jr. 2003. Teaching English Communicatively, Bishkek.

Richards, Jack C. and Rogers, Theodore S. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press.

Sinclair, J. 1991. Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Stahl, Steven A.; Nagy, William E. 2006.Teaching word meanings. The literacy teaching series.

Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/elt/39.4.235

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ADAPTING MATERIALS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING


Abstract:

Language teaching materials make up a very significant place in the area of foreign language teaching, in

our case English language teaching. Because of this reason, teachers of English language should be very

careful in using language materials in their courses. In other words, they should know which material to

use where without causing any confusion in the mind of the learner, and without blocking the teaching-

learning process. Here, the key word is to use the most appropriate materials for the teaching procedure.

But, how can this be realised? The answer makes up the content of this study. What is to be done here is

to change the material according to the necessary measures. In this way new and more usable materials

can be formed. As Cunningsworth (1984 : 65) said “… the course material provides a basis and can

often suggest possibilities for further development, serving as an inspiration to the teacher.” And he adds

“The teacher should be encouraged to move away from dependence on the material which he is using

towards a more creative and independent relationship in which imagination and an understanding of the

students’ difficulties and interests come into prominence.” What is understood form here is that, first the

teacher should not very strict to the coursebook or materials he uses, because they only determine the

borderlines. In this way, with the inspiration he gets from course materials, he can reach more creative

levels. Besides, if the teacher uses his imagination and creativity in forming and adapting materials, he

can overcome difficulties which he may come have in teaching-learning process just like the interest of

the learners. So, adaptation is a very important and indispensable part of the language teaching process,

and it has to be applied when necessary.

Key words: Materials, adaptation, language teaching, material adaptation.

1. INTRODUCTION

As is known, language teaching materials make up a very significant place in the area of

foreign language teaching, so English language teaching. Because of this reason, teachers of

English language should be very careful in using language materials in their courses. In other

words, they should know which material to use where without causing any confusion in the mind

of the learner, and without blocking the teaching-learning process. But, how can this be realised?

Here, the key word is to use the most appropriate materials for the teaching procedure.

However, the appropriate or correct material may not be found easily all the time. So what can be

Asst. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, [email protected]

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done? Should the programme be changed into another one? Or should the content of the course be

changed because of inappropriateness of the material? Of course, the answer is “No”. What is to

be done here is to change the material according to the necessary measures. In this way new and

more usable materials can be formed. As Cunningsworth (1984 : 65) said “… the course material

provides a basis and can often suggest possibilities for further development, serving as an

inspiration to the teacher.” And he adds “The teacher should be encouraged to move away from

dependence on the material which he is using towards a more creative and independent relationship

in which imagination and an understanding of the students’ difficulties and interests come into

prominence.” What is understood from here is that first, the teacher should not very strict to the

coursebook or materials he uses, because they only determine the borderlines. In this way, with the

inspiration he gets from course materials he can reach more creative levels. Second, if the teacher

uses his imagination and creativity in forming and adapting materials, he can overcome difficulties

which he may come have in teaching-learning process just like the interest of the learners. So,

adaptation is a very important and indispensable part of the language teaching process.

As a result, material adaptation is not the weakness of the language teacher, but his

strength. The reason is that, by adapting materials, he broadens his perspective and presents new

and more efficient materials to his students. So, the learners reach a higher level of consciousness

in mastering the language and as a logical consequence of this, more successful learning-teaching

atmosphere is realised. No coursebook is perfect, no language teaching material is given by God.

And, adaptation is very natural. Thus, there is no need to have a fear of adapting language

materials, in ELT classrooms, because by the help of adaptation more qualified learners can be

formed.

2. REASONS AND WAYS OF ADAPTING MATERIALS

In the introduction part it is clearly understood that adaptation is necessary in the field of

foreign language teaching. However, what should be focused on are the reasons and ways of

making adapting materials to the classroom usage. The reason lying behind this fact is that there is

a reason behind every adaptation requirement, and also there is a way of adapting the material into

the desired form. In this part, some basic seasons of adapting materials, and the ways of adapting

them to the possible uses will be handled. They will be presented with examples to make the

points clearer and more concrete. So, a better understanding of the issue is going to be realised.

2.1 Aims of the Learner

A language material may require adaptation because of the aims of the learners. That is to

say, if the aim of the material to be used and the aim of the learners do not match, an adaptation on

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the language material may be unavoidable. So, necessary adaptations are carried out by the

language teacher. A good instance to this situation is given in example 1 below.

Example 1: Here, a part from a First Certificate coursebook is adapted into an upper-intermediate

level coursebook which does not look for such an aim. It also aims to be an alternative for

Knockout First Certificate. So, the activities and exercises of the reading passage are adapted to

the current use. The result is as follows.

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(Adapted from First Certificate Avenues p.118, 119)

As is seen, the activities are changed completely. The new tasks and activities are designed

to meet the new aim. In this way, the new aim is tried to be achieved. So, an adaptation for the

aim of the learner is realised.

2.2 Approach and Method Followed

Sometimes an adaptation on a material may be necessary because of the approach or

method it follows. That is to say, the approach or method of the material may not match that of the

learning-teaching process in use. So, an adaptation is made. An example of this situation is given

below.

Example 2: In this example, a dialogue from a grammar book is the matter. It is grammar based

in nature. However, the writer makes it very different by adding options to the lines of the dialogue

and by making it an exercise. After it, a discussion point is also given to make the point more

communicative.

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Example 3: Similarly, a newspaper article which is published in a Turkish Daily News is used for

the aim of the coursebook according to the approaches and methods that are followed by the book.

The example is just below.

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Here, the article is used for a more communicative purpose where the ideas of the readers

are asked. Besides, reading is integrated with speaking and writing. So, the material is adapted to

the methods and approaches followed by the coursebook.

2.3 Proficiency or Language Level

Proficiency and the language level of the material to be used may not always meet the

needs of the learners. In such situations, some adaptations are required to meet the language level

of the learners. By the help of a study like this, the tasks will not be very easy or very difficult for

the learners. So, they will neither be bored nor be discouraged. An example of this kind of

situation is given as follows.

Example 4: Here, the original text lacks the upper-intermediate level requirements of the learners.

So, some additions to the text are made. Also, new grammatical structures are added to make the

grammatical structure of the sentences more complicated. Thus, a more suitable text is formed for

the learners in terms of level.

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2.4 Age Level

When the material at hand is not suitable for the age level of the target learners,

some adaptations become necessary. If this is not realised, the material will not meet the

needs of the learners. This situation may have negative effects as lack of motivation,

developing negative attitudes towards learning and English and low success rates. Visual

aids may be very useful for learners of younger learner groups. So, this kind of problems

should be dwelt on when approached. An example of a similar adaptation is presented as

below.

Example 5: Here, a serious topic like environment and animals is supported with some

kind of questionnaires to avoid a boring atmosphere. So, the interest of the learners is

attracted, and the material refers to the target age group after necessary adaptations.

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Yes Sometimes No

- Use recycled paper

- Write on both sides of the paper

- Reuse envelopes

- Reuse plastic carriage bags

- Buy food loose rather than pre-packed

- Recycle household waste (glass, paper, tins)

- Buy large size packets (food, washing powder)

- Use public transport whenever you can

Is there anything else you do?

(Write it here) …………………………

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Example 6: In this adaptation example, the material is supported with pictures to attract the

interest of the learners and to form a more pedagogic teaching-learning atmosphere. So, the boring

atmosphere is avoided and learners are motivated.

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2.5 Learning Styles and Strategies, and Interests

When a material is chosen, the learners’ styles, strategies and interests are also taken into

consideration. In they are not realised in the material, some adaptations are made to realises this

fact. An example of this is given below.

Example 7: Here, the material is on vocabulary teaching. In the original form of the exercise

there is no table like upper part or lower part of the body; however, this is thought to be interesting

for the learners so it s added. Similarly, again in the “b” part there were no picture, but a picture is

added to attract the interest of visual learners. In this way, necessary adaptations are made in the

nature of the material in addition to their original forms.

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2.6 Social, Educational and Cultural Background

Social, educational and cultural background of the learner also affects the use of materials,

and causes necessary adaptations as a result. For instance, the items with irrelevant social or

cultural details are eliminated in the ongoing of the course material. The reason is that, they may

negatively affect the learning of the students, or such a thing may not occur in the learner’s culture.

Such an example is given right below.

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Example 8: Here, the listening and speaking part is supported with a picture. However, the school

picture provided has a bell up the original figure. This is not an appropriate situation for Muslim

learners, so the upper part of the picture is a bit cup up the upper part. In this way, it is adapted to

the culture of the learners.

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2.7 Ongoing of the Coursebook Series Followed

If the material to be used should follow the ongoing or way of the previous materials, again

some adaptations are necessary. The reason is that there should be a kind of continuity between the

components of the whole. So, the material is adapted according to the ongoing of the previous. An

example to this situation is given below.

Example 9: Here, the presentation of the rule in a table and the form of the excise follows regular

Lifelines format. This is the way grammar is presented there. So as a follow up coursebook, the

new book should follow the same line and make necessary adaptations in the materials used in the

sample units of the target upper-intermediate coursebook. The adapted form is given below both in

table and exercise form.

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2.8 Economic Reasons

Sometimes in the area of foreign language teaching adaptations may be necessary as a

result of economic constraints. That is to say, as result of economic difficulties the teacher or the

institution may choose the way of making some adaptations. These are generally in the form of

having some frugal behaviours like reusing some pictures, tapescripts or same texts with alterations

and adaptations. An example to this situation is given below.

Example 10: Here, the following listening and speaking activity is based on a listening cassette

the text of which is given right after the exercise part. However, in the way of forming an upper-

intermediate coursebook as an alternative for Knockout First Certificate, because of some

economic reasons, the listening texts of this FC book is used. Of course the design and the content

of the exercises and tasks are changed and adapted to the target use. But, what is a limitation is the

use of the listening material of Knockout because of economic reasons.

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3. CONCLUSION

To sum up, as far as the presentation of material is concerned, the possible changes on the

nature of materials are also concerned. This is in general what we call adaptation. And it is

sometimes unavoidable. That is why, adapting materials should be applied in the area of English

language teaching when necessary.

Of course, the language teacher does not apply the adaptation of materials randomly.

There are some reasons that make the application of adaptation unavoidable. They are so many in

number; however, here only a few are explained with examples. They are aims of the learners,

approach and method followed, proficiency or language level of the learners, age level, learning

styles, strategies and interest of the learners, social, educational and cultural background of the

learners, ongoing of the coursebook series and economic reasons. These are the main reasons of

adaptations. With these reasons at hand, the language teacher working with the institution can

make necessary adaptations on the material he has. So, new and more appropriate materials are

formed.

As a consequence, if the material at hand does not meet the needs of the learners, necessary

adaptations are made. Here again, the key word is the needs of the learners. If the needs of the

learners are determined with an efficient needs analysis, no doubt the adaptations applied will fit

the situation. Only this way a more productive teaching-learning environment is realised, and more

successful language learners can be formed. Thus, language teachers should be careful in adapting

materials to be used in their classes if they do want to better students educated by them.

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REFERENCES

Briggs, S. J. (1994). Grammar: Strategies and Practice. Illinois. Scott Foresman.

Brown, D. H. (1994). Principles of Language learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs: New

Jersey.

Brown, D. H. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.

Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey.

Chastain, K. (1986). Developing Second-Language Skills. Orlando: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich.

Cunningsworth, A. (1984). Evaluating and Selecting EFL Teaching Materials. London:

Heineman.

Flower, J. (1996). First Certificate Organiser. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.

Foll, D. and KELLY A. (1994). First Certificate Avenues. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Kingsbury, R. (1988). Longman First Certificate. Harlow: Longman.

Stern, H. H. (1991). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Tarone, E. and YULE, G. (1989). Focus on the Language Learner. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Tomlinsen, B. (1998). Materials Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yalden, J. (1987). The Communicative Syllabus. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

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GRADATION OF THE COURSE CONTENT IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING


*

Abstract

As is known syllabus design is a very challenging task in English language teaching. Thus,

in the way of preparing a syllabus, some points have to be considered and some steps have to be

handled. This paper aims to focus on one of the steps that are necessary in syllabus design:

gradation of the course content. In the preparation of the foreign language teaching syllabus, first

of all the educational policy should come so that the whole process can be organised according to

the planned policy. Later, the needs of the learners and related aims and objectives come. After

this step, comes the selection of the course content. Of course while selecting the course content,

the needs of the learners, the aims and objectives are considered in the framework of the education

policy pointed out beforehand. Only after these steps comes the gradation of the course content.

Gradation of the course content is a necessary fact, because it is impossible to present the whole

language material at once. In addition to this, learning of a foreign language is rather sequential.

That is to say, the future learning of the learners depends on the past learning. So, the foreign

language teaching programme should have a good systematic structure in itself. The reason is that,

any gap in the knowledge of the learner may cause problems in learning. Gradation of the course

content is important but how this can be realised? In this paper, this point will be focused on.

Types of gradation will be handled with their weak and strong points. In this way a better

understanding of the term gradation will tried to be realised. Lastly, factors affecting the gradation

of the material to be taught are going to be handled in this study.

Key words: Syllabus, gradation, course content, gradation of course content

1. INTRODUCTION

As is known syllabus design in teaching is a very challenging task. This matter may

become more complicated if the syllabus which is focused on is about language teaching, in our

concern foreign language teaching. Thus, in the way of preparing a syllabus for foreign language

teaching, some points have to be considered and some steps have to be handled. This paper aims to

focus on one of the steps that are necessary in syllabus design: gradation of the course content.

In the preparation of the foreign language teaching syllabus, first of all the educational

policy should come so that the whole process can be organised according to the planned policy.

Later, the needs of the learners and related aims and objectives come. After this step, comes the

selection of the course content. Of course while selecting the course content, the needs of the

learners, the aims and objectives are considered in the framework of the education policy pointed

out beforehand. Only after these steps comes the gradation of the course content. Thus, gradation

has a significant place in the preparation of the foreign language teaching syllabus.

* Asst. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, [email protected]

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Sometimes instead of the term ‘gradation’ grading or sequencing can be used in some

sources. However, the term gradation would be most suitable to use, because the term grading is

used for the marking of tests, and from sequencing it can be misunderstood that the ordering of

material to be learned only consists of arranging items in a certain sequential order, whereas this sis

not the sole purpose. Gradation of the course content is a necessary fact, because it is impossible to

present the whole language material at once. In addition to this, the learning of a foreign language

is rather sequential. That is to say, the future learning of the learners depends on the past learning.

So, the foreign language teaching programme should have a good systematic structure in itself.

The reason is that, any gap in the knowledge of the learner may cause problems in learning.

Consequently, it can be understood that a kind of systematic grading is necessary.

In the last paragraph it was pointed out that a kind of grading is necessary in learning

teaching process. Now the problem is that how this can be realised. In the third part of this paper

this point will be focused on. Types of gradation will be handled with their weak and strong points.

In this way a better understanding of the term gradation will tried to be realised. But before this, a

point should be dwelt on as well. This point is the factors affecting the gradation of the course

content. Thus, factors affecting the gradation of the material to be taught are going to be handled

now.

2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE GRADATION OF COURSE CONTENT

It is known that in the selection of the content of the course some factors were considered

to be important, and they were taken into consideration. Just like this, in the gradation of the

course content there are some other factors that play a significant role as a natural outcome. In this

paper, these factors will be classified as internal and external factors affecting the gradation of the

course content.

2.1 Internal Factors

As far as the internal factors affecting the gradation of the course content is concerned,

mainly the points directly related to the learner will be handled. That is to say, the learner will be

taken as the core and the factors related to the learned will be handled. These factors can be listed

as follows:

The age of the learner

Aims and needs of the learner

Interests of the learner

Cultural background of the learner

Learning style and strategies of the learner

The attitude of the learner towards English or learning

Educational background of the learner

Such factors may contribute completely or partially to the gradation of the course content.

Sometimes they may have direct sometimes they may have indirect effects on the gradation of the

course content. No matter how they affect the gradation, they should not be neglected and they

must be evaluated for the formation of a well-formed syllabus.

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2.2 External Factors

In addition to the internal factors there are some other factors which affect the gradation of

the course content as well. Here, the factors apart from the learner will be named as external

factors. For instance choosing a certain type of gradation may depend on the total numbers

devoted to the teaching of the language may be a good example as an external factor affecting the

gradation of the course content. Whether the mentioned hours are allotted in a long period of time

or in a shorter period of time is another fact that should be kept in mind. Even the total number of

the learners having the course in the same class may affect the gradation as well, since it affects the

time allocated for each learner. Here it can be understood that even the physical conditions of the

teaching atmosphere can affect the gradation of the course content. Thus, external factors which

affect the grading of the course content should never be neglected, and they should be given place

in the syllabus that is formed.

3. TYPES OF GRADATION

It is an undeniable fact that gradation of the course content is a very necessary issue.

However, there is not a single way of gradation of the material to be presented to the learners. The

reason hidden can be based on the factors affecting the gradation of the course content; internal

factors and external factors. That is why, many types of gradation are farmed. Here they will be

presented in two separate branches: Linear and cyclic gradation, and grammatical, situational and

functional-notional gradation.

3.1 Linear and Cyclic Gradation

In the design of any language course or syllabus a main distinction is made between linear

and cyclic gradation. By grading what is meant here is the speed with which the students progress,

how much new material is introduced in a given number of hours, how close together or how far

apart new grammatical structures are in relation to each other, how much new vocabulary is

introduced in each unit. In some sources linear gradation can be called successive gradation, and

cyclic gradation is called spiral or concentric gradation. No matter what they are called, linear and

cyclic gradation forms the basis of gradation, and therefore, they will be handled at first.

3.1.1 Linear gradation

“In a typically linearly ordered course the items are presented one by one in a strictly linear

sequence which is maintained throughout the course. Each item is discussed in detail, and the aim

is to attain complete command of the item before proceeding to the next item”, (Van Els et al,

1984:227). In other words, a course with a linear gradation deals with each item exhaustively

before passing on to the next item. The advantage of this kind of gradation is that each new item is

thoroughly learned, and prepares a platform for the next unfamiliar item. Such a graded course or

syllabus is mostly suitable for the learners who learn the target language for the first time without a

past learning experience or knowledge. For instance, in a linear graded course, 5 or 6 units are

devoted to present simple and later again 5 or 6 units are devoted to the present continuous. In this

respect, after the 5 or 6 units are handled, the course does not allow the learner to look back to the

previously learned items. It moves on the new learning point.

However, nowadays linear gradation is not used much. A close-up research of the last

years reveal the fact that linear graded courses and syllabuses are not used popular due to some

facts. These facts can be defined as the shortcomings or the disadvantages of linear gradation.

Here are a few of them:

In a strictly linear ordered course an item is presented only once. It is practiced

intensively and later in the progressive units it is largely ignored. The course may have

revision units; however, in these units, the course material is revised only briefly.

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Progress of the learners is very slow at first. The reason is that each item is discussed in

detail in long period of time. It takes a very long time for the learner to use the language

communicatively in a communicative situation. This may have negative effect on the

motivation of the learner, since the knowledge they get will not be in use for a very long

time.

As a result of the mentioned negative effects of linear gradation, it is not intended to be

used in the last 15 to 20 years. Instead, cyclic gradation is in favour. So, it will be wise to this type

of gradation from now on.

3.1.2 Cyclic gradation

Van Els et al 1984 points out that ”In a course in which the material is graded cyclically

the individual items are not presented and discussed exhaustively, as in a strictly linear gradation.

Only essential aspects of the item in question are presented initially. These items then keep

recurring in the course, and every new time new aspects will be introduced which will be related to

and integrated with what has already been learned.” In this respect there is no logical relation of

dependence to each other, or they are logically independent.

In a cyclic graded course only one or two units are devoted to a particular grammar point;

however, later the grammar point is repeated several times for the sake of repetition and revision.

Thus, such a course or syllabus is mostly suitable for false beginners of language learners. Some of

the advantages of a cyclic graded course can be as follows:

Progression in the early stages is rather quick. This is a great advantage especially when

compared with linear graded courses where progression is not quick. In this way, the

motivation of the learners is also increased.

By the help of cyclic graded courses or syllabuses the learners pass from receptive skills to

productive ones in a shorter period of time. That is to say, they use the language in

addition to its form and usage. This brings success to them in daily life use and real life

situations.

The revision is carried out in many parts of the syllabus. This is also realised in different

contexts, so the learner learns to use the target language by considering its use in different

contexts. The learner takes the use of target language in different contexts as an example

for him or her.

With all the advantages mentioned, cyclical graded syllabuses or courses have gained great

support among the educators. This is especially true for the last 10 to 15 years. So, it can be said

that with the requirements of the modern world and the learners, cyclic gradation is more popular

than linear gradation.

3.2 Grammatical, Situational and Functional-notional Gradation

In the gradation of a foreign language course the only selection is not made between linear

or cyclic gradation. Decision about which linguistic categories provide the best criteria for the

ordering of the material is also important. So, what is meant here by gradation is the content of the

course. In this respect three other types of gradation comes into being. They are grammatical

gradation, situational gradation and functional-notional gradation.

3.2.1 Grammatical gradation

Grammatical gradation assumes that language learning can best be realised by ordering the

language material selected primarily on the basis of its structures. The reason is that, according to

grammatical gradation structures of a language constitute the most important elements of that

language. That is why, sometimes grammatical gradation is referred to as structural gradation.

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In a typically grammatical graded language course the units centre around one or more

syntactic or morphological structures. In such a course, the units are generally named as the

structure they focus on, for instance past simple or singular forms. In this way, structures are

focused on more than any other component of the language.

With all its properties at hand grammatical gradation has gained some objections. Here a

few of them are mentioned.

In a grammatical graded course or syllabus the emphasis is on a command of the morpho-

syntactic rule system. However, what is needed for any language learner is verbal

communication more than the structure itself. It should be kept in mind that linguistic

forms or simply grammar provide a means to an end that the end itself is to communicate.

So, foreign language teaching should focus on the development of communicative

competence as well as linguistic competence.

Secondly, many grammatical graded courses or syllabuses lack of enough lexical content.

They try to limit the presentation of lexical material in the first stages of foreign language

learning so as to be able to pay much more attention to the target structure. They aim to

focus on vocabulary for later years. Therefore, as a result of such a syllabus, the learner

may have a command of the rule, but he may not be able use that structure depending on

his lack of vocabulary.

To sum up, grammatical gradation is based on the grading of the course content on

structures of the target language. In this respect, much more attention is given to the grammatical

competence than communicative competence. Besides, lexical items are neglected. As a

consequence, it can said to have some shortcomings in the field of foreign language teaching.

3.2.2 Situational gradation

In grammatically graded syllabuses learners had a great command of the grammar of the

target language they aim to learn; however, they were unable to apply what they know in actual

communicative situations. So, this led to the birth another type of gradation as far as the gradation

of the course content is concerned and situational gradation formed. In situational gradation the

use of the language is considered more important than the knowledge of the language. In another

way, communicative competence is the first aim not linguistic competence. In addition to this,

learners are expected to communicate effectively in the given situations. Thus, units of a

situational graded course can be called ‘At school’, ‘In the market’ or ‘Asking the way’. Since the

situational approach takes communication in connection with the place they are uttered in, the

environment of communication is also very significant in this respect. So, the physical

environment determines the basic components of the language in use.

In situational courses the language is used more an the learners have a great command of

the language they use. So, they compensate their deficiency which they have in grammatical

graded courses. However, situational graded courses have attached some objectives as well. Here

are a few of them:

In a strictly situational course or syllabus the emphasis is on the communication. So, the

structure of the language s neglected. If the situation goes on like this from the elementary

level to higher levels, a complete command of the grammar of the target language cannot

be realised at the end. At the end, learners may communicate at some level, but their

linguistic background may be deficient in most respects.

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The excessive relation between the linguistic content of the utterances and the physical

environment may cause problems as well. In this way, it may be very difficult for the

learner to apply what he has learned in situations which have not been dealt with in the

course.

These points can be considered as the weak points of situational graded syllabuses. In

addition, theses weak points can be eliminated by a balanced study on the content of the syllabus.

This means that, if the situational syllabus is not a very strict one, the learners may not face so

many problems. As a result, this type of gradation has gained a great deal of use in class.

3.2.3 Functional-notional gradation

In the recent years new approaches to gradation have raised great interest among the

scholars in the field of foreign language learning and teaching. One of them is functional-notional

gradation. Functional-notional gradation includes language functions and notions in addition to the

forms of the language. So, it can said to have a broader perspective than situational gradation.

As Van Els et al quoted from Wilkins (1976), “The advantage of functional-notional

syllabus is that it takes the communicative facts of language into account from the beginning

without losing sight of grammatical and situational factors.” In his way, a functional-notional

syllabus is superior to grammatical syllabus, because it will produce a communicative competence,

and sustain the motivation of the learners. It is superior to situational syllabus, because the most

important grammatical forms are included in addition to all kinds of language functions.

Therefore, a functional-notional graded syllabus or course is more powerful in general than simply

situations.

A functional-notional syllabus is cyclically graded in nature. In the first cycle, the

functional-notional categories of the course content is simple without any complicated structure.

Later, in the next cycle, these categories are taken up again, but his time the language material is

more complex. This cycle goes on more if the structure is complicated in nature. This helps the

learner to overcome difficulties he may face when the whole structure in addition to the functions

and notions are presented. So, cyclic nature of functional-notional gradation can said to be learner

friendly.

With all these good sides, functional-notional graded courses or syllabuses are not perfect.

They have some shortcomings as well. Here not an objective against this kind of gradation, but a

limitation of it is given below:

A strictly functional-notional syllabus is very practical to use in advanced classes;

however, it is not very easy to practice in elementary courses. The reason is that, focusing

on the functions, notions and structures all together is not an easy matter for the learners

at elementary level. So, such an application is not very easy in a strictly functional-

notional course. Besides, if the course content is a bit changed due to the needs of the level

and the needs of the learners, this difficulty may be eliminated.

To sum up, functional-notional graded courses or syllabuses have many advantages when

compared to grammatically and situational graded courses or syllabuses. First of all, functional

notional gradation enables the course content to have a communicative nature. In this way, it is

superior to structural gradation. Secondly, it has more structural information and this helps the

learners to overcome difficulties that he may encounter about the linguistic content of the target

language. Third, it has cyclic nature in itself. In this way, the material is presented in a better and

in a way that the learners can benefit more. In addition to the mentioned advantages it has

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limitations as well, just like its narrow area of usage in its strict forms. Consequently, with more

advantages at hand, functional-notional gradation can said to be a better way of gradation, and can

be applied in class atmosphere with all its benefits.

3.3 Programmed Instruction

Programmed instruction is an innovative way of teaching. It is presented as an alternative

way which may help learners to overcome the difficulties they have in conventional class

atmosphere. So, it can said to be useful in cases it is needed.

In programmed instruction the learners deal with the material to be learned on their own.

They may be assisted only by a learning aid or computer. In addition to these Van Els et al (1984)

gives the basic principles of programmed instruction as follows:

There is a precise description of the target behaviour.

The course content is divided into small, closely linked units called frames.

The learner is informed of his achievements immediately after the completion of each unit.

The learner goes through the programme at his own speed.

As is seen, programmed instruction does not suit to both linear or cyclical graded courses,

since the learner has a great command on the ongoing of the course; either on speed or on the

cycling. However, for more complicated forms of programmed instruction this linear or cyclic

gradation is also presented in the form of the programme.

In a linear model of programmed instruction, the units are very small in order to reduce the

risk of making errors. Each unit gives immediate reinforcement of the learner’s response. The

units are strictly linearly ordered as is seen below

1 2 3 4 5

In contrast with the linear model, in branching model of programmed instruction the units

are generally larger, and the learner can learn from his own errors. If the learner’s answer is right,

he can pass to the next unit. If it is not, then he is referred to an additional link containing remedial

material as is below:

2 5 8

4 7

1

3 6 9

Here it can easily been understood that programmed instruction has gained popularity with

the development of computer technology and computer assisted language learning (CALL) or

computer assisted language instruction (CALI). In this respect it can be said that developing

technology helps the learners in forming the most suitable grading for them in learning a foreign

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language. However, a question still remains unanswered. How exactly can a language be learned

through a programmed syllabus which is based mainly on conditioning and verbal behaviour? This

seems to be the weakest point of programmed instruction. In addition to this deficiency,

programmed instruction also fails in teaching productive skills where a mutual instruction is

needed more than a one sided computer atmosphere. So, with some disadvantages at hand,

programmed instruction seems to require more time for its development.

4. CONCLUSION

To sum up, it has been clear that in foreign language teaching gradation has a great

importance. In order to have the most suitable gradation for the learner, what needs to be done is to

have a deep understanding of the needs of the learner. Only in this way the best gradation type can

be chosen, and it can be beneficial for the learners.

In the course content of foreign language teaching, it observed that the subjects are closely

related, and they are sequentially in character. Therefore, learners may have great difficulty in

filling up any gap in their skills or knowledge. So, a cyclical graded course can be suggested for

the learners of foreign language learners than a liner one. However, here the background

knowledge of the learners should be considered as well. Likewise, a functional-notional graded

course can be beneficial since it provides both linguistic and communicative competence for the

learners. But, again the learners may focus on a structural graded course if they need a structural

background for them in an exam that they will have like KPDS. They may also need survival

English for which situations are more important, so communicative competence is the first aim of

the learners. In this respect there is not a single gradation type which can used for all kind of

learners with different aims but different types of gradation for different purposes. Here what

should be done is to focus on the learner first. The needs analysis is on the agenda again. Based on

the findings of the needs analysis, the educators should choose the best one for their learners. Here

the contribution of the learners to the choice can be utilised too. So, a better and more

sophisticated result can be reached.

Consequently, there is no perfect gradation type of gradation. The experts of this field

have proposed some other types over some others, but these depend on the type of use as well. So,

what we should do as teachers of English is to know our learners as good as possible, so that we

can find the best type of gradation for them. In this way, both they and we will reach the aim of

success in foreign language teaching, and only this target can totally satisfy us.

REFERENCES

Celce-Murcia, Marianne and HILLES, Sharon (1988). Techniques and Resources in Teaching

Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Rivers, M. Vilga (1981). Teaching Foreign Language Skills. Chicago: The University of Chicago

Press.

Stern, H. H. (1991). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Ur, Penny (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Van Els et al (1984). Applied Linguistics and the Learning and Teaching of Foreign Languages.

New York: Edward Arnolds

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AN INTERCULTURAL OUTLOOK ON THE “NATIVE SPEAKER

INSTRUCTOR” FACTOR AND ITS REFLECTIONS ON THE STUDENTS’

ATTITUDES TOWARDS SPEAKING COURSE

İsmail YAMAN *

ABSTRACT

Speaking is one of the most demanding and multi-faceted dimensions of the language learning

process as one of the productive skills. Therefore, a considerable amount of attention should be paid to the

enhancement of the students’ speaking skill. Because of the cultural dimension and their better command of

English, native English-speaker teachers are preferred in some colleges and universities. The major aim is to

better the speaking performances of students. But, is it really useful to employ native speakers for English

courses? How do the students perceive the learning process with native speaker instructors? Are there radical

differences between the students’ perceptions as to native and non-native instructors? This study focuses on

such questions and aims to reveal whether the “native speaker instructor” factor makes a significant

difference in terms of the students’ attitudes towards the speaking course or not. The subject group of the

study consists of students attending the ELT Prep-class at Ondokuz Mayıs University in 2011 – 2012

academic year. There are two groups covered in the study each including 25 students. The first group is

taught by a native English-speaking teacher while the second group is taught by a non-native English-

speaking teacher from Turkey. A 20-item likert-type scale (Attitude Scale for Speaking Course) developed

by the researcher is employed as the main data collection tool. The study yielded positive findings in favor of

native-speaker instructor in terms of course-related aspects, language proficiency, cultural aspects, and

instructor-related aspects. The findings indicate that native speaker instructors can constitute a good model

for students considering speaking skill. It is concluded that it can be an effective way to hire native speakers

for speaking courses; however, if there is not such an opportunity the advantages of non-native instructors

should be utilized at utmost level and an ever-developing and flexible approach should be adopted while

designing curricula and teaching procedures.

Keywords: native English-speaking teacher, speaking skill, attitude, culture

1. INTRODUCTION

1. 1 Problem

Speaking is one of the most demanding and multi-faceted dimensions of the language

learning process as one of the productive skills. Without attaining a desirable level in terms of

speaking, one cannot be said to have an adequate command of a language. It constitutes an integral

and indispensable part of any language learning process. Therefore, a considerable amount of

attention should be paid to the enhancement of the students’ speaking skill. While looking for ways

to contribute to the speaking performances of the students, various factors ranging from cultural

ones to linguistic ones should be taken into consideration.

* Instructor, Ondokuz Mayıs University, [email protected]

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Language and culture are two inseparable and integral terms. So, culture can be seen in

every language skill and event. Because of the cultural dimension and their better command of

English, native English-speaker teachers are employed in some colleges and universities. The

major aim is to better the speaking performances of students. But, is it really useful to employ

native speakers for English courses? How do the students perceive the learning process with native

speaker instructors? Are there radical differences between the students’ perceptions as to native and

non-native instructors? This study departs from such questions and aims to explore the reflections

of employing native speaker instructors.

1.2. Research Questions

1- Does the “native speaker instructor” factor make a significant difference in terms of the

students’ attitudes towards the speaking course?


students’ attitudes towards the speaking course considering course-related aspects?


students’ attitudes towards the speaking course considering language proficiency?


students’ attitudes towards the speaking course considering cultural aspects?


students’ attitudes towards the speaking course considering instructor-related aspects?

1.3. Aim and Significance of the Study

This study aims to reveal whether the “native speaker instructor” factor makes a significant

difference in terms of the students’ attitudes towards the speaking course or not. By specifying to

what extent the native speaker instructor provides contributions to the lesson and students, this

study also aims to show whether preferring native speaker instructors is a correct choice or not. The

study also aims to show the ways in which native speaker instructors differ from other non-native

instructors from the students’ perspective on an intercultural basis.

The findings gathered following this study will shed a partial light upon the efficacy level

of “the native speaker instructor factor” in an EFL context. It will serve a different perspective in

terms of cultural awareness and cultural communication in the language class. In line with the

findings of the study, implications for language teaching will be specified and recommendations for

language educators will be presented in order to contribute to the existing body of data and

research.

1.4. Definitions

Attitude: “Attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on the

basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the referent” (Gardner, 1985).

Culture: “Culture ... is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,

custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Tylor,

1871).

Native Speaker: “A person who has a specified language as the mother tongue or first-learned

language” (Longman Dict.)

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1.5. Limitations

1. This study is limited to 25+25 ELT prep students attending Ondokuz Mayıs University in

2011-2012 academic year.

2. This study is limited to the findings gathered from the questionnaires addressed to ELT

prep students attending Ondokuz Mayıs University in 2011-2012 academic year.

3. This study is limited to the context of Ondokuz Mayıs University.



Speaking skill is the most important dimension while learning a new language. Because,

language is mainly oral and it is used mostly for communicative purposes. As communication is an

indispensable phenomenon in people’s daily lives, it is possible to say that oral language is prior to

written one. Although it is quite important to develop speaking skills, it is comparatively harder to

attain a desirable level in terms of speaking considering other skills like writing, reading, and so on.

Therefore, it can be inferred that speaking skill deserves far more attention effort in a language

learning process.

In this context, the question “What makes Speaking Difficult?” comes to fore and calls for

a reasonable answer. Brown lists the factors rendering the speaking skill more difficult than the

other skills as follows (2001):

– Clustering: fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word

– Redundancy: a broad variety of language forms, alternatives, etc.

– Reduced Forms: especially in daily speech

– Colloquial Language: idioms, etc.

– Rate of Delivery: speed

– Stress, Rhythm, intonation

– Interaction

Factors like the ones listed above make speaking harder to develop, so it is better to attach

a considerable amount of importance to it. In order to achieve this, interaction in the classroom

should be focused on. Because languages are for communication, classrooms can be regarded as

mini-societies. All the participants are involved in a verbal and non-verbal interaction in the

classroom atmosphere. Interaction in L2 context entails the learner’s active involvement in such

communicative activities as clarification, confirmation, comprehension checks, requests, reacting,

etc (Kumaravadivelu, 2006). Likewise, Wong and Fillmore (1989) report that social processes are

as important as cognitive processes for successful L2 development. In a similar direction, studies of

Donato and Adair-Hauck (1992) put an emphasis on the importance of social interaction and

involvement in communication in terms of language learning. All these point out the importance of

the speaking skill and the gravity of communicative activities and approaches in order to contribute

to its development.

Communication between people also involves cultural aspects. TESOL has always had as

its goal the facilitation of communication among people who do not share the same language and

national culture (Kramsch, 2001). Some of the major facets of human interaction that the field of

intercultural communication has helped to define (Kramsch, 2001):

– Their non-verbal and paraverbal behavior.

– The way they structure their discourse to meet their communicative goals.

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– The attitudes, values and beliefs they share with the social group they belong to.

– The way their language reflects these deeper discourses.

– The way members of different groups realize various speech acts (like making

compliments, requests, apologies, etc.)

Under the framework of inter-cultural dimension involved in language learning process,

Rivers (1981) states that students need to know:

– culturally acceptable way of interacting orally with others– appropriate levels of

language to use in different situations;

– conversational gambits;

– what gestures and other body language are appropriate;

– when one might intervene in conversation and when one should wait for others;

– which questions and comments might be made and which would offend.

In the light of what Kramsch (2001) and Rivers (1981) say, it can be concluded that

cultural aspects are worth attention and in order help students attain a desirable level in their

speaking skills, intercultural phenomena should also be taken into consideration and

communication should be given priority.

2. 2 Dichotomy of NEST (Native English-speaking teacher) and Non-NEST (Non-

native English-speaking teacher)

“Who is a native speaker?” A person born in an English-speaking country? Can we regard

a person who was born in England and moved to another country at the age of 3 as a native

speaker? These questions and more are all waiting for answers. In this very context, the question of

ownership of English comes onto the agenda. Related with this issue, Widdowson (1994: 385)

says: “It is not a possession which native speakers lease out to others, while still retaining the

freehold. Other people actually own it”. Holding a parallel view with that of Widdowson, Norton

(1997: 427) points out that “English belongs to all the people who speak it, whether native or non-

native, whether ESL of EFL, whether standard or nonstandard”. It can be concluded that it is not

politically correct to make a native and non-native distinction; however, it is an undeniable fact that

native speakers are more valued in language teaching in comparison with non-natives.

According to Medgyes (2001: 432), “language schools which advertise themselves as

employing only native English speakers often do so with the excuse that NESTs are better for

public relations and improve business”. Medgyes (2001: 434) makes the following assumptions as

to the difference between NESTs and Non-NESTs:

- NESTs and Non-NESTs differ in terms of their language proficiency;

- They differ in terms of their teaching behavior;

- The discrepancy in language proficiency accounts for most of the differences found in

their teaching behavior;

- They can be equally good teachers on their own terms.

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Briefly, there are clear differences between NESTs and Non-NESTs. However, the answer

for the question “Which one of them is more advantageous” depends on various variables. Perhaps,

it is more reasonable to define these variables and analyze the issue in terms of what kind of

features constitutes the pros and cons of both parties.


Most of the studies conducted to find out whether NESTs are useful or not yielded findings

in favor of natives. For example, the study conducted by Medgyes (2001: 434) with the

participation of 325 teachers from 11 countries (%86 non-native, %14 native) yielded positive

results in terms of NESTs. When asked whether they perceived any differences in teaching

behavior between NESTs and non-NESTs, 82 percent of the participants gave a positive answer.

Likewise, the study of Lasagaster and Sierra (2002) on 76 undergraduates indicates that there is an

apparent preference for native speaker teachers. Implications of Medgyes’ (2001) study are as

follows:

Nests Non-Nests

Speak better English Speak poorer English

Use real language Use bookish language

Use English more confidently Use English less confidently

Adopt a more flexible approach Adopt a more guided approach

More innovative More cautious

More casual Stricker

Less committed More committed

Focus on; Focus on;

Fluency Accuracy

Meaning Form

Language in use Grammar rules

Oral skills Printed words

Colloquial registers Formal registers

Teach items in context Teach items in isolation

Tolerate errors Correct errors

Set fewer tests Set more tests

Use no L1 Use more L1

Assign less homework Assign more homework

Supply more cultural information Supply less cultural information

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In a different study on NESTs and Non-NESTs, İnceçay and Atay (2008) aimed to find out

the students’ attitudes towards both types of teachers. The study was conducted on 18 students via

interviews. The results of the study have shown that the EFL learners have different attitudes

towards NTs and NNTs. e.g. The students showed more tendency to initiate conversations, to use

target language and to form longer sentences in the native speaker’s lesson. The three studies cited

here yielded positive findings and implications in favor of NESTs and put the native side in an

advantageous position.

3.METHODOLOGY

3.1. Participants

The subject group of the study consists of students attending the ELT Prep-class at

Ondokuz Mayıs University in 2011 – 2012 academic year. There are two groups covered in the

study and each group includes 25 students. The first group is taught by a native English-speaking

teacher while the second group is taught by a non-native English-speaking teacher.


A 20-item likert-type scale (Attitude Scale for Speaking Course) formulated by the

researcher in order to specify the attitudes of the students towards the speaking course is employed

as the main data collection tool. The scale is composed of four main parts. The first part is

composed of course-related items; the second part is related with the language proficiency of the

learner; the third part is composed of culture-related items and the fourth part consists of instructor-

related items. Following the pilot study employing the scale on 60 prep-class students, Cronbach’s

Alpha Reliability Co-efficient was found as 0,84 through which the scale proved to be reliable and

applicable.

The statistical analyses of the study have been conducted via Mann–Whitney U test which

is a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test for assessing the level of significance. The

significance threshold has been accepted as p< 0,05.


The study yielded positive findings in terms of native-speaker instructor in terms of course-

related aspects, language proficiency, cultural aspects, and instructor-related aspects. The findings

yielded by the study are parallel with the other studies cited before (Medgyes, 2001, Lasagaster and

Sierra, 2002, İnceçay and Atay, 2008) which also reports findings to the favor of native speaker

instructors. Below are the statistical analyses of the findings yielded by this study:

Course-related Aspects:

The first 5 items of the scale is concerned with course-related aspects and they mainly

focus on motivation variable. Below is the related table:

Table -1. Statistical Analysis of Items Linked with Course-related Aspects

Group N Mean Rank Sum of

Ranks U Z P

1 (NEST) 25 13 325

,00 -6,39 ,00 2 (Non-

NEST) 25 38 950

total 50

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It is clear from the above statistical data that NEST has a far more positive impression on

the students in view of course-related aspects. The motivation factor makes the NEST more

favorable in the light of these findings.

Language Proficiency:

Items 6-10 are concerned with the language proficiency of the students. They focus on the

students’ competence about oral tasks or activities. Below is the related table.

Table -2. Statistical Analysis of Items Linked with Language Proficiency


Ranks U Z P

1 25 18,36 459

134 -3,62 ,00 2 25 32,64 816

total 50

As it is obvious from the Table-2, there is statistically significant difference between the

responses of the two groups. Under the category “language proficiency”, except for Item 10, all

items have yielded results to the favor of Nests. Only Item 10 (When my language knowledge falls

short I can always find a way to get my message across) does not have a statistically significant

difference.

Cultural Aspects:

Items 11-15 are concerned with cultural aspects and they mainly cover points like cultural

awareness and willingness to learn about other cultures. Table-3 below shows the statistical

analysis to this end.

Table -3. Statistical Analysis of Items Linked with Cultural Aspects


Ranks U Z P

1 25 20,34 508,5

183,5 -2,876 ,004 2 25 30,66 766,5

total 50

Except for the 12th item (I wonder about how the daily life goes on in English-speaking

countries), all items have yielded a statistically significant difference between the two groups.

These findings show that native speakers pose a better model for the students in view of cultural

aspects. Also, intercultural motivation turns out to be a quite important factor for the positive

attitudes of the students towards language learning.

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Instructor-related Aspects:

Table -4. Statistical Analysis of Items Linked with Instructor-related Aspects


Ranks U Z P

1 25 20,88 522

197 -2,42 ,016 2 25 30,12 753

total 50

Considering the findings as to the final part of the scale, the students gave more positive

responses in favor of NESTs. Factors like proficiency, motivation factor and intercultural

communication, etc. put NESTs in a more favorable and preferable position when compared with

Non-NESTs.

In the light of the above findings, it becomes obvious that except for two items (10th and

12th) eighteen items have yielded statistically significant results to the favor of NESTs. That is, the

context and findings of this study imply that NESTs have a far more positive influence on the

motivation of English language learners towards speaking lessons when compared with Non-

NESTs. These results put NESTs in a more favorable and advantageous position in the context of

motivation towards speaking courses; also for the whole language learning process.

As for the failure of 10th and 12

th items, it is not surprising not to have a statistically

significant difference in terms of them. 10th item is related with language proficiency of the

students and it covers a compensation dimension. In other words, it is directly concerned with the

general tendencies of the students during interlocutions. That is, it is quite normal to observe that

the students belonging to the Non-NEST group think they can achieve compensation. The 12th item

is concerned with the learners’ curiosity about the daily life in English-speaking countries. It is not

perplexing to see that both groups wonder about the English daily life. It is cultural curiosity and

shared by the students of the two groups. Although these two items do not imply an inclination

towards a certain side, the overwhelming majority of the items specify the orientation of the

findings yielded by this study.

It is clear that native instructor has certain positive influences on the students’ attitudes

towards speaking course. The findings attest to such a comment that native speaker instructors can

constitute a good model for the students particularly for the speaking skill. The findings as to the

language proficiency part imply that gaining proficiency in speaking requires a certain period of

time. Native speaker instructor also appeared to be a good model for the cultural dimension in

speaking courses, which adds a plus for native instructors.

All these findings do not mean that non-native instructors are poor teachers. Because they

are also learners of English, they have numerous advantages like better anticipating language

difficulties, supplying more information about the target language and introducing learning

strategies more effectively, etc. As Medgyes (2001) points out, in an ideal school, there should be a

good balance of NESTs and non-NESTs that complement each other in their strengths and

weaknesses.

The primary aim should be to help students develop their speaking skills as much as

possible. Whether the teacher is NEST or Non-NEST, the most important thing is to develop an

adequate level of communicative and intercultural competence during the language learning

process. However, in line with the findings of this study, it can be said that NESTs can be

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employed for speaking skill in language classes and they can be of considerable help for the

smooth and effective functioning of the learning process.


This study, which was conducted in the School of Foreign Languages at Ondokuz Mayıs

University, aimed to find out the extent to which NESTs are effective on the attitudes of prep-class

students towards speaking lessons. 50 students were included in the study and while 25 students

took speaking lessons from a NEST, the other 25 students were taught by a Non-NEST. The

findings were shaped in a comparative way for each group. The overall finding of the study

suggests that NESTs are far more effective than Non-NESTs in view of the students’ attitudes

towards speaking lessons.

It is not true to make a generalization like “Natives teach English better than non-natives”.

Each group has its own advantages. The best way is to make use of these advantages of both

groups and try to minimize their shortcomings. It is not possible to say that NESTs are optimal and

perfect teachers and they pose an ideal model for language learners. They have some disadvantages

like being unfamiliar with the system and expectations of the students, etc. Likewise, Non-NESTs

have some disadvantages like having problems with fluency, command of the language, etc.

Briefly, it can be an effective way to hire NESTs for speaking lessons; however, if there is not such

an opportunity the advantages of Non-NESTs should be utilized at utmost level and an ever-

developing and flexible approach should be adopted while designing curricula and teaching

procedures.

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REFERENCES

Arva, V., & Medgyes, P. (2000). Native and non-native teachers in the classroom. System, 28, 355

372.

Barrat, L., & Kontra, H. (2000). Native-English speaking teachers in cultures other than their own.

TESOL Journal, 3, 19-23.

Brown, Douglas H. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Pearson

Longman.

Carter, Ronald and David Nunan (eds.) (2001). The Campbridge Guide to Teaching English to

Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Donato R., &Adair-Hauck, B. (1992). Discourse Perspectives on Formal Instruction. Language

Awareness, 1, 74-89.

Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning. The Role of Attitudes

and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold.

İnceçay, G and D. Atay (2008). EFL Learners’ Interaction with Native and Non-Native EFL

Teachers. http://www.eab.org.tr/eab/oc/egtconf/pdfkitap/pdf/15.pdf

Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod.

London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lasagabaster, D. & Sierra, J. M. (2002). University students’ perceptions of native and non-native

speaker teachers of English. Language Awareness, 11,2, 132-140.

Procter, Paul (ed.) (1978). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman.

Medgyes, Peter (2001). “When the Teacher is a Non-native Speaker”. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.),

Teaching English as a second or foreign language. New York: Newbury House, p. 429

442.

Norton, B. (1997). Language, identity, and the ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 31 (3),

409- 427.

Rivers, Wilga M. (1981). Teaching Foreign Language Skills. London: The University of Chicago

Press.

Widdowson, H. G. 1994. ‘The ownership of English’. TESOL Quarterly. 28/2: 377–88.

Wong-Fillmore, L. (1989). Language Learning in Social Context: The View from Research in

Second Language Learning. In R. Dietrich &C.F. Graumann (eds), Language Processing in

Social Context. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

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APPENDIX

Attitude Scale for Speaking Course

Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the following statements by placing a

check mark in the appropriate box.

Strongly agree: 1 Agree: 2 Neither agree nor disagree: 3 Disagree: 4

Strongly disagree: 5

1 2 3 4 5 COURSE-RELATED ASPECTS

1 It is a great pleasure for me to attend speaking courses.

2 I don’t think it would be better if the lesson hours for the

speaking course were higher.

3 I have a strong motivation for participating in the activities held

during the speaking lessons.

4 But for the speaking lessons, my speaking performance would

go worse to a notable extent.

5 Speaking lessons constitute a motivating factor for me in terms

of foreign language learning.

LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

6 I have self-confidence while expressing myself in English.

7 I can understand the lyrics of the English songs.

8 I feel competent enough to understand the dialogues in English

movies without making use of subtitles.

9 I have self-sufficiency to participate in the speaking activities

both inside and outside the class.

10 When my language knowledge falls short I can always find a

way to get my message across.

CULTURAL ASPECTS

11 I would like to make native speaker friends.

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12 I wonder about how the daily life goes on in English-speaking

countries.

13 Learning English is something like getting in tune with the

cultures of English-speaking countries.

14 Attending speaking lessons helps me see the similarities and

differences of distinct cultures and therefore lets me gain an

intercultural insight.

15 I try to notice and focus on cultural elements in other lessons

with the help of awareness I have gained in speaking lessons.

INSTRUCTOR-RELATED ASPECTS

16 The instructor is really good at classroom management.

17 The instructor’s command of the language is adequate.

18 The instructor poses a model for me to develop my oral skills.

19 Communicating with the instructor lowers my speaking anxiety

to a considerable extent.

20 The instructor usually finds culturally-interesting topics to help

us take part in the speaking activities.

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CLINICAL SUPERVISION: A VIABLE OPTION FOR LANGUAGE TEACHER

DEVELOPMENT

M. Naci KAYAOGLU

*, M. Kerem KOBUL

**

ABSTRACT

This article examines Clinical Supervision as a viable option for the professional development of

language teachers. First, it states the urging need for teacher supervision on the premise that the teacher

remains the key figure primarily affecting the outcomes of the language classroom. The study critically

discusses the history and current implementation of teacher supervision practice in Turkey. Secondly, a brief

overview of supervision, in general, is presented, indicating the potential benefits for staff development. The

last part highlights the need for further research on Clinical Supervision for ongoing professional

development of English language teachers.

Key words: Clinical supervision, supervision, teacher education, teacher development, professional

development

1. INTRODUCTION

Although the technological and computing age has brought about enormous alterations in

the means, if not the methods, used in the language classrooms within the last few decades, the

teacher, quite deservedly, still remains the key figure primarily affecting what is happening in the

language classroom. To put it differently, the success or failure of a language class is mainly in the

hands of the language teacher in that the methods, techniques, the materials, the language that the

teacher employs, even his kinesics, are all contributing factors to this perplexing process. Thus,

equipping the language teacher with the necessary linguistic, methodological, and background

knowledge is one of the ways to improve the language teacher’s qualifications. As this is the case,

many faculties employ various courses in their curricula which “tend to present teachers with a

quantifiable amount of knowledge, usually in the form of general theories and methods that are

characterized as being applicable to any language learning or teaching context” (Johnson, 1997, p.

780) to improve the prospective language teachers’ professional qualities. However, the

professional development of language teachers sometimes end or stay limited with the courses they

take during their undergraduate studies. Moreover, it is the case that teachers seem to have a

tendency to adopt, if not totally accept, the way they were taught in school. As Van Den Branden

(2009) points out: “Teachers teach in the way they themselves were taught, and show strong

resistance toward radically modifying the teaching behavior that they are so familiar with” (p. 666).

They seem to be as if they were compelled to adopt, the way they were taught. During their

professional years language teachers may try to learn new content; however, they usually may not

try to improve the way they teach; the methods and techniques they use in the classroom. They are,

sometimes, even not aware of the fact that their methods, techniques and applications may need to

* Asst. Prof. Dr. M. Naci KAYAOGLU, Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Letters, Trabzon, Turkey,

[email protected]

** Lec. M. Kerem KOBUL, Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Letters, Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected]

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be adjusted and/ or renewed at all. For instance, in a study conducted by Menon and Alamelu

(2011) in a college in Chennai the researchers were faced with the attitudinal problems of the

teacher that they had a wrong presumption that everything they did was right and they were found

not willing for a co-operation for professional development. Furthermore, sometimes even the most

experienced teachers may confront with various problems due to either newly emerged methods

and techniques or materials as well as classroom management issues. Hence, no matter how

experienced the teacher is, most language classrooms, sometimes, may not end up with the

expected results due to, mostly, the wrong choices or practices of the teacher. Menon and Alamelu

(2011) point out: “It has been observed that many a time it is the teachers themselves who

contribute the maximum to derail the teaching learning process. This could be due to various

factors: the hostile attitude, insufficient knowledge, lack of commitment, sheer indifference, faulty

methodology, improper classroom management and so on” (p. 79). Even with the best intentions

the teacher may be implementing something(s) incorrect due to mostly their own perceptions of a

good classroom or teaching. Van Den Branden (2009) also draws attention to the fact: “Teachers,

for instance, who attached great importance to tightly controlling what was going on in the

classroom, often felt uncomfortable with the high degree of learner autonomy and learner initiative

that the task-based syllabus aimed for” (p. 666). Thus, due to such probable, though, unintended,

problematic situations a need to supervise the teacher’s practice in the actual classroom for a better

teaching-learning arises (Bailey, 2006; Van Den Branden, 2009).

The present article serves as a theoretical commentary on the issue of clinical supervision

and it aims to draw an overall in-depth picture of clinical supervision and the current application of

supervision in Turkey context, where traditional one-session supervisions are regarded and

implemented as the mere means of professional development. To that end, first the article provides

the readers with the operational definition of supervision and how it has been applied in Turkey.

Later, clinical supervision is suggested as a viable solution to compensate for the gaps in English

language teachers’ professional development in Turkey context. Finally, the paper ends with the

discussion of some practical implications and recommendations that could serve well at

administration level.

1.1. Supervision

Supervision is a loan term from industrial field (Bailey, 2006; Kilcullen, 2007, Lynch,

Hancox, & Happel, 2011; Waite, 1995) which was, presumably, used to evaluate or assess the

workers’ working in the production lines of factories. Supervision as a profession has experienced

drastic revolutions since its very early implementations in industry as well as in classrooms.

Supervision in education, similar, if not alike, to industrial supervision mainly aims to improve the

quality of education by improving the teacher’s overall professional skills, thence, improvement of

student learning as the ultimate aim.

In its general sense, supervision deals with administrative issues such as curriculum,

syllabus, and the management of the structure of education including the financial documents.

Daresh (2001) points out “no real consensus has ever been reached concerning what supervision

should be” (as cited in Bailey, 2006, p. 6). In general supervision there is a superficial eye on the

pedagogical aspect of the education system, at least in terms of what actually happens in the

classroom. Although the ultimate aim of supervision is to improve teaching and learning, the

practice itself sometimes may not conform to what is intended and the outcomes of the practice

might not end with the expected or intended results. On the other hand, it is obvious that

supervision has been a disturbing, if not totally irritating, situation for many language teachers

(Gebhard, 1990; Kayaoglu, 2012; Koklu & Kunduz, 2011; Memduhoglu et al., 2007; Murdoch,

2000; Nunan & Lamb, 1996; Oprandy, 1999) due to the way it is implemented, its de facto

“inspection” nature. Some (Bailey, 2006; Kayaoglu, 2007, 2012; Memduhoglu, 2012) argue that

the process of supervision per se is enough to cause discomfort and distress. Kayaoglu (2007)

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points out: “even the mere mention of the term supervision is enough to evoke unpleasant feelings

mixed with indignation at the disturbing condition” (p.15). The supervision process has become a

trepidatious experience for most teachers in that it sometimes distorts the natural practice of the

language teachers. Thus, in actual supervision practices or sessions some teachers tend to adjust, if

not totally change, their immediate teaching subject trying to guess what the supervisor would like

to see just because the supervisor will be evaluating, or judging, the teacher’s practice. Oprandy

(1999) points out: “I cannot count the number of times I have seen teachers arrange to do lessons

on comparatives and/or superlatives, on giving directions, or on the present continuous tense” (p.

102). This is mostly due to the hierarchical stance of the traditional supervisor who is mainly

authoritative, prescriptive, over-critical, judgemental (Gebhard, 1990; Kennedy, 1993) as well as

the possible future institutional reward; certification or punishment; ending employment results of

the supervision process (Kayaoglu, 2007; Kayikci, 2005; Kayaoglu, 2012; Memduhoglu, 2012).

Kennedy (1993) narrates a traditional supervisor in a routine supervision process: “he or she checks

briefly with the trainees before the lesson, observes, and then after the lesson talks to the trainees

about what has been seen. The overtones are prescriptive, and the ways in which these supervisions

are carried out can be variously helpful, ineffective, or positively damaging” (p. 162). Moreover,

even the post conferences which are held after the classroom observation can be a daunting task for

the teachers as Kayaoglu (2007) points out: “The teachers hesitate to speak their mind freely during

the supervisory process for fear that they can be rated low or they can receive a stern rebuke” (p.

16). Thus, in most situations, not surprisingly, supervision plays a hindering role rather than

motivating and improving the education.

1.2. Supervision in Turkey

The situation is not much different in Turkey (Bilir, 1991; Kayikci, 2005; Kayaoglu, 2012;

Koklu & Kunduz, 2011; Memduhoglu, 2012; Memduhoglu et al., 2007). In Turkey, the ministry of

education, as its responsibilities amenable to the constitution, holds some organizations and

activities for teacher development from conferences to workshops and seminars. However, due to

its huge staff population and vast geographical area of responsibility amounts to 936,254 teachers

(MoNE, 2013), teacher development can majorly be held through supervision system in which

there are supervisors appointed for particular districts of big cities. These supervisors, most of

whom are elementary school teachers rather than English language teachers, are responsible for

supervising the teachers in their region. The system works on the basis of the evaluation of the

teacher by the supervisor in which the teacher has almost no say during the process. However, in

this process, for the teachers to be considered as successful, thus rewarded, they have to get over

ninety out of one hundred points for successive five years out of the supervision process. The

system in Turkey seems to have a deterring rather than facilitative role, like some other contexts in

the world (Bailey, 2006; Bilir, 1991; Gaies & Bowers, 1993; Kayikci, 2005; Kayaoglu, 2012;

Memduhoglu, 2012; Memduhoglu et al. 2007). Moreover, Memduhoglu (2012) takes the

discussion further and remarks: “In Turkey, education supervision has long been applied with an

understanding of control mechanism of educational activities. Research has shown that the

supervision sub-system in Turkey cannot contemporarily function, it fails to meet sector needs and

there are many issues in this field” (p. 150). Although far too little attention has been paid

particularly to the supervision process of English language teachers (Kayaoglu, 2012; Paker, 1995),

it is evident from a body of literature that the supervision system, in general, seems to constitute a

debilitating role in Turkey. Furthermore, Kayaoglu’s study (2012) may serve as a base for future

studies and makes a noteworthy contribution to the limited body of English language teacher

supervision literature by shedding light on the supervision process of particularly English language

teachers working for MoNE in Turkey.

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1.3. A viable solution: Clinical Supervision

However, the last few decades have witnessed a dramatic shift in the role and stance of the

supervisor from an expert or evaluator to a facilitator who has the responsibility of creating “an

environment that cultivates reflection, exploration, and change” (Chamberlin, 2000, p. 656). The

supervisors have taken their “inspector” jacket off and try to improve the teacher’s teaching-

learning situation by trying to maximize their performance rather than leaving them defenseless in

front of the supervisor. The supervisor’s role has reached to a level of psychological consultant

who reflects their clients’ lives like a mirror which allows the supervisees to re-examine their

practice in light of their decisions, concerns, experiences, and knowledge (Wallace, 1991) rather

than having an evaluative or judgemental tone. In a time when such democratic and collaborative

approaches to educational supervision have reached a peak, Cogan (1973) was the first to coin the

process as Clinical Supervision after which some other names have also been suggested:

Alternative Supervision (Freeman, 1982), Collaborative Supervision (Gebhard, 1984).

Furthermore, as Kayaoglu (2012) points out: “In response to the adversarial attitudes towards

supervision, the clinical supervision has gained recognition in many educational settings” (p. 103)

the past thirty years have seen an increasing interest in Clinical Supervision, which can be

suggested as a viable option for also Turkey context.

Clinical supervision, in its core, is a process “by which teaching performance is

systematically observed, analyzed, and evaluated” (Gaies & Bowers, 1993, p. 167). Moreover, it is

a cyclical process which is conducted in regular intervals rather than a one-time prejudiced or

prescriptive classroom observation by the supervisor which is conducted only once or twice a year.

Hence, its cyclical nature makes clinical supervision a quite appropriate solution for Turkey context

where teachers are supervised once in a year or two years. Memduhoglu et al. (2007) have also

suggested a similar process for Turkish context although they haven’t named it as Clinical

Supervision:

Because assessment in educational supervision in Turkey is of the summative model

type, the contributions of assessments to teachers’ improvement are limited. Carried

out twice a year, supervisions of primary school teachers hinder teachers’ improvement,

by assessing them at regular intervals over the course of the process. However, sound

formative assessments on a regular basis are obligatory for a good summative assessment.

(p. 65)

Thus, clinical supervision with its cyclical observation and conference processes may constitute an

ameliorating choice for the supervision system in Turkey.

Moreover, various similar taxonomies and cycles, which are similar in nature, have been

offered (Abbot & Carter, 1995; Bowers, 1987; Goldhammer, 1980) in additition to Cogan’s (1973)

eight-phase clinical supervision cycle. However, Richards & Schmidt (2010) present a concise

cycle:

a- a planning conference, in which the teacher discusses his or her goals, methodology,

problems, etc., with the supervisor and they decide on what the supervisor should observe

and what kind of information about the lesson he or she should collect

b- classroom observation, in which the supervisor observes the teacher in his or her

classroom

c- feedback conference, in which the teacher and the supervisor review the data the

supervisor has collected, discuss the effectiveness of the lesson, and decide on strategies

for improvement, if necessary. (p. 83)

Supervision is no more a one-way imposing process in which the supervisors prescribes the

best way to the supervisee in feedback conferences. Even the data on which feedback conference is

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based, unlike traditional supervision, no more consists of the mere perceptions and memory of the

supervisor of what a good lesson is and what s/he thought to have happened in the classroom but

depends on the systematic and objective data obtained from various digital or analog media. With

the current relatively easier data collection media available, the teacher is no longer a defenseless

and suppressed supervisee. For instance, the ubiquitous personal digital cameras which allow long-

time digital video recording or digital voice-recorders provide concrete and valid data for feedback

conference rather than the weak impressions of the supervisor after a tiring day. As Wallace (1979)

puts it, video provides “a means of objectifying the teaching process and converting what is

subjective and ephemeral into something that is experienced in common and capable of analysis”

(p. 13). Hence, it provides an opportunity for the supervisee to have a say on what is observed.

Furthermore, some other analog data collection procedures such selective verbatim recording,

seating chart observation records and wide-lens technique (Bailey, 2006; Stoller, 1996) can be

exploited in Clinical Supervision of English language teachers in Turkey.

In spite of all the benefits and opportunities that clinical supervision provides, the most

important limitation of it lies in the fact that it may not be appropriate to implement in all cultures.

For instance, in eastern or middle-eastern cultures where people are used to authoritative behavior

and where teacher is considered as the main and mere source of information in the class, people

may not welcome or misinterpret such a democratic and egalitarian attitude. Gebhard (1984)

mentions a supervisor from a middle-eastern country reporting “if, as a supervisor, he attempted to

get teachers to share ideas with him, the teachers would think that he was not a very good

supervisor” (p. 506). In some places of Turkey, asking the opinions of the supervisee, who is

mainly used to directive and prescriptive manner, may not be that appealing to the supervisee.

2. CONCLUSION

It is every teacher’s desire to be a good and better teacher; however, not all of them may

always have the opportunity to improve themselves professionally. Despite the fact that current

supervision in Turkey does not have a facilitative and improving effect (Bilir, 1991; Kayaoglu,

2012; Memduhoglu, 2012; Memduhoglu et al. 2007), supervision can be exploited better to

improve English language teachers’ professional development, especially of those who cannot

reach other sources of professional development such as seminars, workshops, journals etc. to

improve themselves, by just shifting the way it is implemented. Moreover, it is, not surprisingly,

evident from research that language teachers have a positive attitude towards clinical supervision

compared to traditional supervision (Koklu & Kunduz, 2012). Thus, an implication of this study is

that Clinical Supervision can be suggested as a versatile option for language teachers’ professional

development in Turkey. Last but not least, further research is strongly recommended to help us

establish a greater degree of understanding of the role of clinical supervision in professional

development of English language teachers in Turkey. These research-based attempts are believed

to raise awareness at administration level as well as to encourage practitioners to adopt a

democratic and collaborative attitude towards ongoing teacher development practice.

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GOT POETRY? A “BEST-PRACTICES” POETRY LESSON

Marna BROEKHOFF

1

ABSTRACT

Traditional drill-and-practice language lessons overemphasize accuracy, but communicative

approaches overemphasize fluency. Activity-based learning creates a compromise. Using a dramatic poem

for elementary pupils, this article analyzes eight “best practices” language teaching techniques and guides

participants in creating their own mini-lesson.

Keywords: “Best practices,” communicative, integrated skills, structural grammar, educational objectives

1. INTRODUCTION

Although the structured drill-and-practice method of language teaching has long been out

of favor in the U.S., it is still the norm in Turkey and in other countries with traditional

communities and traditional curricula. Teachers may recognize the de-motivating and rigid aspects

of this approach, but they don’t see alternatives. On the other hand, the more recent pendulum-

swing of communicative language teaching, originating the U.S., is now faulted for promoting

fluency at the expense of accuracy.

More balanced “best-practices” curricula emphasize activity-based language lessons that

include the following principles (Brown, 2007; Opp-Beckman & Klinghammer, 2006): 1) authentic

or “real” materials from the target culture, rather than special materials created for language

learners; 2) a variety of group processes; 3) a combination of communicative and structural

strategies; 4) multiple learning modalities (visual, auditory, kinesthetic); 5) contextualized lesson

points; 6) integrated skills (and sub-skills); 7) multiple means of assessment; and 8)—fun!

The model lesson plan described below, illustrating all of the above principles, can be used

for teaching nearly any authentic language material. Poetry is chosen here because it is short and

usually has song-like rhymes and rhythms that most learners enjoy. The dramatic poem selected for

this discussion is “Today I Had a Rotten Day” from a collection of poetry for children, Revenge of

the Lunch Ladies, by Kenn Nesbitt (2007).

Today I had a rotten day.

As I was coming in from play

I accidentally stubbed my toes

and tripped and fell and whacked my nose. 4

I chipped a tooth. I cut my lip.

I scraped my knee. I hurt my hip.

I pulled my shoulder, tweaked my ear,

and got a bruise upon my rear. 8

Assistant Professor, Melikşah University, [email protected]

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I banged my elbow, barked my shin.

A welt is forming on my chin.

My pencil poked me in the thigh.

I got an eyelash in my eye. 12

I sprained my back. I wrenched my neck.

I'm feeling like a total wreck.

So that's the last time I refuse

when teacher says to tie my shoes. 16

2. COOPERATIVE LEARNING

All the activities are done in Cooperative Learning groups of four, with assigned roles of

Speaker, Recorder, Encourager, and Timekeeper, the purpose being to motivate (or coerce) each

group member to participate. Kagan’s (1994) seminal work in this area has been widely accepted

for the past 25 years. Each group must complete a simple task within a specified time period,

usually less than ten minutes. Cards in a different color for each role (red for Speaker, green for

Encourager, etc.), explaining the various duties can be given to each group. Sample comments on a

card that each role player could make will facilitate the group interaction. For example, comments

on the Encourager’s card could include, “That’s interesting….” “Ayşe, what do you think?” or

“Who has a different opinion?” Alternatively, the four colored cards can be used for a variation of

“Numbered Heads Together,” in which the person holding the blue card in each group answers one

question or does one activity, while each yellow-card holder answers the next, and so forth.

3. THREE INSTRUCTIONAL PHASES

The first step in the lesson plan deals with comprehension and contextual vocabulary. It

illustrates both communicative teaching strategies, as well as multiple learning modalities. First the

poem is read aloud by either the teacher or a volunteer, or better yet, by one of the excellent online

recordings by children themselves (Nesbitt, 2005). Then each group discusses and paraphrases each

stanza, debriefing any difficult words that they underlined while listening. A volunteer “body”

comes to the front of the room, and others apply post-its to the body parts mentioned in the poem.

Volunteers act out each line of the poem as it is read again. This dramatic way of teaching

vocabulary is well suited to “Rotten Day” and will appeal to all learners, but especially those who

favor auditory and kinesthetic learning styles more than visual (Hutinger, 2001). For holistic

appreciation, the class can read the complete poem in unison.

The second step in the lesson plan is primarily structural, focusing on a grammar point in

the poem itself, in this case, simple past tense. Meaning, form, and structured practice are provided.

All instruction in this phase is contextualized; that is, the activities all relate back to the poem. The

teacher can ask when all the bad things happened and draw a timeline. Pupils are directed to notice

all the similarities for simple past tense suffixes and derive a formation rule for regular verbs. Thus

their learning here is inductive and self-guided, which is more effective than deductive

memorization of rules given by the teacher.

Structured practice is provided in the cloze paragraph and verb worksheet shown in below.

Extensions of the cloze exercise could involve deleted letters, for vocabulary practice; the words of

the poem printed without spaces between them, to teach word boundaries; or a sentence scramble

with the lines of the poem mixed together to teach comprehension at the syntax level.

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Cloze Exercise and Verb Tense Chart for “Today I Had a Rotten Day”

I. Please fill in the blanks with an appropriate verb in the simple past tense.

Today I had a rotten day

As I was coming in from play.

I accidentally _ _ _ _ _ _ _my toes

And tripped and fell and ____________my nose.

I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a tooth. I cut my lip.

I scraped my knee. I hurt my hip.

I ____________my shoulder, __________my ear.

And got a bruise upon my rear

II. Write down the simple past tense for these verbs:

Work:

Fill:

Erase:

Jump:

Hop:

Hope:

Describe:

For more advanced groups, the present or past progressive tenses could be included here

since there are several examples in the poem. Advanced groups could be given a chart of verb tense

meanings and formations, as in Figure 1. An additional grammar point using the same procedure of

meaning, form, and structured practice could involve the use of dependent adverbial clauses in

discussing why, when, or how the boy had such a bad day. Sample sentences might be, “The boy

whacked his nose because….” Or “When did the boy’s troubles begin?”

Figure 1: Sample of Azar’s Verb Timelines

(Azar, B. (2003). Fundamentals of English Grammar. New York: Pearson/Longman, p. 39)

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The third step in the lesson plan is the application of the content and grammar structure to

group writing activities about a bad day. Each group can select a particular slant for writing about a

bad day, in the form of a simple poem, story, or letter to the boy. Each pupil can dictate a sentence

of two for the group activity. Only the Recorder writes (thus encouraging group interaction), and

then the Speaker can read the group writing to the whole class, or each group member can act out a

role. Use of the target grammar structure (such as regular past tense formation) needs to be

included. The writings can include pictures and be displayed on a bulletin board. These wrap-up

activities all require integrated skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening, as well as grammar

sub-skills). The writing project is primarily communicative, requiring negotiation among group

members.

4. ASSESSMENT

Assessment activities can be as varied as the lesson itself. It should probably be formative,

rather than summative, given the nature of the lesson. The cloze paragraph, for example, can be

quickly and objectively checked. The final wrap-up writing assignment may be best assessed

through a simple rubric, explained to pupils in advance. If the writing criteria involve only

grammar, the same rubric could be used for all choices of poem, story, or letter. If the writing

assignment is expository, then paragraph structure could also be included in the rubric. Oral skills

can also be judged with a simple rubric or just by whether or not communication occurs.

Evaluating the group processes in this lesson is more subjective but nevertheless worthwhile.

Pupils themselves can be asked to comment on how well their group functioned and how the

interaction could be improved, thus approaching their learning from a meta-cognitive perspective.

It should also be noted that using the grammar and content of the poem in creating a new

communication, whether poem, story, letter, or skit, is at the higher levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives, including Application, Analysis, and Synthesis (Bloom, 1956). This lesson

is at the opposite end of the spectrum from rote drills that characterize so many language lessons.

Lastly, some attention should be given to Bloom’s Affective Domain (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia,

1973). Did the pupils enjoy the lesson? Assessment here can only be subjective and imprecise, but

indicators might be requests to work with similar poems, or to do more dramatic activities, and so

forth.


This simple lesson plan thus includes all major principles of “best-practices” language

teaching, including the following: authentic materials; cooperative learning and other group

processes; a combination of teaching strategies that promote both fluency and accuracy; a variety

of learning modalities; contextualized instruction; integrated speaking, listening, reading, and

writing skills; affective as well as cognitive assessment involving critical thinking—and enjoyment.

The instructional plan outlined here is adaptable to nearly any language content, literary or

otherwise. It works very well for children’s poetry, particularly narrative poetry with vivid plots

and song-like qualities. I recently used a similar approach with university students for acting out

and then analyzing the syntax in heroic couplets from Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock,”

followed by requiring students to write their own couplets. The basic comprehension--guided

practice--application format can also work just as well with expository reading and writing at

nearly any level. For the first phase of the lesson, teachers can “zoom out” to activate students’

background knowledge of a subject in a “top-down” approach, and then “zoom in” to analyze key

words or grammatical structures in a “bottom-up” approach. Lastly, they can ask students to

generate their own writing on the same subject, using the same rhetorical or grammatical structures.

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The greatest virtue of “best-practices” language teaching for both poetry and prose is that

it focuses on meaningful activities and multiple skills rather than on “maximum coverage” of

content, as in many traditional classrooms. It also promotes both fluency and accuracy, not just one

or the other.

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REFERENCES

Azar, B. (2003). Fundamentals of English grammar (3rd

ed.). New York:

Pearson/Longman.

Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive

domain. New York: David McKay.

Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of

educational objectives. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay.

Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles. New York: Pearson/Longman.

Hutinger, P. (2001, Nov.). Learning modalities: Pathways to effective learning. PBS

Teachers [online]. Available from

<http://www.pbs.org/teachers/earlychildhood/articles/learningmodalities.html>

[13 Nov. 2012].

Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing.

Nesbitt, Kenn (2005). Poetry4kids.com [Website]. Available from

http://www.poetry4kids.com/ [15 Jan. 2013].

Nesbitt, Kenn. (2007). Revenge of the Lunch Ladies. Minnetonka, MN: Meadowbrook.

Opp-Beckman, L. & Klinghammer, S.J. (2006). Shaping the way we teach English:

Successful practices around the world. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State.

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THE LANGUAGE USED IN TURKISH AND ENGLISH VERSIONS OF TOURISM

BROCHURES

Nalan KIZILTAN

ABSRACT

This study discusses the differences between the Turkish and English tourism brochures from

linguistic point of view. It has been seen that the brochures as tourist-information texts require a language of

tourism with some specialized vocabulary, and grammatical rules in an appropriately given discourse of two

cultures, Turkish and English. Corpus studies should be conducted to help the development of tourism sector.

Key Words: tourism brochures, translation, language in tourism brochures

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Tourism is a travel for predominantly recreational or leisure purposes or the provision of services

to support this leisure travel. Tourists travel for recreational purposes. The only considered tourist

aim is a general pursuit of happiness. Tourism brochures help tourists all around the world to visit

places for leisure, business and other purposes.

1.01 The Importance of Language

• Language, in that sense, is a medium to attract people to those places to be visited

implicitly and the language of tourism is, therefore, a specialized language. Francesconi

(2010, 20) supports this idea, pointing out that the language of tourism is “a set of words or

phrases showing a high degree of frequency and specificity in the context of tourist

communication.”

•

According to European Union, there are three categories of tourism:

1. Internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism;

2. National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism;

3. International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism.

Therefore, according to the category of tourism, the language naturally changes due to the

addressees.

According to text types, texts are split into four:

1. Narrative texts,

2. Expository texts,

3. Argumentative texts.

4. Descriptive texts,

In terms of this division tourism brochures can be said to be both descriptive and expository, since

they give information about the places to be seen with descriptions.

Associate Prof. Dr., University Of Salento Lecce/Italy, Ondokuz Mayıs University Samsun/Turkey,

[email protected]

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2.00 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This study aims at

• studying the language of tourism brochures through a stylistic analysis and

discourse analysis,

• comparing Turkish and English versions of brochures in terms of the linguistic analysis.

3.00 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study discusses the following questions:

1. Is the vocabulary simple or complex?

2. Is the vocabulary descriptive or evaluative, general or specific?

3. Are adjectives frequent? To what kinds of attribute do adjectives refer? Physical?

Psychological? Visual? Auditory? Colour? Referential? Emotive? Evaluative? Etc.

4. Do verbs carry an important part of the meaning?

5. Are adverbs frequent?

6. Do the texts contain idiomatic expressions?

7. What kind of grammatical categories are used in texts?

8. To what extent are grammaticality and intentionality related?

9. Is there foregrounding?

10. What is the type of the texts?

11. How is cohesion and coherence accomplished in texts?

4.00 METHOD

In order to conduct this study, several tourism brochures (printed or online) each of which

represents one geographical region in Turkey with Turkish and English versions have been

scrutinized. Eight Turkish texts with their English translations have been extracted from the

brochures for the linguistic analysis. In the selection of the texts, three categories of the tourism

have been taken into account as well as the text types.

As a comparative language, English is taken, since it is a lingua franca assumed to be generally

spoken by the tourists for intercultural communication

5.00 DISCUSSION OF THE DATA

5.01 South Eastern Anatolian Region

5.01.1 Adıyaman

Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi’nde yer alan Adıyaman’ın deniz seviyesinden yüksekliği 669

metredir. Doğusunda Diyarbakır, güneyinde Şanlıurfa ve Gaziantep, batısında Kahramanmaraş,

kuzeyinde ise Malatya illeri ile çevrilmiştir. Merkez ilçe ile birlikte 9 ilçesi bulunan ilin yüzölçümü

7.614 km²’dir.

5.01.2 Adıyaman

Adıyaman is a province located in the South-East Anatolian region. It is at an elevation of 669

metres above sea-level. It is surrounded by Diyarbakır to the east, Şanlıurfa and Gaziantep to the

South. Kahramanmaraş to the west and Malatya to the North. It has nine administrative districts,

including the central one, and extends over an area of 7,614 km².

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A. Lexical Categories:

In both Turkish and English texts the vocabulary is simple, formal, descriptive and specific.

Referential meanings of the words have been used. Nouns are concrete. Proper nouns are used,

such as Adıyaman, Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, Gaziantep and Kahramanmaraş.

The adjectives are not frequent. The verbs are stative and not dynamic. There are not any

adverbs.

B. Grammatical Categories:

In both texts, declarative sentences are used. In the Turkish text, the sentences on the whole have a

complex structure; there is a notable occurence of anticipatory structure. Besides, relative clauses

are used whereas in the English text, there is only one complex sentence. Noun Phrases are

relatively suitable.

In the English text, Adjective Phrases are used. Prepositional Phrases are used in both texts.

C. Discourse:

In terms of foregrounding, there are formal and structural repetitions, such as parallelism in both

texts. In the Turkish text, cohesion, a logical link, between sentences is accomplished by

coordinating conjunction. In both texts, anaphoric referents are used. In the English text, there is an

exophoric referent (e.g.the central one). Coherence is established with appropriately used

anaphoric referents in both texts.

5.02.1 NEMRUT: Dev Heykeller Mekânı Nemrut

Adıyaman'ın Kâhta ilçesinde bulunan ve içinde Kommagene Krallığı'nın antik kentini barındıran

milli park içerisinde, aslan ve kartal heykellerinin arasında 7 metreye varan dev heykeller

bulunuyor. Bölge, tarih meraklıları için ideal.

5.02.2 NEMRUT: Place Of Giant Sculptures

Nemrut is an ideal place for history fans. It locates in Kahta town of Adıyaman. In this area there is

a national park which includes traces of Kingdom of Commagene an ancient civilization. There are

gravestones and giant sculptures of lion and eagle head in 7 meters height.

A. Lexical categories:

In both texts, the vocabulary is complex, formal, descriptive and specific. The nouns are concrete.

The adjectives are frequent. They are physical, evaluative and visual.

In English, the verbs carry an important part of the meaning. In both texts, the verbs are static;

they do not refer to movements. Adverbs are not used in the texts.


In both texts, declarative sentences are used. in the Turkish text, a minor sentence type with no

verbs is used. In the Turkish text, the sentences on the whole have a complex structure; there is a

notable occurence of anticipatory structure. In English compound sentences are used. In the

English text, there is one relative clause, whereas in the Turkish text, almost all the sentences are

formed with relative clauses.

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Adjective Phrases are used in both texts.

C. Discourse:

In English foregrounding is established through the anaphoric referents, such as it, this area.

In both texts, cohesion is established by coordinating conjunction “and”.

In the Turkish text, coherence in the title is established with a cataphoric referent, whereas in

English, it is anaphoric.

A special deviation, metaphor, as foregrounding has been used to attract the attention of the

reader to Nemrut through “Giant Sculptures”.

5.03 The Aegean Region

5.03.1 Antik Kente Gizemli Yolculuk

İzmir'in Selçuk ilçesi yakınlarındaki 4 bin yıllık Efes Antik Kenti, kiliseleri, çarşıları, mağaraları,

çeşmeleri ile en çok ilgi çeken turistik mekânlardan.

5.03.2 EPHESUS: A Mysterious Trip in Archaic City

This archaic city is near the Selçuk town of İzmir. It has a history for 4000 years. It is the most

attractive tourist place with its churches, bazaars, caves and founts. You should definitely visit this

city to be witness of history and to feel it.


In both texts, the vocabulary is complex, formal, descriptive and evaluative. The nouns are

concrete. The adjectives are frequent. They are visual, evaluative and attributive.

In the Turkish text, there are not any verbs. They are eliminated from the sentence.

In English text, the verbs are both stative and dynamic. (e.g. Visit)

Adverbs of degree have been used in both texts. In the English text, there is also a significant use

of sentence adverb, disjunct, “definitely”


In Turkish, minor sentence type has been used, since there is not a verb. In English, the sentences

have a simple structure. In Turkish, a dependent clause preceding the subject of a noun clause has

been used.

Adjective Phrases have been used in both texts.

C. Discourse:

In the English text, the external relation of the last part of the text gives a sense of social relation

between the writer and the reader.

It is a kind invitation for the tourists to visit Ephesus.

Both texts can be said to be cohesive and coherent. In the title of the Turkish text, the “city” is

exophoric, whereas it is anaphoric in the English text. Therefore, it gives an effect of reinforcement

for the tourists to visit this area.

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5.04 The Mediterranean Region

5.04.1 HATAY: Nasıl Gidilir?

Çeşitli illerden şehirlerarası otobüslerle karayolundan gidilebilir. Ayrıca Havayolu ile de şehre

ulaşılabilir. İskenderun’da bulunan gar ve limandan da denizyolu ve demiryolu ile ulaşmak

mümkündür.

5.04.2 HATAY: Transportation

Hatay is easily accessible from all parts of Turkey by car or buses. It is also possible to reach Hatay

by sea or railway transport. There is a railway station and a harbour in İskenderun.


In both texts, the vocabulary is both simple and complex; formal and evaluative. The nouns are

concrete.

In English text, the adjectives are predicative, whereas in the Turkish text, they are both

attributive and predicative.

The verbs are dynamic in Turkish text, whereas in English text, they are static through linking

verbs. In Turkish text, there are not any adverbs, but in English text, to intensify the degree of

adjectives, the adverbs have been used.


In both texts, the declarative and simple sentences are used. In the Turkish text, the tittle is

interrogative, “Nasıl Gidilir?”,

whereas in English text it is presented with a noun “transportation” to attract the tourists’ attention

directly to the aim.

C. Discourse:

There are cases of structural repetition in both texts. Cohesion is established through conjunctions,

“with, or, by, and”. In the English text, there are no referents, whereas in Turkish there is only one

anaphoric referent.

5.05 THE BLACK SEA REGION

5.05.1 SAMSUN: Konaklama

Turistik işletme belgeli ve Belediye belgeli olmak üzere, Samsun’da her bütçeye uygun birçok

konaklama tesisi mevcut. Bunların bazıları normal otel statüsündeyken bazıları iki ya da üç yıldıza

sahip otellerden oluşur.

5.05.2 SAMSUN: Accommodation

A variety of accommodation facilities is available in Samsun, some carrying the national certificate

for tourism enterprises and some licensed by the local municipality, catering to different needs and

budgets. Some hotels have two-star or three star ratings, while many unrated enterprises provide an

economical but valuable service.

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In both texts, the vocabulary is both simple and complex; the complex nouns are more in number.

They are formal and descriptive. The nouns are concrete.

In the Turkish text, the adjectives are referential, whereas they are evaluative in the English text.

The verbs are static in both texts and there are not any adverbs.


In both texts, there are both compound complex sentence structures. The sentence complexity has

been established through coordination, subordination and parataxis.

C. Discourse:

In the Turkish text, the cataphoric referents have been used, while in English, anaphoric referents

have been used.

In the English text, a structural repetition is seen through parallelism of the use of “some.” In the

Turkish text, opposition is used instead.

5.06 THE MARMARA REGION

5.06.1 İstanbul

İmparatorluklar başkenti…kıtalara hükmeden kent…medeniyetlerin beşiği…kültürlerin,

uygarlıkların, kıtaların buluşma noktası…İstanbul için söylenebilecek binlerce sözden

yapılabilecek binlerce tanımlardan sadece birkaçı. İstanbul’u anlatmak için kelimelerin yetersiz

kalması gibi sadece hakkında yazılanları okumak, anlatılanları dinlemek de İstanbul’u tanımanıza

yetmez. Tarih kokan sokaklarını adım adım dolaşır, dünya üzerindeki en büyük imparatorluklardan

olan Bizans ve Osmanlı’nın mirası eserleri yerinde görür, eşsiz konumunun sunduğu manzaraları,

her köşesine saklanmış gizemleriyle tüm güzellikleri kendiniz keşfederseniz tanımaya başlarsınız

İstanbul’u ve tanıdıkça da aşık olursunuz.

5.06.2 İstanbul

The capital of empires… the city that dominated continents… the cradle of civilasation…the

meeting point of cultures and civilizations…These are some of the thousands of phrases that

describe İstanbul. Yet neither words nor any amount of reading or listening are sufficient to truly

describe and become familiar with the city. Only when you walk along its historic streets, when

you see with your own eyes the architectural masterpieces of Byzantine and Ottoman Empires in

their original setting, when you enjoy the panoramic vistas of its location, and when you start to

explore its mystical beauties- only then will you begin to discover, and to fall in love with

İstanbul…


In both texts, the vocabulary is complex, formal, descriptive, evaluative and emotive. The nouns

are both concrete and absract. The adjectives are frequent. They are physical (architectural),

visual (panoramic), referential (familiar) and evaluative (mystical). Besides, In the Turkish text,

an gradable adjective, (the biggest) has been used.

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In both texts, the verbs are stative and dynamic. Additionally, the adverbs are frequent. There is a

significant use of the adverb “only” to attract the tourists’ attention.


The Noun Phrases have been used at the beginning of each text instead of full sentences. The

compound complex sentences have been used.

In the Turkish text, the conjunction “and” is only used, whereas in English, “yet” and “only

then” are also used.

C. Discourse:

In theTurkish text, as a foregrounding, the phonological scheme, alliteration of “[k]” and “[ş]”

are used to take the attention of tourist readers to the slogans:

“İmparatorluklar başkenti…kıtalara hükmeden kent…medeniyetlerin beşiği…kültürlerin,

uygarlıkların, kıtaların buluşma noktası.”

whereas in English, “[k]”, “[ş]” and “[s]” are used to take the attention of tourist readers to the

slogans:

“The capital of empires… the city that dominated continents… the cradle of

civilasation…the meeting point of cultures and civilizations”…

In both texts the cataphoric referents have been used for “İSTANBUL” to emphasize the city.

Besides, in both texts, a metaphor has been used, such as “the cradle of civilazation”.

5.07 The Central Anatolian Region

5.07.1 Kapadokya Yürüyüş Yolu: Keyifli Tavsiyeler

Doğa harikası Kapadokya bölgesinin eşsiz manzarası ve peribacalarının arasında Atlı yürüyüş, jeep

safari, ATV (4 tekerlekli tek kişilik araç), scoter, bisiklet turları yaparak, isterseniz de muhteşem

Kapadokya manzarasını yüksekten balon turu ile süsleyebilirsiniz. Günün yorgunluğunu Türk

gecelerinde Sema gösterileri, Halk oyunlarının örneklerini izleyerek ya da Kaya

disco barlarda bölgenin güzel şaraplarını tadarak atabilirsiniz.

5.07.2 Trekking in Cappadocia: Pleasant Advice

In the wonderful landscape of Cappadocia among fairy chimneys, you might do a tour on

horseback, a jeep safari, a ride on the ATV (a 4 wheel cart for only one person), a scooter or

bicycle… or you could enjoy the wonderful landscape of Cappadocia by a balloon tour. Finally,

you can get rid of the fatigue of the day watching the performances of the dervishes, Turkish folk

dances in the evenings or sipping excellent local wine in a Rocky disco bar.


Simple, complex, formal, specific, descriptive and evaluative vocabulary has been used in both

texts.

“Yorgunluk atmak” “get rid of fatigue” is an idiomatic expression in the texts.

Both concrete and abstract nouns are used. In the Turkish text, several adjectives have been used,

whereas in the English text only two adjectives, such as “wonderful” and “excellent” have been

used.

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In the Turkish and English texts, the physical adjective, “rocky”, referential, “ATV” and

evaluative “excellent” have been used.

In the English text, the adverb “finally” has been used as a conjunction. The verbs are dynamic.


In the Turkish text, compound complex sentences have been used with “and” and “or”, while in

the English text, only “or” has been used in order to present several alternatives to the tourist

readers.

The title in Turkish has been presented by a Noun Phrase, whereas in English text, it is given

through a Prepositional Phrase.

C. Discourse:

In both texts, cataphoric referents have been used for Cappadocia as a foregrounding. Through the

use of the exophoric referent, “you” in both texts, the tourist readers have been invited implicitly to

Cappadocia.

5.08 Eastern Anatoian Region

5.08.1 Van Gölü’nde Günbatımı

Van kültürel birikimi ve doğal güzellikleri, yöresel dokusuyla Anadolu'nun motiflerini yaşatabilen

bir kent. Türkiye'nin en büyük gölü bu ilimizde. Van Gölü üç de ada barındırıyor: Bu adalardan en

meşhuru Akdamar

5.08.2 The Van Lake:The Sundown in Van Lake

Van can get motifs of Anatolia alive with its cultural accumulation and scenic beauties. The biggest

lake of Turkey, which harbour three islands, is in this city. Akdamar is the famous one among these

islands. There is also a historic castle in this island.


In both texts, the vocabulary is simple, complex, formal, descriptive and evaluative. The nouns

are both concrete and abstract. The Proper names, “Van” and “Akdamar” have been used to take

the tourist readers’ attention to the environment of Van implicitly.

The adjectives are frequent. They are physical, referential and evaluative. Besides, a gradable

adjective has been used in the Turkish text. Additionally, in the Turkish text, there is only one verb

which refers to a state, which is a transitive one. In the other sentences, the verbs are deleted.


In both texts, declarative sentences have been used. In the Turkish text, minor sentence types

have been presented. On the contrary, in the English text, the simple, complex and compound

complex sentences have been used.

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C. Discourse:

In order to attract the attention of the tourist readers to the Lake Van, the archaic word,

“sundown” has been used instead of “sunset”. Therefore, the tourists are implicitly exposed to the

ancient motifs of Anatolia.

In both texts, anaphoric referents have been used. Cohesion is established well; but coherence is

violated through the tittle on purpose. It is because the title is nothing to do with the content.

Taking this foregrounding, deviation, into account, it can be said that the tourist readers are

deliberately invited to visit the Lake Van to see its environment, as well.

6.00 CONCLUSION

6.01 Concluding Remarks:

In conclusion, this study points out that the brochures as tourist-information texts have a language

of tourism with some specialized vocabulary, and grammatical rules in an appropriately given

discourse of two cultures, Turkish and English. As is seen in both languages, intentionality has

shaped grammaticality. “Tourism is a specialized field and the language of tourism is, therefore, a

specialized language” (Francesconi 2010: 20).

In order to accomplish this specialized language, it should be borne in mind that implicitly there is

a social relation between the writer and the tourist readers.

The linguistic analysis of the texts shows that almost all types of adjectives have been used in both

languages. Generally speaking, in the English texts, the adjectives are predicative, whereas in the

Turkish texts, they are both attributive and predicative.

According to the referential meaning of two cultures, different vocabulary items have been used.

According to the text types, the type of vocabulary changes; descriptive and specific vocabulary

has been used in descriptive texts, whereas evaluative and specific vocabulary has been used in

expository texts. In the Turkish expository texts, minor sentence type has been used, since the verbs

are deleted. Therefore, through verbs, foregrounding is established to carry an important part of the

meaning.

In order not to lead misunderstanding, in the English texts idiomatic expressions have been

avoided. Foregrounding has been given importance in order to attract the tourist readers’ attention.

All the linguistic elements have been presented through a well designed discourse.

6.02 Suggestions:

1. The Language of Tourism texts should be given importance;

2. Due to cultural diversity between languages, the translation of the source language into

the target language should be done cautiously in tourist-information texts;

3. In the translation departments of the faculties some linguistic courses on tourism should

be offered in order to train prospective translators for the field of Tourism;

4. The Tourism sector can be improved, conducting some Corpus studies.

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REFERENCES

Brown Gillian and George Yule. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Chatman, Seymour. 1970. Introduction in Literary Style. A Symposium. London: OUP.

ix-xv.

Francesconi, Sabrina. 2010. English for Tourism Promotion: Italy in British Tourism

Texts. Milano: Ulrico Hoepli Milano.

Halliday, M.A.K. 1975. Learning How to Mean- Explorations in the Development of

Language. London: Edward Arnold.

Some Tourism Brochures in Turkish and English published by Republic of Turkey,

Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS’ USE OF READING STRATEGIES AND

READING ACHIEVEMENT

Yusuf ŞEN

* Mesut KULELİ

Abstract

The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between students’ use of reading strategies and

their reading achievement in English. To this end, the Survey of Reading Strategies questionnaire developed

by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) has been adapted into Turkish and administered to 114 students studying in

the English Preparatory program in the School of Foreign Languages at Duzce University in 2011-2012

Academic year. In the analysis of the results, frequency and percentage statistics, independent sample t-test

and correlation coefficient statistics have been used. While 66 participants (57,9%) were male, 48 of them

were female (42,1%). Of the 114 participants, 40 of them (35,1%) passed prep class at the end of the

academic year while 74 of them (64,9%) failed. In order to relate the results of the questionnaire to those

students’ reading achievement, at the end of the academic year, those participants’ reading quiz and exam

scores were obtained, and the average score resulting from those quizzes and midterms was taken as those

participants’ reading achievement scores. Because this is not an experimental study but rather a descriptive

study, it was needless to administer a reading test to the students. The results of the study show that students

use technical aids strategies and coherence detection strategies often; however, they use monitoring strategies

sometimes. Taking the whole questionnaire as a whole, students often make use of reading strategies. There

is significant difference between the students who passed prep program and those who failed the prep

program in terms of their use of coherence-detection strategies, favoring the pass group. Further, there is

significant relationship between students’ use of technical aids strategies as well as use of reading strategies

in general and their reading achievement.

Key Words: Reading strategies, Reading achievement, English

1. INTRODUCTION

In acquiring a language, reading is of vital importance as a skill because it is both a means

to exposing students to new vocabulary items and providing them with comprehensible input so

that they could be aware of the dynamics of the foreign language. While some consider productive

skills to be the ultimate point of language acquisition, it is beyond doubt that receptive skills are the

first step in this long path and such receptive skills as reading skill pave the way for appropriate

development of productive skills like writing.

While reading in a foreign language, students make use of certain strategies in order to

comprehend the text better. Students do not only read the words written on the page with a view to

getting a general understanding of the passage but they also benefit from certain techniques that

will help them comprehend the passage better and draw conclusions more easily. It is generally

when students cannot understand a certain part of a text that they resort to reading strategies;

however related literature shows that both good readers and poor readers make use of reading

strategies. Much research has been carried out on learning strategies and reading strategies and

strategy use habits of students. According to Scarcella and Oxford (1992, p. 63), learning strategies

are “specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques --such as seeking out conversation partners, or

* Asst. Prof. Dr., Duzce University, School of Foreign Languages [email protected]

Lecturer, Duzce University, School of Foreign Languages [email protected]

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giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task -- used by students to enhance

their own learning”. From this definition, two aspects of learning strategies can be highlighted:

tackling a difficult language task and enhancing their own learning. Therefore, it is safe to conclude

that reading strategies are not only for problem solving, but also for enhancing our comprehension

level. To put learning strategies in another way, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) define learning

strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn,

or retain new information.” It can be inferred from this definition that learning strategies are not

only for comprehension but also for retention of new information. Therefore, it is hardly surprising

that strategies are used both by poor learners and good learners.

Narrowing the focus from the general perspective of learning strategies to a more specific

kind of strategy; that is, reading strategies, it is possible to come up with more specific definitions

of strategy. As Barnett (1988, p. 150) puts it, reading strategies are “mental operations involved

when readers approach a text effectively and make sense of what they read.” As opposed to

learning strategies, this definition does not contain any reference to retention and it only deals with

the moment of reading and coping with the text. It is out of the question that all readers employ

certain tactics and techniques while reading both in L1 and L2, but those techniques and tactics are

general and are not tailored to a specific condition. There is no single technique which allows

readers to minimize the obstacles in comprehension and contributes to overall reading efficiency.

This gap can only be filled through certain case-specific reading behaviors called reading

strategies. In a sense, reading strategies are “tactics that readers use deliberately when routine

techniques are inadequate to resolve a given interpretation” (Anderson, 1991; Carrell, 1998; Paris

et al., 1991). As can be seen from this definition, reading strategies make up for the deficiency left

by general tactics and enable the reader to go beyond what he already uses in similar situations.

1.1.1. Classification of Learning Strategies

Seeing that reading strategies play a big role in comprehending and interpreting a text

and that there isn’t a miraculous strategy or tactic which ensures perfect comprehension in all cases

and in all learners, it is inevitable that there are many of them. As a rule, when there is too many of

something, there begins a classification process so that they can be handled more effectively and

more general characteristics can be attributed to them. The same tendency was followed in reading

strategies and many different researchers have come up with their own classification systems.

One of the most commonly accepted classifications of reading strategies was by Young and

Oxford (1997). They divided reading strategies into two general groups as global reading strategies

and local reading strategies. Global reading strategies involve such strategies as integrating

information, recognizing text structure, using background knowledge and anticipating content.

These strategies are more about the readers’ holistic approach to texts, without going into depth

like words or phrases. Local reading strategies, on the other hand, involve strategies like translating

a word or a phrase, paraphrasing, and breaking lexical items into parts. The latter group has more to

do with the structure and meaning of the forms used in the text, and the strategies in that group do

not lead to an overall understanding or interpretation of the text, but rather makes small bits of

content more comprehensible.

Another equally well-known classification of reading strategies is by Sarig (1987) on

which reading strategy classification is based in this study. Sarig divides reading strategies into

four different groups. The first group of strategies like skimming, scanning, marking the text,

making a summary, using glossary, recognizing cognates, examining illustrations, using context to

define word are classified under Technical Aids. These strategies are mostly outside resources to

help in comprehension and help the reader to compensate for lack of knowledge in foreign

language. In the second group, syntactic simplification, producing synonyms, using paraphrase,

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identifying grammatical category of words, interpreting the text, using inference and adding of

information together make up Clarification and Simplification strategies. The readers dealing with

the small parts of the text to understand every sentence tend to benefit from those strategies. In the

third group, Sarig categorizes identifying the macroframe, keeping the meaning of the passage in

mind, using information about story, using general knowledge, using background knowledge,

identifying key information, anticipating content, hypothesizing, recognizing text structure and

integrating information strategies under Coherence Detection strategies. These strategies fall into

global reading strategies in Young and Oxford’s classification system (1997) and enable the reader

to approach the text from a wider perspective. The last group of reading strategies include

consciously changing the plan, holding, varying the reading rate, rereading, identifying

misunderstandings, correcting mistakes, skipping in a controlled fashion, self-directed dialogue,

evaluating guesses, following through with a solution to problem, questioning information in the

text, monitoring comprehension, reacting to text and questioning the meaning of sentence or word

and are categorized under Monitoring strategies. With this group of strategies, the reader checks his

own understanding of the text and this last group is most prone to vary from person to person due

to its user specific quality.

Block (1986) was engaged in another classification system of reading strategies but only of

those employed by poor readers. According to Block, poor readers use some general and local

reading strategies. General reading strategies used by poor readers are: anticipating content,

recognizing text structure, integrating information, questioning information, distinguishing main

ideas, interpreting the text, using general knowledge and associations to background, commenting

on behavior or process, monitoring comprehension, correcting behavior, focusing on textual

meaning as a whole and reacting to the text. Local reading strategies are: paraphrasing, rereading,

questioning meaning of a clause or sentence, questioning meaning of a word and solving a

vocabulary problem.

While Block (1986) only categorizes the reading strategies employed by poor readers,

Hosenfeld determines the reading strategies employed successful readers. Even though Hosenfeld

doesn’t classify reading strategies as the others do, he provides a detailed list of the reading

strategies of successful readers, so his work is of importance for providing an insight into the

strategies that might make a difference in students’ achievement levels. Hosenfeld (1984)

determines successful readers’ strategies as follows:

• Keeping the meaning of the passage in mind

• Reading in broad phases

• Skipping inessential words

• Guessing from context the meaning of unknown words

• Identifying the grammar category of words

• Demonstrating sensitivity to a different word order

• Examining illustrations

• Reading the title and making inferences from it

• Referring to the side gloss

• Using the glossary as a last resort

• Looking up words correctly

• Continuing if unsuccessful at decoding word or phrase

• Recognizing cognates

• Evaluating their guesses

• Using their knowledge of the world

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While there are many different classifications of reading strategies, the ones provided in

this section provide the most clear and the most systematic of all. In this study, the classification

system of Sarig (1987) has been adopted and it has been adapted as a result of factor analysis.

1.1.2. METHODOLOGY

Relevant data was collected in the Spring Semester of 2011-2012 Academic year.

2.1. Data Collection Tool

Data was collected through a questionnaire and average score of the four reading quizzes

and one midterm in that Spring Semester.

2.1.1. Survey of Reading Strategies

The questionnaire for obtaining data about students’ reading strategy use was adapted from

Mokhtari and Sheorey’s Survey of Reading Strategies (2002). The original questionnaire includes

30 items and it consists of three sub-factors. Mokhtari and Sheorey categorized reading strategies

under Global Reading Strategies, Problem Solving Strategies and Support Reading Strategies. The

questionnaire was translated into Turkish so that the participants could better understand the items.

Content validity and construct validity were checked by the researchers. The questionnaire was

administered to 136 students to check its reliability. As a result of factor analysis through SPSS

16.0, 16 items were deleted from the questionnaire because 11 of them were categorized under

more than one factor; 4 items were deleted because they reduced the factor validity of the

questionnaire and 1 item was deleted because it was the only item in its category. As a result, the

adapted questionnaire consists of 14 items and these 14 items are categorized under 3 components.

Initial eigenvalues for the components are as follows:

Component 1: 3,713

Component 2: 1,522

Component 3: 1,352

Total Variance Explained: 64,156

Classification and naming system of the questionnaire is based on Sarig’s classification

(1987). The first component is classified as Technical Aids Strategies and it consists of 6 items.

The strategies in this component are mostly concerned with extra materials the reader makes use of

when he comes across certain difficulties in comprehension and certain simple techniques to help

him remember the basic information later on. The items included in this component are as follows:

I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read.

I underline or circle information in the text to help me remember it.

I use reference materials (e.g. a dictionary) to help me understand what I read.

When text becomes difficult, I re-read it to increase my understanding.

When I read, I guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases.

When reading, I translate from English into my native language.

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The second component is classified as Monitoring strategies. There are 6 strategies under

this category. These strategies help the reader check his own comprehension while reading. As the

reader reads the text, he asks himself questions and ponders on the things he has read. In a way, the

reader literally monitors himself as he reads. The items included in this component are as follows:

I have a purpose in mind when I read.

When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand what I read.

I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose.

I adjust my reading speed according to what I am reading.

I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the text.

I check to see if my guesses about the text are right or wrong.

The third component is classified as coherence detection strategies. These strategies are

about the reader’s reading habits. There are two items under this category and the items included in

this component are as follows:

I try to get back on track when I lose concentration.

I stop from time to time and think about what I am reading.

After the factor analysis, reliability check of the questionnaire was conducted through

SPSS 16.0. With its new design, this 14-item- Likert Type questionnaire was found to be reliable

with the Cronbach’s Alpha value .771.

Table 2.1 Reliability of the questionnaire

Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items

,771 14

When the Cronbach’s Alpha value is above the critical point of .70 a questionnaire is

considered to be a reliable one and this is the case in this questionnaire, which means that it can be

administered to the participant group of the study in order to obtain data about their reading

strategy use.

2.1.2. Reading Achievement Scores

As this study is not an experimental one, it is needless to administer a reading performance

test to students. Students’ reading achievement scores have been obtained through 4 reading quiz

scores and a reading midterm score. Their average score is taken as the final achievement scores.

2.2. Participants

This study was conducted on 114 students. All the students were in the English prep

program in the School of Foreign Languages at Duzce University in 2011-2012 Spring Semester.

There were 19 classrooms in the school during that time and three of them were B level classes

while the rest 16 of them were A level students. The students in A classrooms were placed purely

randomly at the beginning of the Spring Semester and so the classrooms were heterogeneous. The

students in B classes, in contrast, were placed into those classes after a placement exam at the

beginning of the semester and so the classrooms were homogeneous. Each classroom consisted of

more or less 25 students and those students received 10 hours of Reading & Writing classes per

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week. Of the 5 classrooms chosen randomly for this study, one was a B class while the rest four

were A classes, therefore students can be said to have been chosen purely randomly. Of the 114

students, 66 were male (57,9%) while 48 were female (42,1%).

Table 2.2 Participants according to their genders

Frequency Percent

Male 66 57,9

Female 48 42,1

Total 114 100

At the end of the year, 40 of those students (35, 1%) passed prep class while 74 failed the prep

class (64,9%) at the end of the academic year.

Table 2.3 Participants according to their pass / fail status at the end of the academic year

Frequency Percent

Pass 40 35,1

Fail 74 64,9

Total 114 100

2.3. Data Collection Procedure

The students who were given the 14-item questionnaire were asked to mark the best option

ranging from never to always in this Likert Type questionnaire. The students were also asked to

write down their full names and classrooms so that their reading achievement scores and their pass

or fail results could be obtained at the end of the semester. Students’ reading strategy use results

were analyzed through SPSS 16.0. Of the 6 Reading & Writing quizzes that they took during the

second semester, only 4 of them were calculated in finding their average score besides a midterm

due to the fact that those quizzes only tested the students’ reading achievement while the other two

also tested their vocabulary knowledge that they were supposed to learn from the course book

along with their writing and grammar knowledge.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The research questions to which answers have been sought in this research concern the

extent to which students make use of reading strategies both as sub-components and in general as

well as the difference in terms of reading strategy use between those who have passed and those

who have failed the prep program. The last research question is the relationship between reading

strategy use and reading achievement.

3.1. To what extent do the students make use of reading strategies?

In order to determine the strategy use habits of students, descriptive statistics was used. As

a result of the descriptive statistics, 4.20-5.00 meant students always use reading strategies; 3.40 –

4.19 meant students often use reading strategies; 2,60-3,39 meant student sometimes use reading

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strategies; 1,80-2,59 meant students rarely use reading strategies and 1.00-1,79 meant that students

never use reading strategies.

Table 3.1 Students’ use of Technical Aids Strategies

N Mean Std. Deviation

Technical aids strategy 114 3,6696 ,61487

Valid N (listwise) 114

According to Table 3.1, students’ Technical Aids Strategies mean is 3,66 and this means students

often make use of Technical Aids Strategies.

Table 3.2 Students’ use of Monitoring Strategies


Monitoring strategies 114 3,2266 ,63110


According to Table 3.2, students’ Monitoring Strategies mean is 3,22 and this means students

sometimes make use of Monitoring Strategies.

Table 3.3 Students’ use of Coherence Detection Strategies


Coherence detection

strategies 114 3,6974 ,82446


According to Table 3.3, students’ Coherence Detection Strategies mean is 3,69 and this means

students often make use of Coherence Detection Strategies.

Table 3.4 Students’ use of Reading Strategies as a whole


whole 114 3,4837 ,47017


According to Table 3,4, students’ general reading strategy use mean is 3,48 and this means students

often make use of Reading Strategies as a whole.

3.2. Is there a significant difference between students who passed prep class and those who

failed in terms of their use of reading strategies?

In order to determine whether there is significant difference between reading strategy use

of successful and unsuccessful students, strategy use tendencies of those who passed prep class and

those who failed prep class have been compared. Independent sample t-test was used in order to see

the difference between the two groups.

Table 3.5 Difference between successful and unsuccessful students in terms of their use

of Technical Aids Strategy

Result N Mean Std. Deviation p

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Technical aids strategy Pass 40 3,6917 ,57926 ,77

Fail 74 3,6577 ,63683

p< ,05

According to Table 3.5, successful students’ mean is 3,69 while unsuccessful students’

mean is 3,65. Accordingly, now that p value is ,77 there is no significant difference between

successful and unsuccessful students in terms of their use of Technical Aids Strategy even though

there is a slight difference favoring successful students.

Table 3.6 Difference between successful and unsuccessful students in terms of their use

of Monitoring Strategies


Monitoring strategies Pass 40 3,3042 ,52009 ,29

Fail 74 3,1847 ,68333

p< ,05

Taking Table 3,6 into consideration, successful students’ mean is 3,30 while unsuccessful

students’ mean is 3,18. Considering p value to be ,29, there is no significant difference between

successful and unsuccessful students in terms of their use of Monitoring Strategies even though

there is a slight difference favoring successful students.

3.7 Difference between successful and unsuccessful students in terms of their use of

Coherence Detection Strategies


Coherence detection

strategies

Pass 40 3,9625 ,68301 ,00*

Fail 74 3,5541 ,86233

p< ,05

According to Table 3.7, there is significant difference between successful and unsuccessful

students favoring successful students in terms of their use of Coherence Detection Strategies. This

is the only component in which there came out significant difference between successful and

unsuccessful students, therefore coherence detection strategies can be said to play a role in

determining one’s success levels in a foreign language.

3.8 Difference between successful and unsuccessful students in terms of their use of

reading strategies as a whole


whole Pass 40 3,5643 ,42050 ,16

Fail 74 3,4402 ,49218

p< ,05

According to Table 3.8, successful students’ mean is 3,56 while unsuccessful students’

mean is 3,44. Even though there is a slight difference favoring the successful students, there is no

significant difference in terms of reading strategies as a whole. Taking all the statistics into

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account, it may be possible to say that even though significant difference can be observed only in

Coherence Detection Strategies, successful students are always better users of all reading strategies

than unsuccessful students. These results are consistent with some other results in literature. In

contrast to successful readers, unsuccessful readers have limited knowledge about how to use

strategies effectively and spontaneously while reading. (Borkowski, Carr & Pressley; Swicegood &

Parsons as cited in Nolan, 1991)

3.3. Is there a significant correlation between strategy use and reading scores?

Because students’ scores are a combination of their Reading & Writing, Listening &

Speaking and Grammar scores, their general point average may not be a good predictor of their

reading strategy use. Therefore, students’ reading scores are correlated with their reading strategy

use in order to determine the effect of reading strategies on their reading achievement. To this end,

Pearson correlation was used on SPSS 16,0.

3.9 Correlation between students’ strategy use and their reading achievement

Technical Aids Monitoring Coherence detection General

r ,200(*) ,094 ,132 ,199(*)

p ,033 ,319 ,161 ,034

N 114 114 114 114

p< ,05

As can be inferred from Table 3.9, there is significant correlation between students’

reading achievement and technical aids strategies. However, there is no correlation between

monitoring strategies and reading achievement as well as between coherence detection strategies

and reading achievement. This is in stark conflict with Oxford et al’s (2004) finding that high-

proficiency level successful readers employ top-down strategies such as predicting, finding the

main idea and guessing the meaning of a word from the context, while poor readers rely on bottom-

up strategies more often. As is clear from the table, high proficiency level readers employ bottom-

up strategies, too and this makes difference in their reading achievement. General reading strategy

use of the students has also been found to be significantly in correlation with their reading

achievement. Anderson (1991) found that readers making use of more reading strategies usually

have better reading performances, but there is no set of reading strategies that determine reading

performance.

4. CONLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Students should be self-conscious of the reading strategies that they employ in reading

even though strategy use becomes an automatic response in reading as the level of the students

becomes higher. In order to raise students’ awareness of reading strategies, reading activities

should be designed in such a way that students can be made to use reading strategies. Students’

awareness of reading strategies, technical aids strategies, in particular should be raised because

technical aids strategies could contribute to reading achievement. Besides technical aids strategies

like dictionary use, note-taking should be encouraged in students as they are involved in reading

activities because it has also been shown to facilitate comprehension. Further, students should be

allowed to read a passage or some parts of the passage one more time if they feel the need to do so.

As the last point, formative exams and summative exams should be prepared in such a way that the

students can be made to benefit from reading strategies that they employ in reading activities when

in class as there is significant correlation between general reading strategy use and reading

achievement.

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REFERENCES

Anderson, N. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing.

Modern Language Journal

Barnett, M.A. (1988). Teaching reading strategies: how methodology affects language course

articulation. Foreign Language Annals.

Block, E. L. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly,

20, 463–494.

McDonough, S. (1995). Strategy and Skill in Learning a Foreign Language. St. Martin’s Press.

Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. (2002). Assessing students' metacognitive awareness of reading

strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology

Nolan, T. E. (1991). Self-questioning and prediction: Combining metacognitive strategies. Journal

of Reading, 35(2), 132-138.

O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language

Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R.L. (1990): Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston:

Heinle & Heinle.

Oxford, R., Cho, Y., Leung, S., & Kim, H-J. (2004). Effect of the presence and difficulty of task on

strategy use: An exploratory study. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 42, 1-47

Scarcella, R.C., & Oxford, R.L. (1992). The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the

Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle

Young, D. J., & Oxford, R. (1997). A gender-related analysis of strategies used to process written

input in the native language and a foreign language. Applied Language Learning, 8, 43-73.

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