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01 July, 2018 Pages: 148 ` 75.00

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ISSN 972-7027X

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Issue No. 02Volume XVII

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AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date: 01 July, 2018

VOL. NO. XVII, ISSUE NO. 02 3

July, 2018 / VOLUME XVII / ISSUE NO. 02

CHIEF EDITOR Dr. S. S. Purohit

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for them. DATE OF PUBLISHING: 01 July, 2018

DATE OF POSTING 07-08 OF EVERY MONTH AT RMS POST OFFICE

Contents BIOTECHNOLOGY 1. Clean Vector Technology: An Approach for

Marker-Free Transgenics ............................................ 6 Jasti Srivarsha and E. Rambabu

2. Recent Advances in Anther Culture and its Uses in Production of Disease Resistant Crops ................... 7 Sonika Kalia, Prabhudutt Samal and Hausila Prasad Singh

3. CRISPR/Cas9: A Tool for Genome Editing in Plants ......................................................................... 8 Jyoti Prakash Sahoo

MICROBIOLOGY 4. Single Cell Protein: Way to Beat Malnutrition ........... 10

S. Y. Padalkar 5. Electricity Generation from Micro-Organisms: An

Innovative, Economic and Eco-Friendly Approach ..... 11 Nisha Sharma, Sunita Devi Joginder Pal and Anita Kumari

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 6. Software Available in Public Domain for

Molecular Analysis ................................................... 12 Manish Kumar and Manpreet Kaur

AGRONOMY 7. Types of Farming Systems in India ........................... 14

Prakash Tapkeer and Govardhan Temak 8. Cultivation Practices of Linseed in Changing

Climatic Conditions in East Up .................................. 15 Anoop Kumar Devedee and Ritesh Kumar Parihar

9. Integrated Farming System in Achieving Sustainable Production ............................................. 17 Sudesh Devi

10. Organic Farming: A Curative Approach against Pesticidal Residue .................................................... 18 Rajiv Sathe and Dhanshri Nigade

11. Industrial Use of Rice-Wheat Straw .......................... 19 Ajay Singh

12. Biofertilizers ............................................................. 20 Sagar Khedkar, S. S. Mane and Renuka Tatte

13. Linseed: An Industrial Marvel ................................... 21 Arjun Kumar

14. Inter and Mixed Cropping for Irrigated and Dry Lands ........................................................................ 22 S. ALAGAPPAN

CROP ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT 15. Impact of Global Warming on Agriculture ................. 24

Santosh Korav and Premaradya. N ORGANIC FARMING 16. Zero Budget Natural Farming .................................... 25

Richa Khanna 17. Organic Farming and their Principles........................ 26

Manjeet Singh SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 18. Urban-Agriculture: A Modern Income Generating

Hobby ....................................................................... 27 Angelina Patro, Subhrajyoti Mishra and Shilpa Jana

SOIL SCIENCE 19. Soil Potassium and Crop Response ........................... 29

Srinivasa, D. K.

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Publishing Date: 01 July, 2018 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

4 VOL. NO. XVII, ISSUE NO. 02

20. Preparation of Vermiwsah and its Nutrient Value and uses in Crop Production ...................................... 31 B. Amruth

21. Importance of STCR: A Targeted Yield Concept for Farmer’s Practice ................................................ 32 Vijay Kant Singh, Anil Kapoor and Kharag Singh

22. Biofertilizers: An Important Component of Organic Agriculture ................................................... 33 Shikha and Reena

23. Soil Structure: in Relation to Plant Growth ................ 34 M. R. Apoorva

24. Earthworm and their Role in Carbon Turnover ........... 35 Chandrakant, Navya, N, C., Ramya, S. H. and Akshatha, M. K.,

25. Saline Soil and their Reclamation .............................. 36 Maya Yadav

26. Soil Microorganisms: Key Factors Affect Distribution, Activity and Population .......................... 37 Neelam Yadav, Poonam Yadav and D.K. Yadav

27. Efficient use of Poor Quality Water for Irrigation ....... 38 Sarita Rani

HORTICULTURE 28. Ornamental or Flowering Banana .............................. 40

Rashmi, R. and Mahantesh Kamatyanatti 29. Successful Plant Production Technique ..................... 41

S. P. Mishra, A. K. Padhiary and S. Behera 30. Inter-Cultural Operation in Banana Cultivation in

Odisha ....................................................................... 42 A. K. Padhiary, S. P. Mishra and S. Behera

31. Popular Vegetable Amaranth Species ........................ 43 Vijeth S and Srikanth M

32. Vertical Farming: Future for the Agrarian Production ................................................................. 44 Shilpha, S. M. and Mamathashree, C. M.

33. Spices: For Preventing Chronic Problems .................. 46 Panda Arun Kumar

34. Spice Oleoresins: A Drop that Transforms the Way You Cook ........................................................... 47 Kiran S. Giri

35. Dried Flowers: A New Paradigm in Floriculture ......... 48 Ashvini H. Gaidhani

36. Impact of Climate Change on Vegetable Production and Adaptation Measures ........................ 50 Chanchal Nikam, Ashvini Gaidhani, Minakshi Neware and S. D. Tayade

37. Artificial Ripening of Fruits ........................................ 51 Kadarla Chaitanya and Appani Laxman Kumar

38. Timla (Ficus auriculata): A Boon for Garhwal Hills of Uttarakhand ................................................... 53 Ankit Kumar

39. Crop Regulation in Citrus Fruits for Better Economic Returns ..................................................... 54 G. Chandramohan Reddy

40. Value Added Products in Flower Crops ...................... 56 Nellipalli Vinod Kumar

41. Flower Forcing in Jasmine ........................................ 57 Nellipalli Vinod Kumar

42. Value Addition in Jackfruit ......................................... 58 Vidhu Valsan And Dr. T. Uma Maheswari

HI-HORTICULTURE 43. Hydroponics and Different Growing Media ................ 60

D. A. Madane, Y. G. Kasal and A. M. Gore FORESTRY 44. Multipurpose Urban Forestry for Sustainable

Ecosystem Services .................................................. 61 Madhab Chandra Behera

MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 45. Health Benefits and Medicinal Uses of the

Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) ................................. 62 Karishma Kohli

46. Pollinators and Pests of Medicinal Herb, Sarpagandha (Ravuolfia serpentina) ........................ 63 Vadde Anoosha, Sumit Saini and Kavadana Sankara Rao

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING 47. Growing Dhingri Mushrooms Commercially for

Profit ......................................................................... 64 Pankaj Kumar Sharma

PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS 48. Vegetable Grafting .................................................... 65

D. Nagaharshitha 49. Hybrid Rice: Achievements, Problems and

Prospects in India ..................................................... 66 Hausila Prasad Singh and Sonika Kalia

50. Nanopore Sequencing: A New Technique of DNA Sequencing ............................................................... 68 Patel Mukeshkumar N.

51. Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs): Tool for Plant Genome Editing .................. 69 Girish Tantuway, Omprakash, Aditi Eliza Tirkey and Omprakash Patidar

52. New Insight into Heterosis Breeding ......................... 70 Ritika Singh

53. Nanopore Sequencing ............................................... 71 Padma Thakur, Omprakash, Namrata and Bapsila Loitongbam

54. Role of Transcriptional Factors in Plant Defense: An Overview .............................................................. 73 Surender Singh Chandel and Annu Verma

55. Effects of Gamma Radiations on Crop Production ..... 74 Zafar Imam, Md. Mahtab Rashid and Surabhi Sinha

56. Characterization and Management of Plant Genetic Resources .................................................... 76 Prabhudutt Samal, Sonika Kalia and Hausila Prasad Singh

57. Recent Cultivars of Rice ............................................ 77 Kamlesh Kumar and Sushila Bhanwariya

58. Conventional and Molecular Approaches for Blast Resistance in Rice ........................................... 78 T. Soujanya

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 59. Seed Vigour Testing: Principles and Methods ........... 80

Sushma Sharma 60. Seed Vigour Test ...................................................... 82

Sahaja Deva 61. Morphological and Molecular Methods of

Varietal Identification ............................................... 83 Hemender

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POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 62. Curing Techniques for Onion Storage ........................ 84

Divyasree Arepally and Sudharshan Reddy Ravula PLANT PATHOLOGY 63. Biotechnological Approaches towards Diagnosis

of Plant Diseases. ...................................................... 86 Raina Bajpai and Jhumishree Meher

64. Citrus Canker Disease and their Management Practices ................................................................... 87 Adesh Kumar

65. Wheat Blast: A Threatening Disease to India ............. 88 P. Avinash and B. Bhaskar

66. Pyricularia oryzae Cavara (Incitant of Rice Blast) Race Structural Analysis in India ............................... 89 B. Bhaskar and P. Avinash

67. Pathogenic Determinants of Ralstonia solanacearum an Incitant of Bacterial Wilt Disease ..................................................................... 90 Shiva, N and M. Karthick

68. Rice False Smut Toxins and its Effect on Crop Plants and Mammals ................................................. 91 Prahlad Masurkar, Sumit Kumar Pandey, Hausila Prasad Singh, Priyanka Chaudhary and R K Singh

69. Reactive Oxygen Species: Properties, Sources, Mechanism and their Role in Plant Defense .............. 92 Anjali Kumari

70. Present Scenario of Yellow Rust of Wheat in India .......................................................................... 94 Bharat Singh Ambesh and Senpon Ngomle

71. Biological Control of Plant Pathogen .......................... 95 Renuka Tatte, S. S. Mane and Sagar Khedkar

72. Generation of Hybridomas: Permanent Cell Lines Secreting Monoclonal Antibodies .............................. 96 S. S. Mane and Renuka Tatte

73. Economically Important Diseases of Aromatic Grasses and their Management ................................. 97 Ratul Moni Ram and Prachi Singh

74. Biotechnological Aspects for the Identification and Management of Phytopathogenic Fungi .............. 99 V. R. Ahir

75. Root-Knot Nematode vs Biological Control Strategies ................................................................ 100 Shobha, G.

76. Development of Disease Resistance in Plant by Genetic Engineering ................................................ 102 Manjeet Singh

77. R-Gene Expression and how it Confers Resistance in Plants ................................................ 103 Manjeet Singh

78. Phytoalexins and its Role in Plant Defence .............. 105 Manjeet Singh

PLANT PROTECTION 79. Soil Solarisation: A Measure of Pest Control ........... 106

Humma Ambuja NEMATOLOGY 80. Root Knot Nematode Major Problem in

Horticultural Crops and their Management .............. 107 Jaydeep Patil and Saroj Yadav

ENTOMOLOGY 81. Bee Pollination of Crop Plants Under Enclosures ..... 109

Rinku and Purti

82. Biomagnification of Pesticidal Compounds ............. 110 Elango K, Tamilnayagan T., and Aruna R.

83. The Tarantula Hawk: Quintessentials of Defence .... 111 Manoj Kurane, Ravindragouda Patil and Ramesh Kulkarni

84. Push-Pull Strategy in Integrated Pest Management ........................................................... 112 S. Ramesh Babu, Sunil Verma and Abhinav Kumar

85. Natural Enemies of Papaya Mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera) ............................................................. 113 V. Abdul Rasheed and B. Bhaskar

86. Instrumental Insemination in Honeybees ................ 114 Kavadana Sankara Rao, Anju Padmanabhan and Vadde Anoosha

87. Strategies to Overcome Development of Insect Biotypes .................................................................. 115 Sunil Verma, Abhinav Kumar, S. Ramesh Babu, Ritesh Kumar Parihar and Anoop Kumar Dwivedi

88. Plant and Microbial Volatiles for Attract-and-Kill in Insect Pest Management ..................................... 117 Lokesh Kumar Meena

89. Insect Resistant to Bacillus thuringiensis ................ 118 Tamilnayagan T., Elango K and Aruna R

90. Interaction between Root Feeding Insects and other Organisms in the Rhizosphere ....................... 119 Triveni B

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 91. Nutritional Content and Antioxidant Activity of

Drumstick Tree (Moringa oleifera Lam.) ................. 121 Mukhan Wati

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 92. Importance of Robots in agriculture ........................ 121

Mamathashree C M., Shilpha S.M. and Ashrith K.N 93. Bio Drainage System .............................................. 122

Sharmila S. 94. Influence of Greenhouse Parameters on Plant

Growth .................................................................... 124 Sudharshan Reddy Ravula and Divyasree Arepally

95. Transforming Agriculture ........................................ 125 Ramesh Kulkarni, Ravindragouda Patil and Manoj Kurane

EXTENSION EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 96. Allied Agricultural Activities: Means of

Sustainability to Farm women ................................. 125 Supriya P. Patil and Akshata R.

97. Role of Women in Agriculture and Allied Activities ................................................................. 126 Anil Biradar and S.K. Jamanal

98. Applications of Mobile-Based Agro-Advisory Services in India ..................................................... 128 Shaloo and Himani Bisht

99. Market - Led Extension ........................................... 130 Shanabhoga M.B and Shivani Dechamma

100. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) of Rice Developed by Farmers in Maharashtra ................... 131 Adsul, G.B. and Rede G.D.

101. Extension Methods Used in Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) .................................................... 133 Rupan Raghuvanshi and Akanchha Singh

102. Gender Mainstreaming: Prospects and Issues ........ 134 Dhanshri Nigade and Rajiv Sathe

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103. Competency Mapping: Need of the Hour for Extension Professionals in India .............................. 135 Jagriti Rohit

ECONOMICS 104. NABARD: A Brief Profile .......................................... 136

Palvi R. A. 105. Importance of Operation Greens Scheme ................ 138

Sangmesh Chendrashekhar, Shruthi, K. and Arnab Roy

FOOD AND NUTRITION 106. Health benefits of Taro Root ................................... 139

T. R. Thirumuruga Ponbhagavathi 107. Programme for Pregnant Women Regarding

Promotion of Breast Feeding ................................... 140 Deepa Kannur and Daneshwari Onkari

VETERINARY 108. Animal Breeding ..................................................... 142

Mayur Gopinath Thalkar

1. BIOTECHNOLOGY 16415

Clean Vector Technology: An Approach for Marker-Free Transgenics

Jasti Srivarsha1 and E. Rambabu2*

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, DBSKKV, Dapoli. 2Ph.D. Scholar, Institute of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, R.nagar, Hyd.

Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

The ability to efficiently introduce foreign genes into plants is key to the success of the emerging plant biotechnology industry. To produce transgenic plants, selection systems are used that lead to the selective growth of transformed cells. Genes encoding for resistance to specific antibiotics or herbicides have been found to be particularly effective for selection. During recent years, consumer and environmental groups have expressed concern on the use of antibiotic and herbicide resistance genes from an ecological and food safety perspective. Presence of such genes within the environment or the food supply might be an unpredictable hazard to the ecosystem or to human health. Herbicide resistance genes might be transferred by out-crossing into weeds. In contrast, several techniques have been successfully established for the elimination of selectable marker genes.

Clean Vector Technology Clean vector technology aims to produce GM plants with only the gene-of-interest as the newly introduced gene function, without any superfluous gene sequences. Primarily, the goal is to avoid the use or the continued presence of antibiotic resistance genes as selectable markers. Four approaches to achieve this can be followed.

A. No Selectable Marker

Here, GM plants are produced by Agrobacterium inoculation followed by regeneration of shoots without the use of a selectable agent. This will lead to a (great) number of plants, the majority of which are non-transgenic. However, depending on the regeneration and gene transfer frequencies, some plantlets will be transgenic and they will have to be identified, e.g. by a dedicated PCR screening on DNA of several sets of pooled plants. A prerequisite is a regeneration/transformation protocol of high efficiency. So far, this method is limited to model species and a low number of specific crop cultivars, e.g. in potato.

FIGURE 1: Screening of plants for the presence of gene of interest (GOI) by PCR method

B. Co-Transformation

In this system the selectable marker gene is physically separated from the gene-of interest. This can be on different T-DNAs residing on the same or on separate binary vector(s). The separate binary vectors can be present in the same or in separate Agrobacterium strains. The two T-DNAs should become integrated in two genetically unlinked loci. After selection for the GM plants by growth on antibiotic or herbicide containing media subsequent segregation after sexual crossing of resistant regenerants should result in GM plants equipped only with the gene-of-interest. A prerequisite here is that the crop can be sexually propagated without losing too many traits or cultivar identity and this within a reasonable time frame. For vegetatively propagated crops or crops with a very long sexual cycle, such as tulip or apple, this approach is less feasible.

C. Excision by Recombination

In this approach selectable marker genes or rather any unwanted (or no longer wanted) gene sequence, can be physically removed from the GM cells or regenerated GM plants. A recombinase enzyme working on two specific recombination sites is necessary. All of this has to be introduced into the primary transformants, next to the gene-of-interest and the selectable marker gene. Placing everything, which has to be removed ultimately, between the recombination

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sites ensures that in the final GM plant product only the gene of- interest remains. Control over the recombinase activity is essential.

FIGURE 2: Schematic representation of recombinase-mediated selectable marker removal.

Transposon based Excision Transposable elements can also be used to obtain marker free transgenic plants. The strategy to obtain marker-free transgenic is to connect either the transgene or the selectable marker with transposable sequences in such a way that the two entities can be separated from each other in a controlled reaction after transformation and selection. Both approaches have been applied successfully. In the first one, the marker gene is placed on a mobile element which is lost after transposition. The second possibility for transposon-induced dissociation of the marker and the desired gene consists in relocation of the desired gene away from the original transgene locus.

FIGURE 3: Ac transposon-based expelling of selectable marker genes (SMG) and gene of interest (GOI).

Conclusions Different approaches for elimination of selectable marker genes have been developed over the last several years, and further improvements are now underway. There are many compelling reasons to produce transgenic plants with as little foreign DNA as possible. Many companies that produce transgenic crops are taking this minimalist approach now in their research and marketing strategies, resulting in fewer regulatory and consumer based concerns for their products. Thus, there is no need any more for planting transgenic plants of a new generation out in the field that contain genes conferring antibiotic or herbicide resistance that served only in the transformation process. Concerns about an uncontrolled spread of these genes in ecosystems will become irrelevant in the near future.

References Holger Puchta (2003). Marker–free transgenic

plants. Plant Biotechnology and Applied Genetics.74: 123–134.

F.A. Krens, K.T.B. Pelgrom, J.G. Schaart, A.P.M. den Nijs and G.J.A. Rouwendal (2004). Clean Vector Technology for Marker-free Transgenic Fruit Crops. Plant Research International.


Recent Advances in Anther Culture and its Uses in Production of Disease Resistant Crops

Sonika Kalia1, Prabhudutt Samal2 and Hausila Prasad Singh3 1,2Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, 3Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, CSK

Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur-176062 India

INTRODUCTION: Tissue culture has been exploited to create genetic variability from which crop plants can be improved, to improve the state of health of the planted material and to increase the number of desirable germplasms available to the plant breeder. Microspore or pollen embryogenesis (also referred to asandrogenesis) is regarded as one of the most striking examples of cellular totipotency. Anther culture is a tissue culture technique which can be applied in plant breeding to accelerate the process of obtaining pure lines. The success of the New Plant Type (NPT) engineering depends on the genetic variability and the desired characters.

Advances and Use Anther culture is often the method of choice for

Double Haploid production in many crops because the simplicity of the approach allows largescale anther culture establishment and application to a wide range of genotypes. The ability to obtain haploids and DHs is one of the most important applications of pollen biotechnology in plant breeding and genetics, involving the manipulation and reprogramming of pollen development and function (Testillano2000).

Anther culture is the process to obtain haploids plants (‘n’chromosomal number) in in-vitro condition on a suitable medium. It has been used is over 200 species of plant including barley, rice, tobacco, and more now a days. This in vitro technology of raising plants of altered ploidy (homozygous dihaploids) has opened up facile

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routes for genetic and breeding studies and has proven beneficial especially in case of trees, self incompatible plants greatly for shortening the life cycle of the plants

Now a days recent advances has been made in anther cultures by using various chemical. TIBA and sucrose have an influencial role in development of anther in asparsgus. Effect of copper on androgenesis in barley plant (Makowska et al 2011). Polyamines are also used in rice plants for effective production of calli and green plant regeneration (Dewi et al 2016). Effects of antibrowning agent have been observed in case of Borage plants (Abollahi et al. 2015). The QTL that associated with albino formation in wheat plants are discovered which is having a great significance in wheat androgenesis (Krzewska et al. 2015). Temperature and starvation effects are observed in roses for the first time via androgenesis (Dehestani et al 2016).The thickness of wheat stem also affect its androgenic response (Weigt et al 2016).

A list of selected examples of developing disease resistant crops by anther culture has been cited. Incorporation of chitinase in rice plant is conferring resistance for sheath blight disease (Baishakh et al 2001). RFLP mapping of isozymes, RAPD and QTLs for grain shape for brown plant hopper resistance in a doubled haploid rice population has been observed (Huang et al 1997). Nematode and Virus Resistance in Potato via Anther Culture is also a great effort in the field of crop improvement (Wenzel and Uhrig 2000). Resistance to root maggot and Sclerotiniasclerotiorumin case of brassica family is also been developed via anther culture (Burbulis and Kott2013).

References Abdollahi MR, Chardolieshaghi Z, Majidi M. 2017.

Improvement in androgenic response of borage (BoragoofficinalisL.) cultured anthersusing antibrowning agents and picloram.Turkish Journal of Biology 41: 354-363

Baisakh N, Datta K, Oliva N, Rao GJN, Mew TW and Datta SK. 2001. Development of Homozygous Transgenic Rice using Anther Culture Harboring Rice chitinase Gene for Enhanced Sheath Blight Resistance. Plant Biotechnology 18 (2): 101-108.

Burbulis N and KottL..2013. Application of doubledhaploid technology in breeding ofBrassica.From plant genomics to plant biotechnology:183-203.

Dehestani M, Mehran E and Kafi M. 2016. Investigation of the Effects of Temperature and Starvation Stresses on Microspore Embryogenesis in Two Tetraploid Roses (Rosa HybridaL.).ScientiaAgriculturae14 (2): 220-227.

Dewi IS and Purwoko BS. 2008. Role of polyamines in inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis and their effect on rice anther culturedevelopment. Indonesian Journal of Agricultural Science 9(2): 60-67

Krzewska M, CzyczyloMysza I, Dubas E, GolębiowskaPikania G and G, Zur I. 2015.Identification of QTLs associated with albino plant formation and some new facts concerning green versus albino ratio determinants in triticale (Triticosecale Wittm.) anther culture.Euphytica 206: 263.

Makowska K, Oleszczuk S and Zimny J. 2017.The effect of copper on plant regeneration in barley microspore culture. Czech J. Genetics and Plant breeding 53: 17–22.

Weigt D, Kiel A, Nawracała J, Pluta M and Lacka A. 2016. A. Solid-stemmed spring wheat cultivars give better androgenic response than hollow-stemmed cultivars in anther culture. Plant In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology 52: 619.

Wenzel G and Uhrig H. 2000.Breeding for nematode and virus resistance in potato via anther culture.Theoretical and Applied Genetics 59: 333.


CRISPR/Cas9: A Tool for Genome Editing in Plants Jyoti Prakash Sahoo

Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, OUAT, Bhubaneswar - 751003 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Genome editing is a group of techniques that allow genetic material to be added, removed, or altered at particular locations in the genome. A recent approach to genome editing is CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9). It is a naturally occurring genome editing system in bacteria. The bacteria find small piece of DNA from invading viruses and use them to create CRISPR arrays. The CRISPR arrays allow the bacteria to "remember" the viruses, if the viruses attack again; the bacteria produce RNA segments from the CRISPR arrays to target the virus DNA. The bacteria then use Cas9 which is a RNA-guided DNA endonuclease enzyme to cut the DNA

apart, which disables the virus function. This bacterial adaptive immune system works similarly in the lab. A small piece of RNA with a short guide sequence binds to a specific target sequence of DNA in a genome. The RNA also binds to the Cas9 enzyme as in bacteria. The modified RNA recognizes the DNA sequence and the Cas9 enzyme cuts the DNA at the targeted location. After that the cell's own DNA repair mechanisms add or remove a portion of genetic material or replace an existing segment of DNA with a customized DNA sequence.

Mechanism of CRISPR-Cas9 Two important biological macromolecules, the Cas9 protein and guide RNA, interact with each

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other and form a complex that can recognise target sequences with higher selectivity. The Cas9 protein locates and cleaves target DNA, both in natural bacterial adaptive immune system and in artificial CRISPR/Cas9 systems. The Cas9 protein is having six domains (REC I, REC II, Bridge Helix, PAM Interacting, HNH and RuvC). The Rec I domain is responsible for binding the guide RNA. The bridge helix which is arginine-rich initiates the cleavage after binding of target DNA. The PAM (Protospacer adjacent motif) domain specifies the PAM specificity and initiates binding to target DNA. The HNH and RuvC domains are nuclease domains that cut single-stranded DNA. The Cas9 protein initially remains inactive when not attached to guide RNA. In modified CRISPR systems, guide RNA is composed of a single strand RNA that forms a T-

shape (one tetraloop and two or three stem loops). The guide RNA is having a 5’ end which is complimentary to the target DNA sequence. This artificial guide RNA binds to the Cas9 protein and converts the inactive protein into its active form by inducing a conformational change in the protein which includes steric interactions or weak binding between protein side chains and RNA bases. The activated Cas9 protein searches for target DNA by binding with sequences that match its PAM sequence. When the Cas9 protein finds a target sequence with the PAM sequence, the protein will melt the bases immediately upstream of the PAM and pair them with the complementary region on the guide RNA. After that the RuvC and HNH nuclease domains cut the target DNA (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1. Mechanism of the target DNA binding and cleavage by CRISPR/Cas9 system

General Protocol for CRISPR-Cas9 The key factor in editing target gene is to design the sgRNA. A number of online tools and software programmes are available to assist in designing the sgRNA including E-CRISPR, CRISPR-P, Cas-OFFinder, Cas-Designer, CasOT, SSFinder etc. Construction of expression vectors is compulsory. Some scientists have constructed binary vector systems by combining Cas9 and gRNA and modified the target gene. Effective vector delivery system is also very important for high editing efficiency in plants which includes Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, PEG-mediated transfection of protoplast and particle bombardment method.

Some applications as a genome-editing and targeting tool in plants

Several groups are now using this method to introduce single point mutations (deletions or insertions) in a particular target gene, via a single gRNA. Using a pair of gRNA-directed Cas9 nucleases, it is also possible to induce large deletions or genomic rearrangements, such as inversions or translocations. A major application

of CRISPR/Cas9 is NHEJ (non homologous end joining) gene knock out in organisms including plants. Jiang et al., 2013 used the Cas9 and single guided RNA system in various combinations to investigate the transient expression of this system in Arabidopsis, tobacco, rice and sorghum using Agrobacterium or PEG mediated transformation. NHEJ-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 is a suitable system for investigating the function of enzyme genes and facilitating the expression of miRNAs. HDR (highly desirable repair) pathway for DSB (double standard break) leads to precise gene knock-in or gene replacement in plant genome which is successfully characterized by the help of CRISPR/Cas9 technology in tobacco by Li et al., 2015. Some scientists also have used CRISPR-Cas9 system to regulate the transcription in various crop plants.

The Future of CRISPR/Cas9 The CRISPR/Cas system is by far the most users friendly out of the designer nuclease systems currently available for precision genome engineering. Recently some medicinal plants have sequenced completely. It is feasible to use

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the CRISPR technology to target these plants to study the toxic components and also the effective constituents present in it. Optimization of Cas9 function in plant system may be a challenge for this technology. Further study is needed to improve the application of this system in plants.

References Liu, X., Wu, S., Xu, J., Sui, C., & Wei, J. (2017).

Application of CRISPR/Cas9 in plant biology.

Acta pharmaceutica sinica B, 7(3), 292-302. Nishimasu, H., Ran, F. A., Hsu, P. D., Konermann,

S., Shehata, S. I., Dohmae, N., & Nureki, O. (2014). Crystal structure of Cas9 in complex with guide RNA and target DNA. Cell, 156(5), 935-949.

Sternberg, S. H., Redding, S., Jinek, M., Greene, E. C., & Doudna, J. A. (2014). DNA interrogation by the CRISPR RNA-guided endonuclease Cas9. Nature, 507(7490), 62.

4. MICROBIOLOGY 16178

Single Cell Protein: Way to Beat Malnutrition S. Y. Padalkar

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology and Agricultural Microbiology, MPKV, Rahuri, MS *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Protein is a source of nitrogen and essential amino acids, for humans and animals, from which they build new structural and functional (e.g., enzymes and hormones) proteins that enable them to survive. In extreme conditions, proteins may also be used as a source of energy. Most of developing countries of the world are facing a major problem of malnutrition. The deficiency of protein and nutrient are seen in human food as well as animal feed, due to rapid growth in the population. This increased demand for food and in particular feed protein spurred the search for non-conventional protein sources to supplement the available protein sources.

Unicellular microorganisms can be grown as a source of protein called Single Cell Protein, so called because microorganisms are single celled and rich in protein. It could be a food source that is nutritionally complete and requires minimum of land, time and cost to produce. The interest in SCP was generated in the wake of protein deficiency especially in the developing countries.

Microorganisms used for SCP Production must be: 1. Non-pathogenic to plants, animals and man 2. Of good nutritional value 3. Easily and cheaply produced on large scale 4. Toxin-free 5. Fast-growing

Advantages

1. Microorganisms have very short generation time and can thus provide a rapid mass increase

2. Microorganisms can easily modified genetically to produce cells that bring about desirable changes.

3. Higher protein content 4. Raw material for SCP production is readily

available 5. SCP production can be carried out in

continuous culture and thus be independent of climatic change.

Limitations

1. It is mainly produced as animal feed 2. There are problems with using it for human

consumption because of high concentration of nucleic acids (6-11%).

3. This may results in increased serum levels of uric acid causing kidney stone formation or gout, allergic ions and possible gastrointestinal reactions.

Researchers are still trying to find proper microorganisms to produce SCP suitable for man. A large number of algae, yeasts, moulds and bacteria have been studied as SCP sources.

Microorganisms used for SCP production are:

Algae: Spirulina maxima, Chlorella sp., Scenrdesmus sp.

Yeasts: Candida utilis, C. lipolytica, C.tropicalis, C. torulopsis, Saccharomyces sp.

Filamentous fungi: Agaricus sp., Aspergillus sp., Fusarium sp., Penicillium sp.

Bacteria: Bacillus sp., Nocardia sp., Acinetobacter sp., Methylomonas sp., Methylococcus capsulatus, Rhodopseudomonas sp.

Yeasts have by far received most attention among all microorganisms. Yeast protein is the only SCP product approved for human consumption but other food grade SCPs may soon be produced.

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5. MICROBIOLOGY 16440

Electricity Generation from Micro-Organisms: An Innovative, Economic and Eco-Friendly Approach

Nisha Sharma1, Sunita Devi1* Joginder Pal2 and Anita Kumari2 1Department of Basic Science, 2Department of Plant Pathology, 3Department of Tree Improvement and Genetic Resources, Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP) –

173230, India2 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Energy demands increase dramatically, however the most widely used energy source - fossil fuel, is unsustainable and causing a number of environmental problems such as air pollution and global climate change. As a result alternative sustainable energy sources are needed. Microbial fuel cell (MFCs) is a promising alternative among these choices. The use of fossil fuels, especially oil and gas, for all human needs in recent years has accelerated which has triggered the global energy crisis. Therefore, MFCs being renewable bio-energy source are viewed as one of the ways to decrease the current global energy crisis. It is well known that fuels such as ethanol, butanol, methane and hydrogen can be produced by microorganisms. But the electricity production using microbes, which is known as microbial fuel cells (MFCs), is recent development in energy biology and highly attracting area. It is considered as one of the most efficient energy sources because of the following reasons

1. No burning is required to produce energy 2. The only raw materials needed to power fuel

cells are simple organic compounds or even waste material from other reactions

3. They minimize the need for expensive catalysts and operate at moderate temperatures

Microbial Fuel Cells The concept of microbial fuel cells dates back to 1910 when early studies by Potter (Potter, 1911) revealed that small amounts of electricity could be harvested from microbial cultures. A microbial fuel cell (MFC) converts chemical energy, available in a bio-convertible substrate, directly into electricity and to achieve this microorganisms are used as a catalyst to convert substrate into electrons. Generally bacteria are used in MFCs to generate electricity while accomplishing the bio-degradation of organic matters or wastes. Although exceptionally small micro-organisms can convert a huge variety of organic compounds into CO2, water and energy. By using a MFC this microbial energy is harvested in the form of electricity while a part of this energy is utilized by the microorganisms to grow and to maintain their metabolism.

MFC set up: A MFC consists of an anode, a cathode, a proton or cation exchange membrane and an electrical circuit. A general layout of a MFC in which the bacteria can bring about

oxidative conversions in the anodic compartment while in the cathodic compartment chemical and microbial reductive processes can occur as depicted in Fig. 1.

FIG. 1 Schematic diagram of a typical MFC for producing electricity

Mechanism of electricity production: The bacteria live in the anode and convert a substrate such as glucose, acetate, wastewater etc. into CO2, protons and electrons. The electrons then flow through an electrical circuit with a load or a resistor to the cathode. The potential difference (Volt) between the anode and the cathode together with the flow of electrons (Ampere) results in the generation of electrical power (Watt). The protons flow through the proton or cation exchange membrane to the cathode. At the cathode an electron acceptor is chemically reduced. Ideally oxygen is reduced to water.

FIG. 2. Flow sheet showing the mechanism of electricity generation

Applications of MFCs 1. Biosensor: The current generated from a

microbial fuel cell is directly proportional to the energy content of wastewater used as the

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fuel. MFCs can measure the solute concentration of wastewater i.e., as a biosensor.

2. Wastewater treatment; MFCs are used in water treatment to harvest energy utilizing anaerobic digestion. The process can also reduce pathogens. However, it requires temperatures upwards of 300 C and requires an extra step in order to convert biogas to electricity.

3. Educational tools: Soil-based microbial fuel cells serve as educational tools as they encompass multiple scientific disciplines (microbiology, geochemistry, electrical engineering, etc.) and can be made using commonly available materials such as soils and items from the refrigerator.

4. Cleansing polluted lakes and rivers: Microbial fuel cells can also be used in the bio-remediation of water containing organic pollutants such as toluene and benzene compounds found in gasoline.

5. Powering underwater monitoring devices: MFCs can be used to power the sensors distributed naturally particularly in river and deep-water environments where it is difficult to routinely access the system to replace batteries.

6. BOD sensing: MFCs can be used as a sensor for pollutant analysis and in situ process monitoring and control.

Conclusion: Microbial fuel cells have become an interesting and promising area of research.

MFC technology does not have the power to change the world single-handedly, however, they will help to bring the world becoming a sustainable and more environment friendly place.

References Potter, M. C. 1911. Effects accompanying the

decomposition of organic compounds. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series b, containing papers of a biological character, 84(571):260-276.

Jahangeer, Gupta P.K., Shaktibala and Rayani S.A. 2016. Review and development for electricity generation from municipal solid waste using MFCs. Current World Environment. 11 (2): 406-412.

Kong X., Yang G. and Sun Y. 2018. Performance investigation of batch mode microbial fuel cells fed with high concentration of glucose. Biomedical Journal of Scientific and Technical Research. 3(2):1-6.

Rahimnejad M., Adhami A., Darvari S., Zirepour A. and Oh S.E. 2015. Microbial fuel cell as new technology for bioelectricity generation: A review. Alexandria Engineering Journal. 54: 745-756.

Freiberg A., Scharf J., Murta V.C. and Seidler A. 2018. The use of biomass for electricity generation: A scoping review of health effects on humans in residential and occupational settings. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (354): 1-27.

6. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 16528

Software Available in Public Domain for Molecular Analysis Manish Kumar* and Manpreet Kaur

Ph.D. Scholar (Horticulture), ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012, India *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Adequate understanding of the extensive DNA and protein sequence information derived by current techniques requires the use of computers. Thus, properly designed sequence analysis programs are as important to the molecular biologist as are experimental techniques. These programs can be implemented in a number of ways and applied in a variety of contexts including straightforward DNA and protein sequence database searches, motif searches, gene identification searches, and in the analysis of multiple regions of similarity in long DNA sequences. As a result, several overlapping collections of useful software programs have been assembled for the purpose of manipulating, analyzing, and comparing molecular data. This article is an attempt to compile information about software available in public domain for molecular analysis.

Most popular and fundamental bioinformatics tools for analysis such as sequence similarity searching, classification, phylogenic studies etc. are receiving extensive

attention from the research community. To be useful, such programs must be interactive and usable with a minimum of training. They should be economical and relatively independent of hardware, yet still perform their tasks quickly, accurately, and flexibly. They must permit maximum control by the user without extensive alterations in the body of the program itself, and must be compatible with centralized databases.

Software Description

Association Mapping

fcGENE A Versatile Tool for Processing and Transforming SNP Datasets

Snp-plotter Produces high-quality plots of results from genetic association studies

SnpEff A program for annotating and predicting the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms

TASSEL Software package to evaluate traits associations, evolutionary patterns, and linkage disequilibrium

WHAP Haplotype-based association analysis

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Cloning and Restriction analysis

UGENE Cloning, sequence analysis

VecScreen Identifies segments of a nucleotide sequence that may be of vector origin

Data Retrievers

ARSA All-round Retrieval of Sequence and Annotation

Batch Entrez Retrieves records specified in an uploaded file of identifiers

DRA Search Search metadata by keywords and retrieve data

Getentry Data retrieval by accession numbers, etc.

TXSearch Retrieval of unified taxonomy database

DNA fingerprinting

GelJ A tool for analyzing DNA fingerprint gel images

Multiple Sequence Alignment

Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST)

Finds regions of local similarity between biological sequences and their alignment

Clustal Omega

Multiple sequence alignment of DNA or protein sequences. Clustal Omega replaces the older ClustalW alignment tools

COBALT Performs protein multiple sequence alignments

FASTM [nucleotide]

Nucleotide fragment similarity search tool

MUSCLE Multiple sequence alignment tools for protein or nucleotide sequences

ProSplign Computes alignments of proteins to genomic nucleotide sequences

Splign Computes alignments of cDNAs to genomic nucleotide sequences

Ontologies analysis

Bubastis Analyse two ontologies (typically two versions of the same ontology) to highlight differences

Phylogenetics

Sequence Viewer

Configurable graphical display of a biological sequence and its annotated features

Simple Phylogeny

Commonly used phylogenetic tree generation methods provided by the ClustalW2 program.

Taxonomy Browser

Searches the taxonomy tree using partial taxonomic names, common names, wild cards and phonetically similar names

Taxonomy Common Tree

Generates a taxonomic tree for a selected group of organisms

Primer designing and restriction analysis

Primer-BLAST

Uses Primer3 to design PCR primers to a sequence template

Probe and Primer Search

Search tool for generating probe and primer hit tables

Proteomics

Amino Acid Explorer

Explores amino acid properties, substitutions and functions


CDTree Classifies protein sequences and investigates their evolutionary relationships

Cn3D Displays and manipulates 3-dimensional structures and alignments from the Structure database

FASTA [protein]

Sequence search for protein sequences

GeneWise Compare a protein sequence to a genomic DNA sequence.

RADAR Rapid Automatic Detection and Alignment of Repeats in protein sequences

Related Structures

Finds 3D structures that are similar in sequence to a query protein

SAPS Evaluate a wide variety of protein sequence properties

Quantitative Traits Loci (QTL) Mapping

ActionMap A web-based software that automates loci assignments to framework maps

MapDraw A microsoft excel macro for drawing genetic linkage maps based on given genetic linkage data].

OneMap Software for genetic mapping in out crossing species

QTL IciMapping

Integrated software for genetic linkage map construction and quantitative trait locus mapping in biparental populations

R/qtl mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs) in experimental populations derived from inbred lines

Sequence Homology

BLAST Microbial Genomes

Finds regions of local similarity between query sequences and sequences from complete microbial genomes

BLAST RefSeqGene

Finds regions of local similarity between query sequences and genomic sequences in the RefSeqGene/LRG set

Genome BLAST

Finds regions of local similarity between query sequences and genome sequences

CONCLUSION: Because of the algorithm's efficiency on many microcomputers, sensitive protein database searches may now become a routine procedure for molecular biologists e.g. comparison of a 200-amino-acid sequence to the 500,000 residues in the National Biomedical Research Foundation library would take less than 2 minutes on a minicomputer, and less than 10 minutes on a microcomputer. Therefore it is clear that a computer-aided data control system is required for even small laboratories generating nucleic acid data. Given the huge population of these software users and the increasing size of sequence databases, an urgent topic of study is how to improve the speed. New programs are being written and released at an increasing rate to perform increasingly more complex and specialized analyses using small computer-based systems. This trend will undoubtedly continue, fueled by the need to manage the ever increasing quantity of sequence data.

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7. AGRONOMY 15589

Types of Farming Systems in India Prakash Tapkeer* and Govardhan Temak

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722, Maharashtra *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

The basis for the classification of different types of agriculture in India is rainfall, irrigational facilities, purpose of production, ownership and size of holding and technology used. On the basis of these factors a number of farming can be identified. The main types of farming in India are:

A. Dry Farming This type of farming is practiced in the areas where the amount of annual rainfall is generally less than 80 cms. In such regions, the farmers are generally dependent upon rainfall. Here, moisture content in the soil is less. Hence, only one crop can be grown in a year. Millets like jawar, bajra, ragi, pulsees etc. are important crops grown under this type of farming. Rajasthan, Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Southern Haryana, part of Gujarat and Karnataka fall under this category of farming. In such areas, farmers adopt subsidy activities such as dairy, cattle farming to supplement their meagre farm incomes.

B. Wet Farming This type of farming is practiced in the areas of alluvial soils where annual average rainfall is more than 200cm. Here, more than one crops are grown in a year because enough amount of moisture in the soil is available. Rice and jute are the main crops of these types of farming. West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram and Malabar Coast fall under this category of farming.

C. Irrigated Farming This type of farming is practiced in the areas where average rainfall is between 80 to 200 cms which is insufficient for certain crops,. This system of farming can be practiced only in those areas where availability of water from underground or surface water bodies like rivers, tanks, and lakes is sufficient throughout the year. The other condition for this farming is the availability of leveled agricultural land. The main areas were much farming is practiced are in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, north western Tamil Nadu and the deltas of peninsular rivers. The other important pockets of irrigated farming are found in the Deccan Plateau region particularly in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Wheat, Rice and Sugarcane are important crops of this farming.

D. Subsistence Farming This type of farming is practiced primarily to

fulfill self-requirements of the people of the area. The main objective of this farming is to provide subsistence to the largest number of people of a given area. Size of holdings is small, use of manual labour and simple farm implements are common features of this type of farming. Subsistence agriculture is practiced in parts of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and the hilly areas of the country.

E. Shifting Cultivation In this type of cultivation, land is cleared by cutting and burning of forests for raising crops. The crops are grown for a few years (2-3 years). As fertility of land declines, farmers move to new areas, clear the forests and grow crops there for next few years. This farming is practiced in some pockets of the hilly areas of Northeast and in some tribal belts of Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. In northeast, such type of cultivation is known as “Jhuming”.

F. Terrace Cultivation It is practiced in hilly areas. The farmers in these regions carve out terraces on the hill slopes, conserve soil and water to raise crops. In India, this type of cultivation is practiced on the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the peninsular region. Due to pressure of population, terrace cultivation is being adopted in the North-Eastern states of India where shifting agriculture was practiced earlier.

G. Plantation Agriculture Well organized and managed cultivation of crops particularly a single one on a large scale is called plantation agriculture. It requires large investment on the latest technology and proper management. Tea, coffee and rubber are examples of plantation agriculture. This agriculture is practiced in Assam, West Bengal and the slopes of Nilgiri hills.

H. Commercial Farming Under this farming, the farmers raise crops mainly for the market. Under this system, generally those crops are grown which are used as raw materials for industries. Cultivation of sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra; cotton in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Punjab; and Jute in West Bengal are some of the examples of this farming.

I. Contract Farming It is viewed as an important tool to increase private corporate involvement in agro-

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processing. In this system, companies engaged in processing/ marketing of agriculture products enter into contract with the farmers. They provide the farmers necessary facilities and buy back the products with a rate specified in advance. The Field Fresh Company, a multi-national has 1000 acres land under horticulture in Punjab. Pepsi and McDonalds have started contact cultivation of citrus fruits and lettuce respectively. Ballapur and ITC provide farmers with fast growing cloned varieties of tree that mature in just four years and buy the out-put. Such type of farming is said to be getting popular among farmers especially in Punjab. How-ever, some scholars fear that shift of lands from food crops under this contract farming on a scale is

likely to result in food insecurity, especially for lower income groups.

J. Eco-Farming or Organic Farming This farming avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulator and livestock feed additives. These types of farming rely on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manure, off-farm organic wastes and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity. A few farmers from Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Pondicherry and Punjab are adopting these types of agriculture.

Source: http://nagahistory.wordpress.com/2014/03/15/land-use-and-agriculture/

8. AGRONOMY 16315

Cultivation Practices of Linseed in Changing Climatic Conditions in East Up

Anoop Kumar Devedee* and Ritesh Kumar Parihar

Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, UP

*Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Flax is the oldest fibre crop in the world. Flax cultivation may have started even thousands of years earlier, during the Neolithic Era of approximately 10,000 BC. Sometime between 4000 and 2000 BC, flax cultivation became a common practice in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea and in regions of the Middle East. Flax was extensively cultivated in ancient china and ancient Egypt. Pictures on tombs and temple walls at Thebes depict flowering flax plants. Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) 2n = 30, is an important oilseed crop that belongs to the genus Linum of the family Linaceae. It is also called flax or flaxseed. The name Linum originated from Lin or “thread” and the species name usitatissimum is a Latin word meaning “most useful”. It has been used for food and textile fiber for over 5000 years. The term flaxseed and linseed are often used interchangeably. Flaxseed is used to describe flax when eaten by humans while linseed is used to describe flax when it is used for industrial purposes (Flax Council of Canada, 2007). On the basis of diversity of plant types, linseed has two centers of origin i.e. south West Asia, particularly in India (Vavilov, 1935; Richharia, 1962). The crop is being grown under input starve condition by the resource poor farmers in Indo-Gangetic plain, central and peninsular region of the country. Weeds are one of the major constraints in linseed production and yield losses due to weed infestation in linseed were 36% (Singh et al.2014). Hence, the present study was aimed to find out the efficacy of pre and post emergence herbicides for weed management in linseed. Among the oilseed crops grown during Rabi, linseed is next in importance to rapeseed and mustard in area as well as

production. This crop is often grown on marginal and sub marginal, mostly on rainfed soil as pure or mixed or intercrop. The main reason for low yield appears to be low soil moisture and nutrient status particularly at different crop stages. Since the crop is mostly grown on conserved soil moisture where application of nutrient is almost negligible. Recently, several high yielding varieties of the crop have been released which produce seed yield more than 20 q/ha. Thus, these varieties have turned this crop into a highly remunerative crop. Among the agronomic practices known to augment the crop yield, moisture supply is of vital importance. Water deficits can however, reduce yield seriously if they occur at certain periods during the growth of the crop (Gopalkrishana et al., 1996). Nitrogen is an important constituent of protein, enzymes and chlorophyll and is involved in all processes associated with protoplasm, enzymatic reactions and photosynthesis. Nitrogen plays a major role in early establishment of leaf area increasing photosynthesis and root development to enable more efficient use of water.

Plant Morphology Flax, Linum usitatissimum, is an upright

annual plant growing to 1.2 m tall, with slender stems.

The flowers are pure pale blue, 15–25 mm diameter, with five petals; they can also be bright red.

The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5–9 mm diameter, containing several glossy brown seeds shaped like an apple pip, 4–7 mm long.

referring to the plant itself, the word "flax" may refer to the unspun fibres of the flax plant

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Different uses of Linseed Climate and soil: Linseed is a cool season

crop and requires moderate to cool temperature. It is grown best in well-drained, fertile, medium and heavy soils especially silty loam, clay loam and silty clays. This

crop is under cultivation in three ecosystems namely utera, rainfed and irrigated. Growing linseed in utera system is the predominant practice in Eastern States under paddy fallows.

Sowing time: The crop could be sown during

October to first fortnight of November depending upon the soil moisture and irrigation facilities.

Seed rate: High seed rate ranging between 25 to 30 kg/ha is used under different situation.

Spacing: A row spacing of 20-30 cm with a plant to plant spacing of 7-10 cm is ideal.

Method of sowing: Drilling in prepared seed bed or by broadcasting in the standard rice crop as utera.

Nutrient Management: Application of fertilizer @ 40 kg N + 20kg P2O5 and 20kg/ha K2O has been found quite beneficial in increasing yield of this crop in rainfed eco-system at various locations. Higher doses of fertilizers are used for dual purpose (seed + fibre).

Weed Management: To ensure clean cultivation, cuscuta seeds should be separated before sowing. Other weeds could be managed by post emergence application of weedicides, isoproturon @1.00kg/ha at 30-35 DAS. However, 2,4-D (Na) @0.5kg/ha may also be mixed in the tank with Isoproturon if broad leaf weeds are also problem.

Water Management: Yields can be doubled with 1 or 2 irrigations given at 35 and 75 DAS. On light soils, 3-4 irrigations may be needed. Branching, flowering and grain filling are critical stages for irrigation.

Pest and diseases Management: – Two fortnightly sprays of spinosad 45 SC

(0.015%) reduces upto 78% bud fly infestation, which enhances upto 63% seed yield.

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– Two application of neem based commercial formulation containing Azadirachtin 300 ppm reduces up to 63% bud infestation and there by enhancement up to 40% in seed yield.

Harvesting: Crop should be harvested by sickle when the leaves are dry, the capsules have turned brown and seeds become shiny

Yield: – Rainfed condition – 800-1000 kg/ha – Irrigated condition – 1600-2000 kg/ha – Protective irrigated condition – 1200

Retting of linseed After harvesting retting is traditionally

carried out by placing the bundles in pond and get dipped properly into the pond through heavy weight so that bundles can absorb the moisture.

Bundles are kept side by side horizontally and immersed in water 20-25cm deep with bamboo or stoned or wooden logs.

The retting process is completed within three days (72 hours). Clostroridium bacteria are associated with the stem and help in early retting of bundles. After three days the bundles are washed thoroughly with fresh

water. After washing, these bundles are made to

stand on ground for sun drying. Scotching

Manual Method Mechanical Method

In this methods the small bundle of dried stalk are beaten by hand mallat (mungri). Owing to this wodden part of the stalk will split out and fibre can be separate easily. But this method is used at small scale at framer's house.

In this method, the flax stalks go through the machine process. The CRIJAF (ICAR), Barrackpore has developed a scotching machine for extraction of flax fiber. The machine is indigenously designed on the principle of passing a handful flax stalk through fluted rollers to break the woody core into straw and separate the fibre in a short time. The fibre is then worked through a comb for separating long fibres from short ones. The separated fibers strands are then rolled into bundles.

9. AGRONOMY 16378

Integrated Farming System in Achieving Sustainable Production

Sudesh Devi

Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar

Increasing population, shrinking average farm size and financial constraints for higher investment in agriculture (more than 80 per cent of the farming community belonging to small and marginal farmer categories in India) pose a serious challenge to the sustainability and profitability of agriculture in India. Apart from these, there are environmental issues like natural resource degradation, climate change etc. To address these concerns, it is imperative to develop strategies and agricultural technologies to increase productivity of farming systems with minimum impact on environment and at the same time provide adequate employment and income generation especially to rural sector. The Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) therefore assumes greater importance for sound management of farm resources to improve the quality of life of resource poor farmers. Within the broad concept of sustainable agriculture IFS hold special position as in this system nothing is wasted; the byproduct of one system becomes the input for other (Fig 1).

It is an integrated approach to farming as compared to monoculture approaches, which integrate different farm enterprises for example, crop-livestock integration, crop-fish integration, livestock-fish integration etc. Many combinations are possible based on different factors for

example local demand, available resources etc.

FIG 1. Different components of IFS and their interaction with other components

The integrated farming system is an interdisciplinary, integrative, problem-oriented and farmer-centered approach. There are at least six types of suggested cropping/farming systems for northern plains mentioned in below table.

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Farming situations

Cropping systems Farming systems

1 Shivalik foot hills (high rainfall i.e. 1000 mm and above)

a) After developing water sheds.

Arhar-wheat Mixed farming with three corssbred cows+crops

b) Non-watershed area

Maize+urd/soybean fallow

20 sheep/goats farming+crops

Groundnut-fallow

Soybean-field pea/mustard

Arhar-fallow

2 Plain irrigated area with good quality underground water

Paddy-wheat-green manuring

Three cross bred cows/three

Paddy-wheat-sorghum-wheat

Buffaloes + crops

Paddy-wheat-sugrarcane-ratoon

Vegetable/Horticulture near cities

Paddy-potato-onion/bhindi

3 Plain irrigated and brackish ground water

Sorghum-wheat-sugarcane-ratoon

Mixed farming with two crossbred cows/two buffaloes

Sorghum-wheat-sorghum-mustard or cotton-wheat

Arhar-wheat

Sorghum-berseem

4 Limited irrigation with brackish water

Bajra-Mustard Mixed farming with two buffaloes+crops

Bajra-wheat

Clusterbean-wheat (Guar)

Sorghum-Oats

5 Rainfed in low

Bajra-gram Mixed farming with one buffalo+crops Arhar+moong-fallow

Farming situations

Cropping systems Farming systems

rainfall area (400-800 mm)

Fallow-mustard/gram

Clusterbean-fallow-bajra-gram

6 Rainfed dunal area

Caster+Moong/Clusterbean

Silvipasture system with Goats/Sheep (20 animals)

Bajra-Fallow Clusterbean-Fallow

Fallow-gram

Benefits of IFS are - increased productivity, increased profitability, more sustainability, production of balanced food, environmental safety, provide income round the year, adoption of new technology, saving energy, solving fuel and timber crisis, meeting fodder crisis, employment generation, development of allied agro–industries and increasing input efficiency.

The IFS approach is holistic, multi-disciplinary, problem solving, dynamic, location-specific and farmer oriented, which make a vital contribution to sustainable development by adding consideration of economic, ecological and social objectives to the essential business of agricultural food production. The well being of poor farmers can be improved by bringing together the experiences and efforts of farmers, scientists, researchers, and students at different locations with similar eco-sociological circumstances so as to develop dynamic farming systems. In addition to this, proactive government policies and institutional support are the need of the hour to make IFS approach successful for small and marginal farmers of developing countries like India.

10. AGRONOMY 16470

Organic Farming: A Curative Approach against Pesticidal Residue

Rajiv Sathe1* and Dhanshri Nigade2 1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra- 413 722; 2Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, College of Agriculture, Kharpudi,

Jalna - 431 203 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Organic agriculture was practiced for thousands of years without the use of hazardous chemicals. Artificial fertilizers were first created during the mid-19th century. These early fertilizers were cheap, powerful and easy to transport in bulk. Similar advances occurred in chemical pesticides in the 1940s, leading to the decade being referred to as the 'pesticide era'. These new agricultural techniques, while beneficial in the short term, had serious longer term side effects such as soil compaction, erosion, and declines in overall soil fertility, along with health concerns about toxic

chemicals entering the food supply. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, soil biology scientists began to seek ways to remedy these side effects while still maintaining higher production.

Pesticides Substances intended for preventing, destroying, attracting, repelling or controlling any pest including unwanted species of plants or animals during the production, storage, transport, distribution and processing of food, agricultural commodities, or animal feeds or which may be administered to animals for the control of ecto-

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parasites.

Major Chemical Groups of Pesticides Organochlorines: Such as DDT

(Dichlorodipenyletrichloroethane), HCH (Hexachloro cyclohexane), aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, toxaphene, chlorobenzilate.

Organophosphorus: Such as Acephate, chlorpyriphos, dichlorvos, dimethoate, malathion, parathion, monochrotophos, triazophos, quinalphos.

Carbamates: Such as Carbaryl, carbofuran, aldicarb, propoxur.

Synthetic pyrethroids: such as Allethrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, fenvalerate, fluvalinate.

Neonicotinoids: such as Imididacloprid, acetamiprid, thiamethoxam.

Phenyl-pyrazoles: such as Fipronil.

Major Categories of Pesticides Insecticides: It includes pyrethroids,

carbamates, organophosphorus, organochlorine and manganese compounds.

Rodenticides: It includes warfarins, indanodiones.

Fungicides: It includes thiocarbamates, dithiocarbamates, cupric salts, tiabendazole, triazoles, dicarboximides, dinitrophenoles and organotin compounds.

Herbicides: It includes bipyridyls, chlorophenoxy, glyphosate, acetanilides, and triazines.

Fumigants: It includes aluminium and zinc phosphides, methyl bromides and ethylene dibromide.

Pesticidal Contamination of Food Commodities

Scenario % Contaminated % Above MRL

World 21 2

India 60 14

(Agnihotri, 1999)

Thus, we can assume the catastrophic effects of pesticide residue in feed and edible items. Infect bio-magnification of pesticide residue is the burning issue of current scenario and we

needs urgent action against ill effects of pesticide residue.

Organic Farming It is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones. Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness of diverse communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants, livestock and people. The principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises that are sustainable and harmonious with the environment.

General Health Considerations of Organic Farming Protect the environment, minimize soil

degradation and erosion, decrease pollution, optimize biological productivity and promote a sound state of health.

Maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity within the soil.

Maintain biological diversity within the system.

Recycle materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the enterprise.

Provide attentive care that promotes the health and meets the behavioural needs of livestock.

Prepare organic products, emphasizing careful processing and handling methods in order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the products at all stages of production.

Rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems.

SUMMARY: Organic farming can be a viable alternative production method for sustainability, but there are many challenges. One key to success is being open to alternative organic approaches to solving production problems. Determine the cause of the problem, and assess strategies to avoid or reduce the long term problem rather than a short term fix for it.

11. AGRONOMY 16485

Industrial Use of Rice-Wheat Straw Ajay Singh*

Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected].

The rice-wheat is the major cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) and these two crops generates about 316.2 MT/year of straw. Straw can be used in various industries like in the production of bio-fuel, thermal power plants, mushroom cultivation, paper production, producing bio-gas etc. So farmers must be made aware and encouraged to supply straw to nearby

industries to earn the profit

Industrial use of Straw Production of Bio-oil from Straw and Other Agricultural Wastes

Bio-oil is a high density liquid obtained from biomass through rapid pyrolysis technology. It has a heating value of approximately 55 % as

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compared to diesel. It can be stored, pumped and transported like petroleum based product and can be combusted directly in boilers, gas turbines and slow and medium speed diesels for heat and power applications, including transportation. Further, bio-oil is free from SO2 emissions and produces low NO2. Certain Canadian companies (like Dyna Motive Canada Inc.) have patented technologies to produce bio-oil from biomass including agricultural waste.

Use of Crop Residue in Bio Thermal Power Plants

Another use of rice residue that is being encouraged by various institutions and departments is for generation of electricity. A 10 MW biomass based power plant at village Jalkheri, Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab with paddy straw as fuel was set up in the year 1992. The plant is operational since 2001. The total requirement of biomass is estimated to be 82,500 MT/annum at 100 % capacity utilization for optimum plant activity. Crop residues are bought from the farmers at ₹ 35 per quintal (which would otherwise have remained unutilized or burnt in the field). The farmers are being made aware of this offer through newspapers and other awareness activities. The plant would supply energy equivalent of approximately 417.9 million kWh to the grid in a period of 10 years (2002–2012), thereby resulting in total CO2 emission reduction of 0.3 million tonnes (Kumar et al., 2015).

Use of Crop Residue for Mushroom Cultivation

Paddy straw can be used for the cultivation of mushrooms Agaricus bisporus, Volvariella volvacea and Pleurotus spp. One kg of paddy straw yields 300, 120–150 and 600 g of these mushrooms, respectively. Paddy Straw Mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea) can be grown on a variety of agricultural wastes for preparation of the substrate such as water hyacinth, oil palm bunch waste, dried banana leaves, cotton or wood waste, though with lower yield than with paddy straw, which is most successful. Paddy straw mushroom accounts for 16 % of total production of cultivated mushroom in the world (Kumar et al., 2015).

Use of Rice Residue in Paper Production

The paddy straw is also being used in conjunction with wheat straw in 40:60 ratios for paper production. The sludge can be subjected to bio-mechanization for energy production. The technology is already operational in some paper mills, which are meeting 60 % of their energy requirement through this method. Paddy straw is also used as an ideal raw material for paper and pulp board manufacturing. As per information provided by Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), more than 50 % pulp board mills are using paddy straw as their raw material.

Straw as a fuel in brick kilns and boilers

There are 3000 brick kilns spread all over the Punjab, which consume 20 lakh tonnes of coal per annum as fuel. Use of biomass (other than rice straw) as fuel in brick kilns is well established. However, the use of paddy straw biomass in briquetted form needs extensive R&D for evaluating the combustion behaviour and the likely effects of high silica on increased wear and tear of briquetting machines.

Paddy Straw as a raw material for Ethanol Production

It is estimated that 0.25 million KL of alcohol can be produced from one million tonnes of paddy straw. Laboratory scale studies have been completed in this regard but these need to be upscaled to commercial scale. Considering the present consumption of petroleum products (diesel and petrol) in Punjab, which is estimated at 3 million tonnes, there is a possibility of utilizing 0.3 million tonnes (about 0.37 million KL) of ethanol (with 10-15% blend) per annum by promoting about 45 such plants (utilizing approximately 1.5 million tonnes/annum of paddy straw).

Straw as a packing material

The advent of new packing material like thermocole has its adverse environmental implications including disposal problem. Use of paddy straw as a packing and filling material as an alternative to thermocole and other materials such as plastic or paper needs to be promoted, wherever feasible.

12. AGRONOMY 16508

Biofertilizers Sagar Khedkar1, S. S. Mane2 and Renuka Tatte3

1M.Sc. (Ag), Department of Agronomy, 2Professor and Head of Department of Plant Pathology and 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, Post Graduate Institute

Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola

Biofertilizers are complex product of live microbial inoculants which are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize soil phosphorus, decompose organic material or oxidize sulphur in the soil. Biofertilizers are artificially multiplied cultures of beneficial soil microorganisms that can improve soil fertility and crop productivity. They add nutrients through the natural processes

of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth-promoting substances. They are made from biological wastes and do not contain any chemicals. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi and cynobacteria (blue-green algae).

Biofertilizers offer a new eco-friendly

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technology which would overcome shortcomings of the conventional chemical based farming. Biofertilizers showed positive influence on both soil sustainability and plant growth. They gradually improve soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. They increase the phosphorous content of the soil by solubilizing and releasing unavailable phosphorous. They help in restoring depleted nutrients of the soil. Growth promoting substances released by biofertilizers improve plant root proliferation. They also guard the plant against some soil-borne diseases. In addition to these advantages, biofertilizers are commercially promising too. They are comparatively cheaper than the chemical fertilizers. When used as a supplement to the chemical fertilizers, biofertilizers can decrease the dose of chemical fertilizers. It results in reduced cost of fertilization.

Impact of Biofertilizers on Crops 1. Rhizobium inoculants are used for

leguminous crops. These inoculants have ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic association with root-nodule forming plants. Along with this, inoculated legumes found to leave behind some residual nitrogen in soil after harvesting. It is adventitious to the subsequent crop. Response to Rhizobium inoculation has been found beneficial for principal legumes such as Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan); Chickpea (Cicer arietinum), Green gram (Vigna radiata), Soyaben (Glycine max) and broad bean (Vicia faba).

2. Azotobacter inoculants can be applied to many non-leguminous crops. It is free living and nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixing organism that also produces antibodies that suppress many root pathogens. They promotes seed germination and initial vigor of plants due to growth substance (IAA) produced by the

micro-organisms. Azotobacter can be used for crops like cereals, millets, vegetables, cotton (Gossypium spp.) and sugarcane (Saccharum spp.).

3. Azospirillum is also a nitrogen-fixing micro organism used for non-leguminous plants. Besides ability to fix nitrogen, Azospirillum is known to secrete substances promoting plant growth. Azospirillum inoculations have been found beneficial mainly for millets, maize (Zea mays), sorghum, wheat (Triticum spp.) and sugarcane (Saccharum spp.).

4. Phosphorus Solubilizing bacteria and fungi converts chemically fixed soil phosphorus into available form. Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) is a group of beneficial bacteria capable of hydrolysing organic and inorganic phosphorus from insoluble compounds. PSBs are found useful for variety of crops such as wheat (Triticum spp.), sugarcane (Saccharum spp.), cotton (Gossypium spp.), pulses, oilseed crops like caster, rice (Oryza sativa) and vegetables.

5. Blue Green Algae (BGA) are photosynthetic nitrogen fixers and are free living. BGA fix atmospheric nitrogen and are used as inoculations for rice (Oryza sativa) crop. BGA play a role in the nitrogen economy of tropical rice soils. They too add growth-promoting substances including vitamin B12, improve the soil’s aeration and water holding capacity and add to bio mass when decomposed after life cycle.

6. Azolla is an aquatic fern found in shallow water bodies and in rice fields. It has symbiotic relation with Blue Green Algae. Large biomass production is characteristic of Azolla. The biomass is used as a green manure in rice (Oryza sativa) cultivation. So, Azolla can help rice or other such crops through green manuring.

13. AGRONOMY 16549

Linseed: An Industrial Marvel Arjun Kumar

Department of Crop Improvement, College of Agriculture, CSK HPKB, Palampur (HP)-176062

Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a multiple varied purpose crop whose prodct demand is increasing day by days in modern trendy societies. Being a part of family linaceae, Linum is only sole cultivated species for its seed, seed oil and fibre. Each and every arable part is used for development of various industrial products. Linseed oil is richest source of most valuable un saturated fatty: oleic (C18, 13.44–19.39%), linoleic (C18, 12.25–17.44%), and linolenic acid (C18, 39–60 %). There are various edible forms of linseed available in the food market—whole flaxseeds, milled flax, roasted flax and flax oil. According to its physicochemical composition, linseed is a multicomponent system with bio-active plant substances such as oil, protein,

dietary fiber, soluble polysaccharides, lignans, phenolic compounds, vitamins (A, C, F and E) and mineral (P, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn).

Due to revolutionary e- marketing, many processed industrial products are available in th market which contains linseed such as as baked foods (Pohjanheimo et al. 2006), juices, milk and dairy products, muffins (Aliani et al. 2011), dry pasta products (Sinha and Manthey 2008), macaroni and beef patties. Due to presence of high omega-3 linolenic acid content (50-60%), linseed oil has huge potential to become an industrial marvel. Linseed is gained its importance as a nutricetical and functional food due to its much beneficial effect to human body. Linseed extracts can be used as medicine for

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treatment of increased blood sugar (Diabetes mellitus) and contains antibiotics called - Linatine in its seed, which cures diseases for which no other medicine is effective. Lignin SDG present in linseed has been shown to activate the expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene, which codes for a key enzyme responsible for glucose synthesis in the liver, inhibited when treated with linseed. Omega 3 fatty acids is usd for manufacturing of many medicines effective against diseases such as tumor and cancer reducing (Truan et al. 2012), Reduction of dyslipidemia and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). In Omega-3 presence, oil reacts with oxygen/ air which result in soft durable film and leads to instant drying when applied surfactants. This drying property make its worth for the extensive use in manufacturing varnishes, oilcloth, printer’s ink, imitation leather and also as an anti-spalling and curing agent for concrete surfaces on highways. Linseed oil can also be used as “finishing oil” for wooden furniture to prevent it from denting. It does not cover the surface of wood but soaks into the pores, leaving a shiny but not glossy surface. It is used by billiards/pool cue manufacturers on the shaft portion of the cue.

Linseed is also used in animal feed and its fibre has great industrial importance. Linseed natural bio fibre which has rich evolutionary history in prolificacy of civilization like Egypt, European and middle-east suggest that its importance. Flax composites have the potential to be the next generation materials for structural application for infrastructure, automotive industry and consumer applications. Future work on flax composites should be focused on understanding the environmental assessment, durability, further improving the mechanical

properties and moisture resistance (Yan et al. 2013).During the manufacturing and recycling of paper, extra strong virgin fibre is added to pulp mix generally often 20 % or more of strong virgin wood fibre must be added to recycled paper pulp to give the necessary strength. This is called Pulp sweeteners. Flax fibre is stronger than wood fibre, a small quantity of flax fibre can be used in place of virgin wood fibres. This pulp can be utilized for the manufacture of paper used for currency notes, air mail, parchment paper, good writing paper, cigarette paper and straw boards of all grades of economic value.

So, this crop has all the characters that one can say it is an industrial marvel.

Referances Aliani M, Ryland D and Pierce GN. 2011. Effect of

flax addition on the flavor profile of muffins and snack bars. Food Res. Int. 44:2489-2496

Pohjanheimo TA, Hakala MA, Tahvonen RL, Salminen SJ and Kallio HP. 2006. Flaxseed in breed making, effects on sensory quality, aging, and composition of bakery products. J Food Sci.71: 5343- 5348

Sinha S and Manthey FA. 2008. Semolina and hydration level during extrusion affect quality of fresh pasta containing flaxseed flour. J Food Process Preserv 32:546-559

Truan JS, Chen JM and Thompson LU. 2012. Comparative effects of sesame seed lignan and flaxseed lignan in reducing the growth of human breast tumors (mcf-7) at high levels of circulating estrogen in athymic mice. Nutr Cancer. 64:65–71

Yan LB and Chouw N. 2013. Behavior and analytical modeling of natural flax fibre reinforced polymer tube confined plain concrete and coir fibre reinforced concrete. J. Compos. Mater. 47:2133-48

14. AGRONOMY 15707

Inter and Mixed Cropping for Irrigated and Dry Lands S. Alagappan

Ph.D Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Directorate of Crop Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641 003. Tamil Nadu, India.

Corresponding Author: Email: [email protected]

Cropping system: It is an important component of farming system. It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources.

Cropping pattern: Proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area.

Types of cropping systems: Mono cropping - Repetitive growing of same crop on the same land, under rainfed condition, Example: Sorghum or Groundnut or Cotton.

Multiple cropping (Intensive cropping): Two or more crops are grown on the same field in one year. Intensification of crop occur both temporal and spatial dimension.

1. Sequential cropping 2. Inter cropping

3. Mixed cropping

Sequential cropping: Growing two or more crops growing in sequence on the same field in a year. The succeeding crop is sown/planted after the proceeding crop has been harvested. Crop intensification occur in time dimension and no inter crop for competition.

Double cropping: Growing two crops per year in a sequence. Example: Rice - Groundnut.

Triple cropping: Growing three crops per year in a sequence, Example: Rice – Rice - Pulses

Quadruple cropping: Growing four crops per year in a sequence. Example: Green gram- Maize-Potato-Wheat.

Relay cropping: Planting of succeeding crop before harvesting of proceeding crop.

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Ratoon cropping: To raising a crop with regrowth coming out of roots and stalks after of the harvest.

Mono cropping: Repetitive growing of same crop on the same land.

Crop rotation: Repetitive cultivation of an ordered succession of crops (crop and fallow) on the same land. One cycle takes several years to complete.

Main crop or Base crop: The crop which is planted at its optimum sole crop population in an intercropping situation.

Component crop: Individual crop spices that are a part of the multiple cropping system.

Inter cropping: Growing two or more crop species simultaneously in the same filed during growing season. Crop intensification – Time and Space dimensions.

Types of intercropping: Mixed intercropping, Row intercropping, Strip intercropping and Relay inter cropping.

Main objectives of inter cropping: Insurance against total crop failure under aberrant weather conditions or pest epidermis. Increase in total productivity of per unit area. Judicious utilization of resources such as land, labour and inputs.

Principles of intercropping systems: Short duration and long duration crops are grown together. The time of peak nutrient demands of component crops should not overlap. Competition for light should be minimum among the component crops. Complementarities should exist between component crops. The differences in maturity of component crops should be at least 30 days.

Intercropping in cereals: Sorghum + Pigeon pea/Cowpea/Green gram/Black gram/Ground nut.

Inter cropping in pulses: Pigeon pea + Black gram as companion crop, Pigeon pea + Groundnut/Sorghum.

Intercropping in cotton: Cotton+ Black gram/ Green gram/Groundnut/ as companion crop, Cotton + Onion best intercrop.

Intercropping in sugarcane: Sugarcane + black gram/ soybean/ Groundnut, Sugarcane + Daincha (Green Manure).

Intercropping includes: Parallel cropping: Cultivation of crops with different natural habit and zero competition. Peak demand for nutrients for pulses is around 30 days as against 50 days for maize. Example: Black gram/ Green gram + Maize.

Companion cropping: In this system yield of both the crops in this system equal to their sole cropping. Example: Green gram/Black gram/ Onion + Sugarcane.

Synergistic cropping: Yield of both crops is higher than of their sole crops on unit area basis

Example: Sugarcane + Potato, B/O plant population – divided into two types.

Additive series - India: One crop is sown with 100 percent of its recommended population in pure stand which is known as the base crop. Another crop known as intercrop is introduced into the base crop by adjusting or changing the crop geometry. The population of inter crop is

less than its recommended population in pure stand.

Replacement series: Western countries: Both crops are called component crop. By scarifying certain proportion of population of one component, another component is introduced.

Multi tier cropping: Main objective is to utilize the vertical space more effectively. Plantations crops like Coconut and Areca nut. Scope for inter cropping in coconut garden up to the age of 8 years and after 25 years. During this period, there is an adequate light transmission to the ground which permits cultivation of intercrops. The practice of growing different crops of varying height, rooting pattern and duration is called multi tier cropping. In this system, the leaf canopies of intercrop components occupy different vertical layers. The tallest components have foliage tolerant of strong light and high evaporative demand and shorter components with foliage requiring shade and or relatively high humidity. Example: Coconut + black pepper + cocoa + pineapple

Cropping Systems in Irrigated Condition All rice sequence cropping system: Example: Rice –Rice-Rice

Mixed rice with upland crops: Rice- upland crop (Green gram/ Black gram)

Rice based cropping system in India: Punjab, Haryana, UP: Rice-Wheat- Green gram

Thanjaur, (TN old or new Cauvery delta): Rice-Black gram/Seasame/Cotton. West Bengal: Rice-Wheat-Jute.

Crop sequence under irrigated upland condition: Maize – wheat, Green gram – Maize – Wheat, Green gram – Pigeon pea – Wheat, Green gram – Maize – Potato -Wheat.

Cropping systems in rainfed condition: Cropping systems in dry land – Intensity of cropping. Duration of the rainfall and moisture capacity of soils

Cropping pattern in dry land condition

Rainfall (mm) Storage capacity

of soil (mm) Cropping pattern

350 - 625 100 Single crop in kharif

650 - 750 100 Inter cropping can be attempted

780 – 900 150 Sequential cropping is possible

900 & above 200 Sequential cropping is assured

Choice of crops in dry lands: To select deep rooted crops to extract moisture from deep layer. It should have slow rate of transpiration. Leguminous crops are very well adopted for rainfed conditions because of their root system.

Cropping system – Kovilpatti region: Cotton + Black gram/Green gram, Sorghum + Blackgram/Cowpea, Pearlmillet + Green gram/ Cluster bean/ Cowpea

Mixed cropping (Subsistence farming): Cultivation of two or more than two crops

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simultaneously on the same land without definite row pattern or fixed ratio. It is normally practiced in dryland condition, where crop failure is frequent due to weather abnormalities. The seeds of all crops (upto nine crops) are mixed in desired proportion and sown is limited, the mixed seed is sown by broadcasting

Principles of mixed farming: The crop mixture should contain leguminous crops to minimize soil fertility depletion continuously. Tall and short growing crops be mixed to avoid competition for light at the same height. Deep rooted and shallow rooted crops should form the mixture to avoid competition for plant nutrients at a particular horizon. Mixture must contain crops of different durations. Some of successful

mixed cropping practices are Soybean + Pigeon pea, Maize + Black gram, Groundnut + Sunflower, Sorghum + Pigeon pea, Wheat + Mustard, Cotton + Groundnut,

Management of cropping system: Intercropping system: Seedbed preparation, Varieties, Sowing, Fertilizer application, Water requirement, Weed management and Pest and disease.

Sequential cropping system: Seedbed preparation, Varieties, Sowing, Fertilizer application, Soil supplying power, Nutrient uptake by crops, Residual effects of fertilizers, Legume effect, Crop residues, Efficiency of crops, Water management, Weed management Pest and disease and Harvesting.

15. CROP ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT 16351

Impact of Global Warming on Agriculture 1Santosh Korav and 2Premaradya. N

1PhD Scholar (Agronomy), CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana-124005 2PhD Scholar (Agronomy), College of Post Graduate Studies Umiam, Meghalaya


An increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans it is supported by various evident from past 150 years (Fulekar et al., 2013). Its impact is not only on human beings and animals and also shows adverse impact on food and crop production. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that sudden climate change caused increasing in global warming by increasing temperature causes almost all aspects in the world namely, agriculture, energy, coastal structures and rainwater harvesting. Global climate change may impact food production across the world By general rainfall distribution pattern, temperature regime and carbon dioxide concentration, secondly, By Promoting extreme weather conditions they are floods, drought and storms, avalanche finally By increasing extent of emergence of bacterial and fungal diseases to plants.

Photosynthesis is a key factor for the development of plant growth and development. Mainly, plants are absorbing water from soil and carbon dioxide from atmosphere by utilising sunlight produces plant food material. Hence increase in CO2 level in atmosphere plant are utilise highly and produce more syntheses for their growth like expansion of leaf canopy for harvesting more solar radiation. It has been further estimated that when CO2 concentration increase twice which leads to increasing in plant drymatter by 10-15 % with no change in other factors they remains same. In case of wheat and barley it increase up to 40 %.

C3 plants are more response to CO2 concentration as compare to C4 plants. When increase in CO2 level increases photosynthetic activity. In rice at atmospheric CO2 conc. of 900 ppm which helps to increase rice yield by 9.0 t to 11.6 t/ha where as in case of maize, more than

400 ppm of CO2 conc. reduces the grain yield. Similarly, CO2 conc. 315-400 ppm it increases the 20% of maize yield. However increasing CO2 levels may change in environmental temperature, rainfall and its distribution pattern.

Most of the crops yield depends on temperature. When temperature falls below base temperature growth will ceases and plants may die when it exceeds. Increase in temperature increases the crop yield except where the moisture is limiting factor. Due to global warming reduces the cereal production in northern America due to lack of moisture not to increase in temperature. But in developing countries like India mainly Northern India facing more problems to higher temperature. The wheat growing areas like Haryana and Punjab suppers more due to at every 2.3 to 4.5°C rise in temperature reduces major crops yield. Indian agricultural research institute reported that for every 1c rise in temperature reduces the 4 to 5 million tonnes of wheat production in India.

In some other countries, increased rainfall could be beneficial to crop yields. The global warming could lead to increase in rainfall by y increasing temperature in some countries like china and it gets summer monsoon. It is benefited to rice, maize and wheat to increase of about 10 % of yield. Even in Japan also increase the yield but in South-East Asian region decrease due to more rapid crop growth.

Due to global warming, in western India lesser and uneven distribution of rainfall mainly in Chhatishgarh region it is mainly affected on rice growing areas (Prasada et al., 2010). Change in temperature leads to cause cyclonic effect in the coastal areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra and destroying standing crop. Similarly, reduces the pearl millet production in Rajasthan and soybean production in Madhya Pradesh due to increase in

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temperature. It also changes soil moisture content frequent drought and flood and rise in weeds, pest which leads to cause agricultural production. Similarly, at poles ice bergs are melting which leads to rising of sea levels. Low lying areas are under threat as sea level raising that water come on agricultural field that water became saline which leads to cause soil physical property and damaging to agricultural crops. The agricultural land unsuitable for cultivation

permanently.

Reference Fulekar, M. H., Pathak, B., and Kale, R. K. (2013).

Environment and Sustainable Development. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.

Prasada, G. S. L. H. V., Rao, V. U. M., & Rao, G. G. S. N. (2010). Climate Change and Agriculture Over India. New Delhi: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.

16. ORGANIC FARMING 16347

Zero Budget Natural Farming Richa Khanna*

Senior Research Fellow, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145, Uttarakhand.


Indian economy is continuously facing an agrarian crisis and this crisis is imposing a severe threat to farmers, particularly the small scale farmers. The increased cost of seeds due to their privatization, inaccessible markets due to involvement of middle man, high rate of interests on loan, unstable market prices of crops and increasing cost of petroleum and other products are some of the major challenges faced by the farmers. In order to gather inputs for crop production a farmer opts for a loan, but starting from high rates of interest to vagaries associated with crop production are breaking his inner soul and the ultimate result is “farmer’s suicide”.

Inability to return back the debt is one of the biggest issues associated with Indian agriculture. Under such conditions zero budget natural farming (ZBNF) is emerging as a possible solution. Zero budget natural farming refers to a system of farming where crops are grown in the lap of Mother Nature without adding any external input, like chemical or fertilizers. This is a completely cost free system that provides returns to farmers without investing anything.

Journey of Zero Budget Natural Farming in India With an aim to minimize the harmful effects of chemical farming and to improve the socioeconomic conditions of the farmers who are continuously falling in the grave of debts, Mr. Subhash Palekar an agriculture graduate from Maharashtra, popularly known as Krishi ka Rishi, began the hunt for a less destructive form of agriculture. This was the beginning of zero budget natural farming in India. He started his research in forest ecosystem and noticed that, huge trees in the forest which bears heavy branches and fruits, grows without addition of any fertilizers or pesticides. Nature provides them everything they need in right quantity and on right time. This was the proof that plant can grow in a healthy manner without any chemical help. These benefits however are not witnessed on our crop farms because the poisonous chemicals and fertilizers kill the micro organisms that converts raw nutrient into the forms that can

be easily taken up by the plants. Mr. Subhash Palekar did an extensive research on zero budget natural farming and after that he found that:

Cow dung of local Indian cows acts miraculously on soils, whereas dung of Jersey and Holstein cows is not that effective. Further, dung and urine obtained from black coloured Kapila cow is most suitable.

In order to ensure efficient utilization, fresh cow dung and old cow urine should be used.

On an average, 1 acre of land requires 10 kg local cow dung / month. The dung from the cow that gives less milk is more beneficial in soil improvement as compared to a cow that gives more quantity of milk.

Cow urine, jiggery and dicot flour can be used as soil additives.

FIG 1. Mr. Subhash Palekar, a farmer awarded with Padma Shri for developing ZBNF.

JIVAMRITA

BIJAMRITA

ACCHADANA

WHAPASA

FIG 2. Four pillars of ZBNF.

Four Pillars of Zero Budget Natural Farming The basic toolkit of zero budget natural farming

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includes following four pillars:

1. Jivamrita / Jeevamrutha: It is a fermented microbial culture that provides nutrients to soil and also promotes the activity of various microorganisms and earthworms in the soil. To prepare this, organic ingredients (e.g. pulse flour) along with a handful of soil is allowed to ferment along with cow dung and urine. It is also helpful in preventing many bacterial and fungal diseases. While adopting for zero budget natural farming, it should be applied only for the first three years and afterwards the system becomes self sustainable. It can be applied to crops twice a month in irrigation water or as 10 % foliar spray.

2. Bijamrita / Beejamrutha: It is the process of treating seeds or plant material with cow dung and cow urine to provide protection against various fungal and soil borne diseases. Seeds should be coated with Bijamrita and then they should be used for sowing. The seeds of legumes should be dipped quickly in the Bijamrita solution and then they can be used for sowing after drying.

3. Acchadana (mulching): It is the application of soil mulch, straw mulch (dried biomass waste of previous crop) and live mulch

(symbiotic intercrops and mixed crops) to the growing crops. It is very helpful in increasing agricultural production.

4. Whapasa (moisture): According to Palekar, the roots of plants need water vapours instead of water. Whapasa is a condition, where both air and water molecules are present in the root zone thereby, the crop requires less irrigation. Zero budget natural farming system has reported a significant decline in the need for irrigation.

Other important principles of zero budget natural farming includes, intercropping, contours and bunds, use of local species of earthworms etc.

CONCLUSION: Palekar’s zero budget natural farming is undoubtedly emerging as an efficient technique, that can change the scenario of Indian agriculture. The ‘no cost’ concept of farming by relying on nature will definitely help in improving our ecosystem as well as the socioeconomic condition of the grower and feeder i.e. the farmer.

References www. Fao.org / Zero budget natural farming in

India. www. betterindia.com www.motivateme.in

17. ORGANIC FARMING 16557

Organic Farming and their Principles Manjeet Singh*

Department of Plant Pathology, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana (India) *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Organic agriculture can be defined as integrated farming system that strives for sustainability, the enhancement of soil fertility and biological diversity whilst, with rare exceptions, prohibiting synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, growth hormones, genetically modified organisms, and antibiotics. According to International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements "Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, people and ecosystems. It relies on ecological processes, cycles adapted to local conditions and biodiversity, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and promote fair relationships, science to benefit the shared environment and a good quality of life for all involved" As per the definition of the USDA “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, feed additives, hormones etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, animal manures, crop residues, mineral grade rock additives, off-farm organic waste and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”. FAO also suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management

system which enhances and promotes agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, soil biological activity and biological cycles and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”.

Basic Steps and Components of organic farming Organic farming approach involves steps mention below:

a) Conversion of land from conventional management to organic management.

b) Management of the entire surrounding system to ensure biodiversity and sustainability of the system.

c) Crop production with the use of alternative sources of nutrients such as crop rotation, residue management, organic manures and biological inputs.

d) Management of weeds and pests by better management practices, physical and cultural means and by biological control system.

e) Maintenance of livestock in tandem with organic concept and make them an integral part of the entire system.

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FIG. 1 Components of Organic Farming (Source: http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm_introduction.html)

General Characteristics of Organic Farming Protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion, decrease pollution and optimize biological productivity Protect the fertility of soil for long time by maintaining organic matter levels, encouraging soil biological activity, and careful mechanical intervention. Maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity within the soil. Nitrogen fixation by using the legumes and biological nitrogen fixation as well as effective recycling of organic materials including livestock manures and crop residues. Provide nutrients indirectly by using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms. Disease control relying primarily on crop rotations, organic manure, diversity, resistant varieties, limited biological and chemical intervention. Provide attentive care impact of the farming system on the wider environment, health, the conservation of wildlife and natural habitats.

Principles of Organic Farming These are the four principles of organic farming are given below.

Principle of Health

Organic Agriculture should maintain, sustain and

enhance the health of soil, plant, human, animal, planet as one and indivisible. The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, consumption or distribution, is to sustain, maintain and enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings. It should avoid the use of pesticides, fertilizers and food additives that may have adverse effects on health.

Principle of Ecology

Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustaining them. It must be adapted to local conditions, culture, ecology and scale. The reductions of inputs by recycle, reuses, to efficient management of materials and improve environmental quality.

Principle of Fairness

Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities. Organic agriculture should conduct human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties – farmers, processors, workers, distributors, consumers and traders. Natural and environmental resources that are used for production and consumption should be managed in ecologically and socially fair way and should be held in trust for future generations. Fairness requires systems of production, distribution, trade, equitable, account for real social and environmental costs.

Principle of Care

This principle should be managed in a precautionary, responsible manner to protect the health, well-being of current and future generations and the environment. It states that precaution and responsibility are the key concerns in management, development and technology choices in organic agriculture. Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However, it must consider valid solutions from practical experiences, accumulated traditional, indigenous knowledge, prevent significant risks by adopting appropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones such as genetic engineering.

18. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 16389

Urban-Agriculture: A Modern Income Generating Hobby Angelina Patro1*, Subhrajyoti Mishra2 and Shilpa Jana3

Assistant Professor (1Agricultural Extension and 2Fruit Science and Horticulture Technology), Department of Agriculture, MIPS, Rayagada, Odisha.

3Assistant Professor, Department of Food Technology, MIPS, Rayagada, Odisha. *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Agriculture has always been the part and parcel of livelihood for Indian countrymen. But the increasing population over the last 10 years has

rapidly elevated the rate of urbanization. According to the trend line of Indian Population Census, it has been observed that people residing

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in urban areas in India according to 1901 census was 11.4%, which has increased to 28.53% in 2001 and has crossed above 30% as per Census 2011 standing at 31.16%. Further, according to a survey by UN State of the World Population report in 2007, it is expected that by 2030, 40.76% of country's population is expected to reside in urban areas. Therefore, keeping in view the current pace of increasing population it has become a necessity of the hour to focus on increasing food production to feed a population of 1.3 billion. Despite this increasing rate in the population the total arable land area happens to be stable or fixed. Therefore there is a heavy need to adopt various new technologies and methods of cultivation in small areas and in basic living areas to meet the increasing food demands of the growing population. Thus, Urban-Agriculture has become a new trend of cultivation practices. It is one of the solutions that are perceived globally to meet the demand of food of urban population. There are a number of ways through which urban agriculture have an impact on urban food security. It is a practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around a village, town, or city. It can also involve animal husbandry, aquaculture, agro-forestry, and horticulture. These activities also occur in peri-urban areas as well. At the household level, urban agriculture can be a source of income, provide direct access to a larger number of nutritionally rich foods (vegetables, fruit, meat) and a more varied diet, increases the stability of household food consumption against seasonality or other temporary shortages, and increases the time mothers spend caring for their children, as opposed to non-agricultural activities that are more likely to be located further away from home.

The idea of urban farming is a dynamic concept that comprises a variety of livelihood systems ranging from subsistence production and processing at the household level to more commercialized agriculture. It takes place in different locations and under varying socio-economic conditions and political regimes. The diversity of Urban-Agriculture is one of its main attributes, as it can be adapted to a wide range of urban situations and to the needs of diverse stakeholders. Ensuring food security and appropriate nutrition of the urban population, in particular of the poorest households, has become a tremendous challenge in many cities in developing countries. Cities are therefore among the principal territories for intervention and planning of strategies that aim to eradicate hunger and poverty, improve livelihoods, generate more formal employment opportunities, using of vacant open spaces, market proximity and proper utilization of the urban organic wastes and wastewater in a judicious manner to stimulate the development of diverse agricultural production systems in and around cities. This development has important potential and responds to some of the key challenges faced by

the cities. Traditionally, farming is considered the key

development in the rise of human civilization and also an integral part of our heritage. It is a form of tradition where people feel more connected to the earth and hence enjoy the art of cultivation. In many South-Asian countries, families living in the rural area grow fresh vegetables in their own backyard and this tradition has lasted for thousands of years. Although it is hard to grow food in the dense residential area and with busy lifestyle in modern cities, the dream of growing fresh food in one’s own place and being self-reliant remains in many people’s heart. Proper knowledge and experience in gardening is crucial to enable effective gardening and production of nutritious food. In today’s diet rich society the emphasis is given more on healthy nutritious and organic foods. And this can become a reason people choose what to plant and they can inculcate it as a hobby. Moreover, this practice of cultivating or planting can also be a source of recreation and well being. Many techniques like backyard farming, terrace farming, container gardening, raised bed gardening etc. can be initiated in small vacant areas of the homestead (on-plot) or on land away from the residence (off-plot), on private land (owned, leased) or on public land (parks, conservation areas, along roads, streams and railways), or semi-public land (schoolyards, grounds of schools and hospitals). It is not just for growing herbs, vegetables or fruits, but also considered as a way to interact with nature. Gardening or small scale farming is a very casual and fundamental activity that makes people relax, calm down and temporarily forget the stress of work and life. It also increases people’s outdoor and physical activity levels making them healthier and generating interest and capability to grow more nutritious food for oneself and being able to share them with other. This would improve the levels of fulfillment and self-pride of the growers and motivate others to practice the same. The most beneficial thing in urban farming is people get organic, flavorful, fresh and naturally ripened products rather than the undesirable store produces which are artificially maintained. Furthermore, by growing our own easily maintained food like mint, chilli pepper, green onions and garlic, fruits and more we can bring freshness to our table and compensate the variety of food supply from the main super-markets. This will help to improve our dietary knowledge and acts as a good scheme for encouraging kids to be involved in green and sustainability issues at home such as collecting rain water for watering the garden, recycling kitchen wastes as fertilizers etc. Other than these activities urban agriculture includes processing and marketing activities as well as inputs (e.g. compost) and services delivery (e.g. animal health services) by specialized micro-enterprises or NGOs, etc. In urban agriculture, production and marketing tend to be more closely interrelated in terms of time and space than for

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rural agriculture because of greater geographic proximity and quicker resource flow. In developing countries, an important part of urban agricultural production in cities is for self-consumption, with surpluses being traded. However, the importance of the market-oriented urban agriculture, both in volume and economic value, should not be underestimated.

At the very first glance, urban agriculture appears to be a fairly simple topic: scatter a few plots around the cities and let residents start gardening. But in reality, it impacts a community in a variety of ways, from providing food security, environmental benefits, and even modifying a city’s urban form. In spite of its seeming simplicity, urban agriculture does not only foster the development and growth of urban areas but it also considers implementing techniques that include zoning ordinances, comprehensive plans. The take-away lesson for us is that people’s livelihoods have to be at the center of any discussion about sustainability and making changes. We need to be able to recognize this tension between short-term livelihood decisions and long-term sustainability goals and

forge a path that works with people’s need to provide for their families, but does so in an environmentally and socially conscious way. And thus urban-farming has a potential for improvement of the efficiency in high. The urban farming sector tends to be highly dynamic, amongst others due to the closeness to the consumers, but its development is restrained amongst others due to urban farmers’ limited access to training and extension services. This acts a platform for alleviating the pressure off from the future food security situation, urban agriculture provides a complementary strategy for local economic development by reducing poverty and allowing social integration through inclusion (especially of women) and contributing to the greenery of the city along with efficient use of urban wastes. Moreover, it proves to be better option in meeting the needs of the urban population to a greater extent and improving the ecology of the city. Thus adoption and practice of such technology as an income-generating hobby has become very important in present day condition so as to generate larger scale, capital intensive and fully commercialized farmers.

19. SOIL SCIENCE 16381

Soil Potassium and Crop Response Srinivasa, D. K.

Ph.D Scholar, Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, GKVK, UAS, Bengaluru-65

Soil Potassium There are approximately 24,000 pounds of K per acre, K occurs in at least three main forms: soil solution, exchangeable and mineral. Like other nutrients, K is taken up by plant roots only from the soil solution and yet, K in solution represents a very small fraction of the total K in soil. The soil solution must be replenished with K from other sources in the soil to meet the need of a growing crop. That replenishment comes primarily from readily available, “exchangeable” K. Exchangeable K, like other positive charged ions such as magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and aluminum (Al), is loosely held in soil by an attraction to the negative charged surfaces of soil particle, When K is added to soil it occupies negative charged sites on soil particles by “kicking off,” or exchanging with, other positive charged ions. CEC holds K in ready reserve to supply the need of a small grain crop. As plant uptake occurs, K is released from these sites to the soil solution in quantities dependent on both the amount of K present and the proportion of the CEC sites it occupies. The amount of exchangeable K is related to the amount of K available to the crop, the vast majority of K in soil is held more tightly, entrapped, or as part of the structure of soil minerals. These forms, called nonexchangeable K, are generally either unavailable or only slowly available. Mineral K is not, therefore, measured as part of the soil test procedure. Decomposing organic matter in soil

contributes little K because K is a soluble nutrient that leaches quickly from fresh crop residue and manure (Ross et al., 2013). On the other hand, organic matter is important to K fertility because it provides many negative charged sites for holding exchangeable soil K (Figure 1).

FIGURE1: Exchangeable and solution K in soil

Potassium Deficiency Soil testing is the key to good K management. Fertility management in response to deficiency symptoms, especially with perennials, is a futile effort. Leaves already showing deficiency symptoms cannot be restored by adding K. But more important, the potential yield has already been reduced by the time the deficiency symptoms appear and the plant has become

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more susceptible to the effects of other stresses. The estimated removal of K from the field in the harvest would increase from 35 pounds of K2O per acre, on which the recommendation was based, to about 230 pounds. Although a corn crop’s uptake of K is the same regardless of harvest form, residues from the grain harvest would return roughly 115 pounds of K2O to the soil, but instead this is removed in silage. Additional K (about 80 pounds of K2O) is also taken up and removed in the rye crop. The subsequent crop may, therefore, experience K deficiency, if soil K reserves are depleted. If insufficient K is available, characteristic symptoms of deficiency are likely to be evident during rapid crop growth. Symptoms will appear first on lower leaves because the nutrient is mobile within the plant and K from the older leaves is taken to supply the needs of newly developing tissues. Typically, symptoms first appear at the leaf tip and spread back along the edges. In alfalfa the symptoms begin along the leaf margins as small, whitish spots (Figure 2) that coalesce with intensified deficiency (Antonio et al., 2014). In corn and the small grains, the symptoms start with yellowing of the leaf tips, and continue with a progression of yellow, light tan, and brown along the margins as the deficiency continues, until leaf death.

FIGURE 2: Characteristic symptoms of K deficiency in alfalfa and corn

Crop Response The small amount of K removed by corn grain harvest is evidence that the grain of a crop is not the major site of K use or requirement. In fact, if that corn crop were harvested as silage, the amount of K removed would increase about fivefold. The action of K in a plant is not dramatic like that of N; rather, it plays a backstage role in nearly every facet of crop production. Photosynthesis, control of plant N, formation of new proteins and tissues, and

strength of cell walls and stalk tissues are all influenced directly by K nutrition (Antonio et al., 2014). With a K deficiency, seasonal duration of leaf photosynthesis is shortened, transport of nutrients and sugars within the stem is hamstrung, plant integrity is compromised, starch formation is hindered, and use of N is limited. These conditions predispose plants to the effects of stress. Therefore, the real value of K to crop plants is most evident in times of stress. Adequate and balanced nutrition in all essential nutrients maintains a plant’s vigor and reduces its vulnerability to stress. Potassium, however, has a standout role in a plant’s defense, which is primarily preventive. Resistance of some varieties to stresses of disease, temperature, or moisture is related to a greater ability to take up soil K (Ross et al., 2013).

Fertilizer Potassium The most common fertilizer form is potassium chloride (KCl), called muriate of potash. It is a highly water-soluble salt with a K2O analysis of 60 to 62 percent. Processing differences result in two common chemical qualities, identifiable as red and white muriate of potash. Because the difference is of no consequence to the plant, deciding which to use should depend on the basis of cost per unit of K. The K analysis of a fertilizer material is given as the percentage of K2O (potash) for the material. There is no actual K2O in fertilizer, but this is the accepted and legal reporting form. Potassium recommendations are reported as pounds of K2O per acre on Penn State’s soil test report. The units of potash (K2O) can be converted to potassium (K) by multiplying pounds of K2O by 0.83. For the opposite conversion, multiply pounds of K by 1.2 to get pounds of K2O (Antonio et al., 2014). We have seen that crop response to K may be more indirect than direct. Effects will be an increased response to N and improved resistance to disease, drought, and cold temperatures, and may, therefore, depend on growing season conditions.

References Antonio P. Mallarino. and Ryan R. Oltmans., 2014.

Potassium management, soil testing and crop response. North Central Extension-Industry Soil Fertility Conference. Vol. 30. Page 45-52. Des Moines, IA.

Ross F. Brennan. and Michael J. Bell., 2013. Soil potassium—crop response calibration relationships and criteria for field crops grown in Australia. Crop & Pasture Sci., 64(5): 514-522.

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Preparation of Vermiwsah and its Nutrient Value and uses in Crop Production

B. Amruth

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga

Vermiwash Vermiwash is a illiquid and very good for foliar spray. The basic principle of Vermi wash preparation is simple. Worm worked soils have burrows formed by the earthworms. Bacteria richly inhabit these burrows called as drilospheres. Water passing through these passages washes the nutrients from these burrows to the roots to be absorbed by the plants. Vermiwash can be produced by allowing water to percolate through the tunnels made by the earthworms on the coconut leaf - cow dung substrate kept in a plastic barrel. Water is allowed to fall drop by drop from a pot hung above the barrel into the vermicomposting system. But barrels are not a must for Vermi wash preparation. Vermiwash units can be set up either in barrels or in buckets or even in small earthen pots. Vermiwash is a liquid that is collected after the passage of water through a column of worm action and is very useful as a foliar spray. It is a collection of excretory products and mucus secretion of earthworms along with nutrients from the soil organic molecules. These are transported to the leaf, shoots and other parts of the plants in the natural ecosystem. Vermiwash, if collected properly, is a clear and transparent, pale yellow coloured fluid.

Setting up of a Vermiwash Unit Materials required

1. A barrel (250 L) or bucket 2. Broken stones, coarse sand and garden soil. 3. Earthworms 4. Cattle dung and straw 5. Water

Vermiwash units can be set up either in barrels or in buckets or even in small earthen pots. As shown in fig. 1. the procedure explained here is for setting up of a 250 litre barrel. An empty barrel with one side open is taken. On the other side, a hole is made to accommodate the vertical limb of a 'T' jointed tube in a way that about half to one inch of the tube projects into the barrel. To one end of the horizontal limb is attached a tap. The other end is kept closed. This serves as an emergency opening to clean the 'T' jointed tube if it gets clogged. The entire unit is set up on a short pedestal made of few bricks to facilitate easy collection of vermiwash.

Keeping the tap open, a 25 cm layer of broken bricks or pebbles is placed. A 25 cm layer of coarse sand then follows the layer of bricks. Water is then made to flow through these layers to enable the setting up of the basic filter unit. On top of this layer is placed a 30 to 45 cm layer of loamy soil. It is moistened and into this is

introduced about 50 numbers each of the surface (epigeic) and sub-surface (anecic) earthworms. Cattle dung pats and hay is placed on top of the soil layer and gently moistened. The tap is kept open for the next 15 days. Water is added every day to keep the unit moist. On the 16th day, the tap is closed and on top of the unit a metal container or mud pot perforated at the base as a sprinkler is suspended. 5 litres of water (the volume of water taken in this container is one fiftieth of the size of the main container) is poured into this container and allowed to gradually sprinkle on the barrel overnight. This water percolates through the compost, the burrows of the earthworms and gets collected at the base. The tap of the unit is opened the next day morning and the vermiwash is collected. The tap is then closed and the suspended pot is refilled with 5 litres of water that evening to be collected again the following morning. Dung pats and hay may be replaced periodically based on need. The entire set up may be emptied and reset between 10 and 12 months of use. Vermiwash is diluted with water (10%) before spraying. This has been found to be very effective on several plants. If need be vermiwash may be mixed with cow's urine and diluted (1 litre of vermiwash, 1 litre of cow's urine and 8 litres of water) and sprayed on plants to function as an effecting foliar spray and pesticide. Analysis parameters are depicted in Table.1.

TABLE 1. Vermiwash analysis report

Parameter Values

pH 7.48

Electro conductivity (dS m-1)* 0.25

Organic Carbon (%) 0.0080

Total Kjeldhal Nitrogen (%) 0.010

Phosphate (%) 1.69

Potassium (ppm)* 25.00

Calcium (ppm) 3.00

Magnesium (ppm) 158.44

Manganese (ppm) 0.58

Iron (ppm) 0.060

Zinc (ppm) 0.020

Copper (ppm) 0.010

Nitrosomonas (cfu ml-1)* 1.01x103

Nitrobacter (cfu ml-1) 1.12x103

* dS m-1: desi Siemens per meter * ppm: parts per million *cfu ml-1: colony-forming unit per millilitre

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FIG. 1: A) Vermiwash preparation plant B) Vermiawsh solution

Uses of Vermiwash Supply the nutrients and enzymes Promotes the good health to crop Protects the plant from pest and diseases Easy to apply by foliar spray

Low cost to preparation Eco friendly Can be used with pesticides Cheaper than synthetic fertilizers


Importance of STCR: A Targeted Yield Concept for Farmer’s Practice

1Vijay Kant Singh, 2Anil Kapoor and 1Kharag Singh

Ph.D. Research Scholar, 1Department of Soil Science, 2Department of Agronomy G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145

Efficient use of fertilizers is a major factor in any programme designed to bring about an economic increase in agricultural production. The farmers involved in such a programme will have to use increasing quantities of fertilizers to achieve the desired yield levels. However the amounts and kinds of fertilizers required for the same crop vary from soil to soil, even field to field on the same soil. The use of fertilizers without first testing the soil is like taking medicine without first consulting a physician to find out what is needed. It is observed that the fertilizers increase yields and the farmers are aware of this. But are they applying right quantities of the right kind of fertilizers at the right time at the right place to ensure maximum profit? Without a fertilizer recommendation based upon a soil test, a farmer may be applying too much of a little needed plant food element and too little of another element which is actually the principal factor limiting plant growth. This not only means an uneconomical use of fertilizers, but in some cases crop yields actually may be reduced because of use of the wrong kinds or amounts, or improper use of fertilizers. A soil test value itself has no real meaning until it is correlated with crop response and interpreted in a proper manner to give fertilizer recommendation. Site-specific nutrient management, actually known as “targeted yield approach”, is being advocated in India since late 1960s. The approach is unique in

the sense that it not only prescribes the optimum dose of nutrient based on soil fertility status but also predicts the level of yield that a farmer can expect. The targets can be chosen based on farmers’ resources. The approach has been test verified in several follow-up experiments and demonstrated in a large number of farmers’ fields. Recommended agronomic practices are to be followed along-with the fertilizer doses. The calibrations are being developed under integrated supply of organics and fertilizers keeping into account the nutrient contribution of organics, soil and fertilizers. The technology of fertilizing the crops based on initial soil test values for the whole cropping system is also being generated. Crop production systems at the current level of yields are not sustainable when there is significant depletion of plant nutrients in soil. Buildup and maintenance of soil fertility and consequent provision of balanced nutrition to crops are key to sustain long-term crop productivity. Soil test based fertilizer recommendations result in efficient fertilizer use and maintenance of soil fertility. Soil test based application of plant nutrient not only helps to realize higher response ratio, benefit : cost ratio as the nutrients are applied in proportion to the magnitude of demand of a particular nutrient but also correction of the nutrients imbalance in soil helps to harness the synergistic effects of balanced fertilization (Rao and Srivastava, 2000).

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Field specific balanced amounts of N, P and K were prescribed about the crop based estimates of indigenous supply of N, P and K and by modeling the expected yield response as a function of nutrient interaction (Dobermann and White 1998; Witt et al., 1999). In Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) Correlation method, the fertilizer doses are recommended based on fertilizer adjustment equations. These equations are developed after establishing significant relationship between soil test values, the added fertilizer levels and crop response for a particular soil type. The fertilizer recommendations based on STCR concept are more quantitative, precise and meaningful because combined use of soil and plant analysis is involved in it.

The decision on fertilizer use requires knowledge of the expected crop yield response to

nutrient application, which is a function of crop nutrient needs, supply of nutrients from indigenous sources i.e. organic & inorganic, and the fate of the fertilizer applied.

References Rao, S. and Srivastava, S. (2000). Soil test based

fertilizer use—a must for sustainable agriculture. Fertilizer News, 45:25-38.

Dobermann, A., White, P.F. (1998). Strategies for nutrient management in irrigated and rainfed lowland rice systems. Nut. Cycl. Agroeco. 53(1):1-18.

Witt, C., Dobermann, A., Abdulrachman, S., Gines, H.C., Wang, G.H., Nagarajan, R., Satawathananont, S., Son, T.T., Tan, P.S. and Tiem, L.V. (1999). Internal nutrient efficiencies of irrigated lowland rice in tropical and subtropical Asia. Field Crops Res. 63(2): 113-138.


Biofertilizers: An Important Component of Organic Agriculture

Shikha1* and Reena2

1KVK, Ranichauri, VCSG, UUHF, Tehri Garhwal - 249199, Uttarakhand, INDIA 2Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and

Technology, Pantnagar - 263145, Uttarakhand, INDIA *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Agricultural land gets poor in fertility after long term cultivation because it is not supplemented properly with inputs. Nowadays everyone is going through a application of high doses of agrochemicals, pesticides, insecticides etc. which in turn pollute the land and ultimately our ecosystem. Therefore, in order to make agriculture sustainable, it is necessary to implement a balanced and responsible use of organic agriculture by using the biofertilizers. Biofertilizers is one of the important component of organic farming system. It include selective organisms like bacteria, fungi and algae which are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and solublization of native and added nutrients in the soil and turn them into available forms to plants. The principles of organic farming also outline the similar concepts where the soil health and biodiversity is built up to sustain the plant growth in longer term. So it is necessary to know about the biofertilizers.

Biofertilizer- Biofertilizers are the products containing one or more beneficial microorganisms on application to seed, root or soil, which have the ability to mobilize nutritionally important element from non usable to usable form through the process of biological activity.

Classification of Biofertilizers Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria – Bacteria which are capable of reducing nitrogen to ammonia with the help of an enzyme called nitrogenase. This process is known as ʿBiological Nitrogen

Fixationʼ. These nitrogen fixers is reported to be about 140 million tones N/year.

There are three main groups of nitrogen

fixers are given below:

Agronomically important symbiosis are-

a) Legume – Rhizobium symbiosis b) Non – Legume – Frankia symbiosis c) Azolla – Anabaena symbiosis

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Methods of biofertilizer application - The biofertilizers can be inoculated on seeds as well as in the roots of different crop plants under ideal conditions. They can also be applied directly to the soil. There are certain approaches of application of biofertilizers as described below:

a) Seed Inoculation b) Root and Seedling Treatment c) Soil Application d) Self Inoculation or Tuber Inoculation

Role of Biofertilizers in Improving Soil Fertility and Crop Production The biofertilizers are useful component for

increasing the soil fertility in sustainable agriculture. It fixes atmospheric nitrogen

Enrich the soil by adding the nutrients It increase availability or uptake of nutrients

through solubilization It sustaining soil fertility in the long term by

improving soil properties like structure, bulk density, particle density, water holding capacity etc.

It stimulate plant growth through hormonal or antibiotics action or by decomposing organic waste

They are cheap, hence, reduced cost of cultivation.

They are eco-friendly and pose no damage to the environment

Conclusion Use of biofertilizers in crop production is an important factor to help build up soil biological properties under organic agriculture system. Microorganism which form the biofertilize are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and solublize and added nutrients in the soil and make available to the plants. They are ecofriendly, cost effective and renewable source of plant nutrients. So it can be concluded that bio fertilizers play a vital role in maintaining long term soil fertility ultimately the soil health and sustainability.

References Collings, Gilbert H.(1955) Commercial Fertilizers:

Their Sources and Use, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd, Bombay & New Delhi, 617p.

Hutchinson, H.B and Richards, E.H (1921) Artificial farmyard manure. Journal of the Ministry of Agariculture 28, 398.

M. Alexander, Introduction to Soil Microbiology. Yawalkar, K.S., Agarwal, J.P and Bokde, S.(1996)

Manures and Fertilizer. Agri- Horticultural Publishing House, Nagpur.


Soil Structure: in Relation to Plant Growth M. R. Apoorva

Dept. of Soil Science & Agril. Chemistry, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU-500047 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

The arrangement of primary particles and their aggregates in to certain definite shape.

Importance of Soil Structure: Soil structure is the most important physical property in relation to crop growth because it influences the amount and nature of porosity. The best structure for favourable physical properties of soil is spheroidal type of soil structure. Soil structure can be changed easily under different management practices namely ploughing, draining, liming, fertilizing and manuring etc.The application of organic matter also improve the soil structure.

Influence of Soil Structure on soil Physical Properties 1. Porosity: Aeration or porosity of a soil is

easily altered through the changes of types of soil structure. For example, in platy type of soil structure. Soil aeration or porosity is less than that of other type of soil structure like crumby that contain more pore spaces.

2. Temperature: Good soil structure like crumby provides a well aeration and improves the water holding capacity of the soil. Thus these characteristics help in maintaining the thermal regimes of the soil

in comparison to other soil structure. 3. Density: Bulk density which is more

important for the plant growth is influenced with the changes in pore spaces resulting from the different types of soil structure. Platy soil structure with low total pore spaces has high bulk density whereas crumby structure containing more total pore spaces low bulk density.

4. Consistence: Soil structure is influenced by the consistency of soil. Plate like structure exhibit strong plasticity.

Different Types of Factors affect on Soil Structure 1. Climate: Climate influences the degree of

aggregation which in turn affects the different types of structure to a great extent. In arid regions, very little aggregation of primary particles is found. In semi-arid regions, the degree of aggregation is greater than arid regions.

2. Organic matter: Organic matter is the major agent for the encouragement of granular type aggregates in soil. During decomposition of organic matter, various organic compounds and other slimy

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materials having sticky, cementing and binding properties are produced and these compound bind the soil separates together forming soil aggregates.

3. Adsorbed cations: Aggregate formation is certainly influenced by the nature of the cations adsorbed by soil colloids. As Na+ is a dominant adsorbed ions, the particle get disperse or deflocculated and very undesirable structure is formed. When Ca2+ is absorbed the soil particle will be flocculated and granulation will be encouraged and good soil structure is formed.

4. Tillage: Intensive cultivation increased infiltration capacity and penetrability, but spoiled the soil structure good tillage operation should be made at optimum

moisture condition. 5. Types of vegetation: Grass land and forest

soils have high stability of aggregates. Grasses and legume improve the aggregation of soils as compared with crops like corn.

6. Plants roots: Large number of granules remain attached to roots and root hairs which help to develop crumb structures. Secretary products from the roots of different plants may also acts as cementing agents in binding the soil particles together and help for the formation of good soil structure.

7. Soil organisms: The different soil organisms like earth worm, moles, insects etc., burrow the soil and take part in the aggregation of soil repartees through their slimy and other secretary products.


Earthworm and their Role in Carbon Turnover Chandrakant, Navya, N, C., Ramya, S. H. and Akshatha, M. K.,

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru-560065

INTRODUCTION: Earthworm is an earthly annelid worms, lives in the soil belong to the class Oligochaeta, they are divided into - 23 families, more than 700 genera and more than 7,000 species. They range from an inch to two yards in length. Found seasonally at all depths in temperate and tropical soil. The role of earthworms (EWs) in soil fertility is known since 1881 and theyare known as ecosystem ‘engineers’ helps recycling the nutrients. In terms of biomass and overall activity, earthworms dominate the world of soil invertebrates, including arthropods.Total carbon consumption efficiency ranges from 2% to 18%. Assimilation efficiencies of litter-feeding earthworms tend to be greater than those of endogeic species.

Ecological Classification of Earthworm Bouche 1971, classified earthworm into three types, based on burrowing activity, feeding behaviour and habitat.

1. Epigeic: - a) Lives on the top surface of the soil b) Less burrowing activity c) They feed on the roots, leaf litter and

other debris. d) It does not have any role in soil structure

but it helps to maintain the nutrient status of the soil

Ex: Eudrillus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus, Eisenia faetida

2. Endogeic: - a) Lives inside the soil b) Feeds on humic substances c) It has good burrowing activity, it makes

both horizontal and vertical borrowings d) Help in improving the nutrient status

and WHC of the soil.

Ex: Allobophora rosea 3. Anecic: -

a) Lives deep inside the soil and b) Feeds on both soil and leaf debris. c) It makes the large tunnels d) Help in improving the bulk density and

soil structure Ex:Drawidagrandis, Drawidaniligarensis

Carbon Turnover (Cycle) The turnover of soil carbon is one of the most important components of global carbon cycling.The annual flux of soil carbon to the atmosphere is approximately 50 Gt, nearly 10 times larger than annual fossil fuel emissions. It is balanced by primary productivity.Soil carbon fluxes are influenced by moisture, temperature, land use and vegetation change.

Mechanisms by Earthworms Mechanisms by which earthworms can influence the respiration and stabilization of SOC

1. Direct consumption of organic C by earthworms

2. Accelerated microbial inoculation of plant materials through earthworm mixing and burrowing activity

3. Alteration of microbial communities 4. Enhanced formation of organo-mineral

complexes 5. Increased occlusion of organic C by clay

minerals.

Earthworm and Carbon Turnover Soil carbon dynamics are influenced by

biotic and abiotic factors among which earthworms play a prominent role.

They consume up to 2 t litter ha-1 yr-1 which

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can be 100% of the annual litter fall and simultaneously ingest 1200 t mineral soil Yr-

1. While processing mineral soil and detritus, less than 9% of the ingested organic carbon (C) is assimilated by the earthworms, thus earthworms strongly affect soil organic carbon cycling.

The passage of soil and detritus through the earthworm gut facilitates the contact between C and mineral particles by grinding and mixing both components.

Adsorption of C on mineral surfaces is considered to be an important stabilization. mechanism which may be enhanced by earthworm activity.

Bonds with iron and aluminium oxides are

strong and lead to decreased C turnover

The types and amounts of carbon in earthworm casts differ from those of the surrounding soil.

Shaw & Pawluk, 1986, reported greater amount of clay associated carbon in earthworm casts than in surrounding soil which might be due to the addition of intestinal mucus.

Scheu (1991) reported that secretion of mucus in casts and from the body wall accounted for 63% of total carbon losses (mucus excretion plus respiration). Respiration accounted for 37% of total carbon losses from the earthworms.

CONCLUSION: Among the different method of enrichment of carbon in the soil, this turnover of carbon by earthworm is an important one.


Saline Soil and their Reclamation Maya Yadav

(Ph.D. Scholar), Division of Agronomy, Rajasthan Agriculture Research Institute, Durgapura, Jaipur.

The process by which saline soil formed is called “salinization”. Saline soil mostly found in arid and semiarid regions. Accumulation of excess salt in the root zone resulting in a partial or complete loss of productivity is a worldwide problem. Out of 329 m ha land in the country, about 175 m ha is suffering from degradation. Total salt affected area in the country is 7 m ha out of which 0.72 m ha found in Rajasthan.

Saline soil: saline soil also called solonchak or white alkali soil. Saline soil are those soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract greater than 4 dSm-1, an exchangeable sodium percentage is < 15 and pH is < 8.5.

Sources of saline soil development: there are various sources from which soluble salt are accumulated in the soil

Primary minerals: due to the process of hydrolysis, hydration, solution, oxidation and carbonation various constituents release like Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ and made soluble salt.

Irrigation water: application of irrigation water without proper management increase the water table and surface salt content in the soil.

Excessive use of basic fertilizers: use of basic fertilizers like sodium nitrate and basic slag.

Salt blown by wind- in arid regions near the sea, appreciable amount of salt are blown by wind year after year and get deposited on the surface soil.

Reclamation techniques for saline soils: different technique used for reclamation of saline soil.

1. Scraping: removal of accumulated salt on the soil surface mechanically. It has limited success and temporarily improve crop growth.

2. Leaching: this is the most effective technique for removing the salt from the root zone. Before leaching, the field surface is to be

leveled, deeply ploughed and dividing into check plots – parcels of 0.2-0.3 ha and more by borders; then the check plots are flooded by water. Leaching rates (water quantity required for dissolution and displacement of salts from saline soil) are determined depending on salinization degree, composition of salts (sulphates, chlorides, and carbonates), permeability, and groundwater level. Leaching of saline lands is usually carried out in late autumn, when evaporation is minimal and groundwater level is low. Flushing water is diverted through desalting drainage.

3. Drainage: poor drainage condition leads to accumulation of rain water in low lying areas during rainy season. If it is not drained out properly the groundwater is raised to less than 2 m within 5-10 years and result accumulation of salt due to evaporation from soil surface.

4. Irrigation method: Sprinkler or drip irrigation is ideal method for irrigating frequently and with small quantity of water at a time. leaching of soluble salt is also accomplished more efficiently when water application rates are lower than the infiltration capacity of the soil and such cannot be achieved by flood condition.

5. Growing of salt tolerant crop: growing of those crops that are highly tolerant to salt.

Tolerant Semi tolerant Sensitive

Barley, Sugar beet, Rapeseed, Cotton, Oats, Sesbenia

Pomegranate, Wheat, Rice, Sorghum, Maize, Sunflower, Potato

Citrus, Gram, Peas, Groundnut, Lentil, Cowpea

6. Chemicals: Several chemicals such as gypsum, calcium chloride, Sulphur, sulphuric acid and ferrous sulphate used for

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soil amelioration. Gypsum migrate slowly from surface to subsoil, hence, they should be evenly distributed and carefully mixed with soil by deep ploughing.

References S.R.Reddy, Principles of Agronomy. D.K.Das, Introductory Soil Science

26. 16302 SOIL SCIENCE

Soil Microorganisms: Key Factors Affect Distribution, Activity and Population

Neelam Yadav1, Poonam Yadav2 and D.K. Yadav3 1M.Sc. Scholar, Division of Soil Science & Agricultural chemistry

Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi-221005 2M.Sc. Scholar, Department of Live Stock & Production Management, SKNAU, Jobner-303329

3PhD Scholar, Division of Agricultural Chemicals, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012

INTRODUCTION: Soil microorganisms (Flora & Fauna), just like higher plants depends entirely on soil for their nutrition, growth and activity. The major soil factors which influence the microbial population, distribution and their activity in the soil. Some factors play a great role in determining not only the number and type of organism but also their activities. Variations in any one or more of these factors may lead to the changes in the activity of the organisms which ultimately affect the soil fertility level. Brief account of all these factors influencing soil micro flora / organisms and their activities is activities are discussed paragraphs (Brady NC and Weil RC, 2012).

1. Cultural practices (Tillage): Cultural practices viz. cultivation, crop rotation, application of manures and fertilizers, liming and gypsum application, pesticide/fungicide and weedicide application have their effect on soil organism. Ploughing and tillage operations facilitate aeration in soil and exposure of soil to sunshine and thereby increase the biological activity of organisms, particularly of bacteria. Crop rotation with legume maintains the favorable microbial population balance, particularly of N2 fixing bacteria and thereby improve soil fertility.Liming of acid soils increases activity of bacteria and actinomycetes and lowers the fungal population.

2. Soil fertility: Fertility level of the soil has a great influence on the microbial population and their activity in soil. The availability of N, P and K required for plants as well as microbes in soil determines the fertility level of soil. On the other hand soil micro flora has greater influence on the soil fertility level.

3. Soil moisture: Water (soil moisture) is useful to the microorganisms in two ways i.e. it serve as source of nutrients and supplies hydrogen / oxygen to the organisms and it serve as solvent and carrier of other food nutrients to the microorganisms. Microbial activity & population proliferate best in the moisture range of 20% to 60%. Under water logged conditions due to lack of soil aeration anaerobic microflora become active and the

aerobes get suppressed. While in the absence of adequate moisture in soil, some of microbes die out due to tissue dehydration and some of them change their forms into resting stages spores or cysts and tide over adverse conditions.

4. Soil temperature: Temperature directly affects the activity of the soil biota by determining the rate of physiological activity such as enzyme activity and indirectly by affecting physico-chemical properties such as diffusion & solubility of nutrients, mineral weathering and evaporation rates and so on. With in defined limits biological activity increases with increasing temperature. For common soil organisms the temperature range at which they can be active ranges from about 0°C to about 60 °C although no single species is likely to be active throughout the entire range.

5. Soil air (Aeration): For the growth of microorganisms better aeration (oxygen and sometimes CO2) in the soil is essential. Microbes consume oxygen from soil air and gives out carbon dioxide. Depending upon oxygen requirements, soil microorganisms are grouped into categories viz aerobic (require oxygen for like processes), anaerobic (do not require oxygen) and microaerophilic (requiring low concentration of oxygen).

6. Light: Direct sunlight is highly injurious to most of the microorganisms except algae. Therefore upper portion of the surface soil a centimeter or less is usually sterile or devoid of microorganisms. Effect of sunlight is due to heating and increase in temperature (More than 45°).

7. Soil pH: Organisms can tolerate extremes but this normally requires the cell to use energy in maintaining the correct internal cellular pH (pH 7.0).Soil reaction has a definite influence on quantitative and qualitative composite on of soil microbes. Most of the soil bacteria, blue-green algae, diatoms and protozoa prefer a neutral or slightly alkaline reaction between pH 4.5 and 8.0 and fungi grow in acidic reaction between pH 4.5 and 6.5 while actinomycetes

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prefer slightly alkaline soil reactions. Soil reactions also influence the type of the bacteria present in soil.

8. Soil Organic Matter: The organic matter in soil being the chief source of energy and food for most of the soil organisms, it has great influence on the microbial population. Organic matter influence directly or indirectly on the population and activity of soil microorganisms. It influences the structure and texture of soil and thereby activity of the microorganisms.

9. Food and energy supply: Almost all microorganisms obtain their food and energy from the plant residues or organic matter / substances added to the soil. Energy is required for the metabolic activities of microorganisms. The heterotrophs utilize the energy liberated during the oxidation of complex organic compounds in soil, while autotrophs meet their energy requirement form oxidation of simple inorganic compounds (chemoautotroph) or from solar radiation (Photoautotroph). The organic matter, therefore serves both as a source of food nutrients as well as energy required by the soil organisms.

10. Nature of Soil: The physical, chemical and physico-chemical nature of soil and its nutrient status influence the microbial population both quantitatively and qualitatively. The soils in good chemical nature and physical condition have better aeration and moisture content which is essential for optimum microbial activity.

Similarly nutrients (macro and micro) and organic constituents of humus are responsible for absence or presence of certain type of microorganisms and their activity.

11. Microbial interactions: The association existing between one organism and another whether of symbiotic or antagonistic influences the population and activity of soil microbes to a great extent. The predatory habit of protozoa and some mycobacteria which feed on bacteria may suppress or eliminate certain bacteria. For instance organic acids liberated by fungi, increase in oxygen by the activity of algae, change in soil reaction etc. favours the activity or bacteria and other organisms in soil.

Root Exudates: In the soil where plants are growing the root exudates also affects the distribution, density and activity of soil microorganism. Root exudates and sloughed off material of root surfaces provide an abundant source of energy and nutrients and thus directly or indirectly influence the quality as well as quantity of microorganisms in the rhizosphere region. Root exudates contain sugars, organic acids, amino acids, sterols, vitamins and other growth factors which have the profound effect on soil microbes

Reference Brady NC, Weil RC (2012). The Nature and

Properties of Soils. (14th edn), Dorling Kindersley India Pvt. Ltd, Noida, India.


Efficient use of Poor Quality Water for Irrigation Sarita Rani

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University- Hisar-4

Water is an essential natural resource for the survival of the life and a key input for plant growth. Although, water is a renewable resource, it is quite dynamic and scarce. Irrigation water is a major constraint for assured crop production. According to UN estimates, total amount of water on earth is about 1400 million cubic kilometers (M km3) which is enough to cover the earth with a layer of 3000 meters (m) depth. However, fresh water constitutes a very small proportion of this enormous quantity. About 2.7% of the total water available on earth is fresh water of which about 68.7% lies frozen in Polar Regions and another 30.1% is present in groundwater. The rest is available in lakes, rivers, atmosphere, moisture, soil and vegetation. India’s water resources are surface and ground water whose major source is precipitation. Annual precipitation of India is about 400 M-ha (4000 km3). Erratic and uneven distribution of rainfall reduces its availability for domestic, agriculture, industrial etc., use. As a consequence of climate change, it is predicted that the availability of fresh water is further depleting and

demand is increasing, which further put forward the need of using poor quality water for agriculture crop production. Water used for irrigation can vary greatly in quality depending upon type and quantity of dissolved salts. Salts are present in irrigation water in relatively small but significant amounts. They originate from dissolution or weathering of the rocks and soil, including dissolution of lime, gypsum and other slowly dissolved soil minerals. These salts are carried with the water to wherever it is used. In the case of irrigation, the salts are applied with the water and remain behind in the soil as water evaporates or is used by the crop. Problematic soils formed due to the use of poor quality water and they are mainly confined to the arid and semiarid tracts of world where rainfall is not sufficient to meet the evapotranspiration demand and result into water deficit. This situation leads to the formation of saline, sodic and saline-sodic soil.

Several different measurements are used to classify the suitability of water for irrigation, including electrical conductivity, total dissolved

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salts, residual sodium carbonates, boron hazards etc. In our country guidelines issued by the Central Soil Salinity and Research Institute, (CSSRI)-Karnal used to classify the quality of water into different categories (low medium and high) based on EC, RSC and boron content. Similarly US Salinity laboratory staff, 1954 classify irrigation water based on the EC, SAR and salt concentration into low, medium, high and very high salinity classes.

TABLE:1 Classification of irrigation water based on EC, adj. SAR and boron content, CSSRI, Karnal

EC (dS/m)

Quality rating

Adj SAR

Quality rating

Boron (ppm)

Quality rating

<1.5 Normal water

<10 Normal water

<3 Normal water

1.5-3 Low salinity water

10-20

Low salinity water

3-4 Low salinity water

3-5 Medium salinity water

20-30

Medium salinity water

4-5 Medium salinity water

5-10 Saline water

30-40

Saline water

5-10 Saline water

>10 High salinity water



Management Proper management practices can mitigate the adverse effect of the adverse effect of poor quality of irrigation water, when it is inevitable to use such water for irrigating the crops.

1. Growing salt tolerant crops: tolerant crops and varieties appear to be the most practicable way of crop production with poor quality of water. Barley, sugarbeet and rape are tolerant to salinity. Wheat, rice sunflower, sorghum, etc are semi tolerant. Wheat, oats, sugarcane, cotton, etc are semi tolerant to sodic soils.

2. Gypsum application: use of gypsum creates favourable Ca:Na or Ca:Mg ration in the irrigating water. Improvement in Ca:Na ratio or SAR is due to increase in calcium ion concentration, decreasing Mg:Ca ratio and precipitating excessive carbonate ions. Gypsum can be applied in soil if it is alkaline. If the soil is good and water is poor gypsum should be applied to water.

3. Method of sowing: seed germination and

crop establishment decreases with increases salinity. In furrow irrigation salt accumulates in the centre of ridge between furrow and on the top of the ridge. If the seed is placed on the side of the ridge or at the bottom of the ridge, the problem of salinity can be minimized. Sloping beds either on the one side or both the sides with seed just above the water line ensure optimum crop stand. Transplanting leads to better crop establishment in some crops like: fingermillet and pearlmillet. Closer spacing is better than wide spacing.

4. Fertilizer use: optimum rate and balanced fertilizer use, especially major nutrients can make the crop to withstand the poor quality of irrigation water considerably. Acidity and basicity of fertilizers should be considered while choosing the fertilizer application.

5. Irrigation and drainage: poor quality irrigation water application with the sprinkler leads to the leaf burn. Drip system appears to be better than the sprinkler method for such water. Frequent irrigations appear to minimize the adverse effects of poor quality of water. Provision of improve drainage improves the crop growth and yield.

6. Soil management: any practice aimed to improving soil structure and infiltration reduces soil salinity hazards. Mulching with organic residues minimize evoparation leading to reduced salt concentration in the effective root zone.

7. Conjunctive use of water: go for conjunctive use of water by mixing poor quality with that of good quality water. Mixing ground water with the surface water resources also give an option for using high saline water. Go for alternate use of poor quality and good quality water.

8. Irrigating crop with good quality water at critical stages (if available) and go for poor quality at other growth staes.

9. Organic manures: application of organic manures (FYM, Vermicompost, compost etc) leads to favourable soil structure and increasing soil infiltarion which help in reducing salt load in soil.

By maintaing optimum water level and nutrient in the soil crop root zone, poor quality water can be used irrigation.

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28. HORTICULTURE 15759

Ornamental or Flowering Banana Rashmi*1, R. and Mahantesh Kamatyanatti2

1Ph.D.(Hort.) Scholar (College of Horticulture, UHS, Bagalkot- 587 103, Karnataka, India) 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), CCS Haryana Agricultural University,

Hisar-125004, Haryana, India *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Flowering banana is one of the 50 species of banana in the genus Musa. Belongs to the family Musaceae. Musa ornata originated in south east Asia, and is cultivated for its commercial and ornamental value. The fruit is attractive but tends to be inedible. M. ornata belongs to the subgenus Rhodochlamys. Rhodochlamys is one of the four sections into which the genus Musa is divided (Australimusa, Callimusa and Eumusa, which is sometimes called Musa). M. ornata has a basic chromosome number of 2n = 22 compared with 2n = 20 of the Australimusa and Callimusa. Plants of this section are known for their brightly colored

bracts.

Scientific Name: Musa ornata Common Names: Flowering Banana,

Ornamental Banana Duration: Perennial Growth Habit: Herb/Forb Hawaii Native Status: Cultivated. This

ornamental garden plant is native to India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (Burma).

Flower Color: Pink, Lavender Height: Up to 9 feet (2.7 m) tall Edible: The flesh of the ripe fruits is edible,

but these bananas are very seedy and not worth the trouble to eat.

Plant description: The inflorescences emerge

from the tip of the plant and are erect, elongating, and have pink to lilac, petal-like bracts that open to reveal single rows of 3 to 6 deep yellow-orange, male or female flowers. The female flowers are the first to open on the young inflorescences. The male flowers open later after

the fruit begins developing. Each row of female flowers produces an erect "hand" of 3 to 6 bananas. The bananas are small, greenish yellow to reddish purple, and contain numerous black seeds and creamy white flesh. The banana-like leaves have a sturdy midrib and are glaucous green, oblong, and up to 6 feet (1.8 m) long and 1

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foot (30 cm) wide. The trunk-like pseudostems (formed by the tightly overlapping leaf sheaths) emerge from underground rhizomes and have a swollen base. The pseudostems die after flowering. The plants are suckering and form dense clumps.

Other uses of ornamental Banana: The similar Hairy Banana (Musa velutina) also has upright inflorescences, but it has hairy fruit. Common bananas like Edible Banana (Musa acuminata) and French Plantain (Musa ×

paradisiaca) have drooping inflorescences. The male bud may be cooked or used in salads, while the leaves are often incorporated in making dressings. The root of the plant is also sometimes used for ayurvedic preparations (alternative medicine) in northeast India. The ash of the pseudostem, the corm, the fruiting stalk and fruit peel are also used as an anti-scorbutic (to prevent scurvy), as well as for digestive help, or as a tonic.


Successful Plant Production Technique 1S. P. Mishra, *2A. K. Padhiary and 3S. Behera

*1Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jagatsingpur, Odisha, India 2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, RRTTS Campus (OUAT) Chiplima, Sambalpur 768026 Odisha, India

3Krishi Vigyan Kendra, kalahandi Bhabanipatna, Odisha, India *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Plant Inspection Be sure to do this before you accept a delivery of plants

Roots: avoid circling, girdling, or kinked roots. Check for burn or freeze damage as well as death, decay, or disease. Choose plants with symmetrically distributed roots.

Shoots: avoid damaged bark, poor pruning (e.g. topping) and disease. Choose plants with good taper, vigor, and normal growth patterns.

Caring for Plant Material Prior to Planting

Keep roots cool and moist. Heel in off-season material to prevent freeze

damage. Harden of greenhouse material prior to

planting. On site protect plants from excess light and

heat, desiccation, etc.

Planting Hole Preparation

Dig a hole no deeper than the root mass, but at least twice as wide.

Build a soil mound in the middle of the hole to help spread the roots evenly.

Remove roots, weeds, large rocks, and other debris from the planting hole.

Do not add gravel, fertilizers, organic matter, or other amendments to the planting hole.

Do not loosen or otherwise disturb the soil at the bottom of the hole.

Plant Installation

Fall planting is generally best in mild

climates; spring plantings require more irrigation.

Remove existing soil from the roots to prevent soil interface problems.

Orient the plant so the shoot-root interface is at or slightly above the soil surface.

Prune out dead, damaged, or diseased roots; excessively long roots may be shortened.

Prune out damaged, diseased or dead material. Do not top prune.

Place the plant atop the so oil mound and spread the roots out evenly.

Backfill with unamended native soil. Water the plant well to help settle the soil; if

holes appear fill with native soil. Build a soil berm around the planting hole to

increase water retention. Add a thick layer of well-drained organic

much like wood chips, but keep away from trunks.

Stake only if necessary; stakes should be loose and low (bottom1/3 of plant) and removed after one growing season.

Fertilize with fish meal or ammonium surface. Do not use phosphate-containing fertilizers.

If needed, use tree shelters or other barriers to keep out herbivores.

After Care

Water new transplants during the first 1-2 dry seasons to help them establish.

Maintain a mulch layer ≈ 3-4 inches thick. Keep the root zone free of turf and weeds to

reduce resource competition.

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Inter-Cultural Operation in Banana Cultivation in Odisha 1A. K. Padhiary, *2S. P. Mishra and 3S. Behera

1Krishi Vigyan Kendra, RRTTS Campus (OUAT) Chiplima, Sambalpur 768026 Odisha, India *2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jagatsingpur, Odisha, India

3Krishi Vigyan Kendra, kalahandi, Bhabanipatna, Odisha, India *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Banana is known to human beings from time immemorial and has been in cultivation for a long time. It contains about 27% carbohydrates, 1.2% protein, good amount of Phosphorus, Calcium, and Iron and vitamins. Raw fruits are used as vegetable and ripe fruits for dessert purpose. Fruits are processed into value added products also like chips, banana fig, soft drink, flour, powder, jam, dehydrated slices and other confectioneries like ice cream, pudding etc. The green leaves are used for serving food and pseudostem is processed into paper board, tissue paper etc. inner core of banana pseudostem is utilized for vegetable preparation in some parts of India. Banana flour is a nutritious baby food supplement.

Soil and Climate It is a tropical crop but can be cultivated in dry subtropical areas from mean sea level to an altitude of 1200m. The ideal temperature range for successful banana cultivation is 200 c to 350 c. Although it can tolerate a temperature range of 1 to 400 c but frost duting winter and heavy winds during summer are limiting factors in its cultivation. Rainfall above 1200 mm per annum is good for its proper growth.

Varieties In Odisha cultivated bananas can be categorized into two- i) dessert and ii) vegetable purpose: In dessert purpose verieties there are two sub-groups i) Yellow and ii) Green fruited. Yellow fruited varieties are very popular. These are Poovan (Champa), Karpur, Chakraveli. Plants are these varieties are tall and can be cultivated under rain-fed conditions, resistant to Panama wilt and bunchy top diseases with 15 kg bunch weight. The second is Rasthali (Pathkapoora –silk) which is leading and most favorite variety of Odisha. Plants are tall and susceptible to wind damage. Fruit turns yellow after repening, flesh firm, sweet, pleasant aroma and good deeping quality. The bunch weight ranges from 12-15 kg. It is highly susceptible to Panama wilt. Woing to fruit quality and premium price in the market [Rs. 20-35/dozen), it is very popular amongst the farmers. In green fruited category Harichall (Robusta), Dwarf Cavendish (Basaral) and Grand naine are also becoming popular. These are dwarf and suitable for areas where high wind velocity is a limiting factor. These varieties are resistant to wilt but susceptible to bunchy top and leaf spot diseases. Average bunch weight ranges from 18-20 kg and fruits are very sweet,

good in taste and have excellent aroma.For vegetable purpose Bonthal and Bathisa are main varieties. Plants are tall and average bunch weight ranges from 10-12 kg. In high altitudes of Odisha. Hill Banana (Virupakshi) are also grown. The bunch weight ranges from 10-12 kg.

Propagation Bananas are universally propagated by vegetative methods. There are two types of suckers. Sword suskers have large rhizome and tapering pseudostem trowth with narrow leaves, suitable for commercial planting. Water sucker with narrow base and uniform psedostem growth from base to top are not suitable for commercial planting. For large scale planting tissue cultured plants should be preferred. Tissue cultured plant do not yield more than suckers, but they are mostly disease and pest free and ideal for commercial planting because almost uniform crop maturity can be obtained. Their bulk transportation is cheap and planting material can be produced in bulk from a small area.

Field Preparation and Planting The field should be cleaned, land given gentle slope and bunding done all around. Tall varieties like Champa, Pathkapura, Banthal etc. are to be planted at 2 to 2.5 m row to tow and plant to plant distance while dwarf varieties like Robusta and Dwarf Cavendish are planted at 1.5 to 1.8 m plant to plant and row to row distance. Pits of 50x50x50cm are dug and left open for a month in hot sun and refilled with 10-15 kg FYM or compost per pit. Under rain-fed conditions planting is to be done with the onset of monsoon in July bu under assured water availability condition planting can be done throughout the year except very hot summer months. At the time of planting, the rhizome of plants should be dipped in cow dung slurry and sprinkled with 20-40 g furadan granules for management of nematodes and stem weevil. After planting bain should be made around the plant.Banana can be fultivated as a filler crop during initial stage of perennial orchard of mango, sapota, coconut, guava and lime etc. to increase the income during non-bearing period of the main fruit trees.

Water Management During rainy season generally irrigation is not required under Odisha conditions. But if there is no rain after planting, one bucket of water should be applied in the basin for few days. During winter season watering at 8 to 10 days interval and during summer at 4-5 days should

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be done. Pressurized irrigation systems like drip reduce the water requirement by about 25% and increase the yield by about 15 to 20%.

Inter-Culture Operations During initial three to four months, short duration vegetable crop like coriander, radish, carrot, chilli and flowers like marigold and tuberose can be cultivated successfully. It helps in checking weeds in inter-spaces. Monthly spading during monsoon season and at 3 months interval during rest of the period is sufficient. Sugarcane trashes, banana leaves, paddy straw, fresh cattle shed litter, coconut leaves and husk and other dried grasses can effectively be used as mulching katerial. Organic mulching suppresses weed growth and conserves soil moisture and increases yield. Frequent growth of suckers from rhizome is a nuisance and its removal is a problem in banana plantation management. The suckers should manually be removed. Pouring few drops of kerosene in the heart of sucker after scooping is an effective technique of desuckering. However for the first ratoon crop, one sucker should be retained immediately after the emergence of the bunch so that by the time of harvesting of first crop, the daughter sucker attains about 3 months of age. After fertilizer application, the rhizome should be covered with soil by earthing up which gives support to the plant. As the leaves become old, the dried ones should be removed periodically. Banana bunches

are fully emerged, covering them with jute bag or banana leaves helps in protecting them against sun scorching, attack of thrips and scarring beetles. After harvesting pseudostem should be removed by cutting in 2-3 phases at 10-15 days intervals. Generally one or two ratoon crops are taken.

Flowering, Fruiting and Yield Dwarf varieties usually produce bunches at about 8-10 months after planting, while tall varieties take about 10-11 months to come into shoot initiation stage. Shoot initiation primarily depends upon age of the plant at planting and nutrient and water management. After about 3-4 months of shoot initiation, the bunches attain maturity. Generally, 12-13 months are required for dwarf varieties and 14-15 months tall varieties to complete main crop cycle. First ratoon crop can be harvested in another 10-11 months and 11-12 months in dwarf and tall varieties, respectively.

Vegetable types like Banthal and Bathisa yield 25-30 t. champa and patkapoora 40-45 t per ha per crop cycle. Since bananas for table purpose are harvested at 3/4th maturity, bunches should artificially be ripened in closed rooms at 100 ppm ethylene gas concentration maintaining the room at 16-180 c with 95% relative humidity. Disappearance of angularity and attainment of round shape of fingers is considered as maturity state.


Popular Vegetable Amaranth Species 1Vijeth S and 2Srikanth M

1Department of Olericulture, College of Agriculture, KAU, Trivandrum-695 522 2Department of Vegetable Science, CCSHAU, Hisar-125 004

The cultivated amaranths (Amaranthus sp., 2n= 32, 34) are used for food grain, leafy vegetables, forage, ornamental gardening, and other potential uses. The wild species includes some weeds, and wild non-weeds. All the amaranths are broad-leaf warm-season annuals. This highly nutritious vegetable is rich in protein, calcium, iron, vitamins A, C and K, riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), vitamin B6, and folate (B9).

Amaranthus blitum Common names: livid amaranth, slender amaranth (En.).

The probable origin of A. blitum is the Mediterranean region; it is found worldwide from the tropics to temperate climates. It is a popular cultivated vegetable in India. It is used as a spinach substitute during the hot and dry summer months. It is not suitable for fresh consumption due to relatively high levels of hydrocyanic acid and oxalic acid. It is also a cosmopolitan weed.

A. cruentus Common names: purple amaranth, red

amaranth, red shank, bush greens, African spinach, Indian spinach (En.).

This amaranth species was domesticated as a grain in Mesoamerica and found its way to the tropics and subtropics of the Old World. It is used for grain production (pseudocereal), as a leafy vegetable, and for ornamental purposes. In India it is a traditional, highly productive, nutritious and economically important leafy vegetable. The leaves and tender stems are cut and cooked or fried in oil and served as a side dish. The high calcium oxalate content limits its use as fodder.

Grain amaranth types of A. cruentus are common in Central America. Grain amaranth is also popular in India and Nepal and is commercially grown in hot and dry areas.

Ornamental types of A. cruentus have large bright-red inflorescences and are often found in the tropics and subtropics. The inflorescences can be used to produce a red dye.

A. dubius Common names: spleen amaranth (En.).

Cultivated types of A. dubius may have been

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derived from the weedy ancestor in tropical Asia (Indonesia, India). It is usually grown from sea level to 1200 m elevation and reaches a yield of 25 t/ha in eight weeks. The plants are used as a cooked leafy vegetable.

A. spinosus Common names: spiny amaranth, thorny pigweed (En.); katemath (Ind.).

This species probably originated from the lowland tropics in South and Central America. It is now found in most tropical and subtropical regions, but is rarely cultivated due to the spines and the poor taste. It is usually collected for home consumption and eaten cooked, steamed or fried; it can help bridge periods of drought. To some extent, it is also used as forage. The species has multiple medicinal uses. The root has diuretic effects; the plant sap is used as an eye wash. The plant is also used as an expectorant and to relieve breathing of patients suffering from acute bronchitis.

A. tricolor Common names: Chinese amaranth, Chinese spinach, math, (Ind.).

The probable origin of this amaranth species is tropical Asia. In South and Southeast Asia, A. tricolor is a major leafy vegetable species and is the dominant cultivated amaranth species, followed by A. dubius and A. cruentus. It is

generally used as a cooked vegetable, but occasionally also eaten raw in salads. In India, the soft stems are eaten like asparagus. Leaves and stems contain the antinutrients nitrate (mostly in stems) and oxalate, but adverse nutritional effects are unlikely if consumption does not exceed 200 g per day. Cooking in ample water removes the toxic components. Types with red, yellow and green leaves are widely cultivated as ornamentals. A. tricolor is also used as a diuretic and to treat inflammations. A. tricolor is an easy-to-grow, productive, tasty, and nutritious leafy vegetable. Seed companies are offering commercial varieties of this species in South and Southeast Asia. The cultivar ‘Lal Sag’ is popular in India.

A. viridis Common names: green amaranth, pigweed, slender amaranth (En.).

A. viridis is possibly of Asian origin. It is considered a pan-tropical weed and has penetrated into warm temperate regions worldwide. Although mostly growing as a weed, its nutritional value is high. Leaves and young plants are eaten as a cooked vegetable. The plant also serves as fodder for cattle and green manure. The leaves have diuretic and purgative properties and are used in traditional medicine to cure many different ailments.


Vertical Farming: Future for the Agrarian Production Shilpha, S. M.1* and Mamathashree, C. M.2

1Senior Research Fellow, 2Ph.D. Scholar, College of Agriculture, UAHS, Navile, Shivamogga *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Vertical farming is a system of food production in controlled, indoor environments. It allows factory style precision agriculture. This approach can reduce the environmental impact and the influence of environmental variability associated with future climate change on food production. Controlled environment agriculture (CEA), more commonly known as Vertical Farming. It offers many advantages. Crops can be grown on a smaller area of land, water can be recycled and used over and over again. Plants grow on minerals and do not need soil. Many farming products can be harvested more than once per year. With some fruits, like strawberries, up to 30 harvests would be possible. These resources are instead provided via the use of innovative lighting and nutrient delivery technologies.

It is most commonly associated with urban farm production systems, as these can easily be integrated into urban landscapes, reducing the length of supply chains. However, this style of production may also have the potential to benefit general agricultural production outside of urban situations. Using controlled environments, crops can be cultivated which may otherwise be unsuited to UK climates, reducing reliance on

overseas supply chains. Food production systems also face numerous future challenges with regard to feeding growing populations. Vertical Farming allows for faster, more controlled production, irrespective of season.

One acre of vertical farming can provide the produce equivalent to between 10-20 crores of conventional production. This system offers a model to enable greater future food security, as production through such controlled systems is not vulnerable to variability of factors such as climate or pests and pathogens. Furthermore, a vertical farm can take advantage of low value land otherwise unavailable for food production. Vertical Farming is thus regarded as a realistic future farming system, which may offer the stable model needed for future food production, to provide for the 3 billion increases in population predicted by 2050.

Current systems: There are three main systems utilised for CEA: hydroponics, aeroponics and aquaponics. All three are systems for the growth of vegetation using no soil, but instead nutrient rich water solutions, which plant roots access directly.

In hydroponic systems, the nutrient solution

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is pumped around reservoirs which the plant roots grow directly into, whereas in aeroponic systems, the plant roots grow free and a water and nutrient solution is sprayed directly onto them. This increases the degree of aeration of the roots, which can have favourable effects in terms of plant health and growth potential. Aquaponics is a combination of aquaculture and hydroponics. Linking these systems means that the plants can use the fish waste as a fertiliser. Meanwhile, the hydroponic system filters the water before returning it to the fish. This can be an effective production system when crop/fish pairings requiring similar environmental conditions are chosen, as it reduces the cost burden for fertiliser and produces an additional crop in the form of fish.

Environmental Impact: Reducing the environmental impact of modern farming is important to achieve sustainability. Vertical Farming systems can offer a raft of potential opportunities to reduce environmental impact. This approach offers a system with no loss of nutrients to the environment, vastly reduced land requirement (10-20 times), better control of waste, less production loss to pests and diseases (~ 40% less), year round crop production, increased daylight hours or growing time per day, no variation in productivity due to weather variation, and no adverse effects of extreme weather events. Most vertical farms also use 70-80% less water than conventional growing. Globally, around 70 % fresh water available for human use is used for agriculture, which is a major environmental and human health issue. In the UK, this figure is much lower (~10%); but this is likely to increase as a consequence of climate change.

A CE system can present a scenario where, in principal, all production factors can be regulated. The precise nature of this approach means that the use of expensive materials such as fertiliser can be targeted and limited to only what is necessary. This system therefore avoids costly and damaging losses to the environment. As a simple consequence of regulating all the inputs to plants, the potential for inadvertent contamination is also reduced. In typical field environments, heavy metals or pathogens can contaminate soils, both inadvertently through the application of soil treatments and fertiliser, or via natural processes.

Energy efficiency: The principal limiting factor for a CE system is the amount of energy required to grow produce, and thus the economic cost of production. This fact has drawn criticism from several areas with regard viability, and to whether CEA has merit in terms of reducing environmental impact and delivering food security solutions. However, modern renewable energy technologies may hold great potential in terms of converting sunlight and wind power into usable energy for internal heating and lighting. In addition, low energy lighting systems, such as those utilising LED bulbs, may limit the level to which energy is required. A study that modelled

energy requirements indicated that solar panels could produce sufficient energy to meet lighting and water pumping requirements, suggesting a good degree of feasibility in production terms with the application of renewable energy technologies. Of course, this is likely to only be the case in areas with plentiful sunlight.

Food production in controlled environments allows systems to be developed which can capitalise on all opportunities to recapture and re-use resources. This can come in both the recycling of building energy, or the recovery of energy from the non-used plant products, such as roots.

Vertical Farms have basic requirements for heat, energy, CO2 and nutrients and as such, represent an excellent opportunity for co-location with other systems. Any operation or process that generates a surplus of these resources is an opportunity to improve the economic potential of both that business and a vertical farm. Examples could be on-farm anaerobic digestion, renewable energy production, CHP plants, server farms or industrial food processing plants. This mutually beneficial economic model potentially allows value to be reclaimed from what would otherwise be wasted resources, and which would require further energy to generate anew.

Crops to be grown: In simple terms, choosing crops which have a rapid growth potential and a high market value is likely to return maximum value. By virtue of not being limited by seasonal variation, crops can grow continuously. Thus, those that can be matured ready for sale in the shortest period of time, offer the greatest benefit in terms of financial return.

It is possible to argue that any crop has the potential for indoor cultivation, yet this is perhaps too simplistic a position to take. By the nature of the activity, CEA allows crops to be grown which may otherwise struggle in the UK climate, either at certain times or throughout the year. By focussing on crops which would only be available through importation, CEA can increase UK food security, reduce the environmental footprint of sizeable supply chain distances, and offer farmers the chance to grow premium crops locally, which would previously have been unfeasible for cultivation in the UK.

Furthermore, no crop as yet has been bred specifically for growth in controlled environments, representing an interesting new challenge for researchers and breeders. The use of artificial lighting can mean individual wavelengths of light can be controlled, which could improve plant growth and nutritional quality. New varieties specifically bred for these conditions (both environmental and physical) will need to be developed, which can fully capitalise on these new opportunities.

SUMMARY: Global food production systems need to address significant challenges in the coming decades. Finding ways to feed a growing global population whilst reducing environmental impact of agricultural activities is of critical

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importance. Vertical farming offers a realistic alternative to conventional production for some crops. It could help to achieve the necessary level of food production, whilst overcoming some environmental challenges. This approach may also allow for the production of goods which are highly desirable to UK consumers, but which can only be cultivated in climates warmer than our

own. These systems are at an early stage and more research is necessary to understand its environmental and economic impact. Yet, as we build more, and innovation continues to address the production problems, vertical farming is likely to become more commonplace, in both urban and more rural situations.


Spices: For Preventing Chronic Problems Panda Arun Kumar*

Dr. YSR Horticultural University, Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Spices contain various phytochemicals which play a major role in reducing or preventing occurrence of many diseases enhancing various organ functions of the human body, by acting as antioxidants or by supplying necessary nutrients. Use of herbs, spices and plants present in nature is widely used since ancient times and is passed on from one generation to other. It has been proven that many traditional healing herbs and their parts possess medicinal value and can be used to prevent, alleviate or cure several human diseases [1]. 70– 80% of people worldwide rely mainly on traditional, largely herbal medicine to meet their primary healthcare needs. For patients with systolic hypertension, congestive heart failure, angina pectoris, cerebral insufficiency, atherosclerosis and venous insufficiency, plant based treatments have been used. The effectiveness of plant sterols and stanols for lowering cholesterol and as such, reducing the chances for heart disorders has been proven.

Fenugreek Seeds of methi are of commercial interest as these are source of diosgenin, a steroid which is of great importance to the pharmaceutical industry. Fenugreek is extensively cultivated as a drug plant, nowadays. Methi seeds are mucilageneous and possess several medicinal qualities as a tonic, carminative (relieving flatulence), emollient (softening or soothing the skin), demulcent (relieving irritation or inflammation), restorative, diuretic, aphrodisiac and vermifugal properties. It can also be used to cure chapped lips, mouth ulcers, and stomach irritation. Fenugreek seeds helpful for treating diabetes and lowering cholesterol. Suitable cultivar for growing is rajendra kranti

Turmeric The anticarcinogenic effects of turmeric and curcumin are related to direct antioxidant and free-radical scavenging effects. These possess the ability to indirectly increase glutathione levels thus, helping in hepatic detoxification of mutagens and carcinogens, and inhibiting nitrosamine formation [2]. Turmeric has the potential to combat against various allergies,

cancers, diabetes, arthritis, Alzheimer‟ s disease and other chronic and hard curable diseases [3].A study revealed that ingestion or intake of turmeric oleoresin and essential oil inhibits the development of increased blood glucose and abdominal fat mass in obese, diabetic rats [4]. Best cultivar for turmeric is rajendra Sonia. Volatile oil of Turmeric is effective against respiratory tract disorders. It helps in relieving cough, removing sputum and preventing asthma.

Curry Leaves The major constituent responsible for the aroma and flavor in curry leaves are pinene, sabinene, caryophyllene, cadinol and cadinene. The antioxidative properties of the leaves extracts of Murraya koenigii using different solvents were evaluated based on the oil stability index. Chronic ethanol consumption reduces the cellular antioxidant levels through free radical induced injury causing hepatitis and cirrhosis with mortality in severe cases [5]. It also shows antibacterial activity against S. typhi and E. coli. Carbazole derivatives are well known for their various pharmacological activities, including anti-HIV, anticancer, antibacterial and antifungal activities. Nalkylated 3, 6-dihalogenocarbazoles which is a series of substituted carbazoles exhibits fungicidal activity against emerging pathogen Candida glabrata and C. albicans. Suvasini is best cultivar in curry leaf.

Black Pepper Dietary piperine helps in enhancing digestion by stimulating pancreatic enzymes and significantly decreases the food transit time of gastrointestinal tract. Panniyur – 1 is hybrid suitable for cultivation. The oral administration of active compounds like piperine, pipene, piperamines and piperamides significantly increases the activities of enzymes like pancreatic amylase activity, protease activity, lipase activity and chymotrypsin activation [7].

Conclusion The bioactive compounds present in various spices have the potential to be used in the pharmacological industry to provide natural products to the population suffering from various

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chronic problems. Strike the right balance and add some spice to your life and another side farmers have a scope and increase economic viability by establishing small scale industries. The highest production under spices is Andhra Pradesh.

References Kamal-Eldin, A. and A. Moazzami, 2009: Plant

sterols and stanols as cholesterol-lowering ingredients in functional foods. Recent Patents on Food, Nutrition & Agriculture. 1, 1-14.

Shpitz B, Giladi N, Sagiv E, Lev-Ari S, Liberman E, Kazanov D, et al, 2006: Celecoxib and curcumin additively inhibit the growth of colorectal cancer in a rat model. Digestion. 74, 140-4.

Mahmoud Rafieian-kopaei, Najmeh Sahinfard, Mortaza Rafieian, Samira Rafieian, Maryam Shirzad, 2014: Turmeric: A spice with

multifunctional medicinal properties. J Herb Med Pharmacol. 3(1), 5-8.

Honda S, Aoki F, Tanaka H. et al, 2006: Effects of ingested turmeric oleoresin on glucose and lipid metabolisms in obese diabetic mice: A DNA microarray study. J Agric Food Chem. 54, 9055–62

Patil Rupali Arun, Mukund Langade Padmaja, Babarao Dighade Pramod and Hiray Ashok Yogesh, 2012

Antinociceptive activity of acute and chronic administration of Murrayakoenigii L. leaves in experimental animal models. Indian J Pharmacol. 44(1), 15–19.

Srinivasan K, 2007: Black pepper and its pungent principle-piperine: a review of diverse physiological effects. Critical reviews in food science and Nutrition. 47(8), 735-748


Spice Oleoresins: A Drop that Transforms the Way You Cook

Kiran S. Giri

Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Samarth Agriculture College, Deulgaon Raja, Dist-Buldana, Maharashtra.

Oleoresins are a naturally occurring combination of oil and resin that can be extracted from different plants. They are a highly concentrated substance that exists in liquid form. India enjoys the distinction of being the single largest supplier of spice oleoresins to the world. These products are typically dispersed in a dry neutral carrier or liquid such as vegetable oil to the desired strength. The quality of an oleoresin is typically evaluated on the basis of presence of the active ingredients in desired levels. As these are concentrated extracts, they are typically used as a diluted dispersion plated on a neutral dry carrier or as a diluted blend in a solubilising medium such as vegetable oil to match the desired strength of the ground spice. It contains the volatile as well as non volatile constituents of spices. Oleoresins can replace ground spices without impairing any flavour and aroma characteristic. They are complete and balanced, consistent, and standardised. All the spices contain essential oils in varying proportions which can be extracted by steam distillation.

Oleoresins can be extracted from paprika, chilli, turmeric, ginger, black pepper, funnel, cumin, fenugreek and so many plants. Paprika and chilli oleoresins are the innovations that have become immensely popular in the last few years. They are obtained from spices by extraction with a non-aqueous solvent followed by removal of the solvent by evaporation. This spice derivative has the same character and property of the spice it is obtained from. They reproduce the character of the respective spice and spice oil fully. Chilli contains the major flavouring and colouring principles of spice; the

major flavouring principle is capsaicin; the major colouring principles are capsanthin and capsorubin.

The exception of paprika and turmeric oleoresins, the extraction of oleoresins starts with the extraction of the volatile part of the plant (the essential oil) by a distillation process. The remaining raw material is then exposed to a solvent suitable to extract the non-volatiles. After this process, the solvent is removed from the extract. This procedure is repeated various times until all non-volatiles are removed from the plant material. Finally, the non-volatile part (resin) and the volatile part (oil) are blended and homogenised (mixed to get the same composition in all parts of the blend) to make a smooth oleoresin and to get the whole flavour plus colour including spiciness.

Advantages of Oleoresins It gives consistency in flavour. These are not affected by bacterial

contamination. These are easy to store, transport and easy

blendability to achieve the desired features. More stable when heated. They are more economical to use. Easier to control for quality and cleaner than

the equivalent ground spices. Concentrated form reduces storage space

and bulk handling and transport requirements.

Longer shelf life due to minimal oxidative degradation or loss of flavour.

Uses of Oleoresins It is use as colouring agent in jellies, jams,

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gelatine preparations, meats, snack foods, and cereals.

In poultry feed to enhance the colour of eggs and poultry.

In frozen foods, desserts, soups, fish preserved in oil, meat sauces, or any prepared food where a more vibrant colour is desired.

In the preparation of some medicines. In soaps, candle making, and hair lotions.

Oleoresins have large domestic as well as export markets. They are consumed by broad spectrum of manufacturer of beverages, soup powders, curry powders, confectioneries,

noodles, canned meats, sauces, poultry products and so on. These are mainly used in processed meat, fish and vegetable soups, sauces, chutneys and dressings, cheeses and other dairy products, baked foods, confectionery, snacks and beverages. Spice oleoresins have wide applications, mainly as a flavouring agent in the food processing industry. The oleoresins and spice oils are preferred because of their microbiological advantages, uniformity in flavour and pungency, ease of storage and transport. The use of spice is rapidly replaced with oleoresins and exports of these products instead of raw spices results in considerable value addition.


Dried Flowers: A New Paradigm in Floriculture Ashvini H. Gaidhani*

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Dr. P. D. K. V., Akola, Maharashtra. *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Flowers are an integral part of Indian culture. Flowers are being used for offering and decorative purposes all over the country since ancient times. Dried flowers are the everlasting flowers which are made from the suitable plant materials by drying.

Dried flowers are the important products of present day floriculture due to their long lasting quality, year round availability, easy handling, low transportation cost, eco-friendly and suitable for subsequent flower products Potpourri, a segment of dried flower is used to give fragrances. Dried flowers occupy a major chunk of the total floriculture.

India is the fifth largest exported of dried flowers and the industry exports 500 varieties of flowers from India to 20 countries and is highly in demand in USA and UK markets. India is one of the major exporters of dried flowers to the tune of 5% world trade in dry flowers. This industry shows a growth rate of 15% annually. Potpourris are a major segment of dry flower industry valued at Rs. 55 crore in India alone. The main export markets for Indian dry flower industry are USA, Netherlands, UK and Germany.

There are four important location dry flower industries such as Delhi, West Bengal (Kolkata), Tamilnadu (Tuticorin) and Maharashtra (Mumbai and Pune) were the dry flower is exported from India to other countries.

Important Characteristics of Dried Ornamental Novelty Longevity Aesthetics Flexibility Year round availability

Pot Pourri Pot pourries can be defined as the mixture / combination of dried flowers, petals and other

plant materials with spices or other fragrance materials and it is used to scent the air. It consists of an attractive mixture of dried plant materials of assorted shapes, size, texture and color which makes it as a decorative item as well.

More than 300 types of various plant materials are used for the production of potpourri. The material used for potpourri should have either a strong natural colour or light enough to absorb non-toxic dyes.

TABLE 1: Commonly used dried flowers and flower pods

Plant material

Description Image

Arjun tree pods (Terminalia arjuna)

One of the main plant materials used in pot pourries. The pods are 2.5 to 5 cm fibrous woody fruit, divided into five wings.

Pine cones and casuarina pods

Pine cones of trees like cedar, chir pine, birch tree from the hilly regions and they are dried, varnished and used as decorative and potpourri fillers.

Lotus pods (Nelumbo nucifera)

Lotus pods are one of the largest exported dried flower products from India. The buds are used as cut flowers for making floral

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Plant material

Description Image

arrangements and the dried torus is used in floral decorations.

Statice (Limonium latifolium, Limonim sinuatum

The individual flowers are minute, borne in billow sprays on branching wiry stems. Purple, yellow, white, pink are the common colours.

Celosia species

they are plumes, crests, or spikes; most commonly in red, yellow, cream, orange, rose, deep magenta, and pink colours.

Straw flower (Xerochrysum bracteatu)

Flower heads are of 3-7cm size, in yellow, pink, white and orange red colours. It comprises of a central disc which contains a number of florets.

Cosmos Cosmos bipinnatus,

Cosmos flowers are produced in a capitulum. Cosmos flowers are 2-4 inches in diameter. Cosmos flowers come in brightly colored single or double flowers which include white, pink, orange, yellow, and scarlet colors.

Apart from these, some commonly used plant materials for pot pourries and dried flower decorations are lily pods, cotton pods, coconut palm cap, palm cap, palm fruit, corn cobs, okra pods, stones from peaches and apricots.

Decorative Arrangements The dried flowers and foliage are used to make greeting cards, paper weight, candles, handmade paper, wall hangings, lampshades and other flower arrangements. At present plant materials

with distinct shapes are used for this purpose. Any interesting and decorative cones, nuts, gourds, seed pods, flowers, foliage, fruits, and even small, graceful tree branches can be modified into dried flower.

There are two general categories of dried materials, those collected in an already dry condition and those picked fresh and in need of artificial drying. For making dried flower arrangement, the material should have the natural stalk of 15-40cm. if the stalks are not of an acceptable length or quality, the product have wire stalks attached with hot glue.

Methods of Dehydration of Flowers 1. Air drying 2. Embedded drying: - Boric acid, Silica gel,

River sand and Saw dust 3. Microwave drying 4. Pressing 5. Wet drying 6. Freeze drying 7. Polyset drying: - Humectants are used, Sugar

and sugar alcohols, Polyols and Salt (Kcl)

Packaging and Storage of Dried Flowers Dried flowers are delicate in nature and hence should be protected from all possible damages like physical damages and insect damages. Proper cushioning shall be provided while storing the dried flower products. Some dried flower tends to lose/fade its colour upon exposure to sunlight. Hence proper care must be taken to prevent exposure to direct sunlight. Application of fungicide, insecticides or sulphur fumigation can be done prior to packaging to control microbial and insect damages. Polyethylene bags as primary package is widely used and the retail packs are stacked inside corrugated carton boxes for further transportation and storage.

Marketing Easy availability of products from forests, possibility of manpower available for labour intensive craft making and availability of wide range of products throughout the year are the reasons for development of dry flower industry in India. The trend for dried flower is ever increasing and dried flowers and potpourris are sold in the rate of minimum Rs 250. The input required in terms of money is very much less when compared to the fresh flowers. Since rural and tribal India is rich in floral resources, they collect the raw material for dried flower production without any drudgery. They can make artistic dried flower arrangements and other dried flower products without much input.

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Impact of Climate Change on Vegetable Production and Adaptation Measures

Chanchal Nikam1, Ashvini Gaidhani2, Minakshi Neware3 and S. D. Tayade4

1&2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture and 3&4Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agril. Botany, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola

Climate change influences vegetable production worldwide. However, its nature and impact vary, depending on the degree of climate change, geographical region, and crop production system. Possible impact of climate change may be visualized by change in productivity with reference to quality of crops; changes in agricultural practices like use of water, fertilizers, and pesticides; and environmental influences particularly in relation to the frequency and intensity of soil drainage which may lead to loss of nitrogen through leaching, soil erosion, and reduction of crop diversity.

Vegetables are in general more sensitive to environmental extremes such as high temperatures and soil moisture stress. CO2, a major greenhouse gas, influences growth and development as well as incidence of insect pests and diseases of vegetable crops. Under changing climatic situations, crop failures, shortage of yields, reduction in quality, and increasing pest and disease problems are common, and they render the vegetable cultivation unprofitable. Agriculture production needs to be adapted to the changing climate by mitigating its impact. Unless measures are undertaken to adapt to the effects of climate change on vegetable production, nutritional security in developing countries will be under threat.

Some important effect of various climatic factors on vegetable growth and development and incidence of pest and diseases has been summarized below.

Temperature Fluctuations in daily mean maximum and minimum temperature is the primary effect of climate change that adversely affects vegetable production as many plant physiological, bio-chemical and metabolic activities are temperature dependent. Potato is the fourth most important and non-cereal staple food of the mankind. Potato is well known for its exact temperature and day length requirement for tuber formation as well as flowering, so it becomes the most vulnerable crop for climate change. Potato productivity is expected to decline in all potato growing states of India.

Fruit colour is having significant importance in assessing the marketable quality of tomato. The optimum temperature for development of lycopene pigment in tomato is 25-300

C. Degradation of lycopene starts at above 270 C and it is completely destroyed at 400 C. Similarly high temperatures above 250 C affect

pollination and fruit set in tomato. Abnormal pollen production, abnormal development of the female reproductive tissues, hormonal imbalances and lower levels of carbohydrates and lack of pollination are responsible for the poor reproductive performance of tomatoes at high temperatures. High temperature inhibits ripening by inhibiting the accumulation of ripening related m-RNAs, thereby inhibits continuous protein synthesis including ethylene production, lycopene accumulation and cell-wall dissolution. In pepper, exposure to high temperature at post-pollination stage inhibits fruit set. High temperature affects red colour development in ripen chilli fruits and also causes flower drop, ovule abortion, poor fruit set and fruit drop in chilli.

Drought and Salinity Drought and salinity and are the most important side effects of global warming. The prevalence of drought conditions adversely affects the germination of seeds in vegetable

Crops like onion and okra and sprouting of tubers in potato. Potato is highly sensitive to drought. A moderate level of water stress can also cause reductions in tuber yield. As succulent leaves are commercial products in leafy vegetables like amaranthus, palak and spinach, the drought conditions reduce their water content thereby reduces their quality. Drought increases the salt concentration in the soil and affects the reverse osmosis of loss of water from plant cells. This leads to an increased water loss in plant cells and inhibition of several physiological and biochemical processes such as photosynthesis, respiration etc., thereby reduces productivity of most vegetables. Salt stress causes loss of turgor, reduction in growth, wilting, leaf abscission, decreased photosynthesis and respiration, loss of cellular integrity, tissue necrosis and finally death of the plant. Onions are susceptible to saline soils, while cucumber, eggplant, pepper, and tomato are moderately sensitive to saline soils. Salinity causes a significant reduction in germination percentage, germination rate, and root and shoots length and fresh root and shoot weight in cabbage.

Salinity tends to reduce the tuber yield in potato. The combined stress of salinity and heat results in failure of vegetative growth recovery and a consequent reduction in the leaf area index and canopy functioning due to the damage of salt accumulation avoiding mechanism in young expanding leaves of potato. The no. of fruits per

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plant is more affected by salinity than the individual fruit weight. High salt concentration causes a reduction in fresh and dry weight of all cucurbits. These changes are associated with a decrease in relative water content and total chlorophyll content. Salt stress causes suppression of growth and photosynthesis activity and changes in stomata conductivity, number and size in bean plants. It reduces transpiration and the cell water potential in salt-effected bean plants. The high salinity levels of soil and irrigation water are known to affect many physiological and metabolic processes, leading to cell growth reduction.

Other Stress Factors CO2 and Relative Humidity

Due to increased anthropogenic activities, concentration of green house gases like CO2 and CH4 is increasing in the atmosphere day by day. They are not only responsible for global warming but also cause their own direct effect on growth and development of plants. Potato plants grown under elevated CO2 may have larger photosynthetic rates up to some extent, later on with increase in CO2 concentration the photosynthetic rates will come down. The high atmospheric CO2 content inhibits tomato fruit ripening. This inhibition is due to the suppression of the expression of ripening associated genes, which is probably related to the stress effect exerted by high CO2. Relative humidity and CO2 can potentially affect pest and

Air Pollutants and UV Radiation

Air pollutants such as SO2, O3, acid rain etc. affect the plant tissue and pathogens directly. There are considerable reports which indicate that plants show varied response to foliar pathogens under polluted air. In addition, root attacking pathogens, such as plant nematodes may also be influenced due to host mediated effects of pollutants. Higher concentrations of SO2 and O3 (200-300 ppb) inhibited the germination, invasion and sporulation of plant

pathogenic fungi, consequently plants developed diseases of lower severity growing in the stressed areas. However, air pollutants at lower concentrations such as 50-100 ppb may act as predisposing agent and aggravate plant diseases. SO2 and O3 at 50-100 ppb increased the severity of fungal and nematode diseases by stimulating spore germination and invasion of fungi and egg hatching, penetration and reproduction of plant parasitic nematodes. The ever increasing concentration of the dioxides of nitrogen and sulfur in the atmosphere causes the degradation of ozone layer leading to the penetration of harmful UV rays on to the Earth surface. Vegetables like tomato, cabbage, potatoes and sugar beets are more susceptible to UV radiation than others. Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation negatively affects plant cell functions. Exposure to higher level of UV-B significantly reduces dry weight, leaf area and plant height moreover, it inhibits tomato growth through reducing the photosynthetic area. Exposing the leaves of french bean to ultra-violet light produces external effects such as glazing and bronzing and increases susceptibility to virus infection. Being a highly sensitive plant to UV rays, cucumber cotyledons are at real risk of exposure at early stages of germination to elevated UV radiation.

Adaptation Measures

1. More permeable surfaces. 2. Basement sewer backflow valves. 3. Upgrades to sewers, culverts and overflow

routes for extreme rainfall. 4. Enhanced emergency and business

continuity planning for extreme weather events.

CONCLUSION: Under changing climatic situations, crop failures, shortage of yields, reduction in quality, and increasing pest and disease problems are common, and they render the vegetable cultivation unprofitable. Agriculture production needs to be adapted to the changing climate by mitigating its impact.


Artificial Ripening of Fruits Kadarla Chaitanya1 and Appani Laxman Kumar2

1Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Agriculture College, Polasa, Jagtial, PJTSAU 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture, Sri Konda Laxman Telangana

State Horticultural University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.

Fruits are supposed to provide high nutrition and form a key food commodity in our consumption. These days fruits are ripened using various chemicals to meet their high demand and overcome transportation damage. These chemicals affect our metabolism in one or the other way and cause a number of health problems. So ripening fruits using artificial agents has become a serious health concern.

Ripening is a natural physiological process that makes the fruit sweeter, more palatable,

edible, nutritious, softer and attractive. Ripening is also associated with colour change due to the pigments that are already present or are produced during ripening.

Artificial Ripening is done mainly to fulfill customers’ demand to get high profits and to minimize other losses. The cell walls of fruits that are picked green are firm, so green fruits may be shipped or stored with much less injury than ripe fruits. In ripe fruits the chemical transformations are proceeding at a high rate,

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while in green fruits digestion and respiration are comparatively slow. Even if the processes of 'respiration and digestion are slowed down by storing the fruit at temperatures near the freezing point, ripe fruits do not keep so well as green fruits. The keeping of fruits in storage in a nearly mature but firm condition is to he recommended.

Artificial Ripening Agents As ethylene is the main natural ripening agent, artificial ripening agents are used to produce ethylene. These agents accelerate the process of ripening. Fruits are placed in wooden boxes lined with hay. The crates are placed one over the other and wood fire is lit below it. The smoke produced so contains ethylene which inducing ripening.

In some cases generators are used to produce ethylene gas. The sensors help in regulating the gas supply. 1 ppm of ethylene in air is sufficient to induce ripening.

A number of fruits can be ripened by placing them in plastic bags. Sometimes fruits and vegetables are placed in big rooms, in which ethylene or acetylene gas is introduced. For example: bananas are picked up when they are hard and green. They are transported in this stage to avoid damage during shipping and transportation. After reaching the destination they are exposed to ethylene gas to ripen.

Calcium Carbide (CaC2) is the most common and widely used artificial ripening agent in various parts of the country especially South Asia including India. It is commonly known as ‘Masala’. It is produced on an industrial scale for the production of acetylene used for various purposes. The commonly available grade in market is grey or brown and contains 80-85% calcium carbide. It produces garlic smell in the presence of moisture. When sprayed with water, it reacts chemically to produce acetylene (C2H2).

CaC2 + 2H2O Ca (OH)2 + C2H2

Acetylene acts like ethylene and ripens the fruits and vegetables by the similar process. Industrial grade calcium carbide generally contains impurities of arsenic and phosphorus that pose a number of health problems. This is the reason its use is banned in most of the countries. But because of cheap prices and easy availability, it is still in use.

A simple technology practiced in households to trigger ripening is to keep unripened and ripened fruits together inside an air tight container. Since the already ripened fruits release ethylene, ripening will be faster.

Another method is to place the fruits intended for ripening inside an air tight room and induce ripening through smoking inside smoke chambers. Smoke emanates acetylene gas. Several fruit traders follow this technique to achieve uniform ripening especially in edible fruits like banana and mango. But the major drawback of this method is that the fruits do not attain uniform colour and flavour. In addition, the persistence of smoke odour on the product

impairs its quality. Spreading unripe fruits as layers over paddy

husk or wheat straw for a week to ripen is an alternative.

Another practice is that some farmers dip unripe mature fruits in 0.1 per cent ethrel solution (1 ml of ethrel solution in 1 litre of water) and wipe it dry. The fruits are then spread over a newspaper without touching each other and a thin cotton cloth is covered over this. In this method, the fruits will ripen within two days.

In one of the simple and harmless techniques, 10 ml of ethrel and 2 gm of sodium hydroxide pellets are mixed in five litres of water taken in a wide mouthed vessel. This vessel is placed inside the ripening chamber near the fruits and the room is sealed air tight. About a third of the room is filled with fruits leaving the remaining area for air circulation. Ripening of fruits takes place in about 12 to 24 hours. In order to reduce the cost of chemical, some ethylene releasing fruits such as papaya and banana can also kept in the same room.

Ethylene gas filled in pressurized cans promote fruit ripening in 24-48 hours.

The only safe and worldwide accepted method is using ethylene, which is a natural hormone for ripening when done under controlled temperature and relative humidity conditions.

Ethylene being a natural hormone does not pose any health hazard for consumers of the fruits. It is a de-greening agent, which can turn the peel from green to perfect yellow (in the case of bananas) and maintain the sweetness and aroma of the fruit, thus value addition in the fruit is possible as it looks more appealing.

Methods of Applying Ethrel Method selected for applying ethylene depends on cost, convenience and safety factors. Use of diluted ethylene gas mixtures is safer than using pure ethylene, which is explosive and flammable at concentrations of 3% or higher. Fruit to be ripened ideally is placed in an airtight ripening room maintained at a constant temperature (18-21o C for most fruits, but 29-31o C in mango).

There are two methods of exposing fruit to ethylene.

Trickle Method It involves trickling ethylene gas into room so as to maintain a concentration of 10 ul per litre, usually for a period of 24 hours. During this time, relative single initial charge of ethylene at a concentration of 20 to 200 ul /litre. Room is then ventilated after 24 hours to prevent carbon dioxide exceeding 1% concentration, which would retard ripening. Rooms that are poorly sealed are packed in vented cartons stacked on pallets, and fruit temperature is controlled by forced air circulation as in a cooling facility. A small fan can be used to ensure a uniform continuous flow of ethylene into and through the room.

Forced-air ripening provides more uniform temperature and ethylene concentration

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throughout ripening room.

Mango ripening using paddy straw

Workers at a fruit market using calcium carbide to ripen raw mangoes

References R. B. Harvey. Bulletin on artificial ripening of fruits

and vegetables.1928. Gupta, R. Artificial ripening of fruits and effects on

health.2017.1-5. Bulletin on Fruit ripening, TNAU.


Timla (Ficus auriculata): A Boon for Garhwal Hills of Uttarakhand

Ankit Kumar*

Ph.D Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar (INDIA) - 263145


INTRODUCTION: Ficus auriculata (L.), locally known as Timla in Garhwali language, Anjeer in Hindi and Elephant Fig in English. Timla is among the most popular and preferred wild edible fruits in mountain states of India. Timla is well-known agroforestry tree of Garhwal. Women carrying Timla leaves as cattle feed or lopping during winter months is an important practice and a common sight. Tree of Timla is a medium-sized, strong light-demander, small spreading widely used for fodder in all regions of Garhwal and Kumaon, distributed up to about 2000 m. Timla is an edible fig, a cultivated deciduous tree that basically grows in dry areas. Leaves of Timla tree are very large thus; the

plant is also called as ‘Elephant Ear Fig’. It is one of the species that is most preferred by hill locals for it’s excellent fodder, fuelwood and fruit quality during lean, long and dry winter season. Timla as a keystone species for mountain states of India and neighbouring mountain countries like Bhutan and Nepal as it plays very fundamental role in ecosystem, due to its fruits and leaves which are eaten by humans, insects, birds and animals throughout the year. Seeds disperse by Seeds are passed through the alimentary canals of birds and other animals that feed on the fruits. Wasps play an important role in pollination and reproduction of this species.

Timla is a 'flowerless fruit' with no visible

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blossoms. Timla produces a unique fruit which is actually an inverted flower. Fruits are pear shaped and reddish brown, hanging on peduncles 2.5 cm or longer. Fruits appear on thin branches emerging from the trunk or from the roots. Unripe Timla fruits can be collected from March to April month of the year for vegetable and pickle preparations. Ripe Timla fruits lusciously sweet with a texture that combines the chewiness of their flesh, the smoothness of their skin, and the crunchiness of their seeds. When ripe, Timla need to be picked daily because they do not stay well on tree. They are best eaten up to five days after they turn ripe whether on or off the plant.

Nutritional Value: According to Wealth of India edible fruit contains nutrients such as crude protein 5.32%, carbohydrates 27.09%, crude fiber 16.96% and ash content 3.7% and minerals as calcium, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus (1.35, 0.90, 2.11 and 0.28 mg/100gm) respectively. Ripe Timla fruits are loaded with glucose, fructose and sucrose, all sugars. Nutritionally speaking, Timla contain almost no fat, sodium, or cholesterol. They have lots of dietary fiber, perhaps the highest of any fruit, and their sugar content is more than fifty percent by weight so they have many calories; and they are a good source of calcium. A medium-size fig has about eighteen milligrams of calcium, and lots of pectin; when cooked it softens. In addition, they are excellent sources of iron too.

Medicinal Value: Ficus auriculata fruits contain sufficient amount of nutrients, required per day by a person. Consumption of fruits may promote general health and well-being as well as reduce the risk of chronic diseases. These findings confirm that the Timla may be potential source for the formulation of nutraceuticals or

natural foods. Chinese traditional medicine doctors have used different wild figs for hundreds of years. It is well researched that Timla fruits invigorates the spleen, moisten the bowels, induces urination, etc. Timla fruits are also good to use when treating dry sore throats and coughs. Ficus species is a rich source of naturally occurring antioxidants of which phenolic compounds and flavonoids play a vital role in preventing innumerable health disorders related to oxidative stress including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Ficus species due to their strong antioxidant and biological properties are also known to diffuse the toxic free radical and can be used as a possible food additive or in nutraceutical and biopharmaceutical industries. It is also reported that Western doctors advise patients to eat figs and other fruits for fiber, and believe they remove toxic body wastes and aid in reducing cholesterol.

References Joshi, D. C. and Ludri, R. S. 1966. The chemical

composition and nutritive value of timla (Ficus roxburghii) and Kharik (Celtis tentreda) tree fodders. Indian Veterinary Journal, 43: 833-837.

Karki, M. B. and Gold, M. A. 1992. Evaluation of growth performance of ten commonly grown fodder tree species in central and western Nepal. Banko-Janakari, 3(4): 21-26.

Panday, K. 1982. Fodder Trees and Tree Fodder in Nepal. Sahayogi Prakashan, Tripureshawar, Kathmandu, Nepal, 107 pp.

Pearson, R. A. 1990. A note on live weight and intake and digestibility of food by draught cattle after supplementation of rice straw with the fodder tree Ficus auriculata. Animal Production, 51: 635-638.


Crop Regulation in Citrus Fruits for Better Economic Returns

G. Chandramohan Reddy*

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana.


INTRODUCTION: Citrus is considered as one of the most important fruit crop of the world. It cultivated widely in the tropical and subtropical regions. India is second largest producer of fruits in the world after China. In India, Citrus ranks third after banana and mango and occupies 14.9 % (10, 42,000 hectare) total area under fruit cultivation with about 12.4 % share (100.90 lac tones) and annual fruit production of the country (Anon., 2017). The commercially grown crops are mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco), Sweet orange (C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck), Grapefruit (C. paradisi Macf.), Pummelo (C. grandis Osbeck), Acid lime (C. aurantifolia Christm.) and lemon (C. limon (L.) Burm. f.) etc. The major citrus

growing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Himanchal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Sikkim and North-Eastern states.

Crop Regulation in Citrus Under equitable climate of South and central India, Citrus bloom thrice in a year. The January-February flowering is known as ambia bahar, the fruit of Ambia bahar ready in the month of November-December, June-July flowering is known as Mrig bahar the fruits of Mrig bahar ready in the month of February-March and October flowering is known as hast bahar, the fruits of hast bahar becomes ready in the month

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of April-May. Under such circumstances, plants give irregular and small crops at indefinite intervals. To overcome this problem and to get fruitful yield in any of the three flowering seasons, treating mandarin trees has been practiced.

Objectives of Bahar Regulation Higher yield: Higher yield is the prime

objective of bahar regulation in citrus. To get higher yield by regulation of flowering in citrus is essential

Better Quality: To get the superior quality fruit crops bahar regulation is important.

More Profit: To get high premium in the market is the important objective of bahar regulation.

Regulation of Flowering in Citrus Regulation of flowering in Citrus is done by different methods these methods are broadly divided into two classes

A. Physical method B. Chemical method

A) Physical Method 1) Withholding of Irrigation

The principle behind withholding irrigation is to provide rest to the plant, and suspending vegetative growth which results in accumulation of food in large quantity for enhancing flowering in the next season. Precipitation less than 100 to 150 mm per month is sufficient to induce flowering when the trees are relieved of stress. Cassin et al. (1969) observed that a combination of vegetative and reproductive growth takes place about 20 to 28 days following the first effective rain or irrigation.

2) Thinning of Flower by Hand

This is cultural method for regulation of flowering. In manual thinning of flower de-blossoming of flower is done by manually which helps for regulation of flowering in Citrus.

3) Pruning

Pruning of trees is practiced to reduce the amount of growth on the plant and to maintain vegetative reproductive balance, to develop plant form with good light distribution, small in size and easy to manage and to regulate the bearing of the trees and to influence the size of fruit.

4) Root Exposure

In this method, roots of the plant are exposed to sun by removing up to 7-10 cm soil around 40-60 cm radius of tree trunk. The water is withheld for a month of two before flowering. As a result of water stress, leaves show wilting and fall on the ground. At this stage the roots are again covered with a mixture of soil and farmyard manure and irrigated immediately. Subsequent irrigations are given at suitable intervals. Consequently, plants give new vegetative growth, profuse flowering and fruiting. However, in light new vegetative soils, exposure of roots should not be practiced and more withholding of water for 2-3 weeks is sufficient for wilting and defoliation of trees.

5) Girdling

The main effect of girdling was the interruption of translocation of nutrient materials mainly solutes due to severance of phloem elements. It is generally thought that various substances accumulate above or distal to the girdle. Girdling may also interrupt the translocation in the phloem of the still unidentified floral stimulus originating in mature leaves. The time of girdling affects response. Although summer girdling (November -February) had little effect autumn girdling (early in the inductive period) increased initiation and differentiation of flower buds the following spring.

B) Chemical Methods In chemical method the regulation of flowering is done with the use of different growth regulators and chemicals which can be described as follows

1) Gibberellins

Gibberellins may play a pivotal role in cirrus flowering through inhibitory effects on generative shoot production. It apparently must arrive at or near the time of bud break to exert its impact on inflorescence development. Prasad et al. (1980) reported that gibberellic acid treatment with foliar application of 1000 g N/tree with GA at 150 ppm resulted better fruit set, retention and yields in acid lime trees.

2) Paclobutrazol

Paclobutrazol a growth retardant apparently inhibits the biosynthesis of Gibberelin. Application of paclobutrazol (cultar) as a plant growth regulators have been recently used in horticultural crops for early induction of flower, profuse flowering, fruit thinning, prevention of premature flower and fruit drop, improving fruit quality, etc. Paclobutrazol results in early flowering and physiological maturity of vegetative growth causing higher flower bud initiation with early harvesting

3) Cycocel

Cycocel is considered as a growth retardant, which reduces vegetative growth and induces flower bud initiation. Desai et al. (1982) revealed that cycocel sprayed at 1000 ppm resulted in increase in the number of flowers and fruits.

CONCLUSION: To regulate uniform and good quality fruits and to maximize the production as well as profit to the growers bahar regulation is essential. Stress is a prerequisite factor for flowering in citrus which may be induced by withholding of irrigation and inhibited by applying different growth regulators. Bahar treatment with combination of different growth regulators and diferent horticultural practices is found to be beneficial for regulation of the bahar in citrus and enhancing the income of the grower.

References Anonymous. 2017. Area and production of

Horticultural fruit crops at http://www.google/nhm.com

Garcia Luis, M.A., Kanduser, M. and Guardiola, J.L.

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1995. The influence of fruiting on thebud sprouting and flower induction responses to chilling in Citrus. J. Hort. Sci. 70 (5): 817-825.

Kaur Nirmaljit, J. S. Josan, P.K. Monga and P.K. Arora. 2005. Chemical regulation of overbearing in Kinnow mandarin. Indian J. Hort. 62(4): 396-399

Nath J. C. Regulation of flowering time, plant growth and yield in Assam lemon (Citrus limon) with the help of pruning and growth regulator’s. 1999. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 69

(4): 292-294. Pawar S. K., Desai U. T. and Choudhari S M. 1994.

Effect of pruning and thinning on growth, yield and quality of pomegranate. Annals of Arid Zone 31:45-7.

Singh S. and S. A. Naqvi, 2001. Citrus. International Book Distributing Company. Lucknow. India. pp 297-312.

Srivastava A. K., Shyam Singh and A.D. Huchche. 2000. An analysis of citrus flowering a review. Agricultural Reviews 21(1):1-15


Value Added Products in Flower Crops Nellipalli Vinod Kumar*

Ph.D. Scholar, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, West Bengal. *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Value addition is a process in which for the same volume of a primary product, a high price is realized by means of processing, packing, upgrading the quality or other such methods. Value-added floriculture refers most generally to manufacturing process that increases the value of primary commodities. Value-added floriculture may also refer to increasing the economic value of a commodity through particular production process e.g. organic produce, or through regionally branded products that increase consumer appeal and willingness to pay a premium over similar but differentiated products. Now a days there is a huge importance to floriculture because no ritual or occasion is completed without the use of flower products. The flower products are being used in various sectors of commercial industries like, food industry, pharmaceutical industry and cosmetic industry etc. The value-added products in floriculture is divided into 1. Value added products from fresh flowers and live plants 2. Dry flower products.

A) Value Added Products from Fresh Flowers and Live Plants. 1. Pot plants: The flowering and foliage plants

are grown as pot plants to enhanced the beauty of the surroundings both in the home and public places. This is a growing trend allover the world in the current scenario. Commercially this kind of foliage plant nurseries have taken boom and it’s a good sign of development in the floriculture scenario.

2. Flower Bouquets: A flower bouquet is a beautifully made structure filled with beautiful and scented flowers along with filler materials. Flower bouquet can be arranged for decorating homes or public buildings or may be handheld. Flower bouquets are often given for special occasions such as birthdays or anniversaries’. They are also used extensively in weddings. Bouquets arranged in vases or planters for home decor can be

arranged in either traditional or modern styles.

3. Rangoli: Rangoli is a decoration made generally on the floor with the use of powder colors on different occasions like festivals, marriages and inauguration ceremonies etc. Now a days keeping in view the ecofriendly nature, in place of artificial colors, different colored flowers are used for creating green color either turf grass clippings or foliage clippings are used.

4. Garlands: The garlands are used for various religious functions and festivals. These are prepared by tying the flowers together with the help of needle in a string or thread by using different types of flowers. Sometimes foliage can also be added with flowers to make garlands. The flowers mostly used for making garlands are roses, chrysanthemum, mangold, Jasmine, tuberose, orchids etc.

5. Cut flower arrangements: Cut flowers can be used for making various flower arrangements with fillers. Flowers like roses, carnation, chrysanthemum, lilium and other high value crops are suitable for making different type of flower arrangement. The flower arrangements can be Japanese style of arrangements namely, ikebana, moribana and English style like upright, slanting, regular, irregular and curved shaped etc.

6. Gajra and venis: Gajra and venis are prominently used in the southern India. Gajra and venis are used to decorate hairs, and they are made of flowers like crossandra, barleria, jasmine, tuberose, champak, chrysanthemum, gomphrena etc.

7. Wreaths: Wreaths are made up of the combination of flowers and foliage, in an intricate manner, they are used for mainly to pay homage to departed souls and other rituals.

8. Buttonhole/ boutonniere: These are generally worn by man in the lapel of a coat and can also be worn by women. It is prepared by using single small flower like rose or orchid along with filler materials like thuja leaf etc.

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9. Corsage: A flower or small arrangement of flowers worn by a person as a personal ornament. Typically worn by women on special occasions a corsage may be worn pinned to the chest or tied to the wrist, it is usually larger or more elaborate than a boutonniere.

B) Dry flower products India is one of the leading countries in the dry flower industries and major export destinations of Indian dry flower products are Europe USA and Asian countries.

1. Pot pourries: Potpourri is a mixture of sweet-scented plant parts including flowers, leaves, stems, roots, and seeds in glass bowl, ceramic bowl or in colorful satin or muslin cloth. Dried flowers are a common component of pot pourris. The basis of a pot pourri is the aromatic oils found within the plant. Two kinds of pot pourries can be made, dry and moist the best potpourris have a natural scent that comes from a natural ingredients, dried flowers, leaves, seeds, roots, barks, wood, resins and spices individual ingredients contribute aroma, texture, color, and/or bulk. Rose petals, gomphrena, mangold petals, lotus pods, are ideally suitable for making pot pourris.

2. Dry flower arrangement: Dry flowers may be arranged in dry vases, just as fresh cut flowers are arranged. They may be arranged in bouquets or wall displays after fastening them to decorative bands. Pressed leaves and flowers may be laminated and arranged in an album. Dried flowers should be handled with care since they are more delicate than fresh flowers. Flowers can be dried with a high precision and they look like natural fresh flowers but can be cherished for a longer period of time. The dried flowers are gaining

popularity rapidly as the fresh flowers are susceptible to post harvest diseases and have short vase life even we use best post-harvest technique. Different kind of flowers are used for dry flower arrangements like, Helichrysum. Delphinium, Helipterum, Amaranthus, Nigella, Carthamus, Gypsophila and Rose etc.

3. Floral gifts: Floral bouquets are presently prepared at the major production centers and are shipped to major cities in the country as value added services to cater the needs of the floral gifts sector.

4. Floral Candles: Floral candles are made, by just adding dried flowers to the outside of plain candles or simply placing the crushed dried flowers on wax paper and then pour a little melted wax over the flowers then roll the candle in the flowers.

5. Colorful paper products: It includes greeting cards, bookmarks, paperweight’s, wall hangings, table tops, table mats, etc. The flowers and leaves are dried by herbarium method and finally pasted with fevicol in an artistic manner.

6. Petal embedded handmade paper: With the ban on the use of plastic bags across the country there is a good demand for handmade paper bags. The surplus flower petal waste can be added to the pulp while making the handmade paper to create some of the exquisite stationery items used for making various items especially paper bags. There will be demand for these kinds of bags if we create bags with the fusion of day to day novelty and creativity.

References Randhawa, G. S. and Mukhopadhyay. A. 1986.

Floriculture in India.


Flower Forcing in Jasmine Nellipalli Vinod Kumar*

Ph.D. Scholar, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, West Bengal. *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Flower forcing is an operation or treatment to the plant, after it reaches the ripeness-to-flower stage, in order to stimulate it to flower at a specific date (e.g. on New Year’s Day), or during off-season period. The flowering date or period may be earlier or later than the normal date/period of flowering. The goals of flower forcing are off-season production and specific-date production.

The objectives of forcing plants to flower during off-season or at certain specific dates are:

To avoid surpluses of in-season cut flowers To avoid wastage or spoilage of surplus cut

flowers To avoid danger of epidemics

To distribute employment throughout the year

To increase farmers' income To reduce imports and trade deficit To satisfy customers at the time of their

needs

Forcing Operation Flower forcing can be achieved by adjusting

the factors effecting flowering behaviour, viz. photoperiod, temperature and humidity.

Chemical flower forcing can be done through the application of fertilizers, used both for retarding and stimulating flowering; and plant hormones, including gibberellin,

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growth retardants and growth inhibitors. Mechanical flower forcing is achieved by

operations such as, pruning, leaf trimming, ringing, budding or grafting, smoking, low-temperature storage and breaking dormancy.

Flower Forcing in Jasmine Flowers are available throughout the year, but very profuse during the rainy season and scarce during the winter. To produce jasmine for winter-season harvest, the following operations are recommended:

One month before the planned date of harvest, stop watering for 2 - 3 days until the plants show sign of wilting.

Prune the plant to a round shape so that blooming will emerge from mature branches when induced in stage (iii). In this way the blooms will be of large size and healthy as they receive full sunlight.

Apply balanced fertilizer (e.g. 15-15-15) at the rate of 30 g/plant and water heavily. Keep watering normally every day. Flower buds will emerge within 10 days and blooming will occur within 25-30 days after pruning.

Pruning Techniques Pruning influences growth, flower initiation,

differentiation and ultimately the flower production

The height of pruning depends on the species in particular environment.

Chemical defoliants were employed as a substitute for manual pruning. Potassium iodide, potassium chloride, sodium chlorides are commonly used as defoliants

For year-round production of flowers in Jasminum grandiflorum the tips are pruned up to 15 cm after harvest of flowers which activates axillary buds resulting in production of shoots which terminates with inflorescence and there will be continuous flowering.

In Jasminum sambac, flowering occurs in flushes and at each of the flush the tips are pruned which activates the auxiliary buds resulting in production of new flushes which terminates with inflorescence and there will be continuous flowering.

References Bhattacharjee, S. K. 1980. Native jasmines of India.

Indian Perfumer, 24: 126-33. Sumangala, H. P. Patil, V. S. and Rao, M. M. 2003.

Effect of time of pruning on Jasminium sambac. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 6:137-138.

42. 16188 HORTICULTURE

Value Addition in Jackfruit Vidhu Valsan1* and Dr. T. Uma Maheswari2

1II M.Sc. (Hort.), Fruit Science, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University.

– Ideas can bring Change!!! Largest fruit… Larger Prospects!!

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) belongs to the family Moraceae, and can be considered as the largest fruit among the edible fruits. Ripe jackfruit comprises 3 parts namely: the skin (fibrous portion) these constitute 50% of the fruit weight, then the pulp (bulbs) constitute 25-40% of fruit weight. The seed, embedded in pulps, constitute 12-15% of fruit weight. Jackfruit performs well in humid regions up-to an elevation of 1000m. Deep well drained soils are ideal for jackfruit cultivation. Among the types of jack fruit viz., Soft fleshed (koozha) and firm fleshed (varikka), firm fleshed type is highly tasty, sweet and crisp.

Nutritive Value of Jackfruit 100g of edible jackfruit bulbs provide 95 percentage of calories. Jackfruit is rich in dietary fibre. The fresh fruit has small but significant amounts of vitamin-A, and flavonoid pigments. Together, these compounds play vital roles in antioxidant and vision functions. Jackfruit is a good source of antioxidant vitamin-C, provides about 13.7 mg or 23% of RDA. It is one of the rare fruits that is rich in a B-complex group of vitamins. Jackfruit seeds are very rich in

digestible starch, protein, and minerals.

Processing in Jackfruit The fruit has a delicious taste, captivating flavour, attractive colour and excellent quality, which make it suitable for processing and value addition. Ripe jackfruit bulbs, considered as flakes are consumed worldwide as a dessert fruit or processed in various forms like canned segments, flavours, drum-dried powder, osmotic air dried segments, enzyme liquefied juice, candy, jam, spread, jelly, ready to serve beverage (RTS), squash, syrup, nectar, pickles, slab or bar and chips/papad are also prepared by frying the ripe and semi ripe flakes in margarine. The pulp is also used to flavour ice cream and beverages, reduced to concentrate or powder, dehydrated leather and preparing drinks. The seeds can be eaten boiled, roasted or dried and salted as table nuts, or they can be ground to make flour and blended with wheat flour. Apart from these products, wine can also developed from the fruit. The wine has been developed by processing deseeded bulbs through microbial fermentation. There is a huge demand from consumers for this wine due to its special taste and aroma.

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Items that can be Prepared out of Jackfruit Jackfruit Pickle

Select a fruit which is not fully matured. Remove the rinds along with seeds from the bulbs. Then, cut into small pieces, cook the pieces in boiling water until soft. Drain, apply salt and keep aside then spread on a plate for complete drying. Heat 2-3 teaspoon of oil and roast the mustard, fennel, fenugreek and Kalonji seeds. Cool the roasted spices and finely powder them. Heat oil in a broad mouthed cooking pan, add turmeric powder, chilli powder, asafoetida. After putting off the stove, add the above ground mixture. After the oil cools down, add the dried jackfruit pieces which should be thoroughly free from moisture. Then add vinegar, mix well and store in a clean dry sterilized bottle.

Jackfruit Jam

Deseed the flesh pieces of the jackfruit and chop them into small pieces. Pour 1 cup of jaggery water, cook it for 6-8 whistles. Transfer it to a heavy bottom pan, cook it in medium to low flame till water gets evaporated. Pour remaining jaggery syrup to the pan. Stir continuously till it becomes thick and sticky. Add ½ cup of ghee, stir continuously to prevent it from sticking to the vessel. Heat until get a dark brown coloured thick jam. If it sticks to the bottom of the pan, add more ghee. Allow to cool and store in an air tight container.

Jackfruit Chips

Cut open mature unripe jackfruits. Remove bulbs and extract out the seeds. Cut the bulbs into shreds of 0.5 to 0.6 cm width, maintaining the length as much as the bulb. Blanch the pieces in the boiling water in which salt has been added for two minutes and allow to drain till completely dry. Heat oil in a frying pan and fry the chips. Add 1-2 spoons of salt water in oil while frying.

Jackfruit Candy

Boil the jaggery in 1 cup of water in a pan. After complete dissolving of jaggery, it is formed as a paste and brown in colour. Then add 250ml of pulp to it and stir well, pour some coconut oil stir continuously until the paste unstick the pan. Then add some more oil and roast it then finally allow to cool.

Jackfruit Wine

Cut well ripened jackfruit. Remove bulbs and extract the seeds. Cut the bulbs into small cubes. Wrap all spices (Cinnamon, 2inch bark; Poppy seeds, 10 in number; Cardamom, 2-3 in number; Star anise, 1 in number; Cloves, 2-3 in number) in a muslin cloth and keep aside. Boil and cool the water in a vessel with lid. Add jack pieces, sugar, and the wrapped spices. Add yeast for fermentation. Close the lid and stir regularly for

20 days After 20 days, strain and store the wine in a clean glass bottle.

Jackfruit Leather

Cut the well ripened jackfruit into small pieces. Pulp into fine paste. Spread the smooth pulp as uniform layer on trays. Dry using solar or electric cabinet drier. The leather can also be dried under direct sun light in plates or trays. It is dried till moisture is lost and starts coming out of the tray. If dried beyond this, it becomes brittle. After drying, cut into desired size and shape and pack in polythene pouches.

Jackfruit Halwa

In a broad vessel with thick base, add sugar, basic recipe, water and maida and mix well. When it starts boiling, add cardamom, roasted cashew-nut and ghee. Stir till it thickens to consistency of halwa. Apply ghee to tray/plate and spread. Allow it to cool, cut and serve.

Jackfruit Rind Jelly

Selection of fully matured, fresh ripen jackfruit. Rind should be separate from the bulb and cut into small pieces. Adding water and citric acid. Boiling 3-5 times and extracting juice. Adding sugar and citric acid with juice and start boiling. Cooking continued to TSS 65˚ and added rest citric acid. Determining the end point of cooking. Bottling and waxing. Labelling and storing in cool and dry places

Jackfruit Biscuits

Preheat the oven to 325˚F. Take jackfruit pulp in a kitchen-aid mix bowl add wheat flour, confectionery sugar, cardamom and salt and mix well. To this add soft butter and vanilla extract and mix until everything combined well. Remove it from the bowl and make it into a log and wrap with plastic wrap and freeze for about 15-20 minutes. When ready to bake, remove the dough from the freezer and cut it into ½ inch thick slices. Place it in oven about 2 inch apart and bake at 325˚F for 20 minutes or until it top golden brown and sides become brown in colour. Remove from the oven and set aside for 10 minutes in cookie sheet and finally cool completely and store it in an airtight container.

Jack fruit is one of the most remunerative and important underutilized native fruits of India. The fruit which can found almost any place in southern parts of India. Since it is available in large quantities during season and can be effectively processed into many value added products. Till now, the fruit is only grown in marginal areas, wastelands, backyards and homestead garden without any management practices. But the trees are highly productive and bear regularly. Commercial cultivation with more proper management practices can bring more production of jackfruit in our state.

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43. HI-HORTICULTURE 16493

Hydroponics and Different Growing Media D. A. Madane*, Y. G. Kasal1 and A. M. Gore2

Lovely Professional University Punjab Pin- 444411 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

In hydroponics, the growing medium takes the place of the dirt and up taking the nutrients through roots by support the plants weight and hold it upright. Inert meaning that it can’t/won’t decay or break down quickly, thus providing nutrients to the plants. Hydroponic growing media is simply a soil-less material that is generally porous so it can hold the moisture and oxygen that the root system requires to grow. Non porous materials can be used as well, but watering cycles would need to be more frequent so the roots don't dry out between watering. It's simply there to help support the plants weight as well as the moisture and oxygen the roots need. The nutrients the plants need, are provided by the nutrient solution, and is what the growing media is watered and moistened with. Some of the most widely used growing media's include Rockwool, Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate (called Hydroton), Coconut Fibre/Coconut chips, and Perlite or Vermiculite.

Hydroponic Systems NFT systems

NFT (Nutrient Film Technique) systems use a very shallow, but continuous stream of water at the bottom of a channel where the roots wick up moisture. Most NFT systems either use small starter cubes or small 1 inch baskets, and then let the roots just hang down into the flowing water.

Aeroponic systems

Aeroponic systems typically don't use much growing media at all. Aeroponic systems are designed to allow the roots hang in the air while getting frequently getting misted with nutrient solution so the roots don't dry out. Seeds are started in either small starter cubes small baskets, then when their big enough their planed in the aeroponic system.

PLATE NO 1. Hydroponics Technique

Different Types of Growing Media for Hydroponics Rockwool

Rockwool is one of the most common growing media's used in hydroponics. Rockwool is a sterile, porous, non degradable medium that is composed primarily of granite or limestone which is super-heated and melted, then spun into small threads like cotton candy. The Rockwool is then formed into blocks, sheets, cubes, slabs, or flocking. Rockwool should be pH balanced before use.

Hydroton (LECA)

Hydroton is a Light weight Expanded Clay Aggregate (L.E.C.A.) that is a type of clay which is super-fired to create a porous texture. It's heavy enough to provide secure support for your plant's, but still light weight. Hydroton is a non-degradable, sterile growing medium that holds moisture, has a neutral pH, and also will pick up nutrient solution to the root systems of your plants. Hydroton grow media is re-usable; it can be cleaned, sterilized, then reused again.

Coco Fibre Coco Chips

"Coco coir" (Coconut fibre) is from the outer husk of coconuts. Although coco coir is an organic plant material. It breaks down and decomposes very slowly, so it won't provide any nutrients to the plants growing and for making it perfect for hydroponics. Coco coir is also pH neutral, holds moisture very well, yet still allows for good aeration for the roots. Coco fibre comes in two forms, coco coir (fibre), and coco chips. They’re both made of coconut husks; the only difference is the particle size.

Perlite

Perlite is mainly composed of minerals that are subjected to very high heat, which then expand it like popcorn so it becomes very light weight, porous and absorbent. Perlite has a neutral pH, excellent wicking action, and is very porous. Perlite can be used by itself, or mixed with other types of growing media's.

Vermiculite

Vermiculite is a silicate mineral that like perlite expands when exposed to very high heat. As a growing media, vermiculite is quite similar to perlite except that it has a relatively high action-exchange capacity, meaning it can hold nutrients for later use. Also like the perlite, vermiculite is very light and tends to float. The easiest way to be sure is to get it from a nursery.

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Floral foam

Floral foam can be used as a growing media in hydroponics as well, and is similar to the oasis cubes, though the cell size is larger in the floral foam. Depending on the type of hydroponic system you’re using, and how you designed it, you may notice a couple of problems with using floral foam. Floral foam absorbs water easily, so make sure it isn't in constant contact with the water supply.

Growstone Hydroponic Substrate Growstones are made from recycled glass. They are similar to grow rocks (hydrocorn) but are made of clay and shaped marbles. Growstones

are light weight, unevenly shaped, porous, and reusable, they provide good aeration and moisture to the root zone. They have good wicking ability and can wick water up to 4 inches above the water line.

River rock

River rock is common and easy to find in home improvement stores, as well as even pet supply's stores (with the fish and aquariums). River rock is fairly inexpensive (depending on where you get it from), and comes in many different sizes. River rock is rounded with smooth edges from tumbling down the river.

44. FORESTRY 16410

Multipurpose Urban Forestry for Sustainable Ecosystem Services

Madhab Chandra Behera*

Assistant Professor, College of Forestry, OUAT, Bhubaneswar-751003 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Urbanization trend in India is taking at very fast rate. It is being accelerated by rapid economic growth and industrialization. People mostly younger generation are moving towards cities for employment, better education of their children and improved lifestyle. 31.16% of Indian population (37.7 crore) are living in 7935 numbers of cities (2011 census) and their number likely to cross 35% by next census. Limited space as well as poor economic condition compels these immigrants to live in existing slums or create new urban sprawl. In metropolitan and big cities multi-storied apartment culture is gaining its pace. High population density and scarcity of space adversely affects the natural & environmental resources. These create noise and pollute air and water resources. Urban green spaces or multipurpose urban forestry is the key solution for mitigating the adverse effect of urbanization. This will also enable the residents accessing quality basic natural resource like air, water and natural setting for leisure and recreation.

Multipurpose Urban Forestry and its Importance Urban forestry is the art, science and technology of managing trees and forest resources in and around urban community ecosystems for physiological, sociological, economic and aesthetic benefits trees provide for society. Urban forest is human cantered ecosystems where the attitude and involvement of urban residents is pivotal for making cities sustainable, healthy and energy efficient. For deriving maximum benefits from these greens they have to be planned, developed, and maintained appropriately so that they are accessed in terms of area and population wise. The choice and articulation of tree species is mostly decided on type of services desired by educated mass in a

society. Urban parks, gardens and natural landscapes, zoos are better known for their intangible benefits than tangible benefits. Often tender leaves of bahunia, jamun fruits, neem flowers, fuel wood etc. are collected form roadside block or avenue plantations by slum dwellers and sold in door steps for some earnings. But great share of services provided by urban forest were intangible like carbon dioxide sequestration, oxygen emission, rainfall interception, dust retention, noise reduction, biodiversity conservation etc. Trees laden parks/gardens are used for morning and evening walks/exercises and recreation by all kinds of people.

Urban

Forestry

Benefits

Economic - Improves microclimate

- Absorbs air pollutants

- Sequester CO2

- Release O2

- Provides clean air,

water & soil

- Biodiversity

- Enhances the property value

- Provides food & income to resource poor

- Reduces expenditure in health care

- Reduction in air conditioning level

- Tourism

- Preserves local natural &

cultural heritage

- Social interaction

- Venue for celebrations

- Open Gym & exercise

- Children Education

- Bio-drainage of sewage

- Phytoremediation

- Ground water recharge

- Stabilizes soil

- Controls localized global

warming

- Noise & visual barrier

- Attracts pedestrians &

cyclists

- Improves aesthetic value of

landscape

Oth

er

- Scientific research

- Conservation

FIG. 1: Different consumptive and intangible benefits derived from urban forest.

Different forms of Urban Forestry As per Ministry of Urban Development guide lines (1996), the proportion of recreational areas to the total developed area should be between 12-14% in small towns, 18-20% in medium towns

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and large cities, and 20-25% in metropolitan cities. Different forms of urban forest are given in Fig.2.

FIG. 2: Different forms of urban forest / green spaces

Selection of Species Apart from cultural, commercial and aesthetic value of a species the following criteria should be taken into account for selecting a suitable species:

1. Suit the soil and climatic conditions. 2. Fast growing, hardy, non-browseable, robust,

easy to establish and needs little attention once they have achieved certain growth.

3. Evergreen or semi evergreen with long rotation period.

4. The trees should be deep rooted, wind firm and self pruning one.

Management Options for Urban Forests Urban forest contains different components and hence the management should aim at linking all components, their forms and functions. If required specific techniques may be adopted in an integrated and strategic manner. Traditional forest management techniques are often not directly applicable to urban green spaces. For example Arboriculture plays an important role in parks and gardens, avenue plantations but here management of other types of vegetation also needs attention. Management of arboriculture should base on a detailed understanding of tree biology and its natural reaction to wounding, pruning, pollarding, training, thinning etc. Management options like applying thinning regime, policies and planning should not base on only preliminary information about tree like number, age, height etc but also collecting detailed knowledge on vitality, special characteristics and their place in a wider urban forest context.

45. MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 16374

Health Benefits and Medicinal Uses of the Karonda (Carissa carandas L.)

Karishma Kohli*

Ph.D Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar (INDIA)- 263145


Carissa carandas is a flowering shrub in the family Apocynaceae. It produces berry sized fruits that are commonly used as a condiment in Indian pickles and spices. It is a hardy, drought-tolerant plant that thrives well in a wide range of soils. Carissa carandas is an Ayurvedic plant used for the treatment of acidity, indigestion, fresh and infected wounds, skin diseases, urinary disorders and diabetic ulcer. Karonda is native to the Indian subcontinent, Myanmar and Sri Lanka, and was introduced to Java where it now runs wild.

Health Benefits and Phytochemistry: As a blood sugar stabilizer, as a guard against liver damage, Biliousness, Anemia, Antiparasitic, Antifungal, Antimicrobial, Topical wound treatment (juice) and Skin remedy. The fruits, leaves, barks, and roots of Carissa carandas have been used for ethnomedicine in the treatment of human diseases, such as diarrhea, stomachic, anorexia, intermittent fever, mouth ulcer and sore throat, syphilitic pain, burning sensation, scabies, and epilepsy. The prominent biological activities reported include antidiabetic, antimicrobial, cytotoxicity, anticonvulsant, hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic, cardiac depressant, analgesic, antiinflammatory,

antipyretic, and antiviral properties. Plant yielded major bioactive compounds, i.e., alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, large amounts of cardiac glycosides, triterpenoids, phenolic compounds, and tannins. Roots yield volatile principles including 2-acetyl phenol, lignan, carinol, sesquiterpenes (carissone, carindone), lupeol, β-sitosterol, 16 β-hydroxybetulinic acid, α-amyrin, β-sitosterol glycoside, and des-Nmethylnoracronycine. Leaves yield triterpenoid constitutes and tannins. Fruits yield carisol, epimer of α-amyrin, linalool, β-caryophyllene, carissone, carissic acid, carindone, ursolic acid, carinol, ascorbic acid, lupeol, and β-sitosterol. Fruit is a rich source of iron, with a fair amount of vitamin Carissa mature fruits are high in pectin, is useful for making jellies, jams, squash, syrup and chutney.

Medicinal properties: In Ayurveda, the unripe fruits were used as an anthelmintic, astringent, appetizer, antipyretic, antidiabetic, aphrodisiac, in biliary disorders, stomach disorders, rheumatism, and diseases of the brains. Other folkloric used are including root used as plaster in the Konkan to keep off flies; A concoction pounded with horse wine, lime juice, and camphor used as a remedy for itches; in

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Cuttack, decoction of leaves used at the commencement of remittent fevers; In Punjab leaves used in diarrhea, earache, soreness of the mouth and throat, and syphilitic pains; in India, root paste used for diabetic ulcers; used for acidity, flatulence, poor digestion; juice of fresh plant used for wounds that refuse to heal; used for scabies, intestinal worms, pruritus, biliousness; stem bark used for obstinate skin diseases and the root for urinary disorders: In Bangladesh, plant parts used for treatment of epilepsy, malaria, fever, dysentery, and diabetes. Fruits have also been studied for its analgesic, anti-inflammatory and lipase activities.

Antimicrobial activities of Karonda fruit were reported that 50% ethanol extract (5 mg/ml) against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 2593) and Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739). Antioxidant activity of Karonda fruits was relatively high when compared to other tropical fruits. In Thailand, Karonda fruits are favourite fruits especially at central region due to attractive shape and colour with health promoting activities. The karonda tree has many uses as it is used in traditional medicine, and modern medical research has found that it has many beneficial properties. Its leaves feed the tussar silkworm; the wood is used for making household utensils, such as large cooking spoons, and the root can be pounded to a paste to make insect repellant. The fruits have astringent properties and have been used for tanning and dying. The Karonda juice can be applied to the skin to relieve any skin problems. Histamine is

emitted from the bruised roots. Traditionally Karonda has been used to treat anorexia and insanity.

CONCLUSION: Based on its value in traditional medicine and promise from preclinical studies karonda fruit which is also of dietary use has emerged as fruit worth to be subjected to detail investigations for its myriad beneficial effects. The observed diverse pharmacological properties may be attributed to the presence of various compounds. Most of the pharmacological effects can be explained by the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids and volatiles present in the fruit. However, future efforts should concentrate more on studies aimed at understanding the mechanism of action at the molecular level on the validated pharmacological activities.

References Alino, A. 2010. Carissa carandas fruit extract as a

natural fabric dye. Journal of Nature Studies, 13 (2): 1-12.

Balakrishnan, N. and Bhaskar, V. H. 2009. Karonda (Carissa carandas Linn.) as a phytomedicine: A review. Pharmcology Review, 9:95-100.

Begum S., Syed S. A., Siddiqui B. S., Sattar A. S. and Choudhary M. I. 2013. Carandinol: First isohopane triterpene from the leaves of Carissa carandas L. and its cytotoxicity against cancer cell lines, Phytochem., 6: 91-95.

Chatterjee, M. L and Roy, A. R. 1965. Pharmacological Action of Carissa Carandus Root, Bull. Cal. School Trop. Med., 13(1):14-16.

46. MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 16403

Pollinators and Pests of Medicinal Herb, Sarpagandha (Ravuolfia serpentina)

*Vadde Anoosha1, Sumit Saini2 and Kavadana Sankara Rao3

1Ph.D. Deptt. of Entomology, CCSHAU, Hisar-125004; 2Research Associate, CIB & RC, Faridabad 3Ph.D. Scholar, Deptt. of Entomology, CCSHAU, Hisar -125004 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex. Kurz. (Sarpagandha) is also known as Black snakeroot or Indian snakeroot or devil pepper, an evergreen plant, has been in use since 4000 years in Indian medicine. It belongs to family Apocynaceae. Of Indian origin. It is widely grown in India, China, Africa and many other countries. In India, distribution is from foothills of Himalayan range, up to the elevation of 1300-1400 m and almost all over the country. The plant grows well in highly acidic and neutral soils. The plant contains more than 50 different alkaloids which belong to the mono terpenoidindole alkaloid family. Reserpine is the compound / active principle present in roots of sarpagandha and used against hypertension as a lifesaving drug in allopathic system of medicine.

Phenology Sarpagandha is an evergreen, perennial and

erect under-shrub; it is a species of flowering plants. The leaves are 7-10cm long, spear-shaped. Flowers are in irregular corymbose cymes, white, often tinge with violet. The blooming time is from March to May in Indian conditions. Its fruits are drupe, single or didymous, shining black, thin florescence with red pedicels and calyx and white corolla. It contains nectar at the deep of the corolla tube. Roots are branched and tuberous.

Insect Pollinators Associated with Sarpagandha Flowers Sarpagandha flowers visited by wide varieties of insects. Some of the important insect pollinators of sarpagandha are listed below:

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TABLE 1: Insect pollinators associated with Sarpagandha flowers

Order Family Insect Species

Lepidoptera

Papilionidae Papilio demoleus Linnaeus

Papilio polytes Linnaeus

Pieridae

Pieris sp.

Anaphaeis sp.

Pieris canidia Linnaeus

Belenois aurota Fabricius

Pieris brassicae Linnaeus

Colotise trida (Boisduval)

Hesperiidae Pelopidas sp.

Coleoptera Coccinellidae Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus

Hymenoptera Apidae Amegilla zonata (Linnaeus)

Vespidae Polistes olivaceus De Geer

Formicidae Monomorium sp.

Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga sp.

Syrphidae Eristalinus obscuritarsis (de Meijere)

Eristalis sp.

Hemiptera Scutellaridae Chrysocoris stolli Wolff

Insect Pests and Pathogens Sarpagandha is found to be affected by various insect pests and diseases resulting in reduction of production of medicinally important products prepared from this plant. Some of the important insect pests and diseases of sarpagandha are listed below:

TABLE 2: Insect pests associated with Sarpagandha

Sr. No.

Common name

Scientific name Family Order

1. Sphingid caterpillar

Deilephila nerii (Linn.)

Sphingidae Lepidoptera

Sr. No.

Common name

Scientific name Family Order

2. Leaf caterpillar

Glyphodesver tumnalis Guen.

Pyraustidae

Lepidoptera

3. Lab Lab bug

Riptortus pedestris (Fabricus)

Alydidae Hemiptera

4. Grasshopper

Trilophidia annulata (Thunberg)

Acrididae Orthoptera

5. Weevil Indomia cretaceous (Fst.)

Curculionidae Coleoptera

6. White grub Anomal apolita (Blanchard)

Rutelidae Coleoptera

7. Scale insect

Saissetia sp. Coccidae Hemiptera

8. Mealy bug Corcidohystrix insolita

pseudococcidae

Hemiptera

9. Cut worm Agrotis sp. Noctuidae Lepidoptera

10.

Epilachna beetle

Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata

Coccinellidae Coleoptera

11.

Ash weevil Mylloceus viridanus

Curculionidae Coleoptera

TABLE 3: Plant Pathogens associated with Sarpagandha

Sr. No.

Disease Causal organism

1. Leaf spot Cercospora rauvolfia

2. Brown leaf spot Alternria tenuis

3. Blossom blight Colletotrichum capsici

4. Wilt Fusarium oxysporum

5. Dieback Colletotrichum dematum

6. Leaf blight disease Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

47. MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING 16418

Growing Dhingri Mushrooms Commercially for Profit Pankaj Kumar Sharma*

Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India 125004


Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sp.) belonging to Class Basidiomycetes, Family Agaricaceae and Order Agaricales is commonly known as ‘Dhingri’ in India. This mushroom has a broad, fan or oyster-shaped fruit body. The fruit bodies of ‘dhingri’ mushroom have different shades of white, cream, grey, pink, yellow and light brown depending upon the species. The oyster mushroom is widespread in many temperate and subtropical forests throughout the world. More than fifteen thousand fleshy fungi have been identified of which, two thousands are edible. About three hundred mushroom species have

been reported from India and only few are cultivated. Mushroom cultivation is an eco - friendly way of producing vegetarian protein and recycling the agricultural wastes. During the early days of civilization, mushrooms were consumed mainly for their palatability and unique flavours. The first commercial cultivation of edible mushrooms was done in France in the 18th century. Now major cultivated mushrooms are white button (Agaricus bisporus), oyster (Pleurotus spp.), paddy straw (Volvariella spp.), milky (Calocybe indica), Shiitake (Lentinus edodes) and black ear (Auricularia polytricha). In

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India, cultivation of white button mushroom is done under seasonal as well as controlled conditions and its production is highest among the cultivated mushrooms followed by oyster mushroom. The seasonal production of tropical and subtropical species of oyster mushroom in different parts of the country is 15-20,000 tonnes per annum. Dhingri mushroom constitute 30 per cent of total mushroom production and ranks third among the cultivated mushrooms grown widely in temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world.

Production and Management Among the commercially cultivated Dhingri mushroom, Pleurotus sajor-caju has major share, which is of steel gray colour and less preferred by consumers; but The blue oyster mushroom (Hypsizygus ulmarius) is better in fruit body colour, texture, flavour and biological efficiency than Pleurotus sajor-caju. Nutritionally, this blue oyster mushroom contains 23.2 per cent crude protein, 56.1 per cent carbohydrates, 1.9 per cent starch and 9.1 per cent fiber on dry weight basis and its simple and low cost production technology. Thus, blue oyster mushroom can provide an alternative to the oyster mushroom growers.

For successful production of mushroom, it requires special facilities like substrates and poly bags or jars. Substrates include sawdust, straw, corn cobs, bagasse, chaff, and other agricultural by products. Containers and substrate should be sterilized to remove contaminating microorganisms. After sterilization, the substrate - filled containers are inoculated with the spawn and placed into spawn run rooms where temperature, humidity, light, and atmospheric gases are carefully controlled. When the spawn run is complete, the Dhingri mushroom requires changes in temperature and moisture to start fruiting.

More than 50 per cent of biological efficiency can be obtained in case of crop produced in 45-60 days.

Post-Harvest Practices Fresh mushrooms should be packed in perforated polythene bags for marketing. They can also be sun dried by spreading on a cloth or a clean floor in sunlight. The dried fruit bodies with 2 – 4 per cent moisture can be stored for 3 to

4 months after proper sealing.

Medicinal Importance Dhingri mushroom is rich in vitamin C and B complex. It is also rich in mineral content. The folic acid present in this mushroom helps to cure anemia. It is suitable for those people which suffer with hyper-tension, diabetes and obesity due to its low sodium: potassium ratio, starch, fat and calorific value. Alkaline ash and high fibre content makes them suitable for consumption for those having hyperacidity and constipation

Marketing Dhingri mushroom is not as popular as white button mushroom in the domestic market. Cultivation of this mushroom on commercial scale would be more profitable as compared to white button mushroom because of its low cost production technology.

Hotels can buy dhingri mushroom at an attractive price, if a market link is established with hotels, restaurants and vendors including malls and super markets, the business will provide good income.

Pest Control Dhingri mushroom is attacked by:

1. Sciarid flies, cecid flies and mites. a) Control measures: Timely spraying of

specific insecticides @ 0.01 per cent Imidacloprid is needed.

2. Fungi, several competitor moulds viz., Aspergillus sp., Trichoderma sp. and Fusarium sp., Rhizopus sp. have been reported in the substrate used for cultivation. Control measures: a) Spraying of fungicide like 0.05 per cent

carbendazim (Bavistin) b) Localized application of 4 per cent

formalin with cotton swab 3. Susceptible to diseases like yellow blotch,

brown spot and bacterial rot. Control measures: a) Proper management of temperature and

humidity during growing period. b) Regular application of chlorinated water

containing 100 – 150 ppm of freely available chlorine at an interval of 3-5 days

c) Application of oxytetracycline and streptocycline.

48. PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS 16338

Vegetable Grafting D. Nagaharshitha*

Sri Konda Laxman Telangana State Horticultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Grafting describes any of a number of techniques in which a section of a stem with leaf buds is inserted into the stock of a tree. The upper part of the graft (the scion) becomes the top of the plant, the lower portion (the understock)

becomes the root system or part of the trunk. Most varieties of a particular fruit species are interchangeable and can be grafted.

Traditionally, in horticultural industry, the focus has been on yield. However, in recent years

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consumers interest in the quality of vegetable products has increased worldwide. Vegetable quality is a broad term and includes physical properties (1), flavor (2), and health-related compounds (3). Grafting vegetable plants onto resistant rootstocks is an effective tool that may enable the susceptible scion to control soil-borne diseases, environmental stresses and increase yield. However, in these cases, the characteristics of the three areas might be affected by grafting as a result of the translocation of metabolites associated with fruit quality to the scion through the xylem and/or modification of the physiological processes of the scion. Possible quality characteristics showing these effects could be fruit appearance (size, shape, color, and absence of defects and decay), firmness, texture, flavor (sugar, acids, and aroma volatiles) and health-related compounds (desired compounds such as minerals, vitamins, and carotenoids as well as undesired compounds such as heavy metals, pesticides and nitrates).

Grafted vegetable plants can have greater vigour and/or more resistance to soil-borne diseases and pests such as nematodes. This is particularly useful when growing vegetables in the greenhouse border when it may be impractical to use fresh soil every year or practice crop rotation. The advantages are fewer if you usually use containers or grow bags each year.

Some grafted plants such as tomatoes can offer earlier fruiting and heavier crops. Commercially, among the main reasons for grafting, are resistance to fungal wilts, encouraging growth and resistance to low temperatures.

Type of Grafting for Vegetables Wedge (or cleft) grafting step-by-step (suitable for tomatoes and many other grafted vegetables)

1. Rootstock preparation: Cut off the upper stem of the rootstock and discard, retaining the base. Make a vertical slit up to 1cm (½in)

long into the top of the cut-off stem. 2. Scion preparation: Cut off the upper stem of

the scion but retain the upper part and discard the base. Cut the base of the scion into a V-shape.

3. Insert the scion base into the slit of the rootstock to complete the wedge graft.

4. Secure the two halves of the wedge graft with a grafting clip. Sello tape could be used instead of a grafting clip to wrap around the union but can be very fiddly.

5. Cover immediately with a clear plastic bag or covered propagator. Place out of direct sunlight and keep at 15-19°C (59°F-63°F).

6. Uncover daily to air plants and check watering. Keep moist but not wet. Note: adventitious roots may form up the stem if conditions are too humid.

7. Once the graft union has calloused and plants are growing strongly (around two to three weeks), remove all covers and clips or Sello tape.

Other Grafting Techniques Variations on the wedge grafting technique can also be very successful. These include the saddle graft (inverted V) and the splice graft. The approach (side-by-side) graft may also be used but takes up more space since the top and bottom of both the rootstock and scion are retained until the graft union has taken.

Intensive labor input and resulting high costs of grafted seedling production have been issues preventing this technology from being widely adopted. Herbaceous grafting has been practiced for many years in many countries. As a result of its benefits and value, demand for high-quality grafted seedlings by growers and interest by propagators are expected to rapidly increase. Researchers, extension specialists, and industries need to work together to integrate this modernized technology as an effective tool for sustainable horticultural production.


Hybrid Rice: Achievements, Problems and Prospects in India Hausila Prasad Singh1 and Sonika Kalia2

1Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, 2Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur-176062, India

INTRODUCTION: Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the world’s most important cereal crop that is consumed by a large part of the world’s population after wheat and maize. Rice is the stable food for more than half of the world’s population and global rice demand is estimated to rise from 8.52 × 10 8 t in 2035. More than 90% of the world’s rice is produced and consumed in Asia (Khush 2005). Among the various genetic options to enhance the productivity, hybrid rice appears to be the practically feasible and readily adoptable one. Hybrid rice technology is likely to

play a key role in increasing the rice production. The main reason for cultivation of hybrid rice is to obtain better yield followed by higher pricing ability, better taste, higher profitability, suitable for parboiling, better resistance to pests and diseases (Nirmala et al. 2013). The increase in rice yields attributable to hybrid rice has, in turn, improved food security for an estimated 60 million additional people per year (Li et al. 2013).

Hybrid Rice Hybrid rice has been created by crossing two

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different parental strains. Such crosses generally result in an F1 generation that is more robust than either of the parental strains. The improved qualities of the F1 generation are referred to as "hybrid vigour" or "heterosis". Hybrid seed production technology has been developed and demonstrated on large scale and an average seed yield of 1.0-1.5 t/ha is being obtained on large scale.

Achievement of Hybrid Rice Hybrid rice has helped china to increase rice production nearly by 200 million tons from 1976-1991. Hybrid rice has yield advantage of more than 30% over conventional varieties. The area under hybrid rice was 17.6 million hectares i.e. 55% of total rice area in china and the production of hybrid rice was 66% of the total rice output. Rice involves effective male sterility system to produce hybrids on commercial scale. In 1974, Chinese scientists overcame this when they developed the first generation of hybrid rice using a three-line hybrid system based on cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines and hybrid combinations. Hybrid rice was released for commercial production in 1976. After nine years of hard work, all the three genetic lines for hybrid rice production, i.e. cytoplasmic male-sterile line, maintainer line and restorer line, became available in 1973, resulting in the realization of “three-line system” to produce commercially viable hybrid rice (Hui and Ping 2015). Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility and environment sensitive genetic male sterility system have been used extensively to develop commercial rice hybrids.

The following technology is used in rice breeding:

1. Three line system: This approach of hybrid rice involves ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘R’ line. The cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) line is also known as ‘A’ or female line. ‘B’ line is a line with similar genotype having the same nuclear gene as ‘A’ line (rf rf) except that normal cytoplasm. ‘B’ line is also called maintainer line as it allows the sterility of the ‘A’ line. Restorer line is the line which can restore fertility of ‘A’ line.

2. Two line system: In this approach system involved in two categories: Environment –insensitive and Environment-sensitive which is further divided into two groups-Temperature sensitive genetic male sterility) and PGMS (photoperiod- sensitive genetic male sterility).

3. One line system: It involves the Apomixis defined as the development of embryo (seed) without fertilization.

Hybrids Released

Sr No. Hybrid Developed by

1. DRRH-2 DRR, Hyderabad

2. Pusa RH-10 IARI, New Delhi

3. Pant Shanker Dhan-1 & 3

GBPUAT, Pantnagar

Sr No. Hybrid Developed by

4. CORH-3 TNAU, Coimbatore

5. Ajay & Rajalakshmi CRRI, Cuttack

6. KRH-2 UAS, Mandya

7. Sahyadri-1 BSKKV, Karjat

8. JRH-4, JRH-5 JNKV, Jabalpur

Problems in Hybrid Seed Production

1. Constraints of suitable area: At present rice hybrid seed production is concentrated in Karim Nagar and Warangal districts of Andhra Pradesh. More than 90 % of hybrid rice seed is produced in this region. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify new areas in other states for large scale hybrid seed production.

2. Poor performance of seed production of public bred rice hybrids: Though a large number of good hybrids have been bred by public institutions, but their seed production has not been encouraging. The National Seeds Corporation, State Farms Corporation of India and State Seeds Corporations are to be encouraged and should be provided required facilities and infrastructure for hybrid seed production.

3. High seed cost: The cost of seed is prohibitive. The private seed companies are marketing seed @ Rs 150-200 /kg. The seed cost is to be reduced to affordable level and comparable with the cost of public bred hybrids (Rs 70 /kg).

4. Less time gap between harvest of seed and its use for sowing: There is not adequate time between harvest of hybrid seed during rabi season in southern India and its use for kharif planting in northern India after processing. In order to increase the time gap the nursery for hybrid seed production should be raised earlier so that the production of hybrid seed could be 14 advanced. Also, molecular marker technique should be used for testing the genetic purity of the hybrid seed instead of going for GOT.

Future Prospects 1. High price of rice. 2. Expansion of boro rice area due to shallow

tube well development. 3. Continued technological progress. 4. Expanded possibilities for public-private

partnerships. 5. Rising demand for rice from other countries.

References Hui MG and Ping YL. 2015. Hybrid rice

achievements, development and prospect in China. Journal of integrative agriculture 14: 197–205

Khush GS. 2005. What it will take to feed 5.0 billion rice consumers in 2030. Plant Molecular Biology 59: 1-6

Li J, Xin Y, and Yuan L. 2013. The prospects for hybrid rice in India. Food security 5:651–665

Nirmala B, Vasudev N and Suhasini K. 2013. Farmer’s perceptions on hybrid rice technology:

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A case study of Jharkhand. Indian research journal of extension education 13: 103-105


Nanopore Sequencing: A New Technique of DNA Sequencing

Patel Mukeshkumar N.

M.Sc. (Agri.) Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BACA, Anand Agricultural University, Anand- 388110 (Gujarat)

In the nanopore sequencing technologies, the DNA molecule are passed through an extremely narrow hole (a nanopore), and the bases are detected by the changes in an electrical current or optical signal caused by them (Schadt et al. 2010). Genetically engineered proteins or a suitable chemical compound may be used to construct the nanopores. The Oxford Nanopore Technologies, UK, uses BASE technology that creates the nanopore by an engineered protein (α-hemolysin). Around 2,000–8,000 nanopores are placed in a lipid bilayer built on a special application-specific integrated circuit chip. At the extracellular face of the nanopore, an exonuclease is attached, while a synthetic cyclodextrin-based sensor is linked at its inside surface; the cyclodextrin acts as the binding site for DNA bases (Fig 1.0). The DNA sample to be analyzed is restriction digested, the digest is placed onto the chip, and one DNA fragment associates with each nanopore.

Each base binds cyclodextrin molecule This disturbs the electrical current flowing

through the nanopore Signal detected by an electronic device Characteristics signal for each base

FIG. 1 A schematic representation of a nanopore sequencing technology (developed by Oxford Nanopore Technologies, UK). The nanopore is created by an engineered α-hemolysin; exonuclease cleaves the terminal bases one by one and passes them through the nanopore; cyclodextrin binds to the base; this creates disturbance in the electrical current flowing through the nanopore.

An enzyme separates the two strands of the DNA duplex, and the exonuclease digests one strand, one base at a time, and passes these bases through the nanopore. Each base sequentially binds to the cyclodextrin, which are located on the inside of the nanopore. This binding creates a disturbance in the electric current passing through the nanopore, which generates characteristic signal for each DNA base. This signal is sensed by an electronic device and is converted into base sequence data.

This technology can detect cytosine methylation without any special chemical processing of the template.

Benefits of Nanopore Technology Sensitive detection from limited starting

material: The analysis of structural variation in cancer samples, the amount of sample may be limited. Furthermore, the sample may be a heterogeneous mix of “normal” and cancer cells which necessitates sensitive detection to identify low-frequency variants or rare events. Nanopore-based sequencing can be performed with very low starting amounts of DNA.

Ultra-long reads: This technology processes the fragments presented to the pore regardless of their length, allows researchers to investigate extremely complex or large structural variants. Till today, the longest fragment processed using nanopore sequencing is 950 kb.

Fast time to results: In such cancer detection and monitoring, time to result is of paramount importance. In their research, Norris and coworkers used PCR amplicons to detect specific structural variants and reported a sequencing time of just 15-33 minutes using the MinION. This compares favorably with the minimum of 4 hours that would be required for short read sequencing, which, is comparatively very slow.

Low cost: The MinION allows researchers to implement their work immediately within their own labs. The MinION starter pack includes all the materials required to run initial nanopore sequencing library preparation, including a MinION device, flow cells, kits and membership of the Nanopore Community.

Small footprint: Measuring and weighing about the same as a confectionery bar, the USB powered MinION is uniquely portable,

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making it ideal for all labs, including those where workspace is at a premium. In addition, researchers have transported the

device to various remote locations in hand luggage. No specialist calibration or setup is required: simply load and run.


Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs): Tool for Plant Genome Editing

Girish Tantuway1, Omprakash1, Aditi Eliza Tirkey1 and Omprakash Patidar2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, I. Ag.Sc., Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

2Ph.D. Scholar, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India.

INTRODUCTION: Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) are a novel class of genome editing tools that provide precise insertion, deletion or substitution of specific genes in order to transfigure the genome. TALENs are sort of restriction enzymes contrived to cut at specific sequences in the genome. TALENs are composed of TAL effector DNA-binding domain and a DNA cleavage domain (a nuclease which cuts DNA strands). TALENs can be engineered to bind to practically any desired DNA sequence, so when combined with a nuclease, DNA can be cut at specific locations. Some organisms along with their respective gene for which TALENs have been used for genome editing are presented in table 1.

TABLE 1. List of organism and respective gene in which TALEN technology used.

Sr. no.

Organisms Genes

1 Arabidopsis thaliana ADH1

2 Brachypodium BdABA1, BdCKX2, BdCOI1, BdHTA1, BdRHT, BdSBP, BdSMC6, BdSPL

3 Cattle (Bostaurus) ACAN, GDF8, GGTA, PRNP

4 Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster)

CG9797, yellow

5 Human (Homo sapiens) ABL1, AKT2, ALK, ANGPTL3, APC, APOB, ATGL, ATM, AXIN2, BAX, BCL6, BMPR1A, BRCA1, BRCA2, C6orf106.

6 Mouse (Mus musculus) Pibf1, Sepw1

7 Rat (Rattu snorvegicus) BMPR2, IgM

8 Nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans)

ben-1

9 Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Os11N3, OsBADH2, OsCKX2, OsDEP1, OsSD1

10 Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)

SurA, SurB

Components of TALEN A. TALE DNA-Binding Domain

TAL effectors are proteins secreted by Xanthomonas bacteria when they infect plants. These TALEs are injected into host plant cells via a Type III secretion system and bind to genomic

DNA to alter transcription in these cells, there by facilitating pathogenic bacterial colonization. The DNA binding domain contains a repeated highly conserved 33–34 amino acid sequence with divergent 12th and 13th amino acids. These two positions referred as the Repeat Variable Diresidue (RVD), are highly variable and show a strong correlation with specific nucleotide recognition. This straight forward relationship between amino acid sequence and DNA recognition has allowed engineering the specific DNA binding domains by selecting a combination of repeated segments containing the appropriate RVDs. Furthermore, target specificity can be improved by slight changes in the RVD and the incorporation of "nonconventional" RVD sequences.

B. DNA Cleavage Domain

DNA cleavage domain, a non-specific component of TALENs, is used from the end of the FokI endonuclease to construct hybrid nucleases that are active in a yeast assay. Initial TALENs studies were conducted with the wild-type FokI cleavage domain, but some subsequent TALEN studies also used FokI cleavage domain variants with mutations designed to improve cleavage specificity and cleavage activity. The FokI domain functions as a dimer which requires two constructs with unique DNA binding domains for sites in the target genome with proper orientation and spacing. Both the number of amino acid residues between the TALE DNA binding domain and the FokI cleavage domain and the number of bases between the two individual TALEN binding sites appear to be important parameters for achieving high levels of activity.

Some Examples where TALENs Technology has been used TALENs is a versatile and current generation tool for site-specific modification of plant genome which has potential to frame enormous impact on crop improvement.

a) The first report of crop improvement employing TALENs technology was reported in rice. Xanthomonas oryzae is a causal pathogen for blight disease, leads to significant annual loss in rice production worldwide. During the infection, bacterial

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effector protein binds to the promoter region of the sucrose-efflux transporter gene (OsSWEET 14), which activates specific rice disease-susceptible genes. A pair of TALENs that targeted the promoter region of the OsSWEET 14 gene was designed and transformed into rice. The stable transformation of these TALENs resulted in mutation in the effector binding site in the promoter region, which in turn resulted in silencing of the gene and consequent resistance to X. oryzae.

b) In barley, TALENs were used to target the promoter region of a phytase gene HvPaphya. The stable transformed plants contained a variety of INDELs. Based on aPCR restriction assay, 16–31% of transformed plants contained some type of INDELs.

c) TALENs were utilized to achieve site-directed mutagenesis in soybean. The fatty acid desaturase genes (FAD2-1AandFAD2-1B), which convert the oleic acid intolinoleic acid, were selected as targets. The desaturase gene was successfully mutated with stable transformation of plants. The fatty acid profile of the seed of stably mutated plants showed the production of oleic acid to be nearly four times higher compared to the parents.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES: TALENs technology achieved tremendous progress in recent years. The scaffold optimization isolated TALEN variants with high DNA cleavage efficiency, which is essential for targeted genome editing. Development of novel strategies for convenient and quick assembly of TALE repeat arrays enabled high-throughput synthesis of TALENs and made TALEN technology accessible and affordable for any academic or industrial lab. TALENs offer the great advantage of high specificity and modularity, but there are also limitations associated with this technology that remain to be addressed for further improvement. The bulky size of TALENs might limit their broader applications, especially in the cases when efficient gene delivery cannot be achieved. Development of strategies for efficient delivery of TALEN genes into cells would enable TALEN-mediated genome editing in more different organisms and cell types. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is packaged into chromatin. Therefore, chromosomal context and epigenetic modifications play a major role in the DNA accessibility of TALENs. The combination of epigenetic modification tools and TALEN technology could expand the range of target for TALEN-mediated genome modifications, which might be a potential area for future exploration.


New Insight into Heterosis Breeding *Ritika Singh

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Crop Improvement, College of Agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur-176062, India


Heterosis is an unsolved puzzle and a miraculous agricultural phenomenon. It describes the phenomenon where hybrids exhibit superior performance in many traits relative to their parental inbred lines or the crosses between species exhibit greater biomass, speed of development and fertility than both the parents. The term heterosis was first used by Shull in 1914. The selection of parents for effective hybridization depends on the nature and magnitude of heterosis over mid parent, heterobeltiosis and economic heterosis present in the genetic stocks. The responses of heterosis either positive or negative mainly depend on the breeding objectives and type of crop used. Moreover the nature of pollination, the floral biology and natural out crossing rate in cereal and vegetable are important for heterosis (Mulualem and Abate 2016). Converse of hybrid vigour or heterosis is ‘inbreeding depression’caused by increased homozygosity of individuals, which reduces survival and fertility of offspring’s.

Although heterosis is widely utilized in crop production, its genetic and molecular basis is still

elusive (Feng et al. 2015). Still, the production of new hybrids basically relies on empirical and time consuming approaches. Despite this lack of understanding and one of the most complex issues, breeders have quite successfully manipulated heterosis to increase the vigor of many domesticated species (Springer and Stupar 2007 and Patrick et al. 2013). However, the knowledge on genetic mechanism of heterosis is limited due to biological complexity and limitations of research methodology and still a topic of research today.

Various genetic models have been propose to explain heterosis, such as dominance, real over dominance and/or pseudo over dominance and epistasis hypotheses. These are the major genetic models invoked to explain hybrid vigor in the extensive scientific literature addressing heterosis in many crops. Although not always explicitly stated, all the genetic hypotheses make the combination of a considerable number of genes and concurrently may play a role in hybrid vigour. These models have survived with various modifications and interpretations as the methods and specialties of biology have changed. Also,

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they were coined before the molecular concepts of genetics were formulated and are not directly connected with molecular principles.

At molecular level, two models are considered to explain heterosis. One model considers that in hybrids having two different kinds of alleles an allelic expression in additive manner occur with the average of the parental expression levels. In the second model, the combination of different alleles causes gene expression changes in hybrids that deviate relative to mid parent. One of the most promising approaches to unravel the genetic basis for heterosis at the molecular level emerged through the availability of molecular markers, as they have provide a powerful approach to map and subsequently identify genes involved in complex traits. The advancements in functional genomics have created a novel avenue to study the genetic basis of heterosis at the gene-expression level. Identification of genes associated with changes in expression patterns in hybrids is important for understanding heterosis. It had been shown that differential gene expression between hybrids and their parents that are involved in certain complicated regulatory networks may be underlying cause of heterosis. Recently gene expression profiling in Arabidopsis had suggested that genes involved in the circadian rhythm, such as LHY and CCA1, both MYB-like transcription factors, are associated with heterosis (Chen 2010 and Greaves et al. 2012). Epigenetic regulation of gene expression is accomplished by DNA methylation, histone modifications, histone variants, chromatin remodeling, and may involve small RNAs. Recent studies in Arabidopsis thaliana have suggested that epigenetic regulation such as DNA

methylation is involved in heterosis, but the molecular mechanism of heterosis is still unclear (Kawanabe et al. 2016). Hence the future of it lies in the unraveling of appropriate mechanisms at molecular as well as gene expression level. Otherwise, pre-mature conclusion of one mechanism will mislead our finding from the reality of heterosis mechanism in plants.

Refrences Chen, Z.J. (2010) Molecular mechanisms of

polyploidy and hybrid Vigor. Trends in Plant Science 15: 57 71

Feng S, Chen X, Shujing W and Chen X. 2015. Recent advances in understanding plant heterosis. Agricultural Sciences 6: 1033-1038

Greaves IK, Groszmann M, Ying H, Taylor JM and Peacock WJ. 2012. Trans chromosomal methylation in Arabidopsis hybrids. Proceedings in National Academy of Sciences USA 109: 3570-3575

Kawanabe T, Ishikura S, Miyaji N, Sasak T, Wu lm, Itabashi E, Takada S, Shimizu M, Yasuda TT, Osabe K, Peacock W, Dennis ES and Fujimoto. 2016. Role of DNA methylation in hybrid vigor in Arabidopsis thaliana. Proceedings in National Academy of Sciences USA 113: 6704-6711

Mulualem Tand Mohammed A. 2016. Heterotic response in major cereals and vegetable crops. International Journal of Plant Breeding and Genetics. 10: 69-78

Patrick SS and Nathan MS. 2013. Progress toward understanding heterosis in crop plants. Annual Review of Plant Biology 64: 71-88

Springer NM and Stupar RM. 2007. Allelic variation and heterosis in maize: How do two halves make more than a whole? Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press


Nanopore Sequencing Padma Thakur*, Omprakash, Namrata and Bapsila Loitongbam

Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005


INTRODUCTION: DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic instructions, is the blue- print of life. Accurate and rapid DNA sequencing technology would have profound impacts on human, animal and plant genetics. DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. There are many methods of DNA sequencing. The non-nanopore DNA sequencing technologies currently on the market require a great deal of sample preparation and complicated algorithms for data processing. After the development of three generations, DNA sequencing technology is now entering the era of single- molecule nanopore technology. In the 1990s, Church et al. and Deamer and Akeson separately proposed that it is possible to sequence DNA using

nanopore sensors. Beginning with the first nanopore paper published in PNAS in 1996, nanopore-based detection of single molecules has emerged as one of the most powerful sequencing technologies.

Nanopore Sequencing The nanopore approach is the fourth-generation low-cost and rapid DNA sequencing technology. These nanopores consist of an orifice slightly larger than the width a double-stranded DNA molecule, which is 4 nm, where DNA is threaded through the pore. With the application of an external voltage, particles are passed through the pore. The nanometer-sized pores are either embedded in a biological membrane or formed in solid-state film, which separates the reservoirs containing conductive electrolytes into cis and

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trans compartments. Electrodes are immersed in each chamber. Under a biased voltage, electrolyte ions in solution are moved through the pore electrophoretically, thereby generating an ionic current signal. When the pore is blocked by an analyte, such as a negatively-charged DNA molecule added into the cis chamber, current flowing through the nanopore would be blocked, interrupting the current signal. The chemical differences of each base would result, in theory, in detectably altered current flow through the pore. The physical and chemical properties of the target molecules can be calculated by statistically analyzing the amplitude and duration of transient current blockades from translocation events.The nanopore approach, while still in development, remains an interesting potential fourth-generation technology. This “fourth-generation” monikeris suggested, since optical detection is eliminated along with the requirement for synchronous reagent wash steps.

Nanopore Technologies may be Broadly Categorized into Two Types Biological: The protein alpha hemolysin, which natively bridges cellular membranes causing lysis, was first used as a model biological nanopore. The protein was inserted into a bio-layer membrane separating two chambers while sensitive electronics measured the blockade current, which changed as DNA molecules moved through the pore. However, chemical and physical similarities between the four nucleotides made the sequence much more difficult to read than envisioned. Further, sufficient reduction of electronic noise remains a constant challenge, which is achievable in part by slowing the rate of DNA translocation.

Solid-state: The second class is based on the use of nanopores fabricated mechanically in silicon or other derivative. The use of these synthetic nanopores alleviates the difficulties of membrane stability and protein positioning that accompanies the biological nanopore system. Nabsys created a system using a silicon wafer drilled with nanopores using a focused ion beam (FIB), which detects differences in blockade current as single-stranded DNA bound with specific primers passes through the pore. IBM created a more complex device that aims to actively pause DNA translocation and interrogate each base for tunneling current during the pause step.

Recently, Oxford Nanopore and several other academic groups have made progress toward addressing these challenges. Oxford Nanopore Technologies together with leading academic collaborators have implemented the nanopore technology in a commercial product (GridION and MinION system). Oxford Nanopore has announced that the company is preparing to launch the GridION system for direct single-molecule analysis, which would adopt exonuclease sequencing. The system is based on “lab on a chip” technology and integrates multiple electronic cartridges into a

rack-like device. The sample is introduced into the cartridge, which is then inserted in an instrument called a GridION node. Progressive enzymes positioned on the top of the nanopore regulate the translocation rate of the DNA strand by slowing down (to the order of ms) the intrinsic electrophoretic motion (to the order of μs). Essentially, one nucleotide passes through the nanopore approximately every 20 ms, which is slow enough for accurate detection. The four nucleotides produce different magnitudes of current disruption and, therefore, the determination of DNA sequence is possible. Assuming a steady 1 ms per base sequencing rate, a single pore would require 69 days to process 6 billion bases. 100,000 pores operating perfectly at that rate could theoretically sequence a genome with 30X coverage in 30 min.

Requirements for Nucleotide Discrimination 1. Each nucleotide produces a unique signal

signature 2. The nanopore possesses proper aperture

geometry to accommodate one nucleotide at a time

3. The current measurements have sufficient resolution to detect the rate of strand translocation

4. The fragment should translocate in a single direction when potential is applied; and

5. The nanopore/supporting membrane assembly should be sufficiently robust.

Associated Problems All of the biological and synthetic nanopores have barrels of ∼5 nm (which is considerably longer than the base-to-base distance of 3.4 Å) in thickness and accommodate∼1015 nucleotides at a time. It is, therefore, impossible to achieve single-base resolution using blockage current measurements. In addition, the average rate at which a polymer typically translocates through a nanopore is on the order of 1 nucleotide/μs (i.e., on the order of MHz detection), which is too fast to resolve. The nucleotide strand should be slowed down to∼1 nucleotide/ms to allow for a pA- current signal at 120-150 mV applied potential. Furthermore, the translocation of a polymer strands hold be/is uniform between two events. The time distribution of two processes (capture, entry, and translocation) is non Poisson and often differs by an order of magnitude. This means that two molecules pass through a nanopore at considerably different rates and the slower one could be missed or misinterpreted.

Advantages

The significant advantages of nanopores include label-free, ultra-long reads (104–106 bases), high throughput, and low material requirement. Each of these greatly simplifies the experimental process and can be easily used for DNA sequencing applications. Nanopores as single-molecule sensing technologies have great potential applications in many areas, such as analysis of ions, DNA, RNA, peptides, proteins, drugs, polymers, and macromolecules. All

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existing sequencing techniques require breaking the DNA into small fragments of ∼100 bps and sequencing those chunks multiple times to find overlapping regions, so that they can be reassembled together. Because one of most appealing advantages of nanopores is achieving long read lengths, the genomic assembly process should be considerably simplified. In practice, the read length may be limited only by the DNA shearing that occurs during pipetting in the sample preparation step. F Meller and Branton demonstrated that 25 kb ssDNA could be threaded through a biological nanopore and 5.4 kb ssDNA translocated through a solid-state nanopore.

References Church, G., Deamer, D.W., Branton, D., Baldarelli,

R. and Kasianowicz, J. (1998). Measuring

physical properties. US5795782. Deamer, D.W. and Akeson, M. (2000). Nanopores

and nucleic acids: prospects for ultra-rapid sequencing. Trends Biotechnol., 18:147–51.

Feng Y., Zhang Y., Ying C., Wang D. and Du, C. (2015) Nanopore-based Fourth-generation DNA Sequencing Technology. Genomics Proteomics Bioinformatics 13:4-16.

Kasianowicz, J.J., Brandin, E., Branton, D. and Deamer, D. W. (1996). Characterization of individual polynucleotide molecules using a membrane channel. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 93:13770–3.

Meller, A. and Branton, D. (2002). Electrophoresis. 23 (16): 2583–2591.

Niedringhaus, T. P., Milanova, D., Kerby, M. B., Snyder, M. P. and Barron, A. E. (2011). Landscape of Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies. Anal. Chem., 83:4327–4341


Role of Transcriptional Factors in Plant Defense: An Overview

Surender Singh Chandel* and Annu Verma

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur – 176062


INTRODUCTION: Plants being a sessile organism encounter a vast array of pathogenic microorganisms such as fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses and nematodes in their natural environment. These diverse pathogens deliver effector molecules (virulence factors) into the plant cell to promote virulence and cause disease. Plants defend themselves against most potential microbial pathogens through a basal defence mechanism (innate immune system). Plants produce a wide variety of hormones. Plant hormones play important roles in diverse growth and developmental processes as well as various biotic and abiotic stress responses in plants. Infection of plants with diverse pathogens results in changes in the level of various phytohormones (Adie et al., 2007).

Key hormones in plant defense

1. Salicylic acid (SA) 2. Jasmonic acid (JA) 3. Ethylene (ET)

Phytohormones SA, JA and ET play major roles in regulating plant defense responses against various pathogens, pests and abiotic stresses such as wounding and exposure to ozone (Glazebrook, 2005). SA plays a crucial role in plant defense and is generally involved in the activation of defense responses against biotrophic and hemi-biotrophic pathogens as well as the establishment of systemic acquired resistance. By contrast, JA and ET are usually associated with defense against necrotrophic pathogens and herbivorous insects (Grant and Lamb, 2006). As plants respond to pathogen

attack by activating the SA and JA/ET pathways and turning on defence responses, other hormone signaling pathways also get activated. The response mechanisms of these immune complexes are regulated by a large number of genes that encode regulatory proteins, called transcription factors. Transcription factors are primordial proteins that respond to stress, altering the expression of a cascade of defense genes (Chen et al., 2002).

Transcription Factor Families involved in Plant Immunity Responses to biotic stress in plants lead to dramatic reprogramming of gene expression, favoring stress responses at the expense of normal cellular functions. Transcription factors are master regulators of gene expression at the transcriptional level, and controlling the activity of these factors alters the transcriptome of the plant, leading to metabolic and phenotypic changes in response to stress.

Major Families of Transcription Factors involved in Plant Defense 1. The APETALA2/Ethylene-Response Element

Binding Factor (AP2/EREBP) family: The AP2/EREBP family constitutes a large plant specific TF family with over 140 members in Arabidopsis and 160 in rice (Licausi et al., 2013). All members share a common 60 amino acid long DNA binding domain. Within the large ERF family, the DREB protein subfamily binds to a DNA motif, A/GCCGAC, called Dehydration-Response-

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Element (DRE), and regulates expression of target genes under abiotic stress conditions including freezing, drought and high salinity. By contrast, ERF subfamily members show the greatest affinity to the GCC sequence (AGCCGCC), and participate in the regulation of genes responsive to biotic stress, in particular to genes related to the jasmonic acid and ethylene hormone signaling pathways.

2. The basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) family: This family consisted of 162 and 167 members in Arabidopsis and rice, respectively. The DNA binding domain of bHLH proteins comprises 50–60 amino acids, and this domain allows for homo- or heterodimerization to their DNA consensus hexamer sequence CANNTG. AtMYC2/JAI1/JIN1 factor, along with its closely related proteins AtMYC3 and AtMYC4 regulates JA-mediated defense responses.

3. The basic domain leucine zipper (TGA-bZIP) family: In Arabidopsis bZIP proteins are classified into 10 groups, two of which (Groups C and D) contain members that are implicated in plant immunity. Generally bZIPs bind as homo- or heterodimers to DNA sequences with an ACGT core. Particularly the TGA factors of group D that are further subdivided into three clades, AtTGA1 and AtTGA4 (Clade I), AtTGA2, AtTGA5 and AtTGA6 (Clade II), and AtTGA3 and AtTGA7 (Clade III), are central players of the defense system especially within the SA-signaling pathway conferring resistance toward biotrophic pathogens. TGA-bZIPs bind to the palindromic DNA sequence TGAC/GTCA with an intact TGACG motif being the minimal requirement.

4. The myeloblastosis related proteins (MYB) family: MYBs constitute another large family comprising >160 genes within the Arabidopsis and rice genomes. Plants contain a MYB-protein subfamily characterized by the R2R3 MYB domain.

R2R3-MYB proteins are separated into two types that can bind the distinct DNA sequence elements, (T/C)AAC(T/G)G and G(G/T) T(A/T)G(G/T)T.

5. The NAC family: The NAC family consists of 100 genes in Arabidopsis and 150 genes in rice. NAC proteins bind to the DNA motif CATGTG.

6. The WRKY family: The WRKY family of TFs consists of >70 members in Arabidopsis and >100 in rice. Common to all members is the 60 amino acid long WRKY domain that binds to the DNA motif C/TTGAC/T, termed the W-box. In this region, there is a nearly invariable sequence, WRKYGQK, and the N-terminal portion of the protein is followed by a zinc finger motif.

Future perspectives: Apart from diseases, our understanding on coordination/crosstalk of multiple hormonal components in plants’ response to various developmental and environmental cues is also very poor and studies are needed to resolve this complexity governing different phases of life cycle of plants.

References Adie BA and Perez-Perez J. 2007. ABA is an

essential signal for plant resistance to pathogens affecting JA biosynthesis and the activation of defences in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 19: 1665-1681

Chen W, Provart NJ, Glazebrook J, Katagiri F, Chang HS, Eulgem T, Mauch F, Luan S, Zou G and Whitham SA. 2002. Expression profile matrix of Arabidopsis transcription factor genes suggests their putative functions in response to environmental stresses. Plant Cell 14: 559-574

Glazebrook J. 2005. Contrasting mechanisms of defence against biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens. Annual Review of Phytopathology 43: 205-227

Grant M and Lamb C. 2006. Systemic immunity. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 9: 414-420

Licausi F, Takagi OM and Perata P. 2013. APETALA2/Ethylene Responsive Factor (AP2/ERF) transcription factors: mediators of stress responses and developmental programs. New Phytologist 199: 639-649


Effects of Gamma Radiations on Crop Production Zafar Imam1*, Md. Mahtab Rashid2 and Surabhi Sinha3

1Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding and Crop Physiology, Palli Siksha Bhavana (Institute of Agriculture), Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan-731236.

2Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agriculture Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005.

3Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Bihar Agricultural College, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur-813210.


INTRODUCTION TO GAMMA RADIATION: Gamma rays are considered to be the most energetic form of radiation with an energy level starting from 10 KeV (kilo electron volt) to several 100 KeV. This quality makes them more

penetrable than alpha and beta rays. Gamma radiation (electromagnetic radiation with high frequency) is an important ionizing ray, as it comprises of high-energy photons. The high penetration properties of photons cause

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ionization of matter and the plants by indirect interaction. Gamma rays cause a modification in growth and development, damage DNA, and interrupt the metabolic pathway.

Any change in the somatic cells are represented as mutations in gametes, as plants lack reserved germline and meiotic cells are produced in late development. Gamma rays are ionizing rays which react with the atoms and molecules present inside the cells to produce free radicals. Production of free radicals depends on the irradiation level that causes damage or modification of components in plants, ultimately affecting morphology, physiology, anatomy, and biochemistry of plants such as altered photosynthesis, expansion of thylakoid membrane, accumulation of phenolic compounds, and variation of the antioxidative system.

Effects of Gamma Radiations on Plants 1. Effects on the phenotype of plants: Low

levels of gamma rays induce growth stimulation signals by increasing the antioxidative ability of cells or by changing the hormonal signalling in plants. Gamma-ray treatment in the early stages of seed germination triggers the activation of RNA or protein synthesis. Radiations up to 200 Gy (1 Gray = 1 joule per kg of matter undergoing radiations = 0.1kR) increase shoot length, but a further increase to 400 Gy causes despair in shoot length. Gamma rays decrease the growth rate with an increase in radiation dose due to mutations in DNA that synthesize DNA at the interphase leading to plant bud disruption and resulting in interruption of cell differentiation. It is estimated that increasing doses are injurious to the plant cell and ultimately interfere with the growth of plants.

2. Effects on ultracellular organelles: Low irradiations do not affect the morphology of the plant cell organelles, as in contrast to high irradiations which causes prominent changes in the organelles, especially chloroplasts. Gamma rays cause dose-dependent changes in plants by inducing production of harmful free radicals in cells that further damage the nucleic acid, proteins, and lipids present in the membrane, ultimately resulting in a reduction of membrane integrity. The accumulation of starch in the chloroplast along with damaged grana and thylakoid affect the carbohydrate transport. Mitochondria remain well-organized, but slightly enlarged when exposed to a low gamma dose; although a high dose increases the endoplasmic reticulum and distorts the mitochondrial shape.

3. Effects of Gamma-irradiation on biochemical parameters: When a gamma ray acts on a crop it disturbs various morphological features of the plant that are easily visible, but to countercheck, the effect of various gamma-ray doses different biophysical

parameters is adapted. The prominent measurable parameters are the content of chlorophyll, proline, and starch.

4. Chlorophyll content: Different components of photosynthesis altogether such as pigment-protein complexes which play a role in absorbing the light, enzymes reduced for the carbon reduction cycle, and electron transport carriers. Ionizing radiations decrease the capabilities of the photosynthetic apparatus by damaging the photosystem. Under high light intensities, the plant’s photosynthetic antenna complexes play an important role in combating variable intensities. These complexes allow photosynthesis by capturing light energy, protect photo-oxidative damage of chlorophyll from ROS, and release excess energy as heat.

5. Effects on biochemical content: Radiations are responsible for breaking the bond between chains, cross-linking DNA molecules, and protein molecules. Different levels of gamma radiations pose different effects on morphology and biochemical characteristics such as producing amino acids (proline), stimulating seedling growth, and promoting germination. Gamma rays break the glycosidic bonds apart into starch granules. Induction of gamma rays produces free radicals that cause fragmentation of starch and result in molecular changes, although increasing the radiation does not affect the moisture content of the starch with the increased dose of rays.

6. Antioxidative defence: Plants show protection against radiations by removing H2O2 and lipid hydrogen peroxides through the action of peroxidase, which shows a higher efficiency of peroxidases than catalase. However, a low dose of gamma radiation activates and stimulates the peroxidase activity which helps the plant to recover from initial degradation.

7. DNA repair mechanism: The plant cell in defence also produces certain antioxidants such as metallothioneins (MTs; metal binding protein) which hunt for hydroxyl radicals and actively prevent DNA damage. Mitochondrial DNA is more susceptible to ionizing radiation than the nuclear DNA. The DNA of mitochondria is damaged when part of the DNA is deleted as a result of radiation but it has the ability to overcome the damage by producing more copies of DNA to overproduce the mitochondrial proteins. DNA polymerase ensures the replication of DNA sections by assisting the replicative enzymes. The DNA damage with a low dose of gamma radiation was not completely repaired, as enzymes repair DNA lesions and create mutations afterwards. However, acute irradiation causes severe stress and DNA damage which activates the metabolic pathways and defence mechanism by attaining high activity of gene upregulation.

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References Donà, M., Ventura, L., Macovei, A., Confalonieri,

M., Savio, M., Giovannini, A., & Balestrazzi, A. (2013). Gamma irradiation with different dose rates induces different DNA damage responses in Petunia x hybrida cells. Journal of plant physiology, 170(8), 780-787.

Hakeem, K.R. (2015). Crop Production and Global

Environmental Issues. ISBN: 978-3-319-23161-7. Khanna, V. K. (1981). Gamma radiation induced

changes in the peroxidase activity of chickpea seedlings. Current Science.

Kim, J. H., Chung, B. Y., Kim, J. S., & Wi, S. G. (2005). Effects of in Planta gamma-irradiation on growth, photosynthesis, and antioxidative capacity of red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plants. Journal of Plant Biology, 48(1), 47-56.


Characterization and Management of Plant Genetic Resources

Prabhudutt Samal1, Sonika Kalia2 and Hausila Prasad Singh3 1,2Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, 3Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, CSK

Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur-176062, India

INTRODUCTION: Adequate characterization for agronomic and morphological traits is necessary to facilitate utilization of germplasm by breeders (Berding et al. 1987). To achieve this, germplasm accessions of all crops are characterized for morphological and agronomic traits in batches over the years. Germplasm sets were evaluated for agronomic performance over locations jointly with NARS with the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR). India has one of the 12 world mega biodiversity centers and 17 mega diverse nations, one of the 8 centers of origin of crop plants and three of the 34 Hot Spots of Biodiversity- Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats (Virk et al. 1995).

Objectives of Germplasm Characterization Describe accessions, establish their

diagnostic characteristics and identify duplicates.

Classify groups of accessions using sound criteria.

Identify accessions with desired agronomic traits and select entries for more precise evaluation.

Develop interrelationships between, or among traits and between geographic groups of cultivars.

Estimate the extent of variation in the collection.

Plant Genetic Resources Management System NBPGR (The Nodal Institute) NBPGR and its 10 Regional Stations. It has 59 National Active Germplasm Sites (NAGS) comprising ICAR Institutes, Project Directorates, NRCs, AICRPs, SAUs. I has various collaborators such as international collaborators and other national stakeholders.

Importance of Plant Genetic Resources Basic raw material for genetic improvement

including designer species Reservoir of useful genes Critical component for food, nutrition,

environmental and household security

Use of Molecular Markers in PGR Management

1. Phylogenetic

analysis

2 Gene flow study

3 Diversity

analysis of Germplasm

4. Development

of core collection

DNA fingerprinting: DNA fingerprinting protocols have been developed using STMS, AFLP, ISSR, RAPD and SRAP techniques in 34 crops and 2215 cultivars have been fingerprinted. Specific molecular markers for seed purity testing of commercial hybrids of cotton, pearl millet and sorghum and identification of citrus rootstocks developed (Laucou et al. 2011).

Gene prospecting and Allele mining: Genetic resources are basic to gene discovery and their use in crop improvement including transgenic development

Indian Rice Germplasm as Source of Important Genes (Identified through SNPs)

Trait Source Gene

Submergence tolerance

FR-13 Sub 1

Salt tolerance Pokkali, Nona, Bokra Saltol, SKC1

Drought tolerane

Nagina-22, Kala Keri (gene not characterized)

BLB resistance

O. Longistaminata, Bhog Jeera 1

Xa 21, Xa 13

BPH resistance

O. nivara -

Germplasm collection at ICRISAT: The ICRISAT genebank, Patancheru, India currently conserves 118,882 accessions of the five mandate crops and six small millets from 144 countries.

Regeneration of germplasm: Seeds lose viability even under good storage conditions and it is necessary to regenerate accessions from time to time. The frequency of regeneration depends on the initial viability, the rate of loss of viability and the regeneration standard.

Germplasm conservation: The purpose of conservation of germplasm in genebanks in the

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form of seeds is to maintain the integrity of the material conserved to the highest standard over prolonged periods of time. There are following type of germplasm conservation-

1. Active collections: Collections kept for medium term, which are immediately available for distribution for utilization and multiplication. Active collections are kept in conditions, which ensure that the accession viability remains above 65% for 10–20 years.

2. Base collections: Collections kept for long term, solely for ‘posterity’, and are not drawn upon except for viability testing and subsequent regeneration. The base collections of ICRISAT germplasm are maintained at –20°C in vacuum packed standard aluminum foil pouches at 3–7% seed moisture content, depending on the crop species and with initial seed viability above 85%.

Seed moisture content during conservation: Methods prescribed by the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). Seed moisture content for long-term conservation ranges between 3 and 7% for different crops, while under medium-term conditions it is 6–8% for groundnut and 8–10% for other crops.

Seed drying: Sun drying and/or forced ventilation drying with heated air are generally used to reduce seed moisture content. For long-term conservation of germplasm seeds, it is

recommended to dry at low temperature (15°C) and low RH (15%).

Seed viability testing: Seedlings are evaluated and classified as normal, which are capable of developing into plants given favorable conditions; and abnormal, which are incapable of further development, suffer deficiency, decay or weakness.

Seed health testing: Germplasm seed health testing is carried out on all accessions regenerated for storage as active and base collections. Seed health tests are conducted on a minimum of 50 seeds by following a blotter test for all samples and an agar test for a specific pathogen.

References Berding N, Roach BT. 1987. Germplasm collection,

maintenance, and use. InDevelopments in crop science, Elsevier 1 (Vol. 11, pp. 143-210)..

Laucou V, Lacombe T, Dechesne F, Siret R, Bruno JP, Dessup M, Dessup T, Ortigosa P, Parra P, Roux C, Santoni S. 2011. High throughput analysis of grape genetic diversity as a tool for germplasm collection management. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 1:122(6):1233-45.

Virk PS, Newbury HJ, Jackson MT, Ford-Lloyd BV. 1995. The identification of duplicate accessions within a rice germplasm collection using RAPD analysis. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 1: 90(7-8):1049-55.


Recent Cultivars of Rice Kamlesh Kumar and Sushila Bhanwariya

ICAR-AICRP on Pearl millet, Agriculture University Jodhpur *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Rice botanically belongs to family Gramineae. There two cultivated and twenty-one wild species in genus Oryza. Oryza sativa is Asian cultivated rice grown around the world. India having much diversity in rice farming according to agro ecological zone and there are four different ecosystem of rice cultivation area practiced in India such as irrigated rice, rainfed upland, rainfed lowland and flood prone. Rainfed upland and rainfed lowland ecosystem are less favourable in rice cultivation due to poor yield. Rice has supported a greater number of people for a longer period of time than any other crop since it was domesticated between 8000 to 10000 years ago. At least 90 percent rice in world is produced and consumed in Asian region and approximately 5 percent of total rice production is traded in international market. This shows that how maximum countries maintain rice economy for their self-sufficiency only. The maximum countries in the Asian region having rice self-sufficiency and political stability issue interdependent. Three year data inTable1 showed area of cultivation, production and

productivity do not changing much. Therefore, keeping in view the future requirements, the major emphasis for rice improvement, should be on development of new high yielding rice hybrids/varieties and production technology to produce more yields per drop of water, high per day productivity, with high degree of resistance to insect and pest.

TABLE 1. Area, production and yield of rice in India

Area (Lakh ha) Production (million

ton) Yield (kg/ha)

2013-14

2014-15

2015-16*

2013-14

2014-15

2015-16*

2013-14

2014-15

2015-

16*

441.36

441.10

433.88

106.65

105.48

104.32

2416

2391

2404

* 4th advance estimates

By keeping future demand of rice the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare under Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare notified new rice cultivar on 27 March 2018 for cultivation in different

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states and suitable to particular area of adaptations to maximizing yield per unit of land.

TABLE 2. New Rice Cultivar

S.No. Variety States

1 Daksha (KMP-175) Karnataka

2 JR-81, Improved, Improved Jeera Shankar and JRB 1 (IET 23422)

Madhya Pradesh.

3 Mahisagar (IET 22100), GNRH-1 (NVSR-H-1003) and GNR-5 (NVSR-6137)

Gujarat

4 CN 1272-55-105 (IET-19886)

West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka under irrigated conditions.

5 CO52 and MDU 6 (IET-23994)

Tamil Nadu.

6 CO 43 Sub-1 (IET 25676)

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka.

7 27P37 PR 14101 (IET 24844)

Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

8 28S41 PR 14109 (IET 24891)

Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

9 28P67 PR 14105 (IET 24879)

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra

10 DRR Dhan 47 (IET Telangana, Andhra

S.No. Variety States

23356) Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Pudducherry.

11 DRR Dhan 48 (IET 24555)

Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

12 DRR Dhan 49 (IET 24557)

Gujarat, Maharashtra and Kerala.

13 DRR Dhan 50 (IET 25671)

Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Bihar, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

14 DRR Dhan 51 (IET 25484)

Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Telangana and Chhattisgarh.

15 CAU-RI (IET 23544) Manipur and Meghalaya.

16 Him Palam Lal Dhan-1 (HPR 2795)

Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Manipur.

17 Punjab Basmati-4 (RYT 3404) (IET-25399), Punjab Basmati-5 (RYT 3432) (IET-26153), PR-126 (RYT 3379) (IET-24721)

Punjab.

18 PDKV Kisan (SKL-22-39-31-25-31-34)

Eastern Vidarbha Zone of Maharashtra.

19 Ranjit SUB-1 and Bahadur SUB-1

Assam.

20 CNRH 102 (IET 22913) West Bengal.


Conventional and Molecular Approaches for Blast Resistance in Rice

T. Soujanya

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant breeding, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 500030.


Rice is the most valuable and primary food crop for more than 50 per cent of the world’s population. Due to ever increasing population and better living standards, demand for rice is also moving up. Rice crop is prone to various types of stresses among which the blast disease is the most harmful threat to high productivity of rice due to its wide distribution and ability to survive in wide range of environmental conditions. It is reported that severe yield loss up to an extent of 85% is caused by blast alone at global level (Sirithunya et al., 2002).

Rice Blast Rice blast is caused by a fungus Magnaporthe

oryzae. It is the the most devastating disease, widely distributed and occurs in every region of the world where rice is grown and is reported to be present in at least 85 countries.

The disease is found throughout the whole growth stages of the rice plant and all the above ground parts of the plant can be attacked by the fungus. Seedling stage, rapid tillering stage after transplanting and flower emergence stage were identified as the most susceptible ones to blast.

Conventional Approaches for rice blast resistance The following are the different breeding methods used for improving rice blast resistance

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1. Introduction 2. Selection 3. Mutation breeding 4. Hybridization 5. Recurrent selection 6. Pedigree method

Through conventional breeding programs more than 400 high yielding commercial cultivars having blast resistance have been released in India and major genes Pib, Pita, Pia, Pi1, Pikh, Pi2 and Pi4 have been introduced into rice varieties for blast resistance.

Successful Examples of Conventional Breeding for Blast Resistance in Rice 1. Blast resistance (Basmati, Type-3) –

Dwarfism (sd-1) from Pusa-1121 & aroma and blast resistant from Khalsa-7 introduced in basmati (Type-3) using traditional breeding.

2. KDML105 was improved for blast resistance by conventional backcross breeding programs in Thailand through IRRI shuttle breeding program

3. Blast resistance (Minghui 63) – The most famous hybrid rice ‘‘Minghui 63’’ developed by conventional crossbreeding in China

4. Blast resistance – IR 5, IR 8, IR 20, IR 22, IR 24, IR 26, IR 28, IR 29, IR 30, IR 32, IR 34, IR 36, IR 38, IR 40, IR 42, IR 43, IR 44, IR 45, IR 46, IR 48, IR 50 IR 52, IR 54, IR 56, IR 58, IR 60, IR 62, IR 64, IR 65, IR 66, IR 68, IR 70, IR 72, IR 74 have developed through conventional breeding

5. Resistant to neck blast and susceptible to leaf blast: Norin 6 (Joshu X Senichi) was developed in 1935 and Resistant to leaf blast and susceptible to neck blast Norin 8 (Ginbozu X Asahi) in 1936 by systematic breeding.

6. Resistant to both leaf and neck blast: Norin 22 and Norin 23 were produced by hybridization.

7. Draw backs: a) Slow process b) Depends on environmental conditions c) Epistatic effect d) No durable resistance e) Breakdown of varietal resistance to rice

blast

Molecular Approaches Molecular markers have played an increasing role in rice breeding for cultivar improvement, screening, selection and germplasm collections

and they have a greater opportunity to improve the efficiency of conventional breeding by carrying out selection not directly on the trait of interest but on linked molecular markers of that particular trait.

MAS Marker-Assisted Backcrossing (MAB) Gene pyramiding and Gene cloning are the molecular approaches

used for improving rice blast resistance.

Molecular Achievements Currently more than 100 major R genes and over 350 QTLs conferring partial to complete resistance to rice blast have been identified in Rice. Among these, 26 R genes (Pib, Pita, Pi54, Pid2, Pi9, Pi2, Pizt, Pi36, Pi37, Pikm, Pi5, Pit, Pid3, pi21, Pish, Pb1, Pik, Pikp, Pia, Pi25, Pid3A4, Pi35, NLS1, Pikh, Pi54rh and Pi54of) have been cloned (Koide et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012).

Many reports mention that the genes affecting blast resistance are colocalized on chromosomes 6, 11 and 12. On chromosome 6, at least 14 genes and/or alleles (Pi2, Piz, Piz-t, Piz-5, Pi8(t), Pi9, Pi13, Pi13(t), Pi25(t), Pi26(t), Pi27(t) Pid2, Pigm(t), and Pi40(t)) have been mapped in the region near the centromere.. On the long arm of chromosome 11, at least nine genes (Pi1, Pi7, Pi18, Pif, Pi34, Pi38, Pi44(t), PBR, and Pilm2) and six alleles at the Pik locus (Pik, Pik-s, Pik-p, Pik-m, Pik-h, and Pik-g) have been mapped. On chromosome 12, at least 17 resistance genes (Pita, Pita-2, Pitq6, Pi6(t), Pi12(t), Pi12(t), Pi19(t), Pi20(t), Pi21(t), Pi24(t), Pi31(t), Pi32(t), Pi39(t), Pi62(t), Pi157(t) IPi, and IPi3) have been mapped in the region near the centromere.

CONCLUSION: Though breeders have developed a number of blast resistant cultivars adapted to different rice growing regions worldwide. However, the rice industry remains threatened by blast disease due to the instability of blast fungus. It is common that resistant varieties became susceptible after a short time in production. The best management of the disease is to bring durable wide spectrum resistance in rice cultivars. There is an urgent need for stratagies to develop varieties with durable resistance to the disease. This can be accomplished by accumulating both qualitative and quantitative resistance genes in rice cultivars. Recent molecular breeding strategy such as gene pyramiding and allele mining holds greater prospects to attain durable resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses in crops.

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59. SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 16405

Seed Vigour Testing: Principles and Methods Sushma Sharma*

PhD Scholar, Department of Seed Science and Technology, CCSHAU, Hisar-125004 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

What is Seed Vigour? Seed vigour, a single concept reflecting several characters determines the seed quality and uniform emergence potential of plants in field under variable range of environments (Finch-Savage and Bassel 2016). It was in 1876, when Nobbe first used the term ‘Seed Vigour’, thereafter, seed scientists are constantly digging in, to explore every possible scope this concept could provide. It has always been difficult to define seed vigour precisely. The most acceptable definition evolved by the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) states that ‘seed vigour is the sum total of all those properties that determine the activity and performance of seed lots having acceptable germination in a wide range of environments’. When the growing conditions are optimal, every viable seed could germinate except the hard or dormant one, but if the conditions are stressed and some seeds could still perform better than the rest, we need to address the concept of seed vigour.

Seed Vigour Evaluation Seed vigour does not reflect a specific property of a seed or seed lot but it is still a concept. Several factors like genetic constitution, growth environment and nutrition of mother plant, maturity at the time of harvest, seed size and weight, mechanical stability, deterioration and ageing and pathogens are responsible for difference in seed vigour (Perry, 1980). There is no universal seed vigour testing method because seed vigour is influenced by multiple factors i.e. species, genotype and environmental conditions. It can be evaluated by various methods, such as vigour indices, stress tests like accelerated aging test, cold test (Marcos-Filho, 2015), controlled deterioration test, Brick gravel test etc. The most widely used methods are standard germination test and accelerated aging test.

1. Growth tests: The basic principle behind these tests is that seeds with high vigour grow at a faster rate as compared to seeds having poor vigour potential. This difference in growth can be easily observed even under favourable conditions. Vigorous seeds metabolize their food reserves rapidly, germinate, and establish in the field. Therefore, any method used to determine the quickness of growth of the seedling will give an indication of seed vigour level. a) First count: The test is done along with

the regular standard germination test. Number of normal seedlings emerged on the first count day, as specified for each

species are counted. The number of normal seedlings gives an idea of the seed vigour potential in the seed lots. Higher the number of normal seedlings, greater is the seed vigour.

b) Speed of germination: This test can be executed using either ‘top of the paper’ or ‘sand’ method of the standard germination test. One hundred seeds each in four replications are planted for germination. The substratum is kept in a germinator maintained at recommended temperature for the crop. Number of seedlings emerging daily, are counted from day of planting till the completion of germination.

c) Seedling length and dry weight: The seedlings are grown either in laboratory, green house or field. In laboratory, ‘between paper’ method should be followed. Seeds are planted between two moist towel papers in such a way that the micropyles are oriented towards bottom to avoid root twisting. The rolled towel papers are kept in the germinator maintained at a temperature recommended for crop in reference. After a specified period of time (according to reference crop), length of emerged seedlings is measured and mean seedling length is calculated. Seed lots producing the longer seedlings are considered more vigorous. For dry weight determination, the seedlings are taken and dried in an air oven at 100°C temperature for 24 hours.

d) Seedling vigour indices: These indices are given by Abdul-Baki and Anderson in 1973. These are derived from standard germination and seedling growth parameters i.e. length and dry weight as per the following formulae: i) Vigour Index-I = Standard

germination (%) × Average seedling length (cm)

ii) Vigour Index-II = Standard germination (%) × Average seedling dry weight (mg or g)

2. Stress tests: These tests are based on the assessment of seed performance under stressed conditions. Seeds with higher vigour potential perform better than low vigour seeds when tested under unfavourable conditions i.e. high or very low temperature, high humidity, high moisture content, some physical barrier etc. a) Hiltner test (Brick gravel test): This test

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was developed by Hiltner in Germany in 1917. He observed that Fusarium affected seeds of cereal crops were able to germinate in regular test but were not able to emerge from brick gravels of 2-3 mm size. On the contrary, healthy seeds were able to emerge from the brick gravel. The underlying principle is that the weak seedlings are not able to generate enough force to overcome the pressure of brick gravels, so this method can be used to differentiate vigour levels in cereal seeds. The procedure involves the following steps: The sand is seived, moistened and filled in the germination box leaving about 3 cm empty at the top. One hundred seeds are placed in each box in the impressions made by a sand marker. After this 2-2.5 cm of porous brick gravel is spread over the seeds. The box is kept in the germinator at appropriate temperature. After the period required for germination, the seedlings which have emerged through the brick gravel layer are counted and percentage of emerged seedlings are used to compare seed vigour of different lots.

b) Paper Piercing test: The principle of paper piercing test is similar to that of brick gravel test. High vigour seed lots are expected to produce strong seedlings which can pierce a particular type of paper while seedlings of poor vigour lots may not be able to pierce the paper.

c) Cold Test: Cold test was developed in USA to evaluate the seed vigour of maize. In USA, when the corn is planted in late spring, the soil is humid and cold. The weak seeds do not germinate and establish. Therefore, to simulate the actual field conditions cold test has been developed. This test aims to differentiate between weak and vigorous seed lots by subjecting them to low temperature prior to germination at optimum temperature. The procedure involves following steps: After grinding and properly sieving the soil is filled in tray upto 2 cm depth. Fifty seeds are placed over the sand and covered with another 2 cm thick layer of soil. The soil is compacted and enough water is added to make the soil saturate its water holding capacity. After watering, the trays are covered with polythene bags and placed in the refrigerator maintained at 10°C temperature for one week. After one week, the trays are placed in the germinator at 25°C temperature. The seedlings emerged after 4 days are counted and germination percentage is calculated by counting the number of normal seedlings. Higher the germination percentage greater is the vigour.

d) Accelerated Ageing (AA) test: The accelerated ageing test was developed at the Seed Technology Laboratory, Mississippi State University, USA for determining the storage potential of seed lots. The ageing process is accelerated by subjecting the seeds to high temperature (40-50°C) and humidity (100%) in a chamber before standard germination. The seed lots that show high germination are more vigorous and expected to maintain high viability during storage.

e) Controlled Deterioration (CD) test: As the name suggests, the test involves the deterioration of samples of seeds from seed lots in a precise and controlled manner at an elevated moisture content (dependent on the species, often 20%) and temperature (45°C) for a defined duration.

3. Biochemical tests: a) Tetrazolium (Tz) test: Tetrazolium is a

rapid test to estimate seed viability and vigour based on color alterations of seed’s living tissues in contact with a solution of 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride, thus, reflecting the degree of activity of the dehydrogenase enzyme system closely related to seed respiration and viability. Dehydrogenase is respiratory enzyme whose activity proves that cell is alive. The reduction of TTC (colourless) to Formazan (red) is the responsible chemical reaction. Usually, this test is considered as a viability test but its results can also be interpreted to estimate the vigour of the seed. Vigorous seeds show dark stains as compared to seeds having poor vigour.

b) Electrical Conductivity (EC) test: Weakening of cell membrane in low vigour seeds causes the leakage of water soluble solutes like sugars, amino acids, electrolytes etc. when immersed in distilled water. EC is negatively correlated with the quality of seeds. The conductance of sample is measured after measuring the conductance of distilled water. The reading of distilled water is substracted from the sample reading to get the EC of leachates. The value is then corrected for the temperature and multiplied by the cell constant factor. The reading is expressed as desi Siemens or micro Siemens/cm/g of seed. Lower the value of EC, greater is the seed vigour.

CONCLUSION:Seed vigour is an important component of seed quality and satisfactory levels are necessary in addition to traditional quality criteria of moisture, purity, germination and seed health to obtain optimum plant stand and high production of crops. Research is needed to further refine the current seed vigour test methods and to develop new methods which are

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rapid and more related to field/storage conditions.

References Abdul Baki, A.A. and Anderson, J.D. (1973) Vigor

determination in soybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Science. 13: 630- 633.

Finch-Savage, W.E. and Bassel, G.W. (2016) Seed vigour and crop establishment: extending

performance beyond adaptation. Journal of Experimental Botany. 67(3): 567-591.

Marcos-Filho, J. (2015) Seed vigor testing: an overview of the past, present and future perspective. Scientia Agricola. 72: 363-374.

Perry, D.A. (1980) The concept of seed vigour and its relevance to seed production techniques. In: Hebblethwaite PD (Eds. Seed production), pp. 585-591, London, Butterworths.


Seed Vigour Test Sahaja Deva

Subject Matter Specialist, Crop Production, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi-523247 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Vigor testing does not only measure the percentage of viable seed in a sample, it also reflects the ability of those seeds to produce normal seedlings under less than optimum or adverse growing conditions similar to those which may occur in the field.

Methods of Measuring Seed Vigor The general strategy of determining seed vigor is to measure some aspects of seed deterioration or weaknesses, which is inversely proportional to seed vigor.

Cold test, accelerated aging test, electric conductivity test, seedling vigor classification, and seedling growth rate are among the tests that are used to measure seed vigor. In addition, the tetrazolium (TZ test) can be used as a vigor test by classifying the pattern of stained seeds into high, medium and low quality. The AOSA Seed Vigor Testing Handbook is a good source of information on seed vigor testing. Below is a brief description for some of the most common seed vigor tests that are used for various crops including corn, soybean, field beans, peas, grasses, vegetable seeds, and other crops.

Cold Test (CT) The cold test simulates early spring field conditions by germinating the seeds in wet soils (»70% water holding capacity) and incubating them at 5-10°C/41-51°F for a specified period. At the end of the cold period, the test is transferred to a favorable temperature for germination (e.g., 25°C/77°F in case of sweet corn). The percentage of normal seedlings is considered as an indication of seed vigor. Vigorous seeds germinate better under cold environments.

When can the cold test be used?

1. Select cultivars with the best ability to perform under cold wet soils for early spring planting.

2. Provide basis for adjusting planting rates for individual seed lots.

3. Evaluate the effects of adverse storage conditions, mechanical damage, drying injuries or other causes on seed germination in cold wet soils.

Accelerated Aging Test (AAT) The principle of this test is to stress seeds with high temperatures of (40-45°C/130-139°F) and near 100% relative humidity (RH) for varying lengths of time, depending on the kind of seeds, after which a germination test is made. High vigor seeds are expected to tolerate high temperatures and humidity and retain their capability to produce normal seedlings in the germination test.

When can the AAT test be used?

1. Can be used to determine the seed vigor of many crops.

2. Useful in predicting the potential storability of a seed lot.

Electric Conductivity Test This test measures the integrity of cell membranes, which is correlated with seed vigor. It is well established that this test is useful for garden beans and peas. It has been also reported that the conductivity test results are significantly correlated with field emergence for corn, and soybean. As seeds lose vigor, nutrients exude from their membranes, and so low quality seeds leak electrolytes such as amino acids, organic acids while high quality seeds contains their nutrients within well structured membranes. Therefore, seeds with higher conductivity measurement are indication of low quality seeds as vice versa.

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Seedling Vigor Classification Test (SVCT) This vigor test is an expansion of the standard germination test (SGT). The normal seedlings obtained from the SGT results are further classified into ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ categories. This test has been used for corn, garden beans, soybean, cotton, peanuts and other crops.

The principle of the test

Seedlings have four significant morphological sites for evaluating vigor:

1. Root system. 2. Hypocotyl (the embryonic axis between

cotyledons and root).

3. Cotyledons (storage tissue of reserve food for seedling development).

4. Epicotyl (the embryonic axis above the cotyledons).

In this test, seedlings are classified as ‘strong’ if the above four areas are well developed and free from defects, which is indication of satisfactory performance over a wide range of field conditions. On the other hand, normal seedlings with some deficiencies such as missing part of the root, one cotyledon missing, hypocotyl with breaks, lesions, necrosis, twisting, or curling are classified as ‘weak’.


Morphological and Molecular Methods of Varietal Identification

Hemender*

Department of Seed Science and Technology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Genetic Purity Genetic purity refers to the trueness of a variety or cultivar. The genetic purity of any commercial agricultural product propagated by seed begins with the purity of the seed planted. Genetic purity or genuinness of cultivar is tested on the basis of their heritable characters.

DUS Criteria D: Distinctness – The variety should be

clearly distinguishable from any other existing variety at least for one character.

U: Uniformity – The variety should be sufficiently uniform to enable its description.

S: Stability - The variety should be stable in its relevant characteristics, that is, it must remain true to its initial description even after repeated propagation.

Methods for Cultivar Identification The genetic purity of varieties is conventionally determined by the grow-out test (GOT), which is based on assessment of morphological and floral characters called “descriptors” in plants grown to maturity. In the early days, varietal tests were

relatively simple for two basic reasons: (1) there were fewer varieties, and (2) there were usually greater differences among varieties. After the success of modern plant breeding, the resulting variety explosion, appearance of many closely related varieties, seed analysts needed newer, more reliable ways of distinguishing among varieties.

Morphological Methods These methods include examination of seed and seedling morphology, examination in green houses and grow out test.

1. Seed morphology testing: Characters set for testing of seed morphology are size and shape of seed, base of lemma, rachilla hairs, deviation of lateral dorsal nerves, wrinkling of lemma and palea etc. Morphological characters are examined with the aid of suitable magnification. The colour characteristics examined under full day light or light of limited spectrum e.g. ultraviolet light. Scanning electron microscope for studying differences in seed coat surface and its inner structure have also been used in

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some species. 2. Seedling morphology testing: Many useful

varietal identification tests have been performed on seedlings. Such tests are useful because they may yield more information than observations of the un-germinated seed and do not require as much time as field grow-out tests.

3. Grow Out Test (GOT): This test is performed with an objective to determine the genetic purity status of a given seed lot of the notified cultivar/ hybrid and the extent to which the sample in question conforms to the prescribed standards. It serves as a ‘pre-control’ as well as a ‘post-control’ test for avoiding genetic contaminations. According to the official regulations in India, it is prerequisite for seed certification of hybrids of certain species such as cotton, castor, musk melon and brinjal.

The samples for Grow-out test are drawn simultaneously with the samples for other seed quality tests in accordance with the prescribed sampling procedures. The minimum population required for taking the observations is 400 plants, however, it depends on the maximum permissible off-type plants prescribed for the species under consideration. The number of seeds required for raising the crop to obtain the required number of plants depends on the germination percentage of the seed sample and hence seed rate should be adjusted accordingly. When time is not a crucial factor in varietal identification, a field grow-out test is usually more reliable than seed or seedling tests.

Observations on flowering date, flower colour, characteristics of seed produced, and vegetative characteristics, such as presence of pubescence on the leaf margins or at the tip of the auricles, may help distinguish one variety from another. The seed sample is sown in the controlled condition with the authentic sample. Genetic purity is determined on the basis of observation made on the plant morphological characters with reference to authentic sample and is expressed in percentage.

There are certain limitations associated with morphological methods. Environmental stress conditions often mask specific morphological traits, large amount of land is required, laborious, time consuming and unfavourable condition, i.e. disease and insect infestation may limit GOT in field.

Molecular Markers These are heritable DNA sequences, phenotypically neutral, developmentally and environmentally stable and identified by techniques such as Southern hybridization or PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). Molecular techniques have been applied to plant cultivar identification in the past decade by developing molecular markers that detect differences in DNA sequences between different cultivars. Highly specific marker profiles commonly known as DNA fingerprinting can be developed for each cultivar and used for its identification.

Different types of molecular markers are being used currently. Detected by Southern Hybridization (RFLPs -Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms and VNTRs - Variable Number of Tandem Repeats), Detected by PCR-based methods (RAPD - Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA, AFLP - Amplification Fragment Length Polymorphism, CAPS - Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Site, SSR - Simple Sequence Repeats (microsatellites) and SNP - Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms)

The best molecular markers are those that distinguish multiple alleles per locus (i.e. are highly polymorphic) and are co-dominant (each allele can be observed). Among the molecular markers, microsatellites also called Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers are most suitable because of the, highly polymorphic nature, co-dominant inheritance (determination of homozygous and heterozygous states of diploid organisms), frequent occurrence in genome, easy access (availability), easy and fast assay, high reproducibility and easy exchange of data between laboratories.

62. POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 16413

Curing Techniques for Onion Storage Divyasree Arepally1 and Sudharshan Reddy Ravula2

1Agricultural and Food Engineering Department IIT Kharagpur 2Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering,

University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India-584 104

Onion is one of the most important vegetable crops cultivated extensively throughout the country under a wide range of climatic conditions. Onions are grown successfully on any fertile, well-drained, non crusting soil. Generally, farmers bring the onions to market for sale immediately after the harvest, because of lack of storage facilities. This results in oversupply of onion on the market. Sometimes, the market

price will rise up and fall (usually, <Rs1/kg) in a record level. In India, post harvests losses of onion are around 35-40% under normal storage/room conditions. It makes the problem of off-season shortage and reduces the profits for growers. Hence, curing must be done prior to storage of onion.

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Curing Curing is one of the post-harvest practices required for the long term storage of bulb onions. Curing is a drying process which tends to dry off the necks and outer scale leaves of the bulbs to prevent the loss of moisture during storage and prevents microbial infection, and is desirable for development of good scale colour. The primary requirement for curing is proper heat and good ventilation. Sometimes climatic conditions such as rain or flooded fields during curing can destroy the entire yield. Further, farmer’s does not have enough knowledge about the curing techniques and other post-harvest practices.

Curing can perform either traditional or artificial method. In traditional method, onions are cured in the field under natural ambient conditions. This process takes for 5 to 10 days depending on the climatic conditions till the neck seals and the outer protective cover is formed. It is also better to cover the onion bulbs with either onion leaves or any cloth/bags to prevent sun burn (Sabaragamuw et al., 2011). But the problems from this method are: onions may bake in the sun in the hotter regions, uneven curing may take place, may contaminate with wet soil if it is rainy or flooded field. Therefore, we need partial shade, moderate temperatures, and good air flow (and no rain). However, onions can also be cured by tying the tops of the bulbs in bunches and hanging them on a horizontal pole in well-ventilated shades. Curing in shade improves the colour of the onion bulb and reduces losses significantly during storage.

FIG 1. Windrowing of onion

In artificial curing, onions are spread in a single layer in a warm dry horizontal perforated flat tray/place either in storage rooms or curing rooms with artificial air. During curing and storage, outer skins usually experience a net loss of moisture, because initially onion contains water. The artificial air is being heated first by the heaters and this heated air moves over the produce. The optimum air flow rate, temperature and relative humidity must be maintained for better storability than field cured bulbs. For instance, if the humidity is more that causes condensation it may lead to the chances of

increases in risk of diseases and if curing temperature is more than 45 °C, it may cause bulb deterioration. The standard conditions for artificial curing are to pass air, heated to 38-40 °C, around the onions.

FIG. 2 Sacks in the field

FIG. 3 Artificial curing (www.fao.org)

Curing is considered when neck is tight and the outer scales become dry and brittle. This condition is reached when onions lost 3 to 5% of their weight. Moreover, development of skin colour is also important during this stage. If curing is not done properly, the onions will spoil during storage. During curing, bulbs should be turned regularly to make sure uniform curing. Onions should always be regularly checked to avoid over drying. If there is a continuous rainfall in a particular region, then the onion growers must construct the suitable racks from locally available materials for curing of the onions. Moreover, polythene sheets should be fixed to the edge of the roof to let down quickly in the event of heavy rain showers and removed afterwards (www.fao.org).

References Sabaragamuwa, R. S., Dharmasena, D. A. N., &

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Mannaperuma, J. (2011). Optimization of environmental parameters for short-term storage of big onions and evaluation of the feasibility of

controlled environmental storage. Tropical Agricultural Research, 22(4).

www.fao.org

63. PLANT PATHOLOGY 15960

Biotechnological Approaches towards Diagnosis of Plant Diseases.

Raina Bajpai and Jhumishree Meher

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi - 221005 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Diagnosis refers to process of determining whether plant is healthy or sick. In case of plant pathology the initial step is diagnosis. It could be also regarded as primary need towards its management. Microorganism being microscopic in nature their proper identification should be achieved. There are different methods for diagnosis in which the most foremost is Identification of characteristics symptoms-Plant exhibit different characteristics symptoms like target board by Alterneria. So recognition of such symptoms and confirming by earlier description of the pathogen and its effects. Diseases also engage succession of symptoms that varies significantly. The succession of symptoms is one of the most important characteristics associated with problems caused by biotic agents. Variation of symptoms should also be paid attention as its leads to failure of correct diagnosis and Identification of the sign-Signs of plant disease agents are the proof of the actual disease-causing agent which could be observed. It includes mycelia, fungal spores, and spore-producing bodies etc. These are more accurate and specific in comparasion to visual symptoms. This method is very useful in the diagnosis of disease and identification of the pathogen.

Different Biotechnological Techniques used in Recent Time for Disease Diagnosis are: ELISA

ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is a serological technique which is based on interaction of the antibody with antigen associated with a plant pathogen. It is basically a kit which is very easy to use and time efficient. Various ELISA test kits available in the market to identify diseases of different root crops, fruit crops, vegetables, ornamental crops etc (e.g beet, potato, orchids banana, apple, grapes). These are also available for grains like wheat, rice.. For an example, these techniques can easily identify ratoon stunting disease of sugarcane, tomato mosaic virus, papaya ringspot virus, banana bract mosaic virus, banana bunchy top virus, and watermelon mosaic virus.

Direct Tissue Blot

For detection of plant pathogen specific antibodies are used in this technique. This is

simplification of other molecular technique like northern blot, Southern blot, or western blot. Here, diseased tissue samples are force downed to draw out proteins on top of a special paper followed by adding antibodies to the sample. A substrate which induces color is finally added which reacts with the antibody-pathogen complex. Positive result is indicated by the color reaction illustrating the position of the pathogen in the infected tissue.

DNA/RNA Probes

One of the new tools which is used in plant disease diagnostics is nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) probes. These are nucleic acid fragments assembled in a sequence which complementary to that of the respective nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) of the pathogen. Since the probe sequences complement to pathogen sequence, it can be utilized to recognize specific diseases.

PCR

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is amplification based technique which make use of nucleic acid probes for the detection of specific pathogen. This method is highly sensitive in comparison with other methods. It has the potential to identify minute amount of a pathogen’s genetic material per sample followed by amplification of certain sequences to a detectable level. Other then pathogen causing disease it also detects the mutations took place in any pathogen population. Identification of mutation helps to know possibility of development of any new resistant strain.

Immuno-Electron Micrscopy

This technique permits the detection of specific proteins in ultrathin tissue sections. With the help of transmission electron microscopy, antibodies tagged with particles of heavy metal particles (e.g. gold) can be easily visualized. This technique make use of an antibody is used to recognize a specific protein epitope. Further this primary antibody can be detected by enzyme or flurophore.

Conclusion- All this technique along with basic methods is highly useful for plant disease diagnosis. Recent advancement in the biotechnology has made diagnosis comparatively easier and very specific which eventually restricts crop losses. Upcoming techniques will

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be cost effective benefitting the farmers.


Citrus Canker Disease and their Management Practices Adesh Kumar*

Krishi Vigyan Kendra Bharari Jhansi- 284003 (U.P.) *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Citrus canker disease is caused by Xanthomonas citri (syn. Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri) bacterium. The disease is prevalent in many countries in Asia, South America, Oceania and Africa as well as in Florida, United States. Citrus canker disease has controversial thoughts regarding their history. Lee (1918) reported that the disease may have arisen in southern China. However, Fawcett and Jenkins (1933) gave evidence about canker disease originated in India and Java. The disease caused tremendous losses in citrus cultivars and some citrus relatives. The pathogen produces necrotic lesions on all aerial parts of plant and severs infection causes premature fruit dropping in many citrus cultivars. Wounds generated by wind and mechanical damage assist infection of mature tissues. Citrus leaf miner also increases the infestation of citrus canker. The disease occurred in endemic form in India, Japan and other South- East Asian countries, from where it has extend to other citrus growing continents except Europe. The pathogen is survived none systemically and have numerous pathotypes. Pathotype A causes Asiatic citrus canker with broad host range and pathotype B is restricted on lemon, Mexican lime, sour orange and pummelo while pathotype C is cause disease only Mexican lime. The X. citri is a rod shaped, gram negative bacterium, have single polar flagellum. The pathogen is obligatory aerobic and growing well form at 28-30°C.

Different pathovars of Xanthomonas citri (syns. X. campestris, X. axonopodis) are caused citrus canker disease. The pathogen have approximately similar symptoms, however separation occurs based on host series, cultural and biochemical characteristics, bacteriophage activity. (The Asiatic type of canker (Canker A) strain originally found in Asia and widely distributed in the world as compared to other four strains viz. B, C, D and E (Civerolo 1985). The pathogen prefers warm and humid weather for infection and disease spreads. Aiyappa (1958) studied that if environmental conditions are favorable for pathogen than all the cultivated/wild species of citrus showed susceptible reaction against this bacterium in Karnataka. Prasad (1959) also reported similar observations from Rajasthan. The pathogen is used many virulence factors, which settled disease severity. The major virulence factors include secretion system, polysaccharides, extracellular enzymes, toxins and plant hormones. Two bacterium, Pseudomonas and

Xanthomonas species usually do not use the plant hormones as virulence factors.

The citrus canker has been managed by employing integrated disease control methods. The regions where citrus canker is endemic form, integrated control actions have great job to control the disease with applying resistant/tolerant cultivars. The disease reported to more severe on acid lime and less on mandarin and sweet orange. Nirvan (1961) also studied that Kaghzi Lime was more susceptible as compared to grape fruit and sweet oranges in Karnakhata. Mandarins and lemons are resistant while Kumquats cultivar showed immune response under Uttar Pradesh conditions (Das 2003). Cultural practices including windbreaks, and pruning of diseased shoots, are standard control measure of the disease throughout the world. Many authors are also widely acknowledged about infected twigs pruning which should be done before monsoon and spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture (Fawcett 1936; Govinda Rao 1954; Prasad 1959; Paracer 1961).

Six sprays of streptomycin sulphate @1000 ppm and two pruning reduced the canker in acid lime. Many other also widely studied the role of copper (alone) and with combination of antibiotics to reduce the citrus cankers disease (Das and Singh 2000; Thind and Aulakh).

The other superb method of disease control is using of Induced systemic resistance (ISR) agents to innate the immune system of the plants. Numerous mechanisms for ISR may functions simultaneously to control the disease and avoiding pathogen resistance. Several compounds, such as benzothiadiazoles, harpin protein and salicylic acid, are well known inducers of plant resistance to Xanthomond diseases.

References Lee H A. 1918. Further data on the susceptiblity of

rutaceous plants to citrus canker. Journal of agricultural research 15:661- 5.

Fawcett H S and Jenkins A E. 1933. Records of citrus Canker from herbarium specimens of the genus Citrus in England and the United States. Phytopathology 23:820-4.

Civerolo E L. 1985. Indigenous Plasmids in X.campestris pv. citri. Phytopathology 75:524-8.

Prasad N. 1959. Citrus canker. Proc. Seminar on Disease of Horticultural Plants. pp 87-88. Simla.

Nirvan R S. 1961. Citrus canker and its control. Horticulture Advances 5:171-5.

Das A K. 2003. Citrus canker - A review. Journal of Applied Horticulture 5:52-60.

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Fawcett H S. 1936. Citrus diseases and their control. pp 656. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York.

Paracer C S. 1961. Some important diseases of fruit trees. Punjab Horticulture Journal 1(1):45-7.

Govinda Rao P. 1954. Citrus diseases and their control in Andhra State. Andhra Agriculture Journal 1: 187-92.


Wheat Blast: A Threatening Disease to India P. Avinash1and B. Bhaskar2

1DBT-Junior Research Fellow, Horticultural College, SKLTSHU, Hyderabad 2Ph.D Scholar, Dept of Plant Pathology, S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, ANGRAU.

Economic Significance Wheat blast was first reported in Parana province of Brazil in 1985. But first epidemic was reported in the year of 1996 in Bolivia and then in Paraguay and Argentina in 2002 and 2007, respectively causing 70–80% wheat yield loss. There are still some regions in South America where wheat is not cultivated because of the potential threat of this disease. Recent reports showed the occurrence of the wheat blast in Asian country Bangladesh in 2016 over 20,000 hectares in six districts namely Kushtia, Meherpur, Chuadanga, Jhenaidah, Jessore and Bhola. The sudden appearance of wheat blast in Bangladesh alarming a serious threat for food and income security in neighbouring country India and also the entire world. Wheat on at least 1,000 hectares in two districts have already been affected by the wheat blast disease. In Bengal, disease spread was seen in Murshidabad and Nadia districts bordering Bangladesh forced the farmers to burn the standing crop in 1000 hectares to stop the further spread. So far in Murshidabad and Nadia districts about 509 &500 hectares of wheat production has been affected respectively.

Etiology Initially the casual organism of wheat blast is considered as Triticum isolate of Pyriculariaoryzaewhich was later with brief phylogenetic studies a new species was named as Pyriculariagraministritici. The causal organism in the Bangladesh region is confirmed as P.graministritici.

Symptomatology Wheat blast can occur on all aerial plant parts. Foliar symptoms include gray-green and water-soaked leaf lesions with dark green borders; these become light tan with necrotic borders, once they have completely expanded. Partly or completely bleached spikes (often confused with symptoms of Fusarium head blight) and blackened rachises are the most notable symptoms of wheat blast. Grains from blast-infected heads are usually small, wrinkled, deformed, and have low testweight. The most severe yield losses occur when head infections start during flowering or early grain formation.

Disease Cycle Though seed transmission of the wheat fungus

has been demonstrated, seed infection may play a limited role in epidemiology, where spikes are infected mainly by air-borne conidia from secondary host grasses. The pathogen is believed to survive between wheat crops on wild plants at field borders and in open grasslands, but the plant species that harbour PoT (Pyriculariaoryzaetritici) have yet to be conclusively determined. Several grasses and weeds occur commonly in wheat fields and are secondary hosts, but their role in the epidemiology of wheat blast is not well understood and even less so in Bangladesh. The potential role of lower and older wheat leaves in inoculum build-up before ear emergence needs to be clarified. Likewise, the survival of PoT as mycelium in crop residues has to be investigated, particularly given that residue and stubble retention is being encouraged as part of conservation agriculture in South Asia, and those materials are seen as potential inoculum survival substrates in Latin America.

FIG.1. Wheat blast symptoms: A: Leaf blast; B&C: Spike blast, D: Spores on glumes

Management of Wheat Blast Avoidance is the first step in the

management of the diseases. The Wheat seed from blast infected areas should not be used for sowing. Prolonged precipitation and sprinkler system of irrigation can predispose wheat to blast, hence it should be avoided.

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Host resistance using Brazilian wheat cultivars BR18, IPR85, CD113 have shown moderate level of host resistance. Derivative accessions of CIMMYT line Milan have also been shown to possess a high level of resistance (Kohli et al., 2011).

Tricyclazole 75WP @2g/kg or Carbendazim 50WP 1g/kg seed for rice blast is used for

controlling seed inoculum. Initial infections can also be controlled by sprays of Carbendazim 50WP @1g/L or Tricyclazole 75WP 0.6g/L or Propiconazole 25EC/ Carpropamid 30SC 1ml/L or Isoprothiolane 40EC 2g/L as and when infection is noticed during at spike initiation or at flowering depending on the situation.


Pyricularia oryzae Cavara (Incitant of Rice Blast) Race Structural Analysis in India

B. Bhaskar1 and P. Avinash2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Dept of Plant Pathology, S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, ANGRAU. 2DBT-Junior Research Fellow, Horticultural College, SKLTSHU, Hyderabad.

Pyricularia oryzae Cavara is a fungal plant pathogen causes blast disease in rice crop. Rice blast was first reported in Asia more than three centuries ago and is now present in over 85 countries. The disease results in yield loss as high as 70-80% when predisposition factors favor epidemic development. The yield loss of 10 per cent is significant as it is sufficient to feed 60 million people for one year. Realizing the importance, Natural Resource Institute of London gave first rank to rice blast disease in its study of pre harvest diseases occurring in South Asia.

In India also, rice blast is the major yield constraint and it is widely recognized that when a cultivar with moderate resistance is extensively grown, races matching their resistance genes will increase in frequency resulting in greater susceptibility. The susceptibility of the widely grown rice cultivars BPT-5204 (Samba Mahsuri) and MTU-7029 (Swarna) has increased since their release, and currently the grain yield losses are considered significant. This type of cases in India revealed that there was a continuous change in the race structure of P. oryzae, as the number of cultivars released with different blast resistant genes (R).

Pyricularia oryzae has numerous races and these are identified according to virulence spectrums on differential rice cultivars. Sasaki first distinguished differences in rice cultivar specificity between field isolates in Japan in 1922. From 1950s to 60s differential rice lines resistant to races of P. oryzae were identified in Japan, the United States, India, Philippines, and South Korea. In 1961, 18 physiological races of P. oryzae were identified with 12 differential rice varieties in Japan. Latterell et al. (1960) reported the existence of physiological races of Pyricularia oryzae Cav. in India utilizing United States blast differentials. During that time, an international differential system using 8 rice varieties (Raminad Str-3 (A), Zenith (B), NP-125 (C), Usen (D), Dular (E), Kanto 51 (F), Sha-tiao-tsao (G) and Caloro (H)) was established by Atkins et al. (1967). This 8 differential hosts have 5 known and 2 unknown resistance genes (Table 1). Races

identified based on the reaction of these differentials are called international races and are coded from IA to IH, followed by numerals to indicate race numbers (e.g. IA-1, IB-22, IC-32 etc.).

TABLE 1 International rice host differentials used in the race identification of P.oryzae

Code Host Differential Resistance gene

A Raminad str. 3 -

B Zenith Pizt

C NP – 125 -

D Usen Pia

E Dular Pi-k*

F Kanto 51 Pi-k

G Sha – tiao – tsao Pi-ks

H Caloro Pi-ks

* Un identified locus

Till to date, In India, P. oryzae races were identified based on their compatibility or incompatibility interactions with five resistance genes (Pizt, Pia, Pi-k*, Pik, Pi-k-s), which are present in the international differentials. In case of rice host, 24 major R genes have been characterized and used in the breeding programmes. But the pathogen race spectrum studies were limited to only 5 major R genes which indicates the differentiating ability of the international differentials for pathogen isolates was not sufficient. There is a need to develop the monogenic lines with all major R genes. The countries viz., China and Japan developed their own national differentials (NILs) with susceptible backgrounds through backcross breeding and using them in race identification studies. A set of blast differential varieties consisting of 24 monogenic lines with 24 R genes (Pia, Pb1, Pii, Pik, Pik-h, Pik-m, Pik-p, Pik-s, Pish, Pit, Pita, Pita-2, Piz, Piz-t, Pi1, Piz-5, Pi3, Pi5(t), Pi7(t), Pi9, Pil2(t), Pi11 (t), Pi19 and Pi20) developed in the background of Lijiangxintuanheigu (LTH) under the International Rice Research Institute-Japan Collaborative Research Project. In the same way

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in India, the race structure studies on monogenic lines which carries single major resistance gene (R) in the background of susceptible line like Co-

39 may be effective and useful along with international differentials.


Pathogenic Determinants of Ralstonia solanacearum an Incitant of Bacterial Wilt Disease

Shiva, N and M. Karthick

Ph.D. Scholars, Dept. of Plant Pathology, TNAU, Coimbatore-3

INTRODUCTION: The bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum (formerly called Pseudomonas solanacearum (Smith 1896) is a widely accepted model organism for the study of pathogenicity in plants. This soil-borne bacterium, which belongs to the betaproteobacteria, is a bacterial wilt causing pathogen recognized as a parasite over 200 plant species in 50 families of plants, including brinjal, potato and tomato, as well as many native plant species. The bacterium normally invades plant roots from soil through wounds or natural openings resulting in wilting. The bacterial wilt disease is endemic in tropics, subtropics and warm humid regions of the world.

Ralstonia solanacearum is an aerobic non-spore forming, Gram-negative, plant pathogenic bacterium. R. solanacearum is motile with tuft of polar flagella. The destructiveness of the pathogen is attributed to its widespread occurrence, the existence of different strains, its exceptional ability to survive in soil and its broad host range. It is difficult to estimate total economic losses that causes directly or indirectly by bacterial wilt, it ranks one of the most important plant disease in the entire world (Tahat and Sijam, 2010).

Pathogenicity Determinants R. solanacearum possesses diverse genes involved in colonization and wilting of host plants, such as those coding for lytic enzymes and EPS, hypersensitive reaction and pathogenicity (hrp) genes, structural genes encoding effector proteins injected by a type III secretion system (T3SS) from the bacterium into the plant cell, genes coding for factors implicated in cell adherence and others (Alvarez et al., 2010).

Hydrolytic Enzymes Phytopathogenic bacteria have often developed enzymes to hydrolyze plant cell wall components to obtain nutrients and energy, which are further involved in early stages of the infective process in the host tissues. R. solanacearum produces several plant cell wall-degrading enzymes, secreted via the type two secretion system (T2SS). These include one β-1,4-cellobiohydrolase (CbhA) and some pectinases whose activities have been identified respectively as one β-1,4-endoglucanase (Egl), one endopolygalacturonase (PehA), two exopolygalacturonases (PehB and PehC) and one

pectin methyl esterase (Pme). R. solanacearum Egl is a 43-kDa protein that has proved to be involved in pathogenicity. For bacteria the cellulase and pectinolytic activities are preferably required for host colonization than for bacterial nutrition.

Exopolysaccharide Several phytopathogenic bacterial species produce high amounts of EPSs either in pure culture or during in planta multiplication. In R. solanacearum, it has been reported that all virulent wild-type strains (mucoid colonies) produce EPS, while EPS-deficient mutants (non-mucoid colonies) are avirulent. R. solanacearum EPS appears to be highly heterogeneous, since it has a varying composition among strains. The main virulence factor is an acidic, high molecular mass extracellular polysaccharide (EPS I), along (>106 Da) polymer with a trimeric repeat unit of N-acetyl galactosamine, 2-N-acetyl-2-deoxy-L-galacturonic acid and 2-N-acetyl-4-N-(3-hydroxybutanoyl)-2-4-6-trideoxy-D-glucose [18, 53]. EPS I is more than 90% of the total R. solanacearum EPS produced and approximately 85% appears as a released, cell-free slime, whereas 15% has a cell surface-bound capsular form. In planta, EPS would probably act by occluding xylem vessels, interfering directly with normal fluid movement of the plant, or by breaking the vessels due to hydrostatic overpressure. On the other hand, EPS I might also favour stem colonization by the pathogen. EPS I would be contributing to minimizing or avoiding the recognition of bacterial surface structures such as pili and/or lipopolysaccharide by plant defence mechanisms. In R. solanacearum, EPS is thought to be the main factor accounting for the virulence of the pathogen.

Hrp Genes In R. solanacearum, the hrp genes control induction of both, disease development and the hypersensitive reaction (HR). The hrp genes are clustered on the megaplasmid and encode components of T3SS and effector proteins. In all hrp clusters, conserved genes (hrc genes) might be forming the core of the T3SS. T3SSs have an important role in pathogenesis, as they secrete effector proteins translocated inside host cells and accessory proteins. T3SS includes extracellular appendages as the Hrp pili, believed

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to function either in the attachment to plant cells and/or as conduits for protein translocation, since they might penetrate the plant cell wall. R. solanacearum produces Hrp-dependent pili, in addition to the polar fimbriae which were independent on the expression of the hrp genes; both types of pili are located at the same pole of the bacterium. R. solanacearum Hrp pili are mainly composed of the HrpY protein, essential for T3 protein secretion but not for attachment to plant cells.

Among the effector proteins, R. solanacearum T3SS secretes PopA, PopB, PopC and PopP1 under control of the transcriptional regulator HrpB. PopA produces a HR-like response when infiltrated into plant tissue at high concentration may allow nutrient acquisition in planta and/or the delivery of other effector proteins into plant cells. PopB has a nuclear localization signal which enables it to be transported to the plant cell nucleus. PopC contains sequences analogous to those of some plant resistance gene products. PopP1 acts as an avr determinant towards resistant plants (Meyer et al., 2006).

Other Pathogenicity Determinants Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Lectins The recognition between R. solanacearum and the host has long been thought to implicate an interaction between R. solanacearum LPS and plant lectins, so involving LPS in the pathogenicity of the bacterium. Bacterial LPS is a component of the outer membrane and has three parts: the lipid A, the oligosaccharide core and the O-specific antigen. The core structure is composed of rhamnose, glucose, heptose, and 2-

ketodeoxy-octonate, whereas the O-specific antigen is a chain of repeating rhamnose, N-acetylglucosamine, and xylose in a ratio of 4:1:1. Presence or absence of the O-specific antigen differentiated respectively between smooth and rough LPSs, which were respectively negative and positive HR-inducers. In R. solanacearum, smooth LPS apparently is required to prevent agglutination by certain plant lectins. R. solanacearum LPS and EPS are somehow related, since a gene cluster was found to be required for the biosynthesis of both cell surface components.

Two genes encoding lectins have been characterised in R. solanacearum, presumably with a function in adhesion to plant surfaces, which is important for R. solanacearum pathogenicity during the early stages of infection. In fact, it was found that these lectins bind L-fucose and interact with the plant xyloglucan polysaccharide belonging to the hemicellulose fraction of plant primary cell walls.

References B. Alvarez, Elena G. B. and Maria M. L. 2010. On

the life of Ralstonia solanacearum, a destructive bacterial plant Pathogen. Current res. tech. and edu. topics in applied microbial. and microbial tech. 267-279.

M. Tahat and Kamaruzaman Sijam, 2010. Ralstonia solanacearum: The Bacterial Wilt Causal Agent. Asian J. of Pl. Sci., 9: 385-393.

Meyer D, Cunnac S, Gueneron M. 2006. PopF1 and PopF2, two proteins secreted by the type III protein secretion system of Ralstonia solanacearum, are translocators belonging to the HrpF/NopX family. J Bacteriol., 188: 4903-4917.


Rice False Smut Toxins and its Effect on Crop Plants and Mammals

Prahlad Masurkar*1, Sumit Kumar Pandey1, Hausila Prasad Singh2, Priyanka Chaudhary1 and R K Singh3 1*Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Banaras Hindu University (BHU),

Varanasi -221005 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Crop Improvement, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,

Palampur -176062 3Assistant Professor, Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Banaras Hindu University

(BHU), Varanasi -221005

Ustilaginoidea virens (Cooke) (Takahashi, 1896) (teleomorph: Villosiclava virens) is a causative agent of the false smut of rice. The pathogen initiates infection through rice floral organs in the rice booting stage and forms white spikelet balls, which are called smut balls. Ustiloxin is the main toxin component that has been isolated and identified from rice false smut balls and mycelia of the U. virens (Shan et al., 2013). Previous studies report that U. virens produces two types of mycotoxins, named ustiloxins and ustilaginoidins. Till now six ustiloxins have been identified and named as ustiloxins A, B, C, D, E

and F (Lu et al., 2015).

Ustiloxins and Ustilaginoidins (Main Toxins) in Balls of Rice False Smut Ustiloxin are mainly two types ustiloxin A and B. Ustiloxin A, a derivative of ustiloxin peptides, contains a circularized tetrapeptide with the composition of Tyr-Val-Ile-Gly (YVIG), whereas ustiloxin B, another derivative of ustiloxin peptides, contains the circularized peptide of Tyr-Ala-Ile-Gly (YAIG). Whereas Ustilaginoidins are bis-naphtho-γ-pyrone mycotoxins, and eighteen ustilaginoidins, namely

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isochaetochromin B2, ustilaginoidins A-P and E1, have been isolated so far (Lu et al., 2015). They exhibit a variety of biological activities such as cytotoxic activity, antibacterial activity, phytotoxic activity, and inhibitory activity on triacylglycerol synthesis in mammalian cells. Moreover, ustiloxins can be detected by the methods of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Effects on Crop Plants Ustiloxin acts as phytotoxin by inhabiting the radicle and plumule growth during seed germination of rice wheat and maize inducing an abnormal swelling of the seedling roots and resulting in the growth reduction and necrotic and dead frond tissue of duckweed (Lemna pausicostata) (Abbas et al., 2014). In rice the ustilotoxin of U. virens can suppress rice pollen germination. Examination of sectioning slides of freshly collected smut balls demonstrated that both pistil and stamens of rice flower are infected by U. virens, hyphae degraded the contents of the pollen cells which probably due to ustiloxin. Ustiloxin A has potent inhibiting effect on microtubule assembly among the so far known compounds, such as colchicine, vinblastine, and rhizoxin. Ustilaginoidins compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory activities on the radicle and germ elongation of rice (O. sativa) seeds.

Effects on Mammals When livestock was fed with the rice grains and forage contaminated by the rice false smut pathogen, they showed a great variety of symptoms such as poor growth, diarrhea, abortion, and hemorrhage (Nakamura et al., 1994) having the ustiloxin contain when extracted from false smut infected grains.

Mammalian toxicity of rice false smut galls containing mycotoxin exhibited marked feed refusal. Mammalian cell lines in comparison with a series of other known mycotoxins, including macrocyclic trichothecenes shows cytotoxic when higher in concentration. Active ustiloxin exhibited modest cytotoxicity. Furthermore, the crude water extract of rice false smut infected grains found to cause liver and kidney necrosis of mice quite similar to that observed in mice lupinosis similar to caused by phomopsin A (Battilani et al., 2011).

References Abbas, H.K.; Shier, W.T.; Cartwright, R.D.;

Sciumbato, G.L. 2014. Ustilaginoidea virens infection of rice in Arkansas: Toxicity of false smut galls, their extracts and the ustiloxin fraction. Am. J. Plant Sci., 5, 3166–3176.

Battilani, P.; Gualla, A.; Dall’Asta, C.; Pellacani, C.; Galaverna, G.; Caglieri, A.; Tagliaferri, S.; Pietri, A.; Dossena, A.; Spadaro, D 2011. Phomopsins: An overview of phytopathological and chemical aspects, toxicity, analysis and occurrence. World Mycotoxin J., 4, 345–358.

Lu, S.; Sun, W.; Meng, J.; Wang, A.; Wang, X.; Tian, J.; Fu, X.; Dai, J.; Liu, Y.; Lai, D 2015. Bioactive bis-naphtho-γ-pyrones from rice false smut pathogen Ustilaginoidea virens. J. Agric. Food Chem. 63, 3501–3508.

Nakamura, K.; Izumiyama, N.; Ohtsubo, K.; Koiso, Y.; Iwasaki, S.; Sonoda, R.; Fujita, Y.; Yaegashi, H.; Sato, Z 1994. “Lupinosis”-like lesions in mice caused by ustiloxin, produced by Ustilaginoidea virens: A morphological study. Nat. Toxins 2, 22–28.

Shan, T.; Sun, W.;Wang, X.; Fu, X.; Sun, W.; Zhou, L 2013. Purification of ustiloxins A and B from rice false smut balls by macroporous resins. Molecules. 18, 8181–8199.

Takahashi, Y 1896. On Ustilago virens Cooke and a new species of Tilletia parasitic on rice plants. Botanical Magazine, Tokyo. 10:16-20


Reactive Oxygen Species: Properties, Sources, Mechanism and their Role in Plant Defense

Anjali Kumari

Department of Crop Improvement, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur-176062, India

INTRODUCTION: Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are a group of free radicals, reactive molecules and ions that are derived from O2. Examples include peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen. ROS behave as both deleterious as well as beneficial species depending on the concentration in which they are present in plants. At a higher concentration they cause damage to biomolecules, whereas at low/moderate concentration they act as second messenger. ROS also influence the expression of a number of genes and therefore control the

many processes like growth, cell cycle, programmed cell death (PCD), abiotic stress responses, pathogen defense, systemic signaling and development.

Biochemical Properties of ROS

S.No. ROS Biochemical Properties

1 O2˙ˉ moderately reactive, short-lived, cannot cross biomembranes and is easily dismutated to H2O2

2 HO2˙ can cross biomembranes, reduce hydrogen atoms from PUFAs and lipid hydroperoxides

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S.No. ROS Biochemical Properties

and initiates lipid auto-oxidation

3 H2O2 moderately reactive, long-lived molecule, travel freely across membranes and acts as a messenger in the stress signaling response

4 OH˙ reacts with all biomolecules, no signaling function, but the products of its reactions can elicit signaling responses

Sources of ROS in Plant Cells and their Reactivity in Various Cellular Components

In plants, ROS are normal byproducts of various metabolic pathways and are also produced under stress conditions in various cellular compartments. Following are the major sources of ROS production: Chloroplasts, mitochondria, peroxisomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane and cell walls.

Mechanism Involved in the Generation of ROS a) Plasma membrane-bound NADPH and

NADPH oxidases: Plasma membrane-bound NADPH and NADPH oxidases play a very specialized function in host defense against invading pathogens or microorganisms. NADPH oxidase is a multicomponent enzyme which catalyzes the one-electron reduction of O2 to O2-, with NADPH as the electron donor through the transmembrane protein cytochrome b558 which is a heterodimeric complex of gp91phox and p22phox protein subunits.

NADPH + 2 O2 ---------- NADP+ + 2 O2- + H+

b) Chloroplasts Hydrogen Peroxide/Superoxide: Oxygen is continuously produced byproduct of photosynthesis and photosynthetic electron transport and is simultaneously removed from chloroplasts by reduction and assimilation. During photosynthesis, ROS are formed by the direct photoreduction of O2 to the superoxide radical by reduced electron transport components which are associated with photosystem-I and is also produced by the reactions linked to the photorespiratory cycle, including Rubisco in the chloroplast and glycolate-oxidase and CAT-peroxidase reactions in the peroxisome.

c) Exocellular Germin-like Oxalate Oxidase: Germin is a water-soluble, thermostable and protease-resistant homopentameric glycoprotein of about 125 kDa which is identical with oxalate oxidase. Certain plant pathogenic fungi, like Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, secrete oxalic acid when invading host plant tissues. Enzyme oxalate oxidase catalyses the conversion of oxalate (oxalic acid) to CO2 and H2O2 according to the reaction:

HOOC-COOH + O22CO2 + H2O2

Thus, it helps in removing oxalic acid from

host plant tissues and also directly generating hydrogen peroxide- ROS, which is toxic to micro-organisms.

ROS and Plant Defense 1. ROS in Plant Pathogen Defence: ROS play a

major role in plant pathogen defense. During this, ROS are generated via the enhanced enzymatic activity of NADPH-oxidases, cell wall–bound peroxidases and amine oxidases in the apoplast with simultaneous decrease in the ROS scavenging capacities and the activation of PCD.

2. ROS in Plant Cell Death: Cell death is an essential process in the plant’s life cycle. Two modes of cell death have been described in plants: PCD and necrosis. PCD and necrosis may be two extreme cases of the same process that is initiated by ROS.

3. ROS in Signal Transduction: ROS acts as a signal molecule in plants which is a central component in stress responses. ROS induces defense genes and adaptive responses and initiate cell death. Recent information on the role of ROS as signal molecules in growth and morphogenesis has emerged that suggests that ROS are not only stress signal molecules but also an intrinsic signal in plant growth and development.

CONCLUSION:ROS are not only produced as harmful by-products but they also act as an important component of the plant defense system. Under normal growth condition, ROS production in various cell compartments is low. However, various environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, chilling, metal toxicity, and UV-B, if prolonged over to a certain extent, enhance the production of ROS. ROS play two divergent roles in plants; in low concentrations they act as signaling molecules that mediate several plant responses in plant cells, including responses under stresses, whereas in high concentrations they cause damage to cellular components. ROS are an integral part of the defense response of the plants, playing an important role in plant pathogen defense, plant cell death and signal transduction.

References Gill SS and Tuteja N. 2010. Reactive oxygen species

and antioxidant machinery in abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 48: 909-930

Liebthal M and Dietz KJ. 2017. The fundamental role of reactive oxygen species in plant stress response. Methods of Molecular Biology 1631: 23-39

Singh R, Singh S, Parihar P, Mishra RK, Tripathi DK, Singh VP, Chauhan DK and Prasad SM. 2016. Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS): Beneficial companions of plant’s developmental processes. Frontiers in Plant Science 7: 1299

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Present Scenario of Yellow Rust of Wheat in India Bharat Singh Ambesh1 and Senpon Ngomle2

1Technical Officer, Ludhiana, Indofil Industries Ltd 2Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Anjaw, Arunachal Pradesh

INTRODUCTION: Wheat yellow rust is severe disease caused by Puccinia striformis. It occurs in cooler area because the pathogen overwinter in which wheat is cultivated. It causes severe infection in North America, Mexico, South America, Europe and devastating in north Indian subcontinents. In India it is very serious disease in Punjab and Haryana state at later stage of wheat (Panicle emergence stage). P. striformis require two distinct and distantly related host (alternate host). The alternate host of yellow rust of wheat is unknown.

The pathogen spread by means of airborne urediospores. When they land on wheat plants they germinate in high humidity, usually at temperature of less than 15 °C, and the germ tubes enter the leaves or other part of plants through the stomata. Once haustoria enter into mesophyll cells and mycelium spread along the leaf. Haustoia extract the nutrients by disruption of epidermis, which reduces water retention capacity of leaves.

Symptoms The characteristic symptom is of parallel rows of yellowish orange coloured pustules on the leaves of adult plants. Line of bright yellow uredospores gives the striped appearance on the leaves from which the specific name striformis and common name stripe rust derived.

Infection also occurs on the ears and spore

accumulates inside the glumes. Epidemics of yellow rust often start as individual plants, usually in the autumn. Symptoms develop slowly early spring when small patches or foci of infected plants can be seen in fields Early on the yellow to orange coloured pustules are very difficult to distinguish from brown rust.

However, yellow rust lesions tend to spread as a band across young leaves, often with a yellow band on the leaf moving ahead of the sporulating lesion on older leaves pustules tend to occur in obvious stripes. Severe attacks leads to chlorosis and later on necrosis of leaves. Infected leaves can rapidly desiccate at maturity if weather conditions are warm and dry. In severe attacks yellow rust infection of the ears can occur, resulting in the formation of masses of spores between the grain and the glumes. At the end of the season, secondary black spores (teliospores) are sometimes produced amongst the stripes of pustules.

Life Cycle P. striiformis requires living green plant material in order to survive. The fungus survives the winter as dormant mycelium or active sporulating lesions on volunteers or early autumn-sown crops. Set-aside provides an excellent source of yellow rust overwintering inoculum.

Yellow rust within plant tissue can survive

very low temperatures so once infected the fungus will usually survive the coldest of UK winters. In the spring, particularly in cool moist weather, the fungus starts to grow and produces active sporulating lesions. Temperatures of 10-15OC and a relative humidity of 100% are optimal for spore germination, penetration and production of new, wind-dispersed spores. The fungus is inhibited by temperatures over 20OC although strains tolerant of high temperatures do exist. The complete cycle from infection to the production of new spores can take as little as 7 days during ideal conditions. The disease cycle may therefore be repeated many times in one season. During late summer, the dark teliospores may be produced. These can germinate to produce yet another spore type, the basidiospore, but no alternate host has been found. Although

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the teliospores seem to have no function in the disease cycle they may contribute to the development of new races through sexual recombination.

Yield Loss Several authors estimates the yield losses associated with various levels of infection. Infection on flag leaves and ear may cause large reduction in yield. It was noted that infection at early growth stages reduced the size of the upper

parts of plants and led to yield reduction even when the later growth stages was not infected. The main causes of yield reduction were reduced number of grains per ear. It was noted that yield of susceptible cultivars could be reduced by 50% under severe and prolonged infection in field.

Management 1. Spray crop Propiconazole 25 % EC (Dhan-

Indofil) @ 200 ml/acre. Or 2. Spray Tebuconazole @ 200 ml/acre


Biological Control of Plant Pathogen Renuka Tatte1, S. S. Mane2 and Sagar Khedkar3

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, 2Professor and Head of Department of Plant Pathology and 3M.Sc. (Ag), Department of Agronomy Post Graduate Institute, Dr. Panjabrao

Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola

INTRODUCTION: Plant diseases need to be controlled to maintain the quality and abundance of food, feed, and fiber produced by growers around the world. Different approaches may be used to prevent, mitigate or control plant diseases. Beyond good agronomic and horticultural practices, growers often rely heavily on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. However, the environmental pollution caused by excessive use and misuse of agrochemicals, as well as fear-mongering by some opponents of pesticides, has led to considerable changes in people’s attitudes towards the use of pesticides in agriculture. Today, there are strict regulations on chemical pesticide use, and there is political pressure to remove the most hazardous chemicals from the market. Additionally, the spread of plant diseases in natural ecosystems may preclude successful application of chemicals, because of the scale to which such applications might have to be applied. Consequently, some pest management researchers have focused their efforts on developing alternative inputs to synthetic chemicals for controlling pests and diseases. Among these alternatives are those referred to as biological controls.

A variety of biological controls are available for use, but further development and effective adoption will require a greater understanding of the complex interactions among plants, people, and the environment.

Mechanisms of Biological Control Because biological control can result from many different types of interactions between organisms, researchers have focused on characterizing the mechanisms operating in different experimental situations. In all cases, pathogens are antagonized by the presence and activities of other organisms that they encounter. Here, we assert that the different mechanisms of antagonism occur across a spectrum of directionality related to the amount of interspecies contact and specificity of the

interactions. Direct antagonism results from physical contact and high-degree of selectivity for the pathogen by the mechanism expressed by the biological control agent. In such a scheme, hyperparasitism by obligate parasites of a plant pathogen would be considered the most direct type of antagonism because the activities of no other organism would be required to exert a suppressive effect. In contrast, indirect antagonisms result from activities that do not involve sensing or targeting a pathogen by the biological control agent. Stimulation of plant host defense pathways by non-pathogenic biological control agent is the most indirect form of antagonism. However, in the context of the natural environment, most described mechanisms of pathogen suppression will be modulated by the relative occurrence of other organisms in addition to the pathogen. While many investigations have attempted to establish the importance of specific mechanisms of biocontrol to particular pathosystems, all of the mechanisms described below are likely to be operating to some extent in all natural and managed ecosystems. And, the most effective BCAs studied to date appear to antagonize pathogens using multiple mechanisms. For instance, pseudomonads known to produce the antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) may also induce host defenses. Additionally, DAPG-producers can aggressively colonize roots, a trait that might further contribute to their ability to suppress pathogen activity in the rhizosphere of wheat through competition for organic nutrients.

Types of interspecies antagonisms leading to biological control of plant pathogens.

Type Mechanism Examples

Direct antagonism

Hyperparasitism/predation

Lytic/some nonlytic mycoviruses Ampelomyces quisqualis Lysobacter enzymogenes Pasteuria penetrans

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Trichoderma virens

Mixed-path antagonism

Antibiotics 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol Phenazines Cyclic lipopeptides

Lytic enzymes Chitinases Glucanases Proteases

Unregulated waste products

Ammonia Carbon dioxide Hydrogen cyanide

Physical/chemical interference

Blockage of soil pores Germination signals consumption Molecular cross-talk confused

Indirect Competition Exudates/leachates


antagonism

consumption Siderophore scavenging Physical niche occupation

Induction of host resistance

Contact with fungal cell walls Detection of pathogen-associated, molecular patterns Phytohormone-mediated induction


Generation of Hybridomas: Permanent Cell Lines Secreting Monoclonal Antibodies

S. S. Mane1 and Renuka Tatte2 1Professor and Head of Department of Plant Pathology and 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant

Pathology, Post Graduate Institute, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola.

Production of monoclonal antibodies involves in vivo or in vitro procedures or combinations thereof. Before production of antibodies by either method, hybrid cells that will produce the antibodies are generated. The generation of mAb-producing cells requires the use of animals, usually mice. The procedure yields a cell line capable of producing one type of antibody protein for a long period. A tumor from this “immortal” cell line is called a hybridoma. No method of generating a hybridoma that avoids the use of animals has been found. It has also been possible to genetically replace much of the mouse mAb-producing genes with human sequences, reducing the immunogenicity of mAb destined for clinical use in humans. Before the advent of the hybridoma method, investigators could produce only polyclonal serum antibodies; this required large numbers of immunized animals and did not immortalize the antibody-producing cells, so it required repeated animal use to obtain more antibodies. Development of the hybridoma technology has reduced the number of animals (mice, rabbits, and so on) required to produce a given antibody but with a decrease in animal welfare when the ascites method is used.

Step 1: Immunization of Mice and Selection of Mouse Donors for Generation of Hybridoma Cells Mice is immunized with an antigen that is prepared for injection either by emulsifying the antigen with Freund's adjuvant or other adjuvants or by homogenizing a gel slice that

contains the antigen. Intact cells, whole membranes, and microorganisms are sometimes used as immunogens. In almost all laboratories, mice are used to produce the desired antibodies. In general, mice are immunized every 2-3 weeks but the immunization protocols vary among investigators. When a sufficient antibody titer is reached in serum, immunized mice are euthanized and the spleen removed to use as a source of cells for fusion with myeloma cells.

Step 2: Screening of Mice for Antibody Production After several weeks of immunization, blood samples are obtained from mice for measurement of serum antibodies. Several humane techniques have been developed for collection of small volumes of blood from mice. Serum antibody titer is determined with various techniques, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and flow cytometry. If the antibody titer is high, cell fusion can be performed. If the titer is too low, mice can be boosted until an adequate response is achieved, as determined by repeated blood sampling. When the antibody titer is high enough, mice are commonly boosted by injecting antigen without adjuvant intraperitoneally or intravenously (via the tail veins) 3 days before fusion but 2 weeks after the previous immunization. Then the mice are euthanized and their spleens removed for in vitro hybridoma cell production.

Step 3: Preparation of Myeloma Cells Fusing antibody-producing spleen cells, which have a

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limited life span, with cells derived from an immortal tumor of lymphocytes (myeloma) results in a hybridoma that is capable of unlimited growth. Myeloma cells are immortalized cells that are cultured with 8-azaguanine to ensure their sensitivity to the hypoxanthine-aminopterin-thymidine (HAT) selection medium used after cell fusion.1 A week before cell fusion, myeloma cells are grown in 8-azaguanine. Cells must have high viability and rapid growth. The HAT medium allows only the fused cells to survive in culture.

Step 4: Fusion of Myeloma Cells with Immune Spleen Cells Single spleen cells from the immunized mouse are fused with the previously prepared myeloma cells. Fusion is accomplished by co-centrifuging freshly harvested spleen cells and myeloma cells in polyethylene glycol, a substance that causes cell membranes to fuse. Only fused cells will grow in the special selection medium. The cells are then distributed to 96 well plates containing feeder cells derived from saline

peritoneal washes of mice. Feeder cells are believed to supply growth factors that promote growth of the hybridoma cells.

Step 5: Cloning of Hybridoma Cell Lines by “Limiting Dilution” or Expansion and Stabilization of Clones by Ascites Production at this step new, small clusters of hybridoma cells from the 96 well plates can be grown in tissue culture followed by selection for antigen binding or grown by the mouse ascites method with cloning at a later time. Cloning by “limiting dilution” at this time ensures that a majority of wells each contain at most a single clone. Considerable judgment is necessary at this stage to select hybridomas capable of expansion versus total loss of the cell fusion product due to under population or inadequate in vitro growth at high dilution. In some instances, the secreted antibodies are toxic to fragile cells maintained in vitro. Optimizing the mouse ascites expansion method at this stage can save the cells.


Economically Important Diseases of Aromatic Grasses and their Management

Ratul Moni Ram* and Prachi Singh

Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005


India is quite fortunate to possess enormous diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) along with their use in traditional literature of Ayurveda and Unani. These MAPs play a important role in the formulation of a range of synthetic drugs, herbal dietary supplements, functional foods and beauty products (Gurib-Fakim, 2006; Khare, 2008). Few studies reveal the growth of MAPs in some abiotic stresses such as salinity, drought but attack of fungal pathogens leads to severe quantitative and qualitative losses. India is very rich in biodiversity which acts as a strong base for economic and environmental security. This immense diversity in indigenous flora available round the year comprises 15,000 species of MAPs reported from different regions which includes 33% higher flowering plants i.e. trees, 32% herbs, 20% shrubs, 12% climbers and remaining other 3% (Gahukar, 2017).

The aromatic grasses belong to Cymbopogon species. They are known to be affected by number of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes. Though many of the diseases have only academic importance, several diseases cause extensive damage to these grasses resulting in quantitative and qualitative losses (Singh et al. 2004). Many diseases beside reducing the oil yield affect the quality of the oil as they interfere with the biosynthetic pathway of the oils. The succesful cultivation of Cymbopogon spp. can only be achieved when the crop remains free from the attack of different pathogens. Thus, Plant protection plays a key role in prevention of the damages and production of healthy plant material. This aricle deals with the diseases of four major aromatic grasses i.e Java citronella, Lemon grass, Palmarosa and Khus.

TABLE 1. Major diseases of aromatic grasses, their cause and management

S. No

Disease Plant Causal organism Management

1 Leaf blight Java citronella

Curvularia andropogonis, Drechslera australiensis,

Spraying of Mancozeb (0.1%) at an interval of 15 days

2 Sheath rot and banded leaf spot

Java citronella

Rhizoctonia solani Application of Hexaconazole 75% WG @ 100mg/ lit 1st spray at time of disease appearance and 2nd

spray 15 days later

3 Collar rot and wilt

Java citronella

Fusarium monoliforme Foliar application of mancozeb @0.3% at 15 days interval

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S. No

Disease Plant Causal organism Management

4 Leaf blotch Java citronella

Curvularia andropogonis Spraying of Mancozeb (0.1%) and Benlate (0.1%) at 15 days interval.

5 Lethal yellowing Java citronella

Pythium aphanidermatum, Fusarium monoliforme

Use of healthy slips and treatment with Ridomil (0.1%)

6 Leaf crinkling Java citronella

Unknown etiology Application of Thimet @ 7 kg/ha

7 Rust Java citronella

Puccinia cymbopogonis Spraying of Dithane Z-78 (0.2%) at 10-12 days interval

8 Long smut Lemon grass Tolyposporium christensenii, Ustilago andropogonis

Spraying of Dithane Z-78 @ 0.2% just before flower initiation and treating the seeds with Cersan (0.2%)

9 Red leaf spot Lemon grass Colletotrichum graminicola Three sprays of Dithane M-45 (0.2%) at 10-12 days interval

10 Leaf blight Lemon grass Curvularia andropogonis, Rhizoctonia solani

Spraying of Dithane Z-78 (0.2%) at 10-12 days interval

11 Rust Lemon grass Puccinia nakarishikii Spraying of Plantvax (0.1%) at 10-12 days interval

12 Grassy shoot Lemon grass Balansia sclerotica Spraying of Dithane Z-78 (0.3%) prior to flowering at gap of 10-12 days

13 Eye spot (Leaf spot)

Lemon grass Drechslera sacchari, H. leucostylum, D. victoria and D. helm

Spraying of Mancozeb @ 0.2 to 0.3% between 15 days interval

14 Leaf blotch Lemon grass Curvularia verruciformis Spraying of Mancozeb @ 0.2 to 0.3% between 15 days interval

15 Red leaf spot Palmarosa Colletotrichum graminicola Spraying of chlorothalonil or captafol @ 0.3%

16 Leaf blight Palmarosa Curvularia andropogonis, Ellisiella caudata

Spraying of Dithane M-45 (0.3%) at 10-20 days interval

17 Grassy shoot Palmarosa Balansia sclerotica Spraying of Dithane Z-78 (0.3%) at 10-12 days interval

18 Long smut Palmarosa Tolyposporium christensenii Spraying of Dithane Z-78 (0.3%) just at the time of flower initiation

19 Curvularia blotch Palmarosa Curvularia andrographis, C. trifolli Foliar application of Mancozeb @ 0.3% at 15 days interval

20 Curvularia leaf spot and blight

Khus/Vettiver Curvularia trifoli Drenching with copper oxychloride or Bordeaux mixture (0.1%).

21 Leaf spot and blight

Khus/Vettiver Phoma herbarum Spraying of Dithane Z-78 (0.2%) with an interval of 10-12 days

22 Leaf spot Khus/Vettiver Gloecospora sorghi, Helminthosporium sp.

Application of copper based fungicides @ 0.3%

23 Cyst Khus/Vettiver Heterodera zeae Leaf extract of botanicals such as Tagetus erecta

CONCLUSION: It has been assumed that nearly 25–30% of all contemporary medicines are obtained directly or indirectly from plant source (Singh et al. 2016). Aromatic plants not only provides raw material for drugs, but also play a key role in manufacturing of cosmetics, dietary supplements, functional foods and aromatic oils. Thus management of diseases of MAPs is of utmost importance after evaluating their enormous benefits and the incurring losses due to disease.

References Gurib-Fakim, A. (2006). Medicinal plants: traditions

of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 27: 1–93.

Khare, C.P. (2008). Indian medicinal plants: an

illustrated dictionary. Springer Science & Business Media.

Gahukar, R. T. (2017). Pest and disease management in important medicinal plants in India: A review. NFS Journal.

Singh, A., Pandey, R., & Singh, H.B. (2004). Important diseases of medicinal and aromatic plants and their management practices. In: Medicinal Plants: Utilisation and conservation Ed. P.C. Trivedi, Aavishkar Publications, Distributors, Jaipur, Rajasthan pp. 217-253.

Singh, A., Gupta, R., Saikia, S.K., Pant, A., & Pandey, R. (2016). Diseases of medicinal and aromatic plants, their biological impact and management. Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization, 14(4): 370–383.

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Biotechnological Aspects for the Identification and Management of Phytopathogenic Fungi

V. R. Ahir

Agricultural Research Station (Fruit Crop), J.A.U., Mahuva. 364290

Many biotechnological tools and techniques have been developed by using different plant pathogens as experimental materials. It has provided way to understand host pathogen correlation under diverse environment to give a novel look to this branch of science paradoxically viewed as ‘cut and burn’ technology. Different aspects are as follows:

(i) Molecular Diagnosis of Plant Pathogens Conventionally, cultural methods have been employed to isolate and identify potential pathogens. This is relatively slow process, often requiring skilled taxonomists to reliably identify the pathogen. However, over the last 30 years, several techniques have been developed which have found application in plant pathogen diagnosis; these include the use of monoclonal antibodies and enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) and DNA based technologies, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which enable regions of the pathogen's genome to be amplified by several million fold, thus increasing the sensitivity of pathogen detection. Furthermore, diagnostic PCR has been significantly improved by the introduction of second generation PCR, known as the real time PCR. It is now possible not only to detect the presence or absence of the target pathogen, but also to quantify the amount present in the sample. The DNA micro array technology, originally designed to study gene expression and generate single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) profiles is currently a new and emerging pathogen diagnostic technology and offers a platform for unlimited multiplexing capability.

(ii) Analysis of Molecular Variability in Plant Pathogens Different molecular markers have been used in characterization of genetic diversity of plant pathogens. In most of the cases, these are RAPD, RFLP, AFLP, SSR/ISSR, ITS. The RAPD markers have been mostly used for characterization of fungal pathogens, followed by AFLP and ITS markers. This might be because of their ease and simplicity in use. Guleria et al. (2007) collected 19 Rhizoctonia solani isolates from rice growing regions of India, used two marker systems that is, RAPD and ISSR for molecular characterization of genetic variability of these two types of DNA markers, RAPD markers were able to detect more genetic variability when compared to ISSR markers.

(iii) Mapping of Disease Resistance Genes using DNA Markers Molecular mapping can be used for direct selection of disease resistance genes for the use in plant breeding programmes. Commonly used markers are restricted fragment length polymorphism. (RFLPs), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLPs), simple sequence repeats (SSRs), single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with predilection of PCR based markers. There is very few reports available from India which is required to be strengthened to support marker assisted selection (MAS) in plant breeding for disease resistance.

(iv) Marker Assisted Pyramiding of Disease Resistance Genes Marker assisted pyramiding of disease resistance genes termed as ‘Breeding by Design' can help to control the pathogen which recurrently and rapidly develop their new virulence. Efforts are made in India under Asian Rice Biotechnology network (ARBN) to pyramid resistance gene against bacterial blight of rice. Rice is among the first crops where marker assisted pyramiding of disease resistance genes was initiated. Rice varieties developed by using MAS have now been released for commercial cultivation for the first time in India. The variety amend as Improved Pusa Basmati-1 was developed by using conventional plant breeding approach integrated with MAS and two bacterial blight resistance genes Xa13 and Xa21 incorporated in Pusa Basmati-1. Another variety of rice resistant to bacterial blight was developed in non basmati type rice in India by using MAS. PCR based molecular markers were used in a backcross -breeding program to introgress three major bacterial blight resistance genes (Xa21, Xa13 and Xa5) into Samba Mashuri from a donor line (SS1113) in which all the three genes are present in a homozygous condition.Molecular markers can also help in assaying the germplasm for presence or absence of a particular disease resistance gene. Cloning of disease resistance genes by tagging approaches can identify the function of a specific genes by uncovering a specific pathotype.

(v) Transgenics Development of disease resistance through transgenic research is yet at primitive stage in India. Transgenic requires to first search for new genes which have broad spectrum resistance to pathogen population present in the region and

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then following transgenic approach, transferring of resistance to commercial varieties to achieve resistance, working at field level. Disease resistance transgenic have been developed in banana and tobacco by transferring a synthetic substitution analogue of a short peptide, Maganin. Magainin is one of the earliest reported antimicrobial peptides from skin secretions of the African clawed frog. The peptide is not stable in its native form and, therefore, researchers modified it to express in foreign plant systems. Tobacco plants transformed with the peptide showed enhanced reisistance against Sclerotinia sclerotium, Alternaria alternata and Botrytis cinerea. Transgenic banana plants showed resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense and Mycosphaerella musicola However, it remains to be seen how these plants perform under natural disease conditions.

(vi) Application of Genomics Genomic application in different areas of plant pathology can be enormous in structural, functional or comparative genomics. Using high throughput genome sequencing technologies many plant pathogens are being sequenced world over. The unique sequence from a wide range of pathogens could be used to develop micro-arrays for the simultaneous detection of large number of different strains. The probes and primers could be designed for differential detection of pathogens and their characterization

at molecular level by using the unique sequence data of the pathogen's DNA.

(vii) Application of RNA Interference RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a powerful tool for battling some of the most notoriously challenging diseases caused by viruses, bacteria and fungi. RNAi is a mechanism for RNA guided regulation of gene expression in which double stranded ribonucleic acid (ds RNA) inhibits the expression of genes with complementary nucleotide sequences. Baum (2007) used RNAi to develop transgenic corn expressing ds RNA to silence genes of the corn root worm. Similarly, cytochrome p450 cy6AE14 genes of the cotton bollworm were silenced to disable the bollworm from feeding on gossypol in plants.

(viii) Post Transcriptional Gene Silencing The RNA silencing mechanism is also a powerful tool to develop crop species resistant to viruses. The expression of virus derived sense or antisense RNA in transgenic plants conferring RNA mediated virus resistance appears to induce a form of post transcriptional gene silencing (PGTS). It's a nucleotide sequence specific process that includes mRNA degradation, RNA silencing, an evolutionary mechanism protecting cells from pathogenic RNA and DNA, is viewed as an adaptive immune system of plants against viruses.


Root-Knot Nematode vs Biological Control Strategies Shobha, G.

M.Sc. (Agri.), Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences Raichur, Karnataka

The success of pesticides in the middle of the 20th century enabled control of many harmful organisms. The pesticides introduced new environmental conditions to which plant pathogens had to adapt, frequently by becoming resistant. Recently, the importance of healthy food and identification of environmental hazards inclined the research field toward alternative control disease strategies by focusing on biological control agents.

Plant parasitic nematodes are important pests of many cultivated plants. root-knot nematodes is represented by over 90 species that have been described so. These are ubiquitous with a wide hostrange. The severeness of yield loss can range from minimal to total depending on the infesting RKN species and crop variety, season, soil type and use of crop rotation.

The concerns at this point are methods of controlling Meloidogyne spp. in soil because no effective nematicides are available. The public concern over the chemical nematicides is not only their toxicity but also their loss of efficiency after a prolonged use. The use of nematicides has been restricted or withdrawn recently. The agro-technical measures to restore and maintain

healthy soils viz., solarisation, crop rotation with plant species immune to pathogens that harm other rotation crops, soil fallow and addition of organic amendments, resistant varieties and biological control. Biological control emerged as an alternative to chemical control.

Biological Control Biological control uses microbes to control plant pathogens. The microorganisms with the ability to control plant parasitic nematodes belong to bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. Non-pathogenic bacteria antagonize the nematodes by inducing plant resistance (induced or systemic resistance), by degrading signalling compounds to which the nematodes are attracted to, or simply by colonizing the roots thus blocking the penetration of infective juveniles

Bacteria and Antagonists These bacteria impact the nematode life cycle as endoparasites or antagonists. Most of the antagonistic bacteria are saprophytes living in the rhizosphere. The genus Pasteuria belongs to a Bacillus-Clostridium group produces very resilient endospores. The most common

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endoparasite of Meloidogyne spp. is P. penetrans and P. Hartismeri. Pasteuria-infected female nematodes produce low numbers of eggs. The endospores are resistant to drying and have good shelf-life, reduce infectivity of the juveniles and fecundity.

Developmental stage

Nematode behaviour intercepted

Mode of action

Place of action

Examples of Bacteria

Egg or egg mass

Development, hatching

Toxins, lytic enzymes, parasitism

Soil Bacillus firmus

Infective juveniles

Vitality, host attraction, host recognition, penetration

Toxins lectins, degradation of root exudates, induced resistance, parasitism

Soil rhizosphere

Pasteuria penetrans, Pseudomonas fluorescens,

Sedentary juvenile

Formation of feeding site

Toxins, induced resistance, parasitism

endorhiza P. penetrans, R. etli

Female Fecundity Rhizosphere, endorhiza

P. penetrans

Fungal Biocontrol Agents Well-known antagonists of Meloidogyne spp. are ubiquitous soil fungi from genera Trichoderma and Fusarium. The conidia of Trichoderma attach to nematode cuticle or to egg shell and parasitize on them. The attachment affinities to Meloidogyne spp. eggs, cuticle or gelantinous matrix of egg masses are species-specific. Most soil fungi are rhizosphere competent with a wide host range.

Nematode-Trapping Fungi Some fungi are predators and feed on nematodes, either by attacking eggs or juveniles and/or by forming special hyphal structures to prey on moving nematodes. Hyphae of nematophygous fungi form trapping structures with an adhesive to catch the nematodes. Most commonly found structures are adhesive nets of Arthrobotrytis spp. with a three-dimensional network. The fungal hyphae form rings which constrict upon nematode passage then the hyphae penetrate through the cuticle and feed on

nematode.

Parasites of Eggs and Females The important and well studied pathogen of Meloidogyne spp. is Pochonia chlamydosporia. The fungus wraps around the egg, penetrates the shell and destroys the insides of the egg with a cocktail of protease. Purpureocillium lilacinus (former Paecilomyces lilacinus) parasitizes on eggs and other developmental stages of several nematode species.

Commercially available biological control products to control RKN

Product

Antagonist Product Form

Application

Crop Company/ country

Bioact WG PL Gold and BioNem-WP

Purpureocillium lilacinus and Bacillus firmus

Water dispersible granulate; WP

Drench, drip irrigation

Vegetables, Banana Tobacco, citrus

Bayer CropScience, USA ; BASF Worldwide

KlamiC

Pochoniachlamydosporia

Granulate

Soil incorporation

Vegetables

Cuba

Econem

Pasteuria penetrans

Solution or powder

Irrigation

Vegetables, turf, soybean

Syngenta; Nematech, Japan

Constraints Many of the biocontrol agents are effective at

a specific nematode developmental stage. Attacking the infective juveniles of the RKN may decrease the infection but will not decrease the nematode population.

The control of females and eggs does not prevent the root invasion and plant damage.

The sedentary stage of RKN cannot be parasitized by all rhizosphere fungi.

At high temperatures the eggs hatch early and the egg parasitizing fungi are unable to destroy the eggs intime.

CONCLUSION: Biological control with its added value on a long-term scale is much higher: clean environment, safe food and water, and most importantly healthy people. Fortunately, the use of biocontrol agents is widely accepted among the growers, which is a strong stimulus for a continued research. On the other hand, the most important impediment that we have to deal with is the bureaucracy of product registration.

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Development of Disease Resistance in Plant by Genetic Engineering

Manjeet Singh*


Genetic engineering: The simple addition, deletion, or manipulation of a single trait in an organism to create a desired change. Or “is the artificial manipulation or alteration of genes.” Genetic engineering involves removing a gene (target gene) from one organism, inserting target gene into DNA of another organism and ‘cut and paste’ process. Alternative names for genetic engineering are Genetic Manipulation, Genetic Modification, Recombinant DNA Technology, Gene Splicing, and Gene Cloning.

Recombinant DNA: the altered DNA is called recombinant DNA (recombines after small section of DNA inserted into it).

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): “is the organism with the altered DNA or Transgenic plant.

Process of Genetic Engineering: Five steps involved in this process:

Isolation Cutting Insertion (Ligation) Transformation Expression

Tools Used in Genetic Engineering: Restriction Enzymes- “are special enzymes used to cut the DNA at specific places”. Different enzymes cut DNA at specific base sequences known as a recognition site

e.g. -i) one restriction enzyme will always cut DNA at the base sequence: GAATTC.

ii) Another restriction enzyme only cuts at the sequence: GATC.

There are two main approaches for transferring genes into plant cells

a) Direct gene transfer delivers DNA directly to the nuclear or plastid genome of the plant cell through various techniques such as electroporation or chemical treatment, which stimulate the passive uptake of DNA through protoplast membranes and biolistics which uses acceleration of DNA-coated micro particles to carry DNA directly into plant cells.

b) Indirect gene transfer is based on a gene-transfer mechanism mediated by Agrobacterium. During natural infection, these phytopathogenic bacteria transfer and integrate oncogenes into the plant genome. The transferred DNA from Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a discrete segment of DNA from a small plasmid (Ti plasmid) resident in the cell. This Ti plasmid has been genetically engineered to produce efficient

nonpathogenic vectors for plant-cell transformation.

Development of transgenics: Hybrid development for higher yield nutritional quality biotic stress tolerance transgenic plants enhanced shelf life abiotic stress tolerance industrial products pharmaceuticals & edible vaccine. In 1985, 1988 and 1992, 1st transgenic plants produced Particle bombardment developed 1994 Flavr-Savr tomato is released 1996. Herbicide and insect resistant crops approved for cultivation GM crops considered substantially equivalent to hybrid varieties 4.3 million acres of GM crops planted 1998 1999 GM food is dangerous (UK TV) Monarch butterfly paper causes uproar GM corn is excluded from its baby food Greenpeace starts anti-GM campaign 75 million acres of GM crops planted 2000 Golden rice with ß-carotene developed McDonald’s rejects GM potatoes

Most commonly used methods are: Vector based (Dicotyledons) as well as the direct DNA transfer methods (biolistics) for monocots. It’s Depends upon the stable introduction of transgene into the genome of the plant. Are widely used as methods to understand how plants work and to improve crop plant characteristics.

Characteristics of an ideal vector: Crown gall formation in plants depends on the presence of Ti plasmid (Tumour- inducing plasmid). When the plants (like grapes, walnuts, apples and roses) are wounded or damaged, causes “crown gall” disease. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil borne, gram- negative bacterium, rod shaped motile bacterium found in the rhizosphere region. Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer: (vector based):

Ti plasmid: Opine biosynthesis is catalyzed by specific enzymes encoded by genes contained in a small segment of DNA (known as the T-DNA, for 'transfer DNA'), which is part of the Ti plasmid, inserted by the bacterium into the plant genome. The opines are used by the bacterium as an important source of nitrogen and energy. Each strain of Agrobacterium induces and catabolizes a specific set of opines.

Direct DNA transfer method: There are two predominant procedures of transforming genes in organisms: the "Gene gun" method and the Agrobacterium method.

"Gene gun" method: The "Gene Gun" method is also referred to as "biolistics" (ballistics using biological components). This technique is used for in vivo (within a living organism)

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transformation and has been especially useful in transforming monocot species like corn and rice. This approach literally shoots genes into plant cells and plant cell chloroplasts. DNA is coated onto small particles of gold or tungsten approximately two micrometers in diameter. The particles are placed in a vacuum chamber and the plant tissue to be engineered is placed below the chamber. The particles are propelled at high velocity using a short pulse of high pressure helium gas, and hit a fine mesh baffle placed above the tissue while the DNA coating continues into any target cell or tissue.

Agrobacterium method: Transformation via Agrobacterium has been successfully practiced in dicots, i.e. broad leaf plants such as soybeans and tomatoes for many years. Recently it has been adapted and is now effective in monocots like grasses including corn and rice. In general, the Agrobacterium method is considered preferable to the gene gun because of a greater frequency of single-site insertions of the foreign DNA, which allows for easier monitoring. In this method, the tumor inducing (Ti) region is removed from the T-DNA (transfer DNA) and replaced with the desired gene and a marker, which is then inserted into the organism. This may involve direct inoculation of the tissue with a culture of transformed Agrobacterium, or inoculation following treatment with micro-projectile bombardment which wounds the tissue. Wounding of the target tissue causes the release of phenolic compounds by the plant which induces invasion of the tissue by Agrobacterium. Because of this, micro projectile bombardment often increases the efficiency of infection with Agrobacterium. The marker is used to find the organism which has successfully taken up the desired gene. Tissues of the

organism are then transferred to a medium containing an antibiotic, depending on which marker was used. The Agrobacterium present is also killed by the antibiotic. Only tissues expressing the marker will survive and possess the gene of interest. Thus, subsequent steps in the process will only use these surviving plants. In order to obtain whole plants from these tissues, they are grown under controlled environmental conditions in tissue culture. This is a process of a series of media, each containing nutrients and hormones. Once the plants are grown and produce seed, the process of evaluating the progeny begins. This process entails selection of the seeds with the desired traits and then retesting and growing to make sure that the entire process has been completed successfully with the desired results.

Other direct DNA Transfer Methods Electroporation: In molecular biology, the process of electroporation is often used for the transformation of bacteria, yeast, and plant protoplasts. In addition to the lipid membranes, bacteria also have cell walls which are different from the lipid membranes and are made of peptidoglycan and its derivatives. However, the walls are naturally porous and only act as stiff shells that protect bacteria from severe environmental impacts. If bacteria and plasmids are mixed together, the plasmids can be transferred into the cell after electroporation. Several hundred volts across a distance of several millimeters are typically used in this process. Afterwards, the cells have to be handled carefully until they have had a chance to divide producing new cells that contain reproduced plasmids. This process is approximately ten times as effective as chemical transformation.


R-Gene Expression and how it Confers Resistance in Plants Manjeet Singh*


Avr protein: Pathogen effector that triggers resistance via activation of specific cognate host R proteins.

Effector: Secreted pathogen protein that manipulates host cell functions.

R protein: Protein that confers resistance by mediating direct or indirect recognition of a pathogen Avr protein. Avirulence (avr) genes, first identified by H. H. Flor in the 1950s, The avr genes make a pathogen avirulent, that is unable to induce disease on a specific variety of the host plant because their protein product warns the plant of the presence and impending attack by the pathogen and the host plant then mobilizes its defences and blocks infection by the pathogen.

Function of avr Gene Proteins: So far, the functions of only one avr gene, avrD, have been

determined. The avrD gene is present in the bacterium P. syringae pv. tomato, but ArvD alleles are present in soybean P. syringae pv. glycinea and other hosts. avrD encodes syringolide elicitors, which react with the receptor protein of R gene, Rpg4 of soybean, and confers avirulence on soybean.

Resistance (R) genes: Resistance gene of plant recognizes the elicitor of the pathogen and thus resistance response is triggered.

Conserved regions of R-Coded Proteins: LRR- Leucine Rich Repeats, NBS –Nucleotide, Binding Sites, TIR-Toll-Interleukin-1 Receptor region, LZ-Leucine Zipper and CC-Coiled Coil.

Avirulent pathogen (Incompatible intraction): A pathogen is avirulent if it has a specific Avr gene corresponding to a particular R allele in the host plant. If an Avr allele in the

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pathogen corresponds to an R allele in the host plant, the host plant will have resistance, making the pathogen avirulent. R alleles probably code for receptors in the plasma membranes of host plant cells. Avr alleles produce compounds that can act as ligands, binding to receptors in host plant cells.

Virulent pathogen (compatible intraction): If the plant host lacks the R gene that counteracts the pathogen’s Avr gene. The bacterial pathogen can invade and kill the plant.

Pathogen Recognition Gene-for-gene hypothesis: The gene-for-gene relationship was discovered by Harold Henry Flor. Upon infection by a particular avirulent pathogen, a corresponding R gene recognizes the avr product and triggers the defense mechanism.

How do R Genes Confer Resistance? The mechanisms by which R genes bring about disease resistance to a plant against a specific pathogen are not yet understood. It is believed that the elicitor molecule produced by an avr gene of the pathogen is recognized by a specific plant receptor encoded by an R gene. Following recognition of the elicitor by the receptor molecule, one or more kinase enzymes may become activated, which then amplify the signal by phosphorylating and thereby energizing, other kinases and other enzymes. This leads to a cascade of biochemical reactions that, in ways that are still unclear, result in the hypersensitive response and, thereby, localized host resistance at the point of attack by the pathogen. Of course, in many cases, the hypersensitive response is

followed by the development of various levels of systemic acquired resistance (SAR), which is expressed in the vicinity of attack as well as in distant parts of the plant.

Evolution of R Genes It is thought that when a plant was first attacked by a new pathogen strain, the plant probably had some genes encoding nonspecific receptor molecules that enabled the activation of defense responses to wounding and to pathogens in general but that it lacked any R genes to the new pathogen (Fig. 1). This pathogen, therefore, was able to cause considerable damage to the plant and possibly killed many of the susceptible plants. Plants exhibiting greater or lesser general resistance survived and multiplied to proportional extents. When, during the evolutionary race for survival of the plant from the pathogen, a resistance (R1) gene evolved, e.g., by modification of one of the general resistance genes, and that gene allowed the plant to recognize one of the initial steps of infection by the new pathogen (race 1) and to resist infection, such an individual plant and its progeny (variety 1) were selected for survival and so the plant and the R1 gene survived and multiplied. This might have happened, for example, by modification of one of the receptors involved in activating plant defenses against pathogens in general. Thus, the modified receptor 1 product of the R1 gene recognizes specifically a particular compound (elicitor 1) produced by a pathogen gene, which gene, as a result, behaves like an avirulence (avr1) gene.

FIG. 1: Evolution of R Genes

Pathogens carrying this avr1 gene (race 1) cannot survive on such R1 gene-carrying plants. If, however, in time, a mutation affects the avr1 gene of race 1 of the pathogen, which gene until now was the cause of its avirulence, the gene and the avirulence are destroyed. As a result, the new offspring of the pathogen become virulent again, capable of attacking the so-far resistant variety 1 of the plant. This new virulent pathogen population could be called race 2. The host plant (variety 1) is now susceptible to race 2, which

infects and may kill many plants. Soon, however, through survival pressure and selection, an R2 gene evolves that encodes a new or further modified receptor 2 that recognizes a different compound (elicitor 2) produced by the avr gene of individuals of the pathogen race 2. This gene, then, becomes the avr2 gene conferring avirulence to the pathogen because it is recognized by the R2 gene of the plant. In this way, numerous, diverse R genes have evolved in a plant host to counteract corresponding

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virulence genes in the various races of one of its pathogens. This gene-for-gene interaction has occurred in a stepwise fashion over time.

Steps in the Evolution of Genes for Virulence, Resistance, and Avirulence Note that race 1 pathogens (P1) can still

infect hosts carrying only the original resistance or R2 resistance; they cannot infect plants with R1 resistance.

Also, plants with R1 resistance are only resistant to P1 pathogens that carry the V1 (avr1) gene. R1-carrying plants are susceptible to the original pathogen

population (P0) and to other pathogen races, e.g., to P2.

CONCLUSION: Elicitor molecule produced by an avr gene of pathogen is recognized by specific plant receptor encoded by an R gene. It’s very low and constitutive. Occasionally low level induction follows infection but only in the vicinity of the pathogen. Following recognition one or more kinase enzymes may become activated leading to signal transduction. This results in the HR and localized host resistance at the point of attack of pathogen. In many cases the HR is followed by the development of SAR.


Phytoalexins and its Role in Plant Defence Manjeet Singh*


Phytoalexins are defined as "low molecular weight, anti-microbial compounds that are both synthesized and accumulated in plants after exposure to microorganisms or abiotic agents (VanEtten et al., 1994). The term phytoalexin is derived from Greek- phyto meaning plant and alexin means warding off compound. The concept was formalized by Muller & Borger (1941.

Concept of Phytoalexins: Muller and Borger concept of Phytoalexins and their conclusions, Phytoalexin is formed only when the host cells come into contact with the pathogen or parasite. The defence reaction occurs only in the living cells. The inhibitory material is a chemical substance & may be regarded as a product of necrobiosis of the host cell. Phytoalexin is non-specific in its toxicity. The resistant state is not inherited. The defence reaction is confined to the tissue colonized by the fungus and its immediate neighborhood.

Importance of phytoalexins in defence the following criteria are used: The restriction of the pathogen development must be associated it phytoalexin production. Phytoalexins must accumulate to antimicrobial levels at the infection site in resistant plants or cultivars that could result the cessation of the pathogen growth. There must be strong evidence that the phytoalexins have vital importance in resistance, and absence of these compounds would result enhanced susceptibility (Hammerschmidt, 1999; Merk-Turk, 2002)

Types of Phytoalexins Ipomoeamarone: It is an abnormal sesquiterpinoid induced in sweet potato tissue infected with black rot fungus Ceratocystis fimbriata. It has a striking inhibitory effect on the fungus even in 0.1% concentrations. More phytoalexin is produced in the resistant varieties than in susceptible.

Pisatin: It has the chromocoumarin ring system and is phenolic ether and produced in pea in response to inoculation with many fungi or injury. Production of pisatin by peapods inoculated with Monilia fructicola.

Phaseollin: It is similar to pisatin in chemistry and function. It is fungicidal at high concentrations and fungistatic at low concentrations against Sclerotinia fructigena.

Glyceollin: Produced in soybean plants infected with the fungus Phytophthora megasperma f.sp. glycinea. Inoculation of fungal races resulted in higher concentrations in incompatible host cultivars than in inoculations of fungal races on compatible cultivars.

Isocoumarin: Isolated from carrot root tissues inoculated with a fungus non-pathogenic to carrot, Ceratocystis fimbriata. It can also be produced in response to a no. of non-pathogenic microorganisms such as Helminthosporium carbonum, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici.

Trifolirhizin: It is a new glucoside which has been isolated from the roots of red cloves. Its structure indicates that it is chemically closely related to pisatin.

Rishitin: Muller and Borger (1940) were the first to show that the potato tubers carying the gene R1 for late blight resistance responded when inoculated with avirulent race of P. infestans by producing a phytoalexin that inhibited the development of a virulent race.

Gossypol: It is an ether soluble phenol. It is produced in diseases like black spot of rose (Diplocarpon rosa), leaf spot of wheat (Septoria tritici).

Xanthotoxin: Isolated from parsnip root discs inoculated with Ceratocystis fimbriata Inoculation with other non-pathogens resulted in production of xanthotoxin.

Capsidiol: It is a sequisterpene phytoalexin produced in pepper fruits inoculated with a non -pathogenic fungus.

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Medicarpin: Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) inoculated with a series of pathogens and non-pathogens have been studied. The antifungal compound was isolated and identified as Medicarpin.

Camalexin: An indolic secondary metabolite is a major phytoalexin in Arabidopsis thaliana. Its synthesis is stimulated by a variety of microorganisms.

Role of phytoalexin in plant defense: Keen (1981) described several lines of evidence that support a role for phytoalexins in disease resistance which includes localization and timing of phytoalexin accumulation in infected tissue in relation to pathogen development. It shows Strong positive correlation of rapid phytoalexin production with incompatible interactions in gene-for-gene plant pathogen systems. It associates of rapid phytoalexin accumulation with resistance genes that condition rapid restriction of pathogen development. Also shows positive relationship between pathogen virulence and tolerance of phytoalexins. Increase of plant tissue resistance by stimulation of phytoalexin production prior to inoculation.

Mechanism of elicitation for phytoalexin production: The production of phytoalexins after infection suggests that a product of the pathogen or the host-pathogen interaction is involved in triggering phytoalexin biosynthesis. A variety of pathogen- and plant-produced molecules, collectively known as elicitors, will induce phytoalexins and other defense responses. The modern synthesis of the gene-for-gene hypothesis states that resistance occurs only when the product of a pathogen avirulence gene

interacts with the product of a plant resistance gene. Because of the high degree of specificity, gene-for-gene systems provide a good framework to determine if the product of the avirulence gene can also act as a race-/cultivar-specific elicitor of defense responses like phytoalexin accumulation. In the past few years, several resistance and avirulence genes have been cloned and sequenced and evidence is accumulating that the interaction of the resistance gene and avirulence gene products results in the expression of defense genes and ultimately, cessation of pathogen growth. In several demonstrated or putative gene-for-gene systems, resistance has been associated with phytoalexin production. Since resistance (R) genes are thought to act by recognizing the pathogen avirulence gene product, could the different resistance genes regulate the expression of defense differently and could this result in differential phytoalexin accumulation that might explain the observed levels of resistance. Taken together, the results of the studies described above suggest that R genes can mediate the level of resistance expressed by regulating the amount or speed of phytoalexin accumulation.

Conclusion: Phytoalexins are only one component of the complex mechanisms for disease resistance in plants. The inhibitory material is a chemical substance and may be regarded as a product of necrobiosis of the host cell. The resistant state is not inherited. Challenge is to identify the complete biosynthetic pathway and the key enzyme to employ transgenic strategy in disease resistance.

79. PLANT PROTECTION 16547

Soil Solarisation: A Measure of Pest Control Humma Ambuja

Department of Plant Pathology, Agri College, UAS Raichur

INTRODUCTION: Pests and soilborne diseases always cause severe damage to horticultural and field crops. With their presence, the desired output is greatly reduced, posing a heavy economic loss to farmers and growers. However, the use of chemicals for pest controls are viewed undesirable because of their unfavorable effects on both humans and animals, the toxic residues they generate, and the high cost and complexity of their treatment. To avoid negative consequences, a number of nonchemical methods for controlling diseases and pests have been studied and applied. One such method is soil solarisation.

Soil solarization is a pest and disease control technique that uses the radiant heat from the sun to eliminate many soil borne pathogens. In this process, the soil is mulched and covered with a trap, usually a transparent polyethylene cover, which traps solar energy. It is as same as greenhouse. Since heat is captured and used, this

method causes some physical, chemical, and biological changes in the soil. These changes result to control or suppression of pathogens and soil borne diseases.

History: Soil solarization is a relatively new soil disinfestation method, first described in extensive scientific detail by Jaacov Katan et al. in 1976.

Where to do, When to do and How to Prepare Soil Solarisation Solarization is most effective when done during the hottest weeks of the year and warm, sunny locations of the country.

Benefits of Soil Solarization Disease Control Weed Control Nematode control

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Increased Plant Growth Response Studies have shown that plants grown in solarized soil grows faster and produce yield superior in both quantity and quality. This can be attributed to three reasons. First, major pathogens and pests are controlled which obviously favor better growth of plants. Second, some soluble nutrients like nitrogen (NO3-, NH4+), calcium (Ca++), and magnesium (Mg++) may be increased and made more available to plants in solarized soil. Lastly, some beneficial microorganisms like mycorrhizal fungi, actinomycetes, and good bacteria survive the solarization process and consequently recolonize the soil. In turn, this helps biological control of pathogens and pests, as well as to stimulate plant growth.

Effectiveness on Various Pests: The degree at which various pests can be controlled is related to the intensity, depth, and duration of the elevated soil temperatures. Although some pests may be killed within a few days, 4 to 6 weeks of exposure to full sun during the summer is required to ensure control of many others.

Fungi and Bacteria: Solarization controls many important soilborne fungal and bacterial plant pathogens, including those that cause Verticillium wilt, Fusarium wilt, Phytophthora root rot, Southern blight, damping off, crown gall disease, tomato canker, potato scab, and many others.

Nematodes: Soil solarization can be used to control many species of nematodes. Solarization for nematode control is particularly useful for organic and home gardeners.

Weeds: Soil solarization controls many of the weeds. Several weed species controlled include sweet clover (Melilotus alba), yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus), purple nutsedge (C. rotundus), purslane (Portulaca oleracea), and crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis).

Beneficial Soil Organisms Although many soil pests are killed by soil solarization, many beneficial soil organisms are able to either survive solarization or recolonize the soil very quickly afterwards. Important among these beneficials are the mycorrhizal fungi, fungi and bacteria that parasitize plant pathogens and aid plant growth. The increased populations of these beneficials can make solarized soils more resistant to pathogens than non - solarized or fumigated soil. Earthworms are generally thought to burrow deeper in soil to escape the heat.

Disadvantages of Soil Solarisation 1. It cannot be practiced in rainy season 2. A few heat tolerant fungi and bacteria are

more difficult to control with soil solarisation 3. It cannot control several annual and biannual

weed species because deeply buried roots and rhizomes of perennial weeds may resprout.

CONCLUSION: Soil solarisation is an important non-chemical technique in managing the diseases. It helps in controlling many harmful pests which are present soil and inturn it encourages good growth of plants.

References Cho IH; Chang SW (January 2008). "The potential

and realistic hazards after a solar-driven chemical treatment of benzene using a health risk assessment at a gas station site in Korea". J. Environ. Sci. Health a Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng. 43 (1):

Katan., The first decade (1976–1986) of Soil Solarization (solar heating): A chronological bibliography. J. Phytoparasitica, 229-255.

Yuan S; Zheng Z; Chen J; Lu X (June 2008). "Use of solar cell in electrokinetic remediation of cadmium-contaminated soil". J. Hazard. Mater. 162 (2–3): 1583–7.

80. NEMATOLOGY 16480

Root Knot Nematode Major Problem in Horticultural Crops and their Management

Jaydeep Patil and Saroj Yadav

Department of Nematology, College of Agriculture, CCS HAU Hisar, Haryana, India. *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: India is currently producing about 283 million tones of horticulture produce and horticulture production has surpassed the food production in the country. It has proven beyond doubt that productivity of horticulture crops is much higher compared to productivity of food grains. Productivity of horticulture crops has increased by about 34% between 2004-05 and 2014-15. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables globally. Horticulture contributes about 30% of GDP in agriculture, using only 17% land area. Nematodes continue to

threaten horticultural crops throughout the world, particularly in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Estimated overall average annual yield loss of the world's major horticultural crops due to damage by plant parasitic nematodes is 13.54%. These deleterious effects on plant growth result in reduced yields and poor quality of horticultural crops. Nematode management is therefore, important for high yields and quality that are required by the high cost of modern crop production. The information on nematode diseases and their management, especially crop wise, is very much scattered and there is no book

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which deals entirely with the above aspects on horticultural crops.

Although the genus Meloidogyne contains nearly 100 species of the root-knot nematode problems are caused by M. incognita, M. arenaria, M. javanica and M. hapla. It is usually not necessary to know the species of Meloidogyne attacking a crop, as all species produce similar symptoms and have similar life histories. However, there are differences in the distribution and host range of the species of root knot nematode and this can be important in developing an effective management strategy. The three most common and widely distributed species are M. incognita, M. arenaria and M. javanica. Sometimes known as the ‘warm climate’ species of Meloidogyne they are found in all mainland India but predominate in the tropics and subtropics, All these species reproduce at temperatures above 15°C and thrive at 24-32°C. Meloidogyne hapla is restricted to areas where maximum summer temperatures are no higher than about 27°C, with an optimum of 15-25°C.

Bionomics of the Root Knot Nematode Root-knot nematodes commence life as eggs, which are laid by the female on the surface of roots or in root tissue. Development of the first two juvenile stages occurs within the egg and after about 10 days, a fully-developed juvenile is visible within the egg. These second-stage juveniles (J2) hatch from the egg and then find their host by sensing substances that are being exuded from roots. Although very small (only about 0.5 mm long), the J2 have an extraordinary capacity to locate roots, as they can move as much as a meter through soil to find a host plant. Migration occurs in water films around soil particles or on root surfaces. The migrating J2 is equipped with a hollow, retractable feeding spear and once it reaches the tip of a suitable root, enzymes are released to soften plant cell walls and the spear is used to wound the root and create an entry point. The nematode then moves into the root and migrates between cells until it reaches its final, permanent feeding site. Once the feeding site is selected, the J2 induce the plant to convert some of its root cells into metabolically active ‘giant cells’ that then serve as the sole food source for the nematode. Having caused the plant to produce cells which provide it with a permanent supply of nutrients, the nematode then becomes sedentary. It loses its capacity to move, stays in the same position within the root and simply uses its spear to obtain its food supply from the giant cells.

Having established a permanent feeding site (which only takes a day or two at optimum temperatures), development to adults occurs within the root. Over a period of 20-30 days, the nematode loses its shape and moults twice through further juvenile stages (J3 and J4) to become an adult. When the environment is suitable, and adequate food sources are available, most of the adults are spherical females about 1 mm in diameter. In the scarcity of food developing female convert into male.

Symptoms Patches of stunted vines with poor branching

and scanty foliage Lowered yields Increased sensitivity to other micro-

organisms. Distinctive root symptoms with small

swellings or galls on feeders and young secondary rootlets.

These symptoms are worse in sandy soil.

FIG. 1. Root knot nematode infecting the cucumber symptoms on foliage and roots

Management Practices Deep summer ploughings of nematode

infested fields 2 to 3 times at an interval of 10 to 15 days during the hot summer months of May and June under tropical and sub-tropical conditions helps in reducing the population of root knot nematodes in the soil.

Nursery beds and seedlings should be free from nematodes

Certified, nematode free rootings should be

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grown for new vineyards or replants. Use of resistant varieties. Use of organic amendments, Neem cake,

mustard cake and castor cake. Area should be free from weeds and previous

crop stubbles. Intercropping of marigold (Tagetes patula)

reduces nematode population and improves the yields significantly.

Use of non-host crops like mustard, garlic, onion and cereals at least for 2 to 3 years in a suitable cropping system helps in controlling the nematodes.

81. ENTOMOLOGY 16358

Bee Pollination of Crop Plants Under Enclosures Rinku* and Purti

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture CCS Haryana Agricultural University


Many high-value cash crops that in former times were exclusively cultivated in open fields are now grown in greenhouses and nethouses. This shift has occurred mainly to facilitate plant protection, to enable out-of-season production, to prevent environmental hazards and to isolate plants for production of true seeds.

A wide variety of fruit and seed crops that are grown in greenhouses and net-houses are pollinated by insects, mainly honey bees and bumble bees. The main greenhouse crop pollinated by bumble bees is tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), comprising about 95% of all bumble bee sales worldwide and involving over 40,000 ha of greenhouse culture. At relatively high temperatures (32°C and above), honey bees forage freely in greenhouses and have an advantage over bumble bees, as bumble bees cease foraging activities above that temperature. Conversely, bumble bees will fly at relatively low temperatures (9–10°C), while honey bees do not forage at temperatures from 16°C and below.

Effect of the Unique Environmental Conditions Prevalent in Greenhouses on Plant (Crop) and Pollinator (Bee) Interrelations Directed Air Flow

Greenhouses are generally ventilated actively (mechanically) by forced ventilation or passively by opening side walls and/or roof panels to reduce the humidity and over-heating that stress plants and promote foliar diseases. Side walls and screens can also be opened to direct and regulate air-flow and velocity within agreenhouse in respect to the location of a hive. It has been found that air flow direction affected honey bee pollination activity and subsequent fruit set in melon (Cucumis melo), a phenomenon explained by the tendency of bees to fly up-wind. Hence, to improve honey bee pollination activity in greenhouses, hives should be placed and greenhouse walls should be opened in a way that enables air currents to flow from the greenhouse toward the hive during hours of foraging activity.

Radiations

Various modifications have been made to

greenhouse coverings to mitigate or eliminate hazardous radiation spectra. Two major reasons for modifying the spectral characteristics of greenhouse covers are to protect greenhouse grown crops from insects and insect borne viral diseases and to suppress the proliferation of foliar diseases. These goals are achieved through partial or complete absorption of solar UV radiation. However, UV radiation is also essential for honey bee and bumble bee navigation. With strawberry crops it was found that fewer honey bees flew from the hive into the greenhouse when it was covered with UV absorbing sheets andthat those bees that did so became disoriented. The resulting strawberry crop contained eight times more distorted fruit than the crop grown in ordinary greenhouses. One of the solutions to this problem was to locate the hive near the southern wall of the greenhouse, in the better illuminated section;this method reduced the negative effect on startup and foraging level of the bumble bees. Another solution is simply not to use UV absorbing sheets for crops that require bee pollination.

Temperature and Humidity

Relative humidity in greenhouses tends to be higher than that of open fields. This high humidity directly affects floral reward; the nectar sugar is more dilute since humidity affects the rate of water evaporation loss. As a result, nectar solute concentrations are sometimes far below those preferred by pollinators and pollination activity is negatively affected (Corbetet al., 1979). The second floral reward, pollen, may also be negatively affected by increased humidity in greenhouses. Pollen grains may be less available to bees, as anther dehiscence is delayed or even fails to occur under conditions of increased humidity.

At high temperatures, honey bees lose heat through the evaporative cooling of nectar regurgitated from the honey stomach. The combination of high temperature and high humidity in greenhouses stresses foraging bees by preventing them from cooling their bodies by this mechanism. Ventilating greenhouses during the pollination period was found to decrease

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humidity and heat, to increase nectar sugar concentration and to significantly increase honey bee activity in the greenhouses.

Limited Food Resources

The amount of nectar and pollen provided by a crop in an enclosure is generally considered to be insufficient for long term maintenance of honey bee colonies. Furthermore, an adverse effect on a honey bee colony fed in the greenhouse on mono-floral pollen sources may be expected. Pollination activity is curtailed, the colonies deteriorate in a few weeks and eventually collapse. One solution developed to mitigate this nutrition problem is to allow the honey bees to forage in the open and in the enclosures on

alternating days. Another method is to use double entrance hives with one entrance leading into the enclosure, the other leading away from the enclosure, to allow bees to forage and feed on the surrounding flora. A third possibility is to artificially feed the colony.

CONCLUSION: Enclosures, which are an important component of modern agriculture, require special consideration with regard to bee pollination of the crops they enclose. Limiting food sources, covering with UV absorbing materials, creating high humidity and high temperature all place special demands upon, and might adversely affect, crop pollinators within enclosures.


Biomagnification of Pesticidal Compounds Elango K1, Tamilnayagan T.2, and Aruna R.3

Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Biomagnification is the accumulation of toxic contaminants in the environment as they move up through the food chain. As members of each level of the food chain are progressively eaten by those organisms found in higher levels of the chain, the concentration of toxic chemicals within the tissues of the higher organisms increases. Not all chemicals, potentially toxic or not, are equally likely to undergo biomagnification. However, molecules susceptible to biomagnifications have certain characteristics in common. They are resistant to natural microbial degradation and therefore persist in the environment. They are also lipophilic, tending to accumulate in the fatty tissue of organisms. In addition, the chemical must be biologically active in order to have an effect on the organism in which it is found. Such compounds are likely to be absorbed from food or water in the environment and stored within the membranes or fatty tissues.

Pesticides The process usually begins with the spraying of pesticides for the purpose of controlling insect populations. Industrial contamination, including the release of heavy metals, can be an additional cause of such pollution. Biomagnification results when these chemicals contaminate the water supply and are absorbed into the lipid membranes of microbial organisms. This process, often referred to as bioaccumulation, results in the initial concentration of the chemical in an organism in a form that is not naturally excreted with normal waste material. Levels of the chemical may reach anywhere from one to three times that found in the surrounding environment. Since the nature of the chemical is such that it is neither degraded nor excreted, it remains within the organism. As organisms on the bottom of the food chain are eaten and

digested by members of the next level in the chain, the concentration of the accumulated material significantly increases; at each subsequent level, the concentration may reach one order of magnitude (a tenfold increase) higher. Consequently, the levels of the pollutant at the top of the environmental food chain for the ecosystem in question—such as fish, carnivorous birds, or humans—may be as much as one million times more concentrated than the original, presumably safe, levels in the environment.

DDT For example, studies of Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT) levels in the 1960's found that zooplankton at the bottom of the food chain had accumulated nearly one thousand times the level of the pollutant in the surrounding water. Ingestion of the plankton by fish resulted in concentration by another factor of several hundred. By the time the fish were eaten by predatory birds, the level of DDT was concentrated by a factor of more than two hundred thousand. DDT is characteristic of most pollutants subject to potential biomagnification. It is relatively stable in the environment, persisting for decades. It is soluble in lipids and readily incorporated into the membranes of organisms. Since pesticides are, by their nature, biologically active compounds, which reflects their ability to control insects, they are of particular concern if subject to biomagnification. DDT remains the classical example of how bioaccumulation and biomagnification may have an effect on the environment. Initially introduced as a pesticide for control of insects and insect-borne disease, DDT was not thought to be particularly toxic. However, biomagnification of the chemical was found to result in the deaths of birds and other wildlife. In addition, DDT

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contamination was found to result in formation of thin egg shells that greatly reduced the birth-rate among birds. Before the use of DDT was banned in the 1960's, the population levels of predatory birds such as eagles and falcons had fallen to a fraction of the levels found prior to use of the insecticide. Though it was unclear whether there was any direct effect on the human population in the United States, the discovery of elevated levels of DDT in human tissue contributed to the decision to ban the use of the chemical.

Other Toxic Pesticides While DDT represents the classic example of biomagnification of a toxic chemical, it is by no means the only representative of potential environmental pollutants. Other pesticides with similar characteristics include pesticides such as aldrin, chlordane, parathion, and toxaphene. In addition, cyanide, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals—such as selenium, mercury, copper, lead, and zinc—have also been found to concentrate within the food chain. Some

heavy metals are inherently toxic or may undergo microbial modification to increase their toxic potential. For example, mercury does not naturally accumulate in membranes and was therefore not originally viewed as a significant danger to the environment. However, some microorganisms are capable of adding a methyl group to the metal and producing methyl mercury, a highly toxic material that does accumulate in fatty tissue and membranes.

CONCLUSION: Several procedures have been adopted since the 1960's to prevent the bio-magnification of toxic materials. In addition to outright bans, pesticides are often modified to prevent their accumulation in the environment. Most synthetic pesticides contain chemical structures that are easily degraded by microorganisms found in the environment. Ideally, the pesticide should survive no longer than a single growing season before being rendered harmless by the environmental flora. Often such chemical changes require only simple modification of the basic structure.


The Tarantula Hawk: Quintessentials of Defence Manoj Kurane, Ravindragouda Patil and Ramesh Kulkarni

Department of Agriculture Entomology, College of Agriculture, Raichur University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur


Tarantula hawks (Pompilidae: Hymenoptera) are large, conspicuous, long legged wasps belongs to the genera Pepsis and Hemipepsis and whose prey are large spiders. The genera contain several hundred species mostly of tropical region, the genus Hemipepsis distributed widely in Africa, Europe and Asia wherein, Pepsis limited to the America. As the common name tarantula hawk implies, that attacks theraphosid spiders commonly called as tarantulas which are several times larger than them (Punzo, 2005).

Most of the tarantula spiders live in tropics, subtropical and the desert regions. Some species are large and have powerful fangs with which they can inflict a deep wound. These formidable looking spiders however, have a poor eye sight but extremely delicate sense of touch. The host specific wasp finds an apparent host with the olfactory cues after exploring with the antenna, without evoking any hostile responses in the tarantula. The wasp becomes aggressive after confirming of the right species, bends its abdomen, protrude sting and penetrate on the soft inter segmental membrane of the host and pump the poison. After paralyzing the tarantula it sucks the oozing blood from the wound, grabs one of the leg and buries it in its own burrow or in newly dug one with an egg on its abdomen (Petrunkevitch, 1952).

Stings by Pepsis spp. are exceedingly algogenic. The pain caused by a sting is rated as level four, the highest level for insect venoms and

is characterized by immediate intense, excruciating and debilitating pain that disappears after three minutes. Compared with the better studied venoms of social wasps and bees, pompilid venoms contain low levels of histamine, relatively high levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, acetylcholine and 5-hydroxytryptamine. Neither melittin nor kinin which are powerful algogens, are present in pompilid venoms (Piek et al., 1989). Novel peptide neurotoxins, αand β pompilidotoxins (α and β-PMTXs) were purified from the venoms of the solitary wasps, Anoplius samariensis Konno and Batozonellus maculifrons Konno. α-PMTX, with 13 amino acid residues greatly potentiates synaptic transmission of lobster leg muscle by the presynaptic mechanisms but the mode of action of the toxin is clearly different from other known facilitatory arthropod neurotoxins (Konno et al., 1998).Although the instantaneous pain of a tarantula hawk sting is the greatest recorded for any stinging insect, the venom itself lacks meaningful vertebrate toxicity. The respective lethality of 65 and 120 mg/ kg in mice for the venoms of Pepsis formosa pattoni Banks and Pepsis thisbe Banks reveal that the defensive value of stings and venom of these species is based entirely upon pain. This pain confers near absolute protection from vertebrate predators, because they have no selection pressure appears to have favoured long life spans (Schmidt, 2004).

Tarantula hawks in the genera Pepsis and

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Hemipepsis constitute one of the most successful groups of large insects. Their success is based on their defensive adaptations and the painful venomous sting is the primary defence against large vertebrate predators and also their large size with hard slippery integument are defences against arthropod predators. The pain forms an enabling basis for the evolution of aposematic coloration, aposematic odour and a huge mimicry complex involving most species of tarantula hawks, numerous flies, beetles, moths, acridid grasshoppers and other Hymenoptera.

References Konno, K., Hisada, M., Itagaki, Y., Naoki, H., Kawai,

N., Miwa, A., Yasuhara, T. and Takayama, H., 1998, Isolation and structure of pompilidotoxins,

novel peptide neurotoxins in solitary wasp venoms. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 250: 612- 616.

Petrunkevitch, A., 1952, The spider and the wasp. Sci. America, 187: 20-33. Piek, T., Schmidt, J. O., Jong, J. M. and Mantel, P., 1989, Kinins in ant venoms a comparison with venoms of related Hymenoptera. Com. Biochem. Physiol., 92: 117-124.

Punzo, F., 2005, Experience affects hunting behaviour of the wasp, Pepsis mildei Stal (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae), J. New York Entomol. Soc., 113 (3): 222-229.

Schmidt, J. O., 2004, Venom and the good life in tarantula hawks (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): How to eat, not be eaten and live long. J. Kansas Entomol. Soc., 77 (4): 402-413.


Push-Pull Strategy in Integrated Pest Management S. Ramesh Babu*, Sunil Verma and Abhinav Kumar

Department of Entomology and Agril. Zoology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi


Push – Pull Strategy The ‘push-pull’ strategy, a novel tool for integrated pest management programs, uses a combination of behavior-modifying stimuli to manipulate the distribution and abundance of insect pests and/or natural enemies. In this strategy, the pests are repelled or deterred away from the main crop (push) by using stimuli that mask host apparency or are repellent or deterrent. The pests are simultaneously attracted (pull), using highly apparent and attractive stimuli, to other areas such as traps or trap crops where they are concentrated, facilitating their control.

The term ‘push-pull’ was first conceived as a strategy for insect pest management by Pyke, Rice, Sabine and Zaluki in Australia in1987. They investigated the use of repellent and attractive stimuli, deployed in tandem, to manipulate the distribution of Heliocoverpa spp. in cotton to reduce reliance on insecticides, to which the moths were becoming resistant. The concept was later formalized and refined by Miller and Cowles in the US in 1990, who termed the strategy ‘stimulo-deterrent diversion’ while developing alternatives to insecticides for control of the onion fly, Delia antique

Principle Push-pull strategies use a combination of behavior-modifying stimuli to manipulate the distribution and abundance of pest and/or beneficial insects for pest management. These strategies are targeted against pests and they try to reduce their abundance on the protected resource. The pests are repelled or deterred away from resource by using stimuli (push). The pests are simultaneously attracted by using highly

apparent and attractive stimuli to other areas such as traps or trap crops where they are concentrated (pull).

How does Push-Pull Strategy work? Combination of legume repellent plants to deter the pest from the main crop (“push”) and trap crops to attract the repelled pest (“pull”). Molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora) and Desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum) are the common repellents, whereas Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and Sudan grass (Sorghum vulgare var. sudanense) are the common trap plants. The repellent plants produce chemical compounds repel the stem borer pests. Napier grass – Good attractant for stem borers to lay eggs. Napier grass – Produces a gummy substance which restricts larval development and only few survive to adulthood. Desmodium – Allelopathy – controls Striga.

Control of Stem Borers in Maize and Sorghum Maize (Zea mays) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) are principal crops for millions of the poorest people in eastern and southern Africa, and lepidopterous stem borers, e.g., Chilo partellus, Eldana saccharina, Busseola fusca, and Sesamia calamistis, cause yield losses of 10% to 50%. Thousands of farmers in east Africa are now using push-pull strategies to protect their maize and sorghum. The strategies involve the combined use of intercrops and trap crops, using plants that are appropriate for the farmers and that also exploit natural enemies. These plants were selected following trials in Kenya of potential host and non-host plants. Stem borers are repelled from the crops by repellent non-host intercrops, particularly molasses grass (M. minutiflora), silver leaf desmodium (D.

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uncinatum), or green leaf desmodium (D. intortum) (push), and are concentrated on attractive trap plants, primarily Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) or Sudan grass (Sorghum vulgare sudanense) (pull). Molasses grass, when intercropped with maize, not only reduced stem borer infestation, but also increased parasitism by Cotesia sesamiae. Furthermore, when intercropped with maize or sorghum, suppress the parasitic African witchweed (Striga hermonthica), a significant yield constraint of arable land in the savannah region. A trap crop of Sudan grass also increased the efficiency of stem borer natural enemies. Although stem borers oviposit heavily on Napier grass, it produces a gummy substance that restricts larval development, causing few to survive. The push-pull strategy has contributed to increased crop yields and livestock production, resulting in a significant impact on food security in the region.

Control of Helicoverpa in Cotton Helicoverpa species are polyphagous lepidopterous pests of a wide range of crops. The potential of combining the application of neem seed extracts to the main crop (push) with an attractive trap crop, either pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) or maize (Z. mays) (‘pull’) to protect cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) crops in Australia from Helicoverpa armigera and H. punctigera has been investigated. Trap crop efficiency was increased by application of a sugar-insecticide mix. Trap crops, particularly pigeon pea, reduced the number of eggs on cotton plants in target areas and remained effective throughout the trial, although the degree of efficacy varied with growth stage. The potential of this strategy was supported by a recent study in India wherein Neem, combined with a pigeon pea or okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) trap crop, was an effective strategy against H. armigera. The nuclear polyhedrosis virus of H. armigera was tested on the trap crop in place of insecticides, but this had little effect.

Benefits of Push-Pull Strategy The principles of the push-pull strategy are to

maximize control efficacy, efficiency, sustainability, and outputs, while minimizing negative environmental effects. Although each individual component of the strategy may not be as effective as a broad-spectrum insecticide at reducing pest numbers, the efficacy is increased through tandem deployment of push and pulls components. The push and pull components are generally nontoxic and, therefore, the strategies are usually integrated with biological control. The push-pull strategy is generally compatible with the use of conventional insecticides, and the reduction in the amounts required for control reduces the opportunity for pests to develop insecticide resistance.

Limitations A good understanding of the behavioral and chemical ecology of the host-pest interactions and the effects of the strategies on beneficial is essential but requires considerable research effort. If knowledge is insufficient, control may break down and robustness and reliability are reduced. Development of semiochemical components is often limited by formulation and delivery technology. The cost of semiochemical registration is often high. An integrated approach to pest control is more complex, requiring monitoring and decision systems, and currently incurs higher operational costs than does the sole use of insecticides.

CONCLUSION: The push-pull strategy is a nontoxic beneficial tool for integrated pest management programs reducing pesticide input. It is mainly concerned with the behavioral manipulation of the pests and natural enemies whereby several trap and companion crops are grown with the main crop with several eco-friendly approaches of pest management like use of pheromones and botanical insecticides. These eco-friendly approaches would however help in the conservation of natural enemies which would bring down the pest load below ETL and finally lower broad spectrum pesticide use which brings pest resurgence and pest resistant problems. The important demerits however lies in the precise scientific study and dissemination of knowledge among the farmers.


Natural Enemies of Papaya Mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

V. Abdul Rasheed1 and B. Bhaskar2

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Entomology and Department of Plant Pathology, S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Andhra Pradesh, PIN: 517502, India


INTRODUCTION: Papaya mealybug (PMB), Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), native to Mexico and Central America (Muniappan et al., 2008). In India, the pest was first reported from Coimbatore during 2008 infesting papaya and

there after the list of agricultural and horticultural crops infested by this invasive pest.

PMB is a polyphagous pest which cause damage to a large number of economically important field crops, tropical and sub tropical fruits and the ornamental plants. It was recorded

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from 133 host plants and the major host plants of P. marginatus are papaya, tapioca, cotton, Plumeria alba, jatropha, mulberry, almost all vegetables, some flower crops, weeds, forest trees like teak and Prosopis. PMB caused an estimated loss of about Rs.300 crores in each state. P. marginatus infestation was typically by colonization of mealybug on papaya and along the veins and midribs of older leaves and all areas of tender leaves and fruits. Severely affected older leaves turn yellow and dry up, where as tender leaves become bunched and distorted. Heavy mealybug population secrete a large volume of honeydew, which causes black sooty mold on the infested fruits and vegetation.

Natural Enemies of Papaya Mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Natural enemies of P. marginatus revealed a total of eight species comprising five predators viz., Spalgis epius (Westwood), Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Mulsant), Anegleis cardoni (Weise), Illeis cincta (Fabricius) and Scymnus coccivora (Ayyar) and three parasitoids viz., Acerophagus papayae (Noyes and Schauff), Pseudleptomastix mexicana (Noyes and Schauff)

and Anagyrus loecki (Table 1).

TABLE 1: Natural enemies of papaya mealybug

S.No Scientific name Family Order

Predators

1 Spalgis epius (Westwood)

Lycaenidae Lepidoptera

2 Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Mulsant)


3 Anegleis cardoni (Weise)


4 Illeis cincta (Fabricius) Coccinellidae Coleoptera

5 Scymnus coccivora (Ayyar)


Parasitoids

6 Acerophagus papayae (Noyes and Schauff)

Encyrtidae Hymenoptera

7 Pseudleptomastix mexicana (Noyes and Schauff)

Encyrtidae Hymenoptera

8 Anagyrus loecki Encyrtidae Hymenoptera


Instrumental Insemination in Honeybees Kavadana Sankara Rao*1, Anju Padmanabhan2 and Vadde Anoosha3

1&3PhD Scholars, Department of Entomology, CCS HAU, Hisar- 125004 2Department of Agricultural Entomology, COA, Vellayani, KAU, Kerala, 695522.


Over the last few years the world beekeeping industry has been threatened by the impact of honeybee pests, parasites, pathogens and the phenomena of Colony Collapse Disorder. The chemicals used to control honey bees diseases and parasites combined with the exposure to those used in agricultural production are proving increasingly detrimental. In this scenario, selective breeding, stock improvement and the preservation and maintenance of genetic diversity of honey bee ecotypes and subspecies is critical to ensuing our food supply. The notable progress made in animal and plant breeding during the early part of the 20th century stimulated interest in bee breeding.

The honeybee was not strongly selected by humans because basic bee reproduction was not understood until 1845. These difficulties arise partly because of the complex reproductive biology of honeybees, where queens mate with a multitude of drones (15-20) in open places. In 1851, when this basic understanding was becoming widely accepted, Langstroth developed the movable frame hive. Suddenly beekeepers not only understood bee reproduction, they could also manipulate the hive and control the queen. However, due to lack of controlled mating, bee breeding was limited initially to selection of the best colonies in an apiary and the rearing of

queens from them. Later, this problem was solved by using isolated mating yards for controlled mating of queen with selected drones. Isolated mating yards are of very limited value and have two major shortcomings: (1) Absolute control of matings is difficult to achieve because a queen can mate with drones that are up to 5 miles away, and (2) one isolated mating yard is needed for every drone line used in a breeding program. In overseas, between 1860 and 1940, dozens of attempts were reported to induce queens and drones to mate in the confines of a jar, cage, tent, or greenhouse. Some claimed success, but the successes could not be verified or repeated. With the development of instrumental insemination as a practical technique in the 1940’s, controlled bee breeding began. It is the next step forward in honey bee breeding and cleared the way for rapid progress in bee improvement.

Instrumental Insemination Its Scope and Procedure The term “instrumental insemination” was coined by Dr. Lloyd Watson, the first to successfully demonstrate a technique of instrumental insemination in 1926. The term artificial insemination is more commonly used and recognized by other industries such as;

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cattle, poultry, sheep, swine, equine etc. the term instrumental insemination seems to apply specifically to honeybees. Simply stated, it is a mechanical transfer of semen from the drone to the oviduct of the queen. This transfer can be made with any one of many designs of insemination stands and syringes available. All of them use carbon dioxide (C02) as an anesthetic to keep the queen still, use a device to hold the queen in position, and use some type of syringe to collect the semen and discharge it into the queen. The actual insemination procedure is very quick. Once the semen has been collected, it is a matter of seconds to insert the semen and inseminate the queen. The semen collection process is more time consuming and tedious. A skilled inseminator can collect semen and inseminate about 10 queens an hour. The standard semen dosage per queen is 8 to 10 microliters. The procedure of semen collection and insemination can be separated. Collection of a 100 microliter tube of semen takes about 40 minutes. Each drone yields about one microliter of semen. Once the semen is collected, 40 – 50 queens can be inseminated in one hour. Schley instrument is the most widely used instrument for inseminating the honey bees in North America. The queen actually fertilizes the eggs by releasing 5-10 sperm onto the egg at the time it is laid. Five million sperm need to be stored so that the queen can lay perhaps 1/2 million eggs over her lifetime. Fortunately bee sperm are very good at migrating to the spermatheca so instrumental insemination works with a high rate of success (Cobey et al., 2013).

FIG 1: Diagram showing method to deliver semen into the median oviduct

Benifits of Instrumental Insemination It provides a means to create specific and

novel crosses, beyond what occurs naturally. A single drone can be mated to one or

several queens Semen from hundreds of drones can be

mixed and inseminated to a batch of queens. Semen from the spermatheca of one queen

can be extracted to inseminate another. Varying degrees of inbreeding can be created

to produce different relationships Access to and maintaining a large and

genetically diverse breeding population

Limitations of Instrumental Insemination Bee breeding is labor intensive and requires

the dedication of a long-term commitment Insemination procedure is very delicate and

injury to the queen will produce poor results. Maintenance of drone brood is challenging

as their production is seasonal Collecting the semen is tedious process Require good sanitation, pre and post

insemination care of queen is must.

CONCLUSIONS: Success in improving bee stocks is a reachable goal and for that heritable genetic variation among the bee colonies is the primary requirement. Selective breeding for desirable traits is made possible in developed nations where sufficient germplasm is available. However, in India genetic variation among honey bees is less. In addition that, India doesn’t allow import of bees. Hence import of semen to artificially inseminate the queen bee may help in improving the breed quality.

References Gupta R K, Glenn T and Glenn S (2014). Genetics

and Selection of Bees: Breeding for Healthy and Vigorous Honeybees. In: Beekeeping for Poverty Alleviation and Livelihood Security. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 247-280.

Cobey S W, Tarpy D R and Woyke J (2013) Standard methods for instrumental insemination of Apis mellifera queens. Journal of Apicultural Research, 52: 1-18.


Strategies to Overcome Development of Insect Biotypes Sunil Verma1, Abhinav Kumar1, S. Ramesh Babu1, Ritesh Kumar Parihar2 and Anoop Kumar Dwivedi2

1*PhD Scholars, Department of Entomology & Agriculture Zoology, 2PhD Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu

University, Varanasi -221005 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Biotypes New population capable of damaging and surviving on plants which are previously

resistant to the population of same species is known as biotype. Certain physiological and behavior changes in the new population of insect make it easy to feed and develop on resistant

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varieties. The term biotype is an intraspecific category

referring to insect population of similar genetic composition for a biological attribute is known as biotype.

Different populations of an insect species that vary in their virulence to a cultivar are referred to as biotype.

No. of Biotypes in Insects

S. no.

Common name Scientific name Biotypes

1 Hessian fly Mayetiola destructor 16

2 Rice brown plant hopper

N. lugens 5

3 Rice gall midge Orseoila oryzae 13

4 Apple wooly aphid Eriosoma lanigerum 3

5 Rice green leaf hopper

N. virescens 3

6 Bean aphid Schizaphis graminum

11

7 Alfalfa aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum 9

8 Corn leaf aphid Rhopalosiphum maidis

5

Factors Influencing Selection of Biotypes in Insects Severe selection pressure exerted by the

resistant crop variety. Plants having monogenic resistance. Intensity and duration of selection and the

initial frequency of insect genes for overcoming resistance.

Cultivars with only antibiosis mechanism of resistance.

Geographical extent to which resistant cultivars are planted.

Improper management practices. Insect species with high reproductive rate.

Strategies to Overcome Development of Insect Biotypes Systematic pest surveillance and monitoring - The foremost requirement is systematic pest surveillance and monitoring helping in programmes of breeding pest resistant cultivars with identification of new genes and donor of resistance. Well defined sampling program should be used to monitor insect populations from different geographic locations and from various host plants for biotype development.

Sequential release of varieties with major genes - When a variety with major genes

becomes susceptible due to selection for a new biotype, another variety with new major genes for resistance is released. Sequential release of cultivars with major genes help in maintaining durability of resistance against all biotypes.

Gene pyramiding - Two or more major genes for vertical resistance are incorporated into a variety to impart resistance to more biotypes and also increase the stability of resistance.

Horizontal resistance - The level of horizontal resistance and its stability may be enhanced by increasing the number of minor genes in variety. Utirajapan, a local Indonesian cultivar, is tolerant to all five biotypes of Brown plant hopper.

Minor Genes may be combined with Major Genes. Gene rotation - A strategy where varieties with different resistant genes are used in different cropping season to minimize the section pressure on given resistant gene.

Geographical deployment - The planting of varieties with different resistant genes in adjacent cropping areas.

Varietal mixture - Employ the use of varietal mixtures consisting of 80-90 % resistant plants and 10-20 % susceptible plants of similar varietal background (Refugia method). Varietal mixture exerts low selection pressure on the insects as they are able to survive and reproduce on the susceptible plants.

Development of Varieties with Tolerance and Non- Preference Mechanisms Varieties with tolerance or non-preference mechanisms of resistance should be preferred to those with antibiosis mechanisms. The desired sequential order of preference should be:

Tolerance + Antixenosis

Tolerance + Antibiosis

Antixenosis + Antibiosos

Cellular approach (wide hybridization and tissue culture) - With innovative tissue culture techniques like embryo rescue, soma-cloning etc. it has become possible to transfer high levels of BPH resistance from wild relatives of Oryza sativa.

References Dhaliwal, G.S. and Arora, Ramesh. 2009. Integrated

Pest Management: Concept and Approaches, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. PP. 135-136.

Prasad, T. V. Handbook of Entomology, New Vishal’s Publications, New Delhi. PP. 285-286.

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Plant and Microbial Volatiles for Attract-and-Kill in Insect Pest Management

Lokesh Kumar Meena

Scientist, ICAR-IISR, Indore (MP)-India

Plant volatiles are plant emitted substances that are evaporated at ambient temperatures and carry information to other organisms. They have varied roles in plant reproduction, tritrophic interactions, plant to plant interactions, belowground defense and abiotic stresses management in plants. Plant volatiles can be classified according to their chemical structure into groups such as fatty acid derivatives (C6 compounds known as green leaf volatiles), benzenoids and phenylpropanoids (sometimes called aromatics), isoprenoids or terpenoids and nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds found mostly in Brassicaceae. Another way to classify plant volatiles is by their predominant tissue of origin, placing them into categories such as leaf, floral, or fruit volatiles, but these categories are not mutually exclusive. Some volatiles, termed microbial volatile organic compounds are produced not by plants themselves but by the actions of microorganisms such as yeasts, bacteria, and fungi on or in the plant tissue. These microbial volatile organic compounds may serve as aggregation pheromones, as oviposition stimulants, as a means to locate host and food resources or as a way to signify unfavorable environmental conditions.

TABLE 1. Some plant volatiles used for attract and kill of insects

Compound Volatile type/origin

Insects attracted

Benzyl acetate Arom/flowers Lepidoptera

Benzaldehyde Arom/flowers Lepidoptera

Methyl salicylate Arom/ leaves Lepidoptera and Coleoptera

Ethanol Ferm/fruit Diptera

Isobutanol Ferm/fruit Hymenoptera

2-Methyl-1-propanol Ferm/fruit Coleoptera

Acetic acid Ferm/fruit Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera

Ammonium acetate Ferm/fruit Diptera

Trimethylamine Ferm/leaves Diptera

Ethyl-4-isothiocyanatobutyrate

Organosulfur Hemiptera

Linalool Terp/leaves Lepidoptera, Coleoptera

The Killing Component In mass trapping, insects are killed within the trap by chemicals, drowning or dehydration from time or solar radiation. In attract-and-kill sprayables, a toxicant is included in the

formulation, as few plant volatiles are toxic enough to kill target insects. Toxicants for sprayables may have contact activity, stomach activity, or both. Desirable properties include efficacy, lack of repellence or deterrence, persistence beyond the life of the attractants, rapid killing or incapacitation and limited toxicity to non-target organisms. Mortality close to 100% at concentrations that will not produce undue risks to non-target organisms is desirable. The application rate of the attractant should be such that this level will not be exceeded. There may be little information on the efficacy of insecticides toward the life stage being targeted. For example, most information on insecticides for moths relates to the larval stage, not the adult stage. It should not be assumed that efficacy toward immature stages correlates with efficacy toward adults. In H. armigera, some insecticides that work well on larvae are not effective for adults, and vice versa. On one hand, there may be difficulties in getting insecticides to the correct target sites in adults; for example, the scales of moths can limit access of contact insecticides. On the other hand, ingestion may facilitate stomach activity for insecticides that act by contact when applied as cover sprays. Persistence must also be considered. The insecticide must remain potent for at least as long as the attractant; otherwise, pests may be attracted but not killed and thus remain in the crop to lay eggs. This risks increasing instead of reducing the level of pest damage. These considerations indicate a need to conduct de novo tests of the efficacy of potential insecticide partners for each attractant and each target pest. There may be a lack of techniques for testing efficacy in adults, necessitating adaptation of techniques from other disciplines. For moths oral toxicity may be investigated by exploiting the proboscis extension reflex. Investigating resistance in the targeted life stage may be necessary, as it may vary from the stage targeted with conventional sprays. Exposure to insecticides in all stages should be considered in the context of resistance management schemes. For an insecticide, a lack of deterrent or repellent effects is an obvious advantage. Pyrethroids have well-documented deterrent effects in laboratory studies and when used in traps but these may not be apparent in field tests of insecticides in sprayable attract-and-kill formulations, either for ingestion or for contact activity. Speed of kill may be an important consideration. Insecticides that kill or incapacitate quickly allow insects to be found near the site of contact and tallied while

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those that kill slowly allow insects to move away from treated areas and escape detection. This can be important when evaluating the impact of attract-and-kill formulations in the development phase, or when convincing farmers that products are effective. It is not a consideration in mass trapping, since insects can be retained while slow-acting insecticides or other mortality agents (such as drowning) can operate. Lack of toxicity to nontarget organisms is another desirable property of an attract-and-kill pesticide. While the specificity of the attractant may provide some protection to nontarget species that do not respond to the attractant, additional protection can be achieved if the insecticide partner has little effect on nontargets. Spinosad is a desirable insecticide for this purpose; it is effective against many lepidopteran pests when ingested and has low contact toxicity to many non-lepidopteran insects. However, it is a slow killer is and not suitable when locating dead insects is necessary. Insecticides that have been used or tested as toxicants, whether in traps, on bait stations, or in sprayable formulations, include carbamates such as methomyl and thiodicarb; pyrethroids such as permethrin, cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, and bifenthrin; the neonicotinoid imidacloprid; and the fermentation derivative spinosad as well as its synthetic relative

spinetoram. Pathogens such as the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae can also be used in attract-and-contaminate devices baited with fermentation volatiles.

Registration and Commercialization of Attract-and-Kill Formulations In most countries, attract-and-kill formulations based on plant volatiles must be registered before they can be legally advertised or sold. This is generally so regardless of whether they contain conventional insecticides. Different countries vary in their approaches to registration of semiochemicals as pesticides despite recent attempts to harmonize practices between different regulatory jurisdictions. Registration of sprayable attract-and-kill formulations may involve provision of data on product chemistry, efficacy, and environmental fate; residue chemistry; toxicology (acute and chronic); effects on wildlife, plants, and non-target insects; and occupational health and safety considerations for producers, transporters, retailers, and applicators. For formulations where the data requirements are comparable to new synthetic insecticides, the provision and review of these data may take many years and may cost many millions of dollars.


Insect Resistant to Bacillus thuringiensis Tamilnayagan T.1*, Elango K2 and Aruna R3

Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: The development of transgenic crop plants for managing pest populations represents one of the most significant developments in pest management in the last 40 years, and is likely to have profound effects on agricultural production of food and fiber. The primary impacts of this technology include the significant enhancement of long term productivity, higher quality and greater stability of US agricultural production, and insurance against the sporadic affects of severe pest damage otherwise not manageable with conventional pest management techniques. Additional advantages of genetically engineered plants include the reduced costs from not having to apply synthetic pesticides as well as minimizing the environmental impact and human health risks that arise from the use of non-selective neurotoxic insecticides. Because of current reliance on environmentally disruptive techniques for controlling crop pests, the development of transgenic plant varieties may help to improve the profitability and sustainability of U.S. agriculture.

Transgenic Crops with Insect Pests Tolerance Bt Cotton

The transgenic cotton is of two types viz., (1) bollgourd and (2) roundup ready cotton. The former confers resistance to bollworms and the latter is resistant to herbicides. The area under herbicide resistant transgenic cotton is restricted to USA. However, bollworm resistant Bt transgenic cotton has spread to several countries. Transgenic disease resistant cottons have not yet been developed. Characterization of antifungal factors is underway at the USDA (Rajasekharan et.al.1999).

Cry gene designation Toxic to these insect orders

Cry1A(a), Cry1A(b), Cry1A(c), Lepidoptera

Cry1B, Cry1C, Cry1D Lepidoptera

CryII Lepidoptera, Diptera

CryIII Coleoptera

CryIV Diptera

Cry V Lepidoptera, Coleoptera

Mode of Action Bt is a species of gram-positive bacteria that produces highly toxic crystal proteins that are

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specific to a narrow range of species (Knowles 1994). During sporulation the bacterium produces a proteinaceous crystalline inclusion, which consists of one or more proteins called endotoxins or insecticidal crystalline proteins (ICPs). Once ingested, the ICP is dissolved in the midgut of target pests, and the liberated protoxin is proteolytically activated to a toxic fragment. This toxin crosses the peritrophic membrane and binds to high-affinity receptors on the midgut epithelium (Van Rie et al. 1990, Gill et al. 1992, Knowles 1994). Cessation of feeding occurs minutes after ingestion of the toxin (Dulmage et al. 1978). Once bound, the protein inserts into the membrane, which causes an opening or pore to form, and cell death results from osmotic lysis. Cell lysis of the gut epithelium allows the contents of the gut to enter the heamocoel causing septicemia and subsequent larval death (Knowles 1994)

B.t starin Active against Various Groups of Insects

Strain Target insects

B.t subsp kurustaki, berliner, sotto, entomocidus

Lepidopteran larvae

B.t subsp israelensis, spahericus, gelleriae

Mosquito larvae

B.t subsp tenebrionis, sandiego

Coleopteran larvae

Bacillus popilae var. popilae Japaense beetle larvae

B.t var exotoxin Mite

B.t var elcidodus House fly

Bt Resistance

Bt resistance has been documented for several pest insects that have been repeatedly selected for resistance in the laboratory. In the specific case of Lepidoptera, laboratory selection has resulted in significant increases in LC50's (up to 1000-fold) for Cabbage looper, Tricoplusia ni Hübner (Estada and Ferré 1992) Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Tabashnik et al. 1991), Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (McGaughey and Whalon 1992), Beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Moar et al. 1995), Tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.) (Gould et al. 1995), Cotton leaf worm, Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval (Müller Cohn et al. 1996) European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Huang et al. 1997).The diamondback moth is notable as the only insect to evolve high

levels of resistance in the field as a result of repeated use of formulated Bt (Tabashnik 1994). However, the Indian meal moth probably evolved low levels of resistance in stored grain treated with Bt (McGaughey and Whalon 1992).

Impacts of Bt Cotton in Environment The feeding of Bt cotton seed to animal has not been reported to have any adverse effect. Seed of Bt cotton and its cake do not have any adverse effect on digestion of animals. Moreover, no allergic or toxic effect of use of Bt cotton seed and meal has been reported. The oil extracted from the seed of Bt cotton has not been found to have any adverse effect on human health. No adverse effect of Bt cotton has been reported on non target beneficial insects so far. The possibilities of cross pollination of Bt cotton to other species of Gossypium are nil to negligible because the Bt gene has been inserted in upland cotton (2n=52) which cannot outcross with cultivated or wild diploid cotton species (2n-26). It can also not outcross with tetraploid wild species such as G.tomentosum which are found either in cultivated areas or extremely isolated species gardens maintained at different research institutes.

Conclusion The development and deployment of effective resistance management programs must acknowledge the complexity of resistance evolution and limitations of current knowledge and experience. Efforts to avoid rapid pest adaptation to Bt crops will require that decisions be made with less than comprehensive data and theory. As experimental and survey data accumulates, it will be possible to test current assumptions about RM strategies and to develop more robust resistance management plans. However, long-term predictions regarding resistance evolution will always be subject to uncertainty, and therefore, target insects should be monitored for unexpected ecological and genetic changes so that RM plans can be modified to deal with such changes.

Selected Reference Tabashnik, B.E., N. Finson and M.W. Johnson. 1991.

Managing resistance Bacillus thuringiesnis; lessons from the diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). J. Econ. Entomology, 84: 49-45.


Interaction between Root Feeding Insects and other Organisms in the Rhizosphere

Triveni B

PRFQAL Laboratory, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur - 584104

INTRODUCTION: The German agronomist and plant physiologist Lorenz Hiltner coined the term "rhizosphere" to describe the plant-root interface.

He described the rhizosphere as the “area around a plant root that is inhabited by a unique population of microorganisms influenced by the

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chemicals released from plant roots”. It is not a region of definable size or shape, but instead, consists of a gradient in chemical, biological and physical properties which change both radially and longitudinally along the root.

The rhizosphere zones were mainly divided into three zones namely:

1. Endorhizosphere: Includes cortex and endodermis in which microbes and cations can occupy the "free space" between cells (apoplastic space).

2. Rhizoplane: Medial zone directly adjacent to the root including the root epidermis and mucilage.

3. Ectorhizosphere: Outermost zone which extends from the rhizoplane out into the bulk soil.

Interaction of Root Herbivores with other Organisms in the Rhizospere Interaction of Root Herbivores with Plant Mutualistic Microbes

i) Mycorrhizal Fungi: The mycorrhizal fungi use hexose sugars derived from plant photosynthesis, whereas the plant benefits from increased uptake of soil resources, especially phosphorus, nitrogen, and water. There are many examples of mycorrhizal fungi that are parasitic of their host plants rather than symbiotic. The changes that mycorrhizal fungi bring about in plants affect insect herbivores sharing the host plant, and even natural enemies of herbivorous insects.

ii) Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria: Roots are a poorer source of nutrition than foliage. However, some plants such as the Leguminosae form symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which are housed in root nodules and are an extremely rich source of nitrogen. The first instar and neonates of Sitona hispidulus, S. discoideus and S. lepidus larvae mainly found inside the root nodules and fed the nodules from inside out. These nodules provide the protection to the neonates against the adverse environmental condition and also predation.

Interaction of Root Herbivores with Detritivores

Soil animal detritivores such as the earthworms (Oligochaeta) and the springtails (Collembola) are major driving forces for belowground processes. They can change the habitat of the soil via their high consumption rates and burrowing activity. They can affect decomposition processes and nutrient dynamics in soil, which can favour plant growth and performance. By affecting plant performance, earthworms and collembolans alter food quantity

and quality for herbivores. The general assumption is that detritivores can indirectly decrease herbivore fitness by indirectly benefiting plant health and increasing defenses.

Competition among the Root Herbivore

The heterogeneity in soil conditions, which can be a major determinant of root-feeding insect fitness, and the oviposition behavior of the maternal insect living aboveground. This often results in intense intraspecific competition between conspecific root feeders for food, which can lead to declines in populations.

Biocontrol Agents like Entomopathogenic Fungi, Bacteria, Nematodes against Root Herbivores

When compared with aboveground herbivores, root-feeding insects, by virtue of their niche, occupy a refuge from predation or parasitism. Entomopathogenic fungi in the hypocreales are ubiquitous members of the soil microbiota; the most commonly isolated species from soils in temperate regions belong to the genera Beauveria, Isaria, and Metarhizium. They infect their insect hosts by penetrating the cuticle or through natural body openings, as they have evolved specialized mechanisms for the enzymatic degradation of the integument and for overcoming insect defense compounds. Most of the commercially produced fungi are species of Beauveria, Metarhizium, Lecanicillium, and Isaria and are effective against several root-feeding insects belonging to different orders, such as the root mealybug, sugarbeet root maggot, the diabroticine rootworms, and white grubs.

CONCLUSION: Though the nitrogen fixing bacteria was symbiotically associated with root nodules, it also benefit the root feeding insects. But, the cost benefit ratio was different. Obviously, the gut symbionts was positively benefiting the root herbovore. Other micro-organisms such as decomposers, mycorhizal fungi, entomopathogenic nematode, bacteria and fungi; and also intra and inter specific competitions were negatively affecting the root herbivores. The negatively effecting microorganisms can be used in the integrated pest’s management of the root herbivores which were acting as pests.

References Barr, K.L., Hearne, L.B., Briesacher, S., Clark, T.L.,

and Davis, G. (2010). Microbial symbionts in insects influence downregulation of defense genes in maize. Plos One. 5(6): 1-10.

Grayston, S.J., Dawsona, L.A., Treonisa, A.M., Murray, P.J., Rossa, J., Reida, E. J. and Macdougall, R. (2001). Impact of root herbivory by insect larvae on soil microbial communities. Eur. J. Soil Biol., 37: 277−280.

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91. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 16432

Nutritional Content and Antioxidant Activity of Drumstick Tree (Moringa oleifera Lam.)

Mukhan Wati

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar – 125004, Haryana, India


Many synthetic antioxidants like BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole) are available commercially but these are not safe5. Natural antioxidants and plant derived natural extracts are safe and bioactive.

Moringa oleifera, which belongs to Moringaceae family, is the most widely cultivated pan-tropical species. It is native to the sub-Himalayan tracts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. It is commonly known as horseradish tree, drumstick tree (English), munga (Hindi) and sajina (Bengali). It is a small, fast growing, evergreen, or deciduous tree that usually grows upto 10 or 12 m in height. It has a spreading, open crown of drooping, fragile branches, feathery foliage of tripinnate leaves and thick corky, whitish bark. The tree produces a tuberous tap root which explains its tolerance to drought conditions.

Almost every part of Moringa oleifera is edible and widely used in traditional medicine because of the presence of several phytochemicals like tannins, alkaloids, phenolic compounds, amino acids, sterols and carbohydrates7. Its flowers and roots are used in folk remedies for tumors and the seeds for abdominal tumors. Barks are boiled in water and soaked in alcohol to obtain drinks and infusions that can be used to treat stomach ailments, poor vision, joint pain, diabetes, anemia and hypertension.

Moringa oleifera exhibited antiinflammatory, antihypertensive, diuretic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antineoplastic, antipyretic, antiulcer,

cardioprotectant, and hepatoprotectant activities10. Various reports11, 12 are available which describe the antioxidant potential of various parts of Moringa oleifera but screening of different solvent fractions of Moringa oleifera from semi-arid zone of Haryana has not been carried out. Therefore, the present study was aimed to screen the various solvent fractions of stem, bark and pod of Moringa oleifera for total phenolics content (TPC), total flavonoids content (TFC), total alkaloid content, mineral content and their free radical scavenging activity.

Phytochemical Screening Preliminary phytochemical screening of stem and bark methanolic extract showed the presence of saponins, carbohydrates, anthraquinone glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, proteins and amino acids while in methanolic extract of pod, saponins, carbohydrates, anthraquinone glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phytosterols, proteins and amino acids are present.

At last Moringa oleifera contain good amount of total phenols and flavonoids. It also acts as a rich source of all the minerals. Among different fractions, acetone fraction of pod was found to offer the most efficient antioxidant activity which reveals its potency as a good source of natural antioxidant. However, further research is needed to identify individual components forming antioxidative systems and develop their application for food and pharmaceutical industries.

92. ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 16289

Importance of Robots in agriculture 1Mamathashree C M., 2Shilpha S.M. and 3Ashrith K.N

1Ph.D Scholar, 2M.Sc Department of Agronomy, 3Department of Entomology, UAHS Shivamogga

Robotics is playing a significant role in agricultural production and management. There is a need for autonomous and time saving technology in agriculture to have efficient farm management. Status and Scope of Robotics in Agriculture. The idea of applying robotics technology in agriculture is very new. In agriculture, the opportunities for robot enhanced productivity are immense and the robots are appearing on farms in various guises and in

increasing numbers. We can expect the robots performing agricultural operations autonomously such as spraying and mechanical weed control, fruit picking, watching the farms day and night for an effective report, allowing farmers to reduce the environmental impact, increase precision and efficiency and manage individual plants in novel ways.

Agricultural robotics is the logical proliferation of automation technology into bio-

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systems such as agriculture, forestry, green house, horticulture etc. Presently a number of studies are being done to increase their applications. Some of the scientist’s contributions are mobile robot, flying robot, forester robot, demeter which are exclusively being used in agriculture. A brief discussion is done about the types of robots which increase the accuracy and precision of agriculture. Different applications of autonomous vehicles in agriculture have been examined and compared with conventional systems, where three main groups of field operations have been identified to be the first potential practical applications: crop establishment, crop care and selective harvesting.

The autonomous robot have potential to work on precision agriculture having continuous monitoring by using different sensing technology, which provides different crop status parameter like, micro nutrient availability, bio mass index, status of pest and disease, water stress, thermal stress etc. for better remedies of crops. As ever increasing of world population and decreasing of agricultural workers created constraint to farming system. Agricultural robot has potential to take off the load of labor shortage and increasing the productivity.

Agricultural Robots Advantages The robots can reduce up to 80% of farm’s

use of pesticide, The robots may perform more or different tasks in the future

The robots have many fields of application in the agriculture such as the Merlin Robot Milker, Rosphere, Harvest Automation, Orange Harvester, lettuce bot, and the weeder, Another field of application is the horticulture, One horticultural application is the development of RV 100. RV100 is used in handling and organizing the potted plants include the spacing capabilities. the collection, and the consolidation, RV100 for this task offers high placement accuracy, the autonomous outdoor and the indoor function, and reduced production costs.

The fruit picking robots. The driver-less tractor / the sprayer, and the sheep shearing robots are designed to replace the human labor, a lot of factors have to be considered

such as the size and color of the fruit to be picked, before the commencement of the task.

The robots can be used for the other horticultural tasks like the pruning, the weeding, the spraying and the monitoring, They can be used in the livestock applications (the livestock robotics) such as the automatic milking, washing and castrating. The rice planters plant rice in the rice fields, The robotic milkers milk cows in the barns or in the milking factories, and the fruit pickers pick the fruit in the fruit fields, And the robots are programmed depending on their tasks, The robotic milker and the fruit picker are multi-functional while the rice planter is not.

The heavy chemicals or the drugs dispensers, manure or the fertilizers spreaders are the activities that concerned by the deployment of unmanned options, The agricultural robots use the combination of the advanced sensors, the cameras, the software, and the technology.

Agricultural Robots Disadvantages It costs a lot of money to make or buy the robots, They need the maintenance to keep them running, The farmers can lose their jobs, The robots can change the culture / the emotional appeal of the agriculture and the energy issues are costly.


Bio Drainage System Sharmila S.

Soil and Water Conservation Engineering & Agricultural Structures, Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

INTRODUCTION: The total irrigated area in the world is 255 million hectares (m.ha) of which more than two-third lies in Asia. About 20 per cent of the irrigated land has been rendered saline due to water logging. Each year, an additional area of about 1.5 million hectare of

irrigated land gets affected by secondary salination due to water logging, and thereby reduces its productivity. In areas receiving good precipitation, the ground water is generally non-saline and is often used for irrigation. Such regions in tropical or temperate climatic zones therefore rarely face the problem of water

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logging and salinisation. On the other hand, in arid and semi-arid zones natural precipitation is inadequate, ground water is saline and the disposal of saline drainage water poses pollution and environmental problems where the saline drainage water cannot be safely disposed off into the sea without polluting natural surface water bodies. The high cost of construction, maintenance and operation of the drainage system is another drawback. The vertical drainage measure has limitation because of the saline nature of the ground water. There is need of finding alternative methods for providing drainage. Bio-drainage, in which the characteristic of trees to transpire water is harnessed, can be one such measure.

The aim of bio-drainage is to remove excess groundwater through the process of transpiration by vegetation. This is achieved by enhancing the transpiration capacity of the landscape by introducing high-water use vegetation types. The deep-rooting characteristics of trees make them extremely efficient users of water. While shallow-rooted grasses and crops have limited access to underlying water tables, deep-rooted trees can access water tables down to several metres. Also, in recharge situations with deep water tables, the deep root systems of trees greatly reduce the opportunity for rainfall/irrigation accessions to the water table.

Salt Evacuation in Irrigated Agriculture All plants and vegetation contain some minerals, notably Calcium (Ca++), sodium (Na+), Magnesium (Mg+) as cations and sulfate (SO4), chlorides (Cl-) etc. as anions. The composition and quantity of mineral content in biomass depends on the plant species and characteristics of the soil where the plant grows. The plant analysis results show that the weight of Ca++, Mg++ and Na+ cations in dry biomass of a plant is about 3.3 per cent of the weight of the dry biomass. When biomass is harvested and removed from the field, minerals to this extent are also evacuated from the field along with the biomass. Therefore, if the dry biomass produce (grain + foliage) be 10 tons/ha, the weight of cations of minerals evacuated along with the biomass of harvested crop would be at the rate of 0.33 tons/ha.

Trees under Saline Conditions Different species of trees have different capacity to survive and grow under saline conditions. Salt tolerant species like Tamarix Troupii, Prosopis jaliflora, Acacia farnesiana give satisfactory growth upto salinity level of 35 dS/m. Acacia nilotica, A.tortilis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis etc. give satisfactory growth upto salinity level of 25 dS/m. When trees transpire water, salts are left behind in the soil. It is apprehended that if this continues to happen continuously for many years, the salt content in the soil may exceed the tolerance limit of the trees and plantations may not survive. The concentration of salts in the soil in this manner occurs in the 'capillary zone' which may be about 1.0 m thick. When ground

water table is shallow and within the reach of the roots of the trees, they would be able to draw their water requirement from the ground water table. The trees would survive so long as the salinity of ground water (below the ground water table) does not increase beyond the threshold limit.

If polluted river water (containing salts, say more than 200 mg/l) is used for irrigation, the salinity of ground water may show an increasing trend. Transpiration rate from tree plantations decreases with increase in ground water salinity. In case of Eucalyptus plantations the rate may reduce to about one-half of that under non-saline conditions, when the ground water salinity reaches a level of 12 dS/m. Besides achieving water balance and salt balance, the plantations should be able to generate effective ground water movement from all around under the irrigated area towards the plantation area. The quantity of subsurface water drainage towards the plantations should be adequate to prevent rise of water table above the critical depth anywhere and everywhere under the irrigated area. To achieve this, the plantation areas would have to be suitably planned and located over the irrigated area.

Distance between Plantations If plantation areas are separated by distance L, the depression of water table underneath them would result in ground water flow behavior similar to that as in case of flow towards parallel ditches penetrating an unconfined aquifer. The relationship between depression of ground water table, rate of recharge, hydraulic conductivity, depth to barrier layer and distance between plantations can be expressed by Donnan equation

R

Kh

R

hKYL

2

02 48

L = Distance between

plantation R = Rate of recharge Yo = Height of water level

above barrier lever underneath plantation

K = Hydraulic conductivity h = Head difference

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: Bio-drainage can be a feasible option for controlling waterlogging and salinity in irrigated lands. Its main merits are economy in cost and environment improvement. The limitations are requirement of land for tree plantations, limited evacuation of salts from the system and vulnerability of trees to high saline conditions. The requirement of land for tree plantations may be about 10 per cent of the area, which should be no problem, particularly in semi-arid and arid zones. All biomass contain some minerals which are evacuated, when the crops are harvested and removed from the field. When natural river water (unpolluted) is used for irrigation, the mineral

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evacuation by biomass may equal the net import of minerals with the irrigation water, enabling a reasonable salt balance. Tree growth and transpiration rate is affected by ground water salinity. There are many species of trees that are

salt tolerant and grow satisfactorily upto salinity levels of 12 dS/m or more. There are quite large irrigated areas that have ground water salinity of less than 12 dS/m, Bio-drainage should be feasible in such areas.


Influence of Greenhouse Parameters on Plant Growth Sudharshan Reddy Ravula and Divyasree Arepally

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India

All fruits and vegetables are seasonal dependent. But the greenhouse technology provides for any crop in any season at any time by providing controlled and favourable environment conditions with minimum labour. This technology protects the crops from adverse climatic conditions such as cold in winter, heat in summer and rain in monsoon, wind, insects and diseases etc. Greenhouse technology is ideally suited for vegetables crops and flowers. Greenhouse technology produces the off season crops that can be used in seasonal market. In green house cultivation, chemical and pesticides can be efficiently used to control the plant diseases and pest when compared to outdoor cultivation. The selection of greenhouse equipment depends on local climate conditions and the type of crops. The basic structure of green house is made up of GI pipes, aluminum pipes, bamboo, woods and iron rods, and covering material (glass and plastic films etc). The several elements such as temperature, heat, ventilation, relative humidity, irrigation, levels of carbon dioxide, light intensity, plant nutrients and pest control must be carefully controlled within the greenhouse to promote crop yield and profit for the greenhouse operation. The controlling the above mentioned elements in the green house are discussed as follows.

Ventilation In order to reduce the air temperatures (spring and autumn seasons) or to replenish carbon dioxide supply or to moderate the relative humidity in the greenhouse, a ventilation system must be provided. This ventilation may either be natural or forced ventilation. If the humidity is more that causes condensation it may lead to the chances of increases in risk of plant diseases. With the help of forced ventilation, temperature, RH can be controlled precisely.

Cooling during Warm Season Cooling in green house during warm season by

1. By providing uniform flow of cool air and also by reducing light intensity

2. Some other methods like ventilators/ vents, forced air ventilation, and fan and pad systems.

3. Some other ways to reduce light intensity: Shade fabric, Shade paint, and also installation of wooden, plastic, or plastic-

coated, thermal screens on ceilings and walls.

Humidity Control in Green House In general, the Relative humidity in greenhouse plants is in the range of 45-85%. If the humidity is more in green house that it may lead to the chances of increases in risk of plant disease. If the RH is maintained at low level, the plant growth may be restricted. Therefore, if RH is not maintained at optimum level, the crop yield will be reduced. In order to maintain proper RH, it is necessary to maintain proper temperature and light intensity. Moreover, it can also be maintained with installation of cooling pads.

Carbon Dioxide Levels Growing plants need CO2 and it plays significance role in increasing the crop productivity. During some seasons, or tightly closed green houses that will have reduced air exchange rates, CO2 level will then drop. As a result, it will turn in to restrict the plant growth. Therefore, adding CO2 in green house is beneficial. Carbon dioxide can be supplemented with many ways: by burning fuels such as natural gas, propane, and kerosene, or directly from pure CO2 tanks. The operators have to aware of each source advantages and disadvantages. The duration of supplementation of CO2 in green house is 1 hour after sunrise and shut off 1 hour before sunset. However, CO2 supplementation doesn’t require if the crop growth is good.

Controlling Light Levels Light intensity can be significantly affected by many factors such as season, geographic location, time of day, and cloud cover. The amount of light intensity needed depends on the plant occupancy and structure. Light intensity can be increased with installing the either fluorescent lights or high-intensity discharge lights. Light intensity can be decreased by placing a shade cloth above the plants or over the growing structure.

Irrigation System Watering system in green house is most important for growing healthy crops. This watering system mainly depends on the type and number of plants and size of green house. In green house structure, Irrigation methods can use either manual or automatic system.

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Manual irrigation systems: labour intensive, more time;

Method: watering with buckets. Automated irrigation systems: Less labour

requirement, time saving and saving water.

Methods: Micro sprinklers, Drip irrigation, Sprinklers/overhead system, Water loop, Misting system, Capillary mat system, Ebb and flood system, Boom irrigation, solar power irrigation system.


Transforming Agriculture Ramesh Kulkarni*, Ravindragouda Patil and Manoj Kurane

Department of Agriculture Entomology, College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Years of automation and innovations designed to grow more foods with less labour intensive lead into the mechanisation of the farms. Today’s farms are busting with engineering marvels. From sowing to harvest are done with lot of accuracy by mechanisation of the farm. Tractors autonomously sow the atoms of plants and reap bread which was the initial phase of the mechanisation. Since from tractors inventions there has been a continuous evolution led into Hi-Tech agriculture with use of advanced tools and machineries to farming sector.

In the latest buzz, Drones technology has revolutionised the way of farming in the western countries. Drones and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are the small vehicles hover around the field with artificial intelligence. In present data driven agriculture drones and UAVs are user friendly with full automations coupled with multispectral functions.

GPS and remote sensing enabled low flying drones are attached with sophisticated cameras help to scout agriculture lands and will help to keep a track on crop position, Monitor nutritional and water stress. These electronic eyed drones help to analyse the micro and macro climate of the crop with help in the boosting yields. Drones or UAV can capture highly accurate images of fields, covering hundreds of acres/hectors in a single flight at far greater resolution than satellite images, even at cloud cover. By using image processing software’s and algorithms,

Normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) can be generated to which you can create a reflection of map of crop. This map act as key to boosting yields; it highlights which areas of crop need closer examinations and remedies. With real time asses help to build the crop data, intern to the development of precision agriculture system. These artificial intelligent drones are employed in uniform spraying of agrochemicals over vast areas. Spray molecules are uniformly distributed over the crops areas lead into better control of the maladies.

There has been a great worry about ageing in agrarian population, less labour participation in agriculture sector, climatic change leading to the hampering of productions. Precision agriculture with Drones has the potent to increase the farming efficacy, resources efficacy and intensification.

These drone driven agriculture, with respect to Indian conditions has many constraints in adaption’s namely small farm holdings, less socio-economic conditions of the agrarian population, lack of institutional capacity in R&D. Many of the constraints can be overcome by the community farming, it usher for the development of the community. Krishi Bhagya scheme of the Karnataka is one among the schemes, which lent the farm machinery and tools on rent basis. Which are the positive ways to drive the agriculture into the next level.

96. EXTENSION EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 15941

Allied Agricultural Activities: Means of Sustainability to Farm women

Supriya P. Patil and Akshata R.

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Extension and Communication Management, College of Community Science, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India

India is a land of small farming families with nearly 80 per cent holding less than 5 acres. Most of these families are further dependent on the erratic monsoons. Hence, farming is becoming a challenging issue for their sustainability. They have to look out for other avenues to earn money to tide over their problems during droughts as

well as slack periods. The best enterprises for such families are allied agriculture activities, which complement rather than compete with agriculture. According to historians, women started agriculture and domestication of animals, while men went out for hunting. So women are naturally inclined towards animal husbandry.

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Some important allied agriculture activities that women can take up within the purview of agriculture are as below;

Dairy has been an age old enterprise because of its complementary nature with agriculture and vegetarian food habits of majority of the people. It provides regular cash income for the rural women, and dairy animals provide nutrition for the family. The availability of fodder from own farms without incurring extra cost is also one important reason to take up dairy as an allied enterprise.

Poultry can be viewed as an effective instrument for supplementing the income and providing employment to weaker sections and women in rural areas. It gives regular income through sale of eggs & meat. It has special advantage because the enterprise can be managed through available resources. This helps in eliminating the unemployment and under employment from the rural areas and better will change the socio economic conditions.

Goat and sheep rearing are good subsidiary occupation for supplementing the income and providing employment to family members. Goat and sheep are versatile animals and perhaps amongst the most adaptable ones. These multipurpose animals provide milk, meat, wool and organic manure.

Sericulture is an enterprise where participation of women is to the extent of 60.00 per cent. Being an indoor activity it provides scope for the direct involvement of women in the process of production and decision making. It enables them to gain greater recognition and status in the family and society in addition to income generation.

Beekeeping is another important activity where women carry out the processing of honey and beeswax into secondary products. Their excessive workload and childcare commitments require women to remain close to homesteads and to integrate livelihood activities with the commitments. Bee keeping is ideally suited for women.

Fish farming it involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. Women can easily involve herself in this activities as it can be taken up in homesteads. The marketing of fish is also an important

women centric activity in some parts. Vermicompost is the product of the

composting process using various species of earth worms. Vermicomposting is an enterprise where women can use farm wastes to produce vermicompost. Vermicompost sale can supplement the income. Being less labour intensive this activity is well suited for women.

Fruit and vegetable cultivation can form an important income generation activity where women can cultivate fruit and vegetables in the backyard and sell these at the local market. This allied activity in addition to income will play an important role in the diet of farming families.

Floriculture is an age old farming activity in India having immense potential for generating gainful self-employment among small and marginal farmers. This activity also has high export potential.

The involvement of women in agricultural activities would not only provide the much needed extra income but also supplement the nutrition of the family through milk, egg, meat, vegetables and fruits. The extra income in the hands of women would economically empower women.

References Amardev, S., 2014, Knowledge level of rural women

participation in mulberry sericulture practices. International J. Scientific Res., 3 (2):1-3.

Bhagyshri, Y., 2002, Participation of rural women in wool production. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka (India).

Chaturvedini, A. K., Khalid, N. L., Khyalia and Pratap, J., 2014, Empowering rural women through poultry. J. Krishi Vigyan, 3 (5):19-22.

Doomra, Z., Singh, K., Mehta, M. and Dilbagi, M., 2007, Involvement of women in dairy activities. J. Dairying, Foods H. S., 26 (4):169-173.

Durai, J. and Dhanalakshmi, J., 2015, Role of women in fishery sector in Tamil Nadu. International J. App. Innovation Eng. Manage, 4 (10):9-3.

Ekatpure, S. M., Kale, M. T., Bodake, H. D. and Antwal, P. N., 2011, Participation of farm women in production of vermicompost. Agric. Update, 6 (1):14-16.

Fartyal, S. and Rathore, S., 2013, Vegetable cultivation in Uttar Khand hills. Tropical Agric. Res., 24 (3): 238-248.


Role of Women in Agriculture and Allied Activities Anil Biradar and S.K. Jamanal

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Agricultural Extension Education, College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad- 580005

India has a predominantly agrarian economy with 70 per cent of the population being rural; of those households, 60 per cent engage in agriculture as their main source of income. Agriculture is India's most important economic sector. About 80 per cent of agricultural families

in India belong to either marginal or small farmers and for these families farming is not just an enterprise but a way of life where all members of the family including children contribute their mite in some way or the other. Agriculture in India defines familial tradition, social relations

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and gender roles. Female in the agricultural sector, whether through traditional means or industrial, for subsistence or as an agricultural laborer, represents a momentous demographic group. Women in India are major producers of food in terms of value, volume and number of hours worked almost 63 per cent of all economically active men are occupied in agriculture as compared to 78 per cent of women. Almost 50 per cent of rural female workers are classified as agricultural laborers and 37% as cultivators. About 70 per cent of farm work was performed by women. It is observed that women play a significant and crucial role in agricultural development and allied fields including, main crop production, live-stock production, horticulture, post-harvesting operations, agro/social forestry, fishing etc.

Reasons for Women Involved in Agriculture To eradicate poverty To ensure food security To increase their individual yields To increase economic contribution

Multi-Dimensional Role of Women Women in agriculture- women are involved in both crop and livestock production at subsistence and commercial levels, they work in agriculture as farmers on their own account, as unpaid workers on family farms and as paid or unpaid laborers on other farms and agricultural enterprises. They produce food and cash crops and manage mixed agricultural operations often involving crops, livestock and fish farming. All of these women are considered part of the agricultural labour force.

Women in modern contract farming- it is

seen that women farmers are largely excluded from modern contract-farming arrangements because they lack secure control over land, family labour and other resources required to guarantee delivery of a reliable flow of produce While men control the contracts, however, much of the farm work done on contracted plots is performed by women as family labourers.

Women in domestic activities- women also carry day to day household chores like cooking, child rearing, water collection, fuel wood gathering and house hold maintenance.

Women as livestock keepers- Within pastoralist and mixed farming systems, livestock play an important role in supporting women and in improving their financial situation.

Women in fisheries- Women have rarely

engaged in commercial offshore and long-distance capture fisheries because of the vigorous work involved but also because of their domestic responsibilities and/or social norms. They are more commonly occupied in subsistence and commercial fishing from small boats and canoes in coastal or inland waters.

Women in forestry - Women contribute to

both the formal and informal forestry sectors in many significant ways. They play roles in agroforestry, watershed management, tree

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improvement, and forest protection and conservation. Forests also often represent an important source of employment for women, especially in rural areas. From nurseries to plantations, and from logging to wood processing, women make up a notable proportion of the labour force in forest industries throughout the world.

Problems Faced by Women in Agriculture Gender biasness Lack of awareness and lower access to

modern technologies Constraints on time and mobility due to

various other household responsibilities Lack of training and less access to

productive resources Lack of opportunity and meager exposure Low wages and incentives Physical and mental stress Non recognition of women despite of their

active contribution Health and safety issues

Suggestions to Overcome the Problem Education should be imparted to all

irrespective of gender More of awareness programs should be

conducted Women club and organization should be

setup for open discussions Women should be exposed to new

technologies Contribution of women should also be

recognized Equal wage and incentive schemes should be

provided for equal work Proper health and safety measures should be

taken into consideration

“When women are empowered and can claim their rights and access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, economies grow, food security is enhanced and prospects are improved for current and future generations"

Reference Patil, S.P., 2015, Gender contribution in chilli

cultivation: an assessment of women empowerment. M.H.Sc., Thesis, Unviersity of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

Banerjee, T., Mishra, A., Singh, P., and Tahiliani, G., 2016, A study on the role played by women in agriculture sector in India. International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering & Research,2 (11):380-386.


Applications of Mobile-Based Agro-Advisory Services in India

Shaloo and Himani Bisht

Water Technology Centre, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012

INTRODUCTION: Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in India for food and nutritional security, poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Timely and reliable sources of information inputs are urgently requires by Indian farmer for taking decisions. In present time Mobile telephones has become the most popular Information technology (IT) tool for agricultural sector. It plays important role in disseminating advanced information about weather forecasting, real time or near real time pricing and market information, policies and programs of government, schemes for farmers, new innovations in agriculture, Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), new agricultural inputs viz. high yielding seeds, fertilizers etc, new technology related to management of soil, Water, Seed, Fertilizer, Pest, Harvest and Post-Harvest and training in new techniques so that farmers can make better decision concerning their agricultural activities.

Mobile-Based Agro-Advisory Services in India 1. Kisan Suvidha App: This app was launched

in the year 2016. It is available in Hindi, English, Punjabi, Tamil and Gujrati languages which makes it more widely accessible. It provides information on:

a) Current weather and the forecast for the next five days

b) Dealers market prices of commodities/crops alerts in nearest area and the maximum price in state as well as India

c) Knowledge on fertilizers, seeds, machinery, agro advisories, plant protection, Integrated Pest Management Practices (IPM) etc.

d) Extreme weather 2. IFFCO Kisan App: This App provides the

information on latest mandi prices, weather forecast, best technologies related to agriculture, Animal Husbandry, horticulture; agricultural advisory, a buyer and seller platform and all agriculture related news and government schemes for the farmers. It gives agriculture advisories in 11 Indian languages in text as well as audio clip. By using this App farmers can talk to Agriculture experts and get agricultural advice on just one-click through ASK OUR EXPERTS feature. This app is also very useful for those farmers who have difficulties in writing; they can just take a photo of the plant or concerned area/ disease and can send it to the experts to study the issue.

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3. MKisan: This app was launched in December 2012 and it provides the services through SMS (push), IVR (pull) and mobile web (video). It provides information on: a) Agriculture-related news and alerts and

up-to-date information on government or cooperative schemes in rural areas.

b) 1-5 day weather forecasts. c) Agronomic advice on over 50 different

crops covering different phases of the crop cycle.

d) Information on feeding, housing, hygiene and disease management of livestock.

e) Up-to-date information on market prices for selected crops

4. mKRISHI: This app provides information through SMS, voice message and photos. This app offered Services on microclimate, fertilizer dose, market information etc.

5. Behtar Zindagi: This app was launched in the year 2012 and it is available in 20 regional languages. It provides service through Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS) to deliver voice messages; farmers can also access information through toll free numbers (556780). Services offered by this app are livestock management and advisory, agricultural management technologies, weather forecast and advisory, information related to inland & coastal fisheries, market prices of different commodities/crops etc.

6. Kisan mobile advisory services by ICAR-KVK’s: This service was launched in the year 2008. It provides services through weekly SMS alerts on mobile phones on various information related to agricultural such as weather forecast, disease forecast and market information.

7. FarmBee - RML Farmer: This app provides latest information about commodity and mandi prices, precise usage of pesticides and fertilizers, weather forecast and advisory, agricultural advice and information regarding the government’s agricultural policies and schemes for the farmers. Users can select from over 450 varieties, 1300 mandis and 3500 weather locations across 50,000 villages and 17 states in India.

8. Pusa Krishi: This app was launched in the year 2016. It helps farmers to get information about technologies developed by Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). The app also provides information related to crops, new varieties developed by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), resource conserving cultivation practices as well as farm machinery and its implementation.

9. AgriApp: This App provides complete

information on Crop Production, Crop Protection and all relevant agriculture allied services. It also enables farmers to get all the information related to high value, soil/climate, technologies related to harvesting and storage, latest news, online markets for fertilizers, insecticides. Chat with expert option, video-based learning, etc. are also available on this app. This app is now available in English, Hindi, Kannada, Telugu, Marathi and Tamil languages.

10. Kheti-badi: It is a social initiative App which aims to promote and support ‘Organic Farming’. It also provides important information/issues related to farmers in India. Presently this app is available in four languages (Hindi, English, Marathi and Gujarati).

11. WhatsApp: It is one of the most widely used Apps these days. In some of the states departments of agriculture are using this App to make groups called Progressive Farmers which connects farmers though android devices.

12. Krishi Gyan: This App aimed to disseminate agricultural information to rural, farming audiences. This application enables Indian farmers to connect with Krishi Gyan experts and ask their farming related questions and get the answers through notification. Through this App farmers as well as agriculture enthusiast can also share their answer with each other.

13. Crop Insurance: This mobile app is used to calculate the insurance premium for notified crops based on area, coverage amount and loan amount, cut-off dated in case of loanee farmer. It is also useful to get details of normal sum insured, extended sum insured, premium details and subsidy information of any notified crop in any notified area. Further it is linked to its web portal which caters to all stakeholders including farmers, state, insurance companies and banks.

14. AgriMarket: This mobile app can be used to access the information about market price of crops within 50 km range of the device’s location.

CONCLUSION: Disseminating and spreading agricultural related information to farmers is made easier with the help of mobile apps which helps farmers make better management decisions and save their time and money. With the application of mobile phones farmers can reduce waste, increase efficiency, and make closer links between farmers and consumers. On the other hand agencies related to agriculture can improve their accessibility, effectiveness and efficiency.

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Market-Led Extension Shanabhoga M.B and Shivani Dechamma

Ph.D Scholars, Department of Agricultural Extension, GKVK, UAS, Bangalore

Globalization of the market demanded for paradigm shift i.e. from production to market led production.There are different changes took place at global level which stress the need for opting market-led extension in a large scale

Globalization/Economic liberalization Changed consumer preference Revolution in ICT New trade opportunities within and outside

the country Export opportunities

Farmers need to transform themselves from mere producers-sellers in the domestic market to producers cum sellers in a wider market.To achieve this, the questions confronting the farmers are

What to produce? When to produce? How much to produce? When and where to sell? At what price to sell? In what form to sell?

Market led Extension is the market ward orientation of agriculture through extension includes agriculture & economics is the perfect blend for reaching at the door steps of farming community with the help of appropriate technology. Market-led extension helps farmers to decide on various aspects like right price for their produce, right time to sell, right source for market information, right place for marketing.

Dimensions of Market-Led Extension Marketing Mix

Marketing mix is the nucleolus of marketing plans of any form any firm. Marketing mix is anything that a firm may use to influence the purchase decision of a customer. Any marketing mix is developed on the five Ps of marketing, viz, the product, the place, the price, the promotion, and the people

Marketing Plan

It relates to marketing practices and market functions some of important market functions are

Production planning - Ensuring the supply in relation to Market

Setting the sales and profit target- Analysing the present and potential Size of the targeted market

Market prices- Analysis of market trends

Market Oriented Production Means producing those commodities which are in demand in the market place so that the producer gets optimum returns for his investment.

Market Intelligence The process of collecting, interpreting, and disseminating information relevant to marketing decisions is known as market intelligence.

Market Intelligence is a process of giving you insights into what might happen in the near future. This process requires that we go from data to information to intelligence. Here is a basic example

Data - Prices for our products have dropped by 5 percent.

Information - New offshore facilities have lower labour costs.

Intelligence - Our key competitor is about to acquire a facility in India that will.

Objectives of Market Led Extension. 1. Conversion of Agriculture sector into profit

oriented business 2. Strengthening R-E-F linkages – between

various departments at various levels. 3. Strengthening market linkages to farmers –

IT application in Agricultural marketing. 4. Wider use of electronic mass media for

Agricultural Extension.

Conversion of Agriculture Sector into Profit Oriented Business To increase the marketed surplus of produce To increase producer share in consumer

rupee. Direct marketing “farmer – consumer” To minimize the post-harvest loss before

reaching market To realize higher returns for their investment

If we can achieve this definitely the Agriculture will be a profit oriented business

Role of Electronic Mass Media in MLE Capacity building through programs to

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extensionists and farmers. Telecast of success stories of farmers. It provides the market prices of different

commodities. Linking the Community radio stations in

villages with KVKs or other such institutions.

Role of Extension Personnel in Light of MLE Doing SWOT Analysis of Market.

SWOT of marketing

Strengths = Demand of products High Marketability Good priced markets Weakness = Low demand products Less marketability areas Less priced markets. Opportunities = Export opportunities Appropriate time of

selling Threats = imports Perishability of products

Conclusion Paradigm shift from production led system to market led system of agricultural extension is now essential. Information technology, electronic and print media need to be harnessed to disseminate the production and market information. The focus of the extension functionaries need to be extended beyond production. Farmers should be sensitized on various aspects of quality of produce, consumer’s preference, market intelligence, processing and value addition and other marketing information. This will help the farming community to realize higher returns for their produce.


Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) of Rice Developed by Farmers in Maharashtra

Adsul, G.B.1 and Rede G.D.2 1Assistant Professor, Dept. of Extension education, COA, Udgir (MS)

2Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agriculture Economics, COA, Udgir (MS)

INTRODUCTION: As the Earth's population continues to grow, more resources are demanded. A desire for material goods also continues to be a main goal for people, and these two elements combined place an increased pressure on Mother Earth. The 21st century is inevitable, and as it rapidly approaches, there is constant talk of bigger and better things. Many people are beginning to posses the Western view of affluence, and more attention is focused on how to obtain the greatest amount of resources without thought for how extraction will impact the future. It is understandable that an increase in population is demanding more commodities, but with careful management of our natural resources, a sustainable balance can be achieved.

Time is of the essence as more native groups are introduced to modern things that otherwise would have no place in their lives, attitudes change and the desire for better things is continual. Traditional societies living close to nature for thousands of years were discovered, and cultural heritage destroyed either because of death by foreign disease or assimilation into mainstream society. Gradually through assimilation traditional practices and respect for the Earth lessen. Ironically, as we become more interested in traditional belief systems, the youngsters of many indigenous groups are becoming disinterested in their native culture.

What is Indigenous Knowledge? Indigenous Knowledge (IK) can be broadly defined as the knowledge that an indigenous (local) community accumulates over generations of living in a particular environment. A number

of terms are used interchangeably to refer to the concept of IK, including Traditional Knowledge (TK), Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), Local Knowledge (LK) and Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS).

1) Traditional Knowledge Systems of Rice in Maharashtra

These traditional cultivars are cultivated in specific geographical area of the state, the transplanting and dibbling are the popular methods for cultivation, the use of fertilizers is very low. These cultivars are cultivated for the local market home consumptions and religious occasions. 1) Rab :

Rab is an age-old practice followed in the Konkan region in which farmers burn the piece of land where rice nursery is to be raised. It was found that 87.09 per cent farmers adopted the Rab preparation method for raising rice seedlings

There was a variation in the material used for Rab due to ecological aspects, vegetation, and availability of material and location of the fields. It was also found that the material like dry leaves, cow dung, dry grass, branches of trees, byre waste, etc. were used for Rab.

Rabbing is a sort of partial sterilization of the soil. It improves the physical structure of the soil and increases availability of nutrients in the soil.

In the opinion of 97.40 per cent farmers, the Rab helps control the weeds, while 74.61 and 73.10 per cent farmers opined that the Rab

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helps to better germination of seed and is helpful in getting healthy seedlings, respectively. With regard to the effect of Rab on the crop, majority (94.92 per cent) of the respondents expresses that the yield per unit area increased due to the Rab preparation.

2) Method of Sowing/ Random Transplanting

Farmers are transplanting rice at random without following specific spacing. The opinion of farmers about line transplanting was not only expensive but time consuming.

Research was conducted in medium black soil to find out an alternative to this method. The other methods used were drilling, dibbling and broadcasting of sprouted seed. It was observed that rice crop raised by transplanting method produced significantly higher grain yield over the remaining methods of cultivation. Now farmers are convinced about higher yield performance by following line transplanting.

3) Deep Transplanting

Generally farmers are transplanting rice very deep hence that affects the tillering ability and ultimately total yield.

4) Use of more Number of Seedlings per Hills

Farmers were using more than 5 seedlings/ hills, however 3-4 / hills are giving equal results.

5) Ulkatni and Awatni

Ulkatni and Awatni are two local practices followed in Khar lands of Thane and Raigad districts.

In Ulkatni the clods are turned upside down with the help of crowbar in the months of April-May, while Awatni is a practice of putting the rice seedlings in the field along with the mud ball from the seedbed. It was observed that both the methods of preparatory tillage were effective.

Instead of Ulkatni which was done manually, ploughing could be done after harvest of Kharif rice in reclaimed Khar lands.

Awatni was significantly superior to the regular practice of transplanting provided the population is maintained in case of Awatni.

Superficial planting in Awatni avoids contact of tender seedlings with the salty portion of soil and thus avoids mortality of seedlings.

Methods of Documentation International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) (1996) suggested identifying indigenous specialists, case studies, field observation, in depth interviews, participant observation, participative technology analysis, surveys, brain storming, games, group discussions, role play, SWOT analysis, village reflections, village workshops, flow chart, mapping, taxonomies, participatory video, and photo / slide documentation. The IIRR had also reported that indigenous knowledge could be documented in the form of descriptive texts such as reports, taxonomies, inventories, maps, matrices, and decision trees; audio visuals such as photos, films, videos or audio cassettes as well as dramas, stories, songs, drawings, seasonal pattern charts, daily calendars etc. Indigenous knowledge can also be stored in local communities, databases, card catalogues, books journals and other written documents, audio-visuals, museums etc.

Methods of Validation of IK by Testing Rationality Any practice, considered valid and fruitful will have a scientific basis for its successful results. Farmers are not able to explain the scientific rationale behind indigenous practices; therefore, scientists are responsible for testing and verifying those practices and finding out their rationality. There are few studies reporting IAP’s as perceived by scientists. Hiranand and Kumar (1980) concluded in a study that it becomes necessary for scientists to investigate the rationality of each of the technical beliefs held by farmers so that they can clearly accept or reject a technical belief. Padaria and Singh (1990) identified traditional dry farming practices being followed in Ranchi district of Bihar and assessed by scientists on a five point rating scale. Kalaivani (1992) in her study on beliefs connected with garden land farming studied the rationality of indigenous beliefs rated by scientists. Prasad et al, (1996) in their study on “Rationale of indigenous post harvest practices in Ranchi district” concluded that scientists favored the continuation of 9 of the 11 indigenous post harvest practices followed by a sample of 200 farmers. Ganesamoorthi (2000) in his study on indigenous post harvest practices observed that scientists rated more than 80% of the indigenous post harvest practices as rational.

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Extension Methods Used in Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)

Rupan Raghuvanshi* and Akanchha Singh

Ph.D. Research Scholar Agriculture Extension & Communication, Department of Agricultural Communication, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

(263145), India *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Climate-smart agriculture is defined as an approach for transforming and reorienting agricultural development under the new realities of climate change (Lipper et al., 2014). It is defined as “agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience (adaptation), reduces Green House Gases (GHGs) where possible and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals” (FAO, 2013). Here productivity, adaptation and mitigation are three interrelating pillars in achieving goal of food security and development in CSA.

CSA is an integrative approach to address these interlinked challenges of food security and climate change that explicitly aims for three objectives:

1. Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, to support equitable increases in farm incomes, food security and development;

2. Adapting and building resilience of agricultural and food security systems to climate change at multiple levels;

3. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture (including crops, livestock and fisheries).

CSA invites to consider these three objectives together at different scales (from farm to landscape), at different levels (from local to global) and over short and long time horizons, taking into account national and local priorities. Achieving these objectives requires changes in the behaviour, strategies and agricultural practices of farming households by:

1. Improving their access to climate resilient technologies and practices, knowledge and information for increasing productivity

2. Inputs and market information and assistance with income diversification

3. Organising them better for collective action.

Extension education contributes in achieving climate-smart agriculture (CSA) by disseminating climate information and technologies and information on production practices for climate adaption through innovative approaches, such as plant clinics and participatory video (Digital Green, case from India), use of ICTs etc.. Extension service providers can play a major role in supporting CSA through the following:

1. Sustainably increasing productivity and

enhancing adaptation through technology development and information dissemination

2. Building resilience through developing farmers’ human and social capacity and providing support services

3. Supporting climate change adaptation and mitigation through facilitation and brokering

4. Monitoring, advocacy and policy support.

There are various extension approaches used to deal with the farmers, different approaches provides different messages to farmers. Combination of location specific approaches should be used for effective results. Choice of extension approach combinations can influence the ability of extension services to contribute to food security and income, adaptation and resilience, and climate change mitigation

TABLE1: Extension approaches used in CSA

S.No Approaches Uses

Plant clinics

Farmers brought various crop problems to plant clinics related to nutrient deficiency, water-logging, chemical misuse, Pathogens, insects, rats, etc.

Plant Health Rally Approach

It mainly raise awareness about major agricultural risk or threats on important crops, to promote the use of improved agricultural practices and run by a local extension worker

Farmers to Farmer Extension (F2FE)

In it trainings are conducted by farmers to farmers, They help improve productivity, build resilience and reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Climate Smart Villages (CSVs)

CSV includes climate information services, local knowledge & institutions, village development plans and climate smart technology.

Community Radio

Disseminates climate/weather and agriculture information in local languages to raise the awareness among the farmers. Contributes to climate mitigation, adaptation and increase food security.

Appointment of climate manager

Person has local climate and weather knowledge and trained in

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S.No Approaches Uses

at the village level,

scientific climate and weather management especially to mange malevolent weather to reduce crop production risks by advocating and popularizing best crop practice

Agro meteorology

Local weather station is established, Bulletins, internet based communication, radio and broadcast, face to face and group meetings and dialogues, seminars and technical meetings are among the main tools used to disseminate weather or agro advisory services, Provide climate forecast that provide basis for tactical and strategic adaptation

Science Field Shops

Agro-meteorological learning Guiding daily rainfall measurements in farmers’ plots by all SFS participants; Guiding daily agro-ecological observations (soil, plants, water, biomass, pests/diseases, climate extremes)

CONCLUSION: Extension service plays an important role in CSA by improving farmer’s

access to climate resilience technology and practices, knowledge and information for increasing productivity. Extension contributes to Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) by disseminating climate information and technologies on production practices for climate adaption through innovative approaches. Extension helps the farmers to make them sensitize and aware about the changing climatic conditions so they can better adopt and mitigate. So it is necessary to know the role of extension in CSA and what are the different extension methods used in CSA to help the farmers. There was various number of extension approaches used to tackle the problem of climate change. Combination of these methods should be used according to the local condition prevailing in the area and availability of resources. So there is a need to give special focus on the extension component of CSA, while making the policies.

References Lipper, L., Thornton, P., Campbell, B.M. and

Torquebiau, E.F. (2014). climate –smart agriculture for food security. Nature Climate Change 4: 1068-1072. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ nclimate2437

FAO. (2013). Climate Smart Agriculture: Sourcebook. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.


Gender Mainstreaming: Prospects and Issues Dhanshri Nigade1* and Rajiv Sathe2

1Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, College of Agriculture, Kharpudi, Jalna-431 203

2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, PGI, MPKV., Rahuri-413 722 *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Despite the high percentage of female farmers involved in Indian agriculture as key agri-food stakeholders, the extension system has traditionally overlooked their specific farming needs. However, in India, there has been a transformation of agricultural extension which has mainly been influenced by the changing international and national economic, political and social climates. As part of this transformation, the Indian government has initiated moves toward mainstreaming gender concerns into agricultural extension delivery using a number of different approaches. There are also concerns about how terms such as ‘gender’ are interpreted under these new mainstreaming approaches. “Gender” meaning- Gender refers not to male and female, but to masculine and feminine – that is, to qualities or characteristics that society ascribes to each sex. Gender defines the process by which individuals who are born into the biological categories of 'male' or 'female' become the social categories of

'men' and 'women' through the acquisition of culturally defined attributes of masculinity and femininity as well as the resources and responsibilities associated with these categories.

Gender Mainstreaming Gender mainstreaming incorporates a GAD perspective. It aims to look more comprehensively at the relationships between men and women in their access to and control over resources, decision making, and benefits and rewards within a particular system. Gender mainstreaming is an institutional transformation process that integrates efforts to achieve gender equality into the core of development activities. The approach requires specific consideration of the distinctive implications for men and women of resource allocations, policies, procedures, and institutional norms and structures.

As defined by the United Nations, gender mainstreaming is:

“The process of assessing the implications

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for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated.”

Gender mainstreaming is not only a question of social justice, but is necessary for ensuring equitable and sustainable human development by the most effective and efficient means.

The objectives of mainstreaming gender issues in rural development projects are:

Reduce gender inequities that may exist in a given project area;

Encourage both men and women to participate in project activities; ensure that their specific needs are satisfied, that they benefit from the project and that the project impacts positively on their lives;

Create the conditions for the equitable access of men and women to project resources and benefits;

Create the conditions for the equitable participation in project implementation and decision making processes.

Importance of Gender Mainstreaming More Effective Policy and Legislation More Effective Governance Visible presence of gender equality in the

mainstream of society Diversity among women and men

General Steps involved in Gender Mainstreaming The 10 Steps for Gender Mainstreaming include

1. A Mainstreaming Approach to Stakeholders: Who are the Decision-Makers?

2. Mainstreaming a Gender Agenda: What is the Issue?

3. Moving towards Gender Equality: What is the Goal?

4. Mapping the Situation: What Information do we have?

5. Refining the Issue: Research and Analysis 6. Formulating Policy or Project Interventions

from a Gender Perspective 7. Arguing Your Case: Gender Matters! 8. Monitoring: Keeping a (Gender-Sensitive)

Eye on Things 9. Evaluation: How Did We Do? 10. En-gendering Communication.

Difficulties that Accompany Gender Mainstreaming Misunderstanding the concept of gender

mainstreaming. Need for a broader concept of equality. Current approaches to policy-making. Mainstreaming may require procedural

changes. Lack of adequate tools and techniques. Lack of sufficient knowledge about gender

equality issues. Mere taking about gender mainstreaming

without implementing it in reality.

CONCLUSION: Gender mainstreaming in local government will have a major effect in rural development. Women, along the side with men, can jointly develop a strategic plan on a community-based level to strengthen rural development planning with aggressive women’s participation in local government. In conclusion, successful gender mainstreaming in rural development can only be achieved or attempted through a sound policy process, government commitment and a thorough understanding of the goals and benefits by the community members.


Competency Mapping: Need of the Hour for Extension Professionals in India

Jagriti Rohit

Scientist, TOT, Section ICAR-CRIDA Santoshnagar Hyderabad-500059

Time and tide waits for no one. This adage still holds relevance in present time and more precisely to the human resources. Extension professionals are directly catering to the need of the farming community. The agriculture system as a whole is dependent on the capacity of the extension professionals to reach the farmers with latest advancement in the agricultural technologies. Extension professionals with the latest knowledge are able to make informed decisions about the agricultural system and possess the skill necessary for adaptation and facilitation which will make a major contribution to the extension services and ultimately to the

agricultural development (Hoffman, 2014). In this scenario, it becomes important that the extension professionals are competent in their respective field. The role of extension today goes beyond technology transfer to facilitation; beyond training to learning, and includes mobilization of farmers, dealing with marketing issues, addressing public interest issues in rural areas such as resource conservation, health, monitoring of food and additional food security and agricultural production, food safety, nutrition, family education, and youth development and partnering with a broad range of service providers and other agencies (USAID,

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2002). Extension professionals need to continuously update their knowledge and skill with the recent advancement. Competency mapping provides an opportunity by which competency can be assessed and suitable training programmes can be organized for them.

Competency Mapping (CM) The basic concept of competency was developed from the path breaking work of David McClelland. In his article “Testing for competence rather than intelligence”, competency movement was launched in industrial psychology. The concept of competency has been applied to extension too. A competency is said to consist of knowledge, skill and behaviour that a person needs to demonstrate in order to carry out the job effectively and efficiently. In other words, competency can said to be the building blocks for effective performance in the job. Competencies exist at different levels of personality. The various levels are knowledge, skills, behavior, characteristics like traits and motive. Competency mapping (CM) involves the determination of the extent to which the person possesses the various competencies related to a job. The extent to which a person is adjustable, resourceful, capable of working efficiently under stress, capable of anticipating threats, finding solutions and contributing in innovations comes under the purview of CM. Which is then compared with the extent to which the various competencies are required for a job, the comparison enables us to know the suitability of a person for a job.

Steps in Competency Mapping The following steps are involved in competency mapping to identify the key competencies for an organization and the job within the function:

1. Indentify the organization lie Krishi Vigyan Kendra or stste department of agriculture where one needs to map the competencies.

2. Identify the structure of the organization and select extension professionals.

3. Job Description from individuals and departments.

4. Conducting Semi-Structured interviews. 5. Collecting the data.

6. Classify the required competency list. 7. Identify the skill levels. 8. Evaluate identified competencies and skill

levels with immediate superiors and other heads of concerned departments.

9. Preparation of Competency calendar. 10. Mapping of Competencies.

Benefits of Competency Mapping Mapping of the competency of the extension professionals is not only beneficial to them but also to their organization as a whole.

1. Competency mapping identifies skill gap, following up with competency-based training is provided to employees to expand their current skills, but it also provides a well-defined path for learning new skills through cross training and for moving up in the organization.

2. It involves assessing employees’ present capability and his inclination to take on new challenges, this information can be used for career planning of an employee. Succession planning is future oriented approach of management it identifies grooms and develops employee for higher level position, current competencies are identified and matched with the competencies required for senior positions.

3. Competency linked reward and incentive also motivates the extension professionals to work towards enhancement of their competencies.

4. Enhancing the competencies after providing training to the extension professionals helps to make the organization efficient and effective in catering to the need of the farming communities.

CONCLUSION: Competency mapping is a powerful tool which helps the organization to reach its potential. It provides an accurate means of skill development by identifying the job and behavioral competencies of an individual in an organization. It important that the policy makers understands the role of competency mapping in present times and devise a suitable strategy to incorporate it in every step of organizational development.

104. ECONOMICS 16397

NABARD: A Brief Profile Palvi R. A.*

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Ahmednagar (MS) *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Set up in 1982, committed to Rural Prosperity through intervention of credit and developmental activities Paid-up Capital Rs.3000 crore against the Authorized Capital of Rs.5000 crore Operates through HO at Mumbai, 30 ROs in State Capitals & 391 District Offices

Mission and Functions Mission Promoting sustainable and equitable agriculture and rural development through effective credit support, related services, institution building and other innovative

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initiatives. In pursuing this mission, NABARD focuses its activities on: Credit functions, involving preparation of potential-linked credit plans annually for all districts of the country for identification of credit potential, monitoring the flow of ground level rural credit, issuing policy and operational guidelines to rural financing institutions and providing credit facilities to eligible institutions under various programmes.

Development functions, focusing on overall development by way of capacity building and income generating interventions aimed at supplementing the credit functions as well as making credit more productive. Supervisory functions, ensuring the proper functioning of cooperative banks and regional rural banks

Birth of NABARD NABARD is conceived as an exercise in decentralization of the Central Bank's function of providing all kinds of production and investment credit to agriculture, small scale industries, artisans, cottage and village industries, handicrafts and other allied economic activities in an integrated manner with undivided attention, pointed focus and forceful direction, NABARD is also charged with the responsibility of promoting integrated rural development and matters concerned therewith and incidental thereto. It is also conceived that NABARD will work in close unison with the Reserve Bank.

As regards purveying of credit, NABARD will be the principal financial institution ', providing short-term, medium-term and long-term credit to the institutional agencies purveying rural credit.

NABARD also would cater to the credit requirements of the industrial units in the small scale, cottage, tiny and decentralized sectors, handicrafts, as also to artisans.

It is envisaged that NABARD will be the instrument of social change, which will strive for integrated rural development. With reference to NABARD, RBI will have the responsibility of spawning, fostering and nurturing the new institution. In its new role pertaining to matters of agriculture and rural development, RBI will guide and assist NABARD.

Functions of NABARD Refinance Production credit (ST) Investment credit Mainly for RRBs and Cooperatives Purpose

1. Agricultural operations or the marketing of crops

2. The marketing and distribution of inputs necessary for agriculture or rural

development 3. Any other activity for the promotion of or in

the field of agriculture or rural development, or

4. The production or marketing activities of artisans or of small-scale industries, industries in the tiny and decentralized sector, village and cottage industries or of those engaged in the field of handicrafts and other rural crafts.

Investment credit 1. Medium term conversion loans for

production credit, 2. MT and LT project lending 3. Loan to State Govt. for share capital

contribution 4.Direct financing 4a. Rediscounting bills of exchange and promissory note

Functions of NABARD For Rural Banks and Co-operative Banks,

NABARD is the inspecting authority, which would combine in itself the responsibilities envisaged both for developmental and statutory inspections.

NABARD will receive such returns and other data concerning regional rural banks and State Cooperative banks as would facilitate NABARD keeping a close watch over the performance, health and viability of the institutions.

RBI to act on a certificate of NABARD on a question whether or not a state cooperative bank or a regional rural bank satisfies the requirements as to share capital and reserves and whether their affairs are being conducted in a manner not detrimental to the interests of the depositors. Since NABARD will be inspecting state co-operative banks and regional rural banks, it would be in a position to issue such a certificate

NABARD is charged with the responsibility of coordinating its operations with those of other institutions engaged in the field of rural development.

NABARD to provide facilities for training, dissemination of information and promotion of research in the field of rural banking, agriculture and rural development.

In the discharge of these functions, NABARD may also collect such credit information as it may require and share the same with the Central Government and RBI.

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105. ECONOMICS 16401

Importance of Operation Greens Scheme Sangmesh Chendrashekhar1* Shruthi, K.2* and Arnab Roy1

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics, UAS, Bengaluru-560065 (Karnataka). 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics, UAS, Raichur- 584104 (Karnataka).


INTRODUCTION: The idea behind Operation Greens is to double the income of farmers by end of 2022. Operation is essentially a price fixation scheme that aims to ensure farmers are given the right price for their produce. Finance Minister Arun Jaitley proposed to launch Operation Greens in his speech while presenting the Union Budget 2018-19 in Lok Sabha today. Jaitley proposed that it would be launched with an allocation of Rs 500 crore on the lines of Operation Flood. Operation Greens aims to promote farmer producers organisations, agri-logistics, processing facilities and professional management. The operation aims to aid farmers and help control and limit the erratic fluctuations in the prices of onions, potatoes and tomatoes.

Operation Greens will be launched with an allocation of Rs 500 crore on the lines of Operation Flood. It aims to promote farmer producers organisations, processing facilities, agri-logistics and professional management. It also aims to aid farmers and help control and limit erratic fluctuations in the prices of tomatoes, onions and potatoes (TOP). It is essentially price fixation scheme that aims to ensure farmers are given the right price for their produce. The idea behind Operation Greens is to double the income of farmers by the end of 2022. Operation is essentially a price fixation scheme that aims to ensure farmers are given the right price for their produce. The MSP regulation has a key role to play here. The announcement to set minimum support price of all kharif crops at 1.5 times the cost of production will increase the farmers’ income and for consumers, tax incentives will be given under Operation Greens.

The government aims to focus on basic ingredients and not on additional commodities in agriculture. Operation Greens will work to increase demand in the economy as well with its demand forecasting model. To help in the structural and infrastructure part of the scheme, Jaitley announced that as many as 470 agriculture market committee (APMCs) promoted markets will now be connected to the e-nam platform while the government will help in development of 22,000 agricultural markets.

The problem with these commodities is that when their production rises sharply, their prices collapse, as there is not enough modern storage capacity, and the links to processing and organised retailing are very weak and small. As a result, farmers often end up receiving less than one-fourth of what consumers pay in major cities. This must change, the “Operation Greens” (OG) needs to set a target that farmers must

receive at least 60% of what consumers pay. Remember in case of milk, farmers get more than 75% of what consumers pay. Of course, these veggies are not milk, and each one has its own characteristics. Yet, the basic principles of “Operation Flood” (OF) would be useful to operationalise OG.

First, link major consuming centres to major producing centres with minimal number of intermediaries. As Dr Kurien says in his book I too had a Dream, organising farmers and increasing production is easier job. The real challenge is to find right markets for their produce that can give them remunerative prices on sustainable basis. So, one needs to map mega-consuming centres and link their retail networks with producing centres of each commodity identified. Farmers can be organised in farmer producer organisation (FPOs). NABARD and SFAC together have about 3,000 FPOs, which could be the starting points for aggregation of commodities, assaying, sorting, grading, and even packing with bar codes reflecting their traceability.

APMC Act will have to be changed to allow direct buying from FPOs, and giving incentives to FPOs, private companies and NGOs, to build back-end infrastructure, as was done for milk. The announcement of income-tax concession to FPOs for five years is a welcome step in that direction, if it encourages building that critical infrastructure. Second is the investment in logistics, starting with modern warehouses that can minimise wastages. An example will be of cold storages for onions, where wastages are reduced to less than 10% compared to 25-30% in traditional storages on farmers’ fields. Further, such storages have to be cost effective. An example would be of potato cold storage in UP that buys power at almost Rs 10/kwh from SEBs, can generate solar power at less than Rs 4/kwh, if they go for solar tops. Large-scale investments in storage will require tweaking of Essential Commodities Act with respect to storage control order.

Third is linking with processing industry and organised retailing. On an average, about one fourth of the produce must be processed. India is way behind on this curve compared to most of Southeast Asian countries. Dehydrated onions, tomato puree, potato chips, and so on should be cheap so that an average household can use them. Processing industry adds value and absorbs surpluses. From that angle, finance minister raising the budget of food processing industry by 100% is again a welcome step. If food

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processing ministry can coordinate with OG, it will be easier to make it a success for both. By developing these forward and backward linkages, the government can ease wide price fluctuations, raise farmers’ share in consumers’ rupee and yet consumers will pay lower prices—a win-win situation for all! However, OG would need a champion to implement this vision and strategy with honesty; another Kurien, for at least three-five years.

Proposed Benefits It may help in doubling the income of

farmers by the end of 2022. It aims to ensure farmers are given the right

price for their produce. The MSP regulation has a key role to play here. The announcement to set minimum support price of all kharif crops at 1.5 times the cost of production will increase the farmers’ income and for consumers, tax incentives will be given under Operation Greens.

The government aims to focus on basic ingredients and not on additional commodities in agriculture.

It shall promote Farmer Producers Organizations (FPOs), agri-logistics, processing facilities and professional management in the sector.

106. FOOD AND NUTRITION 16344

Health benefits of Taro Root T. R. Thirumuruga Ponbhagavathi*

Department of Food Science and Nutrition-TNAU-Madurai *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Taro root, which is the thick, tuber stalk of the taro plant is an extremely important part of global cuisines and diets, as it has been for thousands of years. In fact, taro is considered to be one of the first cultivated plants in human history. Its scientific name is Colocasia esculenta and it has a fascinating history. It is believed to be native to Southeast Asia and southern India, but it is cultivated and used in many places all around the world. Fascinatingly, it seems as though every culture uses taro in a slightly different way, depending on how it is prepared and the variety of the crop that is grown.

The most common form is dasheen, and the plant is also commonly known as “elephant ears”, due to the shape of the broad leaves. The leaves, roots, and corms can be used as dietary ingredients, but the plant must be cooked. It is actually toxic in raw form, due to the high content of oxalates, but those dangerous substances can be eliminated when cooked with some baking soda or if steeped overnight. The reason that this plant is so widely used is due to the ease with which it grows and the size/sustenance it can provide. More than 11.3 million metric tons of taro plants/roots are cultivated around the world each year. The health benefits of the plant are a happy bonus of its frequent use, which is why it is gaining popularity in certain health-conscious cultures and populations.

Nutritional Value of Taro Root A taro root contains organic compounds, minerals, and vitamins that can benefit overall health in a number of ways. It has a very significant amount of dietary fiber and carbohydrates, as well as high levels of vitamin A, C, E, vitamin B6, and folate. There is magnesium, iron, zinc, phosphorous, potassium, manganese, and copper in it. The plant also

provides some protein.

Health Benefits of Taro Root The health benefits of taro root include its ability to improve digestive health, prevent cancer, improve vision health, and much more.

Digestive Health

One of the most important functions of taro root in the diet is its role in digestion. The high level of dietary fiber found in taro root (a single serving contains 27% of the daily requirement of dietary fiber) makes it very important for supporting gastrointestinal health. Fiber helps to add bulk to our bowel movements, thereby helping food move through the digestive tract and facilitating improved digestion. This can help prevent certain conditions such as excess gas, bloating, cramping, constipation, and even diarrhea. A healthy, regulated gastrointestinal system can greatly boost overall health and reduce chances of various types of cancer.

Cancer Prevention

Taro root also plays an important part in the antioxidant activity of human body. The high levels of vitamin A, C, and various other phenolic antioxidants found in taro root boost immune system and help eliminate dangerous free radicals from the body system. Cryptoxanthin, which is found in taro root, is directly connected to a lowered chance of developing both lung and oral cancers.

Diabetes Prevention

Dietary fiber can also help lower the chances of developing diabetes because it regulates the release of insulin and glucose in the body. Sufficient level of fiber in taro root provides can manage the glycemic levels and lower the chances of developing diabetes. In diabetes patient’s, taro root intake prevents the dangerous spikes and plunges in blood sugar.

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Improved Heart Health

Taro root contains a significant level of potassium, which is one of the essential minerals. Potassium not only facilitates healthy fluid transfers between membranes and tissues throughout the body but also helps to relieve stress and pressure on blood vessels and arteries. By relaxing the veins and blood vessels, blood pressure can be reduced and thus the stress on the overall cardiovascular system is reduced. Potassium has even been connected to increased cognitive function because neural connections can be boosted when blood pressure is reduced, and fluid transfer between neural membranes is optimized.

Vision Health

Taro root contains various antioxidants, including betacarotene and cryptoxanthin. These antioxidants can help improve vision as well, by preventing free radicals from attacking ocular cells and causing macular degeneration or cataracts.

Skin Care

Between vitamin E and vitamin A, our skin is well protected when we add taro root to our diets. Both of these essential vitamins work to eliminate skin conditions and boost overall cellular health, meaning that our wounds and blemishes heal faster, wrinkles can be diminished, and a healthy glow can be returned to the skin. Taro root is nature’s little secret to healthier skin.

Boosts Immune System

It has a very high level of vitamin C in each serving, which stimulates the immune system to create white blood cells, which defend the body from foreign pathogens and agents. Furthermore,

vitamin C acts as an antioxidant, which partially prevents the development of conditions such as heart disease and cancer.

Increased Circulation

The mineral content of taro root has dozens of useful applications, but the dual presence of iron and copper in taro root make it a very important food to prevent anemia and boost circulation throughout the body. Iron and copper are both essential for the production of red blood cells, which carry the all-important oxygen to body systems and cells. It helps in lowering chances of anemia (iron deficiency) and boosting the flow of blood through the body. This, in turn, helps increase the metabolic activity, growth of new cells, and general oxygenation of the body, which results in the organs and systems functioning at their optimal levels.

CONCLUSION: Taro root is rich in most of the nutrients which are needed for normal body function. The major problem with taro root is its extremely high calorie content. Every 100 grams contains 112 calories, which can be an issue for people trying to lose weight. It has more carbohydrates by volume than potatoes, so overdoing it with taro root can cause obesity. It should be taken care of when the taro root needs to include in the diet of metabolic disorder patients.

References Wanasundera JPD, Ravindran G (1994) Nutritional

assessment of yam (Dioscora altata) tubers. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 46:33–39.

Kaushal, P., Kumar, V., & Sharma, H. K. (2015). Utilization of taro (Colocasia esculenta): a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(1), 27-40.

107. FOODS AND NUTRITION 16399

Programme for Pregnant Women Regarding Promotion of Breast Feeding

Deepa Kannur1* and Daneshwari Onkari2 1Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Community Science, University

of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad - 580 005, India. 2Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Community Science, University

of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad - 580 005, India. Dharwad - 580 005, India. *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Breast milk is the ideal food and superior to other forms of supplementary foods that an infant can receive. It is a living fluid, containing all the necessary nutrients and hydration in the first six months of the child’s life. Breast milk is uncontaminated food that protects infants from infection and has an effect on the long term consequences, especially during adulthood, to prevent obesity and cardiovascular diseases. It is rich in nutrients needed for the growth of the newborn, and in nutritional bioactive components such as the maternal antibodies, chemical mediators, vitamins,

enzymes and some types of white blood cells in breast milk (particularly in colostrum) augment the action of the baby’s immune system. This unique fluid evolves to meet the changing needs of the baby during growth and maturation.

Facts and Figures According to National Family Health Survey-

3, about 20 million children are not able to receive exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) for the first six months, and about 13 million do not get good, timely and appropriate complementary feeding along with continued

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breastfeeding. Over the past several years, India has failed

to witness any remarkable progress in infant feeding practices, with only a small increment being recorded in EBF rates amongst infants 0-6 months of age – from 36.2% in 1998-99 (NFHS-2) to 40.3% in 2005–2006 (NFHS-3).

In India Very few children are put to the breastfeed

immediately after birth. Though 96% of children (both urban and

rural population) under age five have ever been breastfed, only 29% started breastfeeding within half an hour of birth in urban population and 21% in rural population.

Only 30% of infants (in urban population) started breastfeeding within one hour of birth, as is recommended, the figure goes down to 22% in rural population.

Almost 35% of infants (in urban population) did not start breastfeeding within one day of birth and almost half (48%) in rural population did not start breastfeeding within one day (WHO- 2016-17). – As global public health

recommendations, international guidelines stress that infants should be exclusively breastfed for the first six months, then frequent and on demand breastfeeding should continue to 24 months.

– Breastfeeding concern starts from the minute of birth. Evidences support that optimal breastfeeding practices rank among the most effective interventions to improve child health.

WHO/UNICEF have emphasized the first 1000 days of life i.e, the 270 days in-utero and the first two years after birth as the critical window period for nutritional interventions.

Importance of Breast Feeding 13%: children die below 5 yrs of age, owing

to poor breastfeeding practices 8,23,000: child deaths can be averted every

year. 1,56,000: child deaths could be reduced in

India with breastfeeding 3.4 million: respiratory infection episodes

can be reduced 3.9 million: Diarrhoea episodes can be

reduced 15 times: children are more likely to die of

pneumonia who are not breastfed 20,000: mothers’ deaths due to breast cancer

can be averted globally of mothers breastfeed for more than a year

3 to 4 points: Increase in IQ, depending on the duration of breastfeeding

Advantages of Breast Feeding For Baby

Promotes psychologic attachment. Facilitates positive bond and self-designed

exclusively for human infants. Nutritionally superior to any alternative Bacteriologically safe and sterile and always

fresh Provide immunity to viral and bacterial

diseases. Stimulates the infants own immunologic

defenses. Decreases risk of respiratory and diarrheal

diseases. Prevents or reduces the risk of allergy Promotes correct development of jaws, teeth

and speech patterns. Decreases tendency toward childhood

obesity. Promotes frequent tender physical contact

with mother. Facilitates maternal-infant attachment.

For Mother

Promotes physiologic recovery from

pregnancy: Promotes uterine involution Decreases risk of postpartum hemorrhage Increases period of postpartum anovulation: Esteem in maternal role Allows for daily rest periods Eliminates need to mix, prepare, use and

wash feeding equipment.

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Saves money to be spent on formula and equipment

Reduces the risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer.

For Society

The nation benefits overall when mothers breastfeed.

Medical care costs are lower for fully breastfed infants than for never-breastfed infants.

Breastfed infants typically need fewer sick

care visits, prescriptions, and hospitalizations.

Breastfeeding also contributes to a more productive workforce because mothers miss less work to care for sick infants.

Employer medical costs are also lower. Breastfeeding is also better for the

environment. There is less trash and plastic waste

compared to that produced by formula cans and bottle supplies.

108. VETERINARY 16340

Animal Breeding Mayur Gopinath Thalkar*

Agronomy Domain, Block-26, Cabin No. 18, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Jalandhar, Punjab - 144411 (India)


Animal Breeding: It is mating of the animals within same breed or different breed. Its having two types

1. Inbreeding: When mating take place within same breed is called in breeding. Its have two types a) Close breeding: Mating of very closely

relegated animals. i) Full brother into full sister ii) Full sire into Full dam iii) Full sire into full daughter iv) Full dam into full son

b) Line breeding: Mating of not very closely relegated animals. In case of cousins is called line breeding i) Half-brother into Half sister ii) Half sire into Half dam iii) Half sire into Half daughter iv) Half dam into Half son v) Advantage vi) Purity into gamete is maintain vii) Unwanted character not develops

into new progeny. viii) New progeny 100% pure as like their

parents. ix) Useful for maintain breed and

characters. x) Disadvantage xi) Developed characters not obtain into

new progeny. xii) New generation have less immunity

power against to disease. xiii) It gets easily suffer from the disease. xiv) New generation have less gain in

weight, less amount of milk, meat, wool and egg production characters.

2. Out breeding: Mating of the outlay related animals is called out breeding. Its having four important type a) Out crossing: Mating of outlay related

animals. b) Crossbreeding: Mating of two different

breed is called crossbreeding. Its have four type:

i) Test cross: When f1 breed cross with recessive parents is called test cross.

ii) Back cross: When f1 progeny cross with any one of its parents.

iii) Triple crossing-: When 3 breed use in breeding programmed and they cross rotational manner (1) Synonyms: Phule triveni (2) Origin: Produces by MPKV,

Rahuri (3) Character: It is cross between

(a) (Holstein frizen 50%, Jersey 25% and Gir 25%)

(b) H.F useful for high milk production,

(c) Jersey for fat and gir for disease resistant power.

(4) Production- Produce 4000 liter milk per annum and milk contain 4% fat is called as triple or rotational crossing.

Phule Triveni

iv) Crisscrossing: When two breed are cross alternate manner like crisscross manner is called as crisscrossing.

v) Grading up: Mating of the pure breed sire with non- descript female generation after generation so that

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characters of the animals get improved is called grading up

Sl.no Generation % of the characters

1 F1 50%

2 F2 75%

3 F3 87.50%

4 F4 93.12%

5 F5 96.57%

6 F6 98.12%

7 F7 99.12%

8 F8 99.50%

vi) Hybridization: Mating of two different species which produce hybrid is called hybridization. (1) Jack into Mayer = Mule (2) Cattle into buffalo=Cattalo (3) Zebra into Horse = Zebroid

Advantage and Disadvantage of the Out Crossing Methods 1. Developed characters obtain into new

progeny. 2. New generation have more immunity power

against to disease. 3. It gets not easily suffer from the disease. 4. New generation have more gain in weight,

less amount of milk, meat, wool and egg production characters.

Mule

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AGROBIOS (INDIA)Behind Nasrani Cinema, Chopasani Road, Jodhpur - 342 003Ph.: +91-291-2643993; 2642319E.Mail: [email protected]; Website: agrobiosonline.com

RNI.: RAJENG/2002/8649 Post Regd. No. Jodhpur/140/2018-2020Date of Posting: 7-8 at R.M.S., Jodhpur

148

Publisher and Owner Dr. Updesh Purohit, Agrobios Newsletter is Published from Agrobios (India), Behind Nasrani Cinema Chopsani Road, Jodhpur and Printed by Manish Kumar at Manak Offset Printers, MGH Road, Jodhpur. Editor Dr. S. S. Purohit

N E W R E L E A S E 2 0 1 7

CONTENTS

1 Visual Diagnosis and Correction of Nutritional Disorders in Crops

2 Essential Elements and their Functions

3 Diagnostic Techniques for Nutritional Disorders

4 Diagnosing, Causes for Deficiencies and Correction

5 Causes for Mineral Deficiencies

6 Corrective – Measures – Techniques

I Cereals

II Pulses

III Oil Seeds

IV Sugar Crops

V Fibre Crop

VI Narcotics

VII Forages

VIII Physiological Disorders

Glossary

Bibliography

Nutrient Deficiencies andToxicities in Crop Plants:Diagnosis and Correction

G. PathmanabhanR. Sivakumar, S. SanbagavalliS. Saravanan, K. Ganesan

Visit us at: agrobiosonline.comao

ISBN: 978-81-933644-4-4Binding: Hardcover

Pages: 160 + 48 Color PlatesYear: 2017

Size: Royal OctavoRs. 1500.00 / US$ 75.00

ABOUT THE BOOKThe ability to identify deficiencies of plant nutrients before they limit crop yields is a major need in modern agriculture. The ability requires using a combination of diagnostic methods that enable remedial step to be taken before the crop yields are severely reduced. Three main methods of diagnosis may be used: visual deficiency symptoms, soil analyses and leaf tissue analyses. This book presents vast information on foliar diagnosis for managing the nutritional disorders for most of the important agricultural Crops viz., Cereals, Pulses, Oil Seeds, Fiber Crops etc. The book is written from a practical stand point, on the description of deficiency symptoms along with colour photographs associated with specific nutrient deficiencies. The other chapters are devoted to present a brief account on mineral nutrition, uptake processes of plant nutrients, their availability in nature and in soil, their role in plant metabolism. A detailed account of macro and micro nutrients and their management strategies are comprehensively discussed on both the underlying theory and practical application.

Nutrient Deficiencies andToxicities in Crop Plants:Diagnosis and CorrectionG. PathmanabhanR. Sivakumar, S. SanbagavalliS. Saravanan, K. Ganesan

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Documents

Visit us at: agrobiosonline.com