Western Polemic Writings about Muhammad's Prophethood

AdvancesinSocialSciencesResearchJournal–Vol.3,No.5PublicationDate:May.25,2016DoI:10.14738/assrj.35.2001.

Al-Olaqi, F. M. T. (2016). Western Polemic Writings about Muhammad’s Prophethood. Advances in Social Sciences ResearchJournal,3(5)138-156.

Copyright©SocietyforScienceandEducation,UnitedKingdom 138

WesternPolemicWritingsaboutMuhammad'sProphethood

Dr.FahdMohammedTalebAl-OlaqiUniversityofJeddah,Jeddah

Abstract

ThisresearchexaminesthosedistortedpolemicsandoutrightdubietiesaboutProphetMuhammadintheWesternwritings.Theanti-Islamicpolemicalpracticewasuniversal.Manymoreexamplesofsimilarpolemicbiographiescanbefoundinnumeroustextsofthemedievalandearlymodemperiod.TheWesternattitudes toProphetMuhammadfailed to establish sound theoretic basis. The denial phenomenon is the strength intheirargument.TheWesternandChristianpolemicson Islamic issuesdisgrace IslamanditsProphet.Itisonlynewattitudestoresearchdependclearlyontheintentionsofthe researchers. The modern Western trends work on the history of ProphetMuhammadbyavoidinganyfabricatedaccountswhilepreservingthetraditionaldenialattitude. The study identifies the recurring themes of deception,misinformation andmisrepresentation,andconfusionintheWesternlibrary.

Keywords.Muhammad,Islam,Prophethood,Qur'an,Polemicbiography,Sirah.

INTRODUCTION

Western prejudice against Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) is anchored inmisapprehension andmisrepresentationof the life of ProphetMuhammad (Pbuh). The anti-IslamicpropagandadirectedagainsttheProphetistypifiedinpolemicalbiographiesorSirahliterature. These biographies are the worse ever written on Prophet Muhammad. SuchpolemicalworksstandbehindtheWesternTraditionindistortingtheimageoftheProphetarelike John ofDamascus's (d. 750AD)DeHaeresibus, Robert of Ketton's TheKoran (in Latin,1143), JohnLydgate's Fall of thePrincess (c.1440),WilliamBedwellMohammed’s Imposter:That is, A Discovery of the Manifold Forgeries. Falsehood, and horrible impieties of theblasphemous seducer Mohammed: with a demonstration of the insufficiency of his Law,contained in the cursed Alkoran (1615), Isaac Barrow's ‘Of the Impiety and imposture ofPaganism and Mohammedanism’(1675), and Humphrey Prideaux’s ‘The True Nature ofImposture Fully Displayed in the Life of Mahomet’(1697) James Miller’s Mahomet TheImposter (1764), George Sale's The Koran, commonly called the Alcoran of Mohammed:translated into English immediately from the original Arabic (1734), Simon Ockley's TheHistory of the Saracens: Lives of Mohammed and His Successors, Samuel Bush’s Life ofMahomet (1830), David Price’s Chronological Retrospect of Mahommedan History (1811-1821), Charles Mills’ History of Mahommadanism (1820), William Cooke Tylor’s History ofMohammetanism and its Sects (1834), Bosworth Smith'sMohammad andMohammadanism(1874),SirWilliamMuir'sTheLifeofMahomet(1859),WashingtonIrving'sMahometandHisSuccessors(1850),andRichardSouthern’sWesternViewsofIslamintheMiddleAges(1962).TheWesternclaimwasthattheknowledgeofProphetMuhammadaboutthewordofGodwasavailableinChristendomfromaftertheearlyexpansionofIslam.Thetranslationofapolemicalwork by John of Damascus, used the phrase "false prophet" for Prophet Muhammad. ThisdistortedimageofProphetMuhammadwasmadetoseemunpleasanttotheWesternpeople(Daniel, 1993: 264). This created a general attitude among those who had no personalknowledge of Muslims. This suspicion was inevitable in the circumstances of

AdvancesinSocialSciencesResearchJournal(ASSRJ) Vol.3,Issue5May-2016


misunderstanding.Itwaschallengingtolaunchscholarshipuponafoundationofignorance,toestablish understanding in thoughts designed among inherited prejudice and suspicion. TheMedieval European writings viewed Islam as ‘heresy', Muslims as ‘Infidels’, and ProphetMohammadas‘arenegadecleric’.ThesewritingsaboutthebiographyofIslamanditsProphetMuhammadhadnotbeenassembledacademicallyengagingin(oftenpolemical)comparativereligiousissueswithrepresentativesofotherfaiths.ThepiousandlearnedreaderisgoingtobeeffectivelyandfullycondemningIslam.AsNormanDaniel, aBritisheminenthistorianatEdinburghUniversity, states inhiswork Islamand theWest:"Theuseof falseevidencetoattackIslamwasallbutuniversal . . ." (p.267).SincethelightofdivinityspreadworldwidewiththemissionofProphetMuhammad,theWestlooksatProphet Muhammad as a challenge to fight him with a scholarship or without it. ManyChristianpeopleandothersfromdifferentreligionsembracedIslaminahundredyears.Thisconversion became a big challenge to Christendom. From the seventh century on, the anti-Islam polemics startedwith John of Damascus to themodern day RobertMorey, very littlethinkinghasbeenchangedas faras thecontent is concerned.Westernprejudiceagainst theProphetMuhammadisanchoredinmisapprehensionandmisrepresentation.The image of Prophet Muhammad was distorted in the eyes of the Western peoples. TherefutationaltraditionoftheChurchmensuchasPetertheVenerablebroughtthemtostudyofIslam after completing polemic analyses. Some British academicians show betterunderstanding of Islam and ProphetMuhammad (Pbuh). Authentic information about Islamand theProphetwas brought to theWest through the traveler’s exploration ofMakkah andMadinah. Some books are of Henry Stubbe's An Account of the Rise and Progress ofMahometanismwiththeLifeofMahometandaVindicationofHimandHisReligionfromtheCalumniesof theChristians (1671). JamesSilkBuckingham’sTravelsamong theArabTribesInhabiting theCountriesEast of Syria andPalestine (1825), SirWilliamOduseleyTravels inVariousCountriesoftheEast(1819-1823),RobertBurton’sPersonalNarrativePilgrimagetoMeccah and Madina (1893), Godfrey Higgins’ An Apology for the Life and Character of theCelebratedProphetofArabiacalledMohamed,ortheIllustrious(1829),NormanDaniel’sIslamand theWest:TheMakingofan Image (1960);DavidSamuelMargoliouth'sMuhammadandtheRiseof Islam (1905), andWilliamMontgomeryWatt'sMuhammadatMecca (1953), andMuhammad atMedina, (1956). They examined the Islamic sources and acknowledged theirknowledge. Furthermore, Patricia Crone wrote Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (1987)aboutthetradeinArabia.SheapprovesofmanyreferencestoimpeccableMuslimauthorities(114).Infact, inhiscalltoIslam,theProphetinformedearlyChristiansandJewsinMadinahthathehadcometotestifyJesusandMoses.AllahtheAlmightysays, ‘Say!(OMuhammad)Ifyou love God then follow me; God will love you and will forgive your sins; Indeed God isForgivingandMerciful’(TheGloriousQur’ān,3:31).AlthoughheprovesthatJesuswasneitheragodnorpartofGodtheAlmighty;hewasanelectMessengerofGod(TheGloriousQur’ān,5:115-118).Islammeans“submissiontoGod”.IslamisthebeliefthatthereisonlyOneGod,whosepropername isAllah,whichmeans “theGod”. Islam is the samemessage given to all the prophets,from Adam, Noah, Moses, Abraham, Jesus, and finally to the Prophet Muhammad, the lastmessenger(peaceandblessingsbeuponthem).Theyallbroughtthesamemessage:worshiponly God, and stop worshipping human beings and their ideas. Conversion to Islam wasoptionalasitprovidedaneffectiveplatformfromwhichIslamanalysesthepreviousChristian,

Al-Olaqi,F.M.T.(2016).WesternPolemicWritingsaboutMuhammad’sProphethood.AdvancesinSocialSciencesResearchJournal,3(5)138-156.

URL:http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.35.2001. 140

Jewishandpagantraditions.Atthemaintime,particularlyasIslamicteachingspossessawell-developedpolemicalandapologeticliterarytradition.NormanDanielwrites:Throughout thenear fourteen centuriesof Islam,Christianshavedefended their faith in theTrinityandIncarnationfromMuslimattack;andtheyhaveinturnattackedIslamforacceptingthe claim of Muhammad to be the vehicle of Revelation, chiefly on the grounds that hischaractermade it impossible reasonably to do so. Finally they have had to decide upon theadmixture of truth and error: how to-estimate its value, how to allow for the error, how tobalancejudgementuponthesignificanceofeach,andhowtoassessthefinalresult.Inrespectofthesepointsthemediaevalconceptprovedextremelydurable;thisoutlineofitisstillapartoftheculturalinheritanceoftheWestto-day(Daniel,1993:275).Thisbroadanti-Islampolemicsweredestructiveinitsassessmentswithadifferenttoneduetomore or less political and hypothetical reasons. The purpose, that the biography of ProphetMuhammadistakensolittleintoaccountinWesternresearch,delaystheprogressofahealthyinterpretation on this subject. The prefatory remarks demonstrate the ways in which anobjectiveapproachordiscussionof Islamand itsProphetwassimplynotpossible,whentheavailablemodels for analysis existing in theWest were rooted in centuries of exegetic andpolemic tradition. For instance, Western researchers, like Watt, argue on the falsehood ofIslam.HeclaimsthattheProphetMuhammadhadfullknowledgeofJudaism.Hewassuccessfulinreviving JudaisminanewformcalledIslam.Wattconsidersthat throughoutmonotheism,Islam becomesmuch Jewish than the Judaism. Indeed, the Jewish people althoughmany ofthem realized the mission of Muhammad (Pbuh), declined to embrace Islam because theysought thisprophet tobea Jew.TheNobleQur’ānnotesonsuchbehaviorof the Jews in thesubsequentverse:

"Andwhen the Bookwas sent to them by God verifyingwhat had been revealed tothemalreadyeventhoughbeforeittheyusedtoprayforvictoryovertheunbelieversandeventhoughtheyrecognizeditwhenitcametothem,theyrenouncedit.ThecurseofGodbeonthosewhodeny!"(TheGloriousQur’ān,2:89)

Often mediaeval arguments against Islamwhich were capable of being applied against anyreligionwerenowusedagainstChristianity(Daniel,1993:288).IntheMiddleAges,Islamwasalways related to the effective exposition anddefence of the faith of Christ. Therewas littleacademic interest in a subject for its own sake but the polemic purpose failed. Medievalattitudeswereallhomogenous.TheChristianharangueswerealert.ThereforemanyWesternwritersmisunderstood theProphethoodofMuhammad.Theearliest identifiable rootsof thetradition of the polemic biography of Muhammad can be found in the orthodox Christiancommunitywhichwhereundertheinfluenceofthework“TheHeresyoftheIshmaelites”JohnofDamascus (known inArabicYanah ibnMansur ibnSargun).Theworkconfronts Islam—aheresy according to John—with respect to essential dissimilarities between Christians andMuslims regarding the divinity of Christ, the dogma of the Trinity and the authenticity ofMuhammad’sProphethoodandrevelation.ThisworkofJohnofDamascusconstitutesthesumofhispolemicconceivedanti-Islamicpolemicasessentiallyinterwoven.

MEDIAEVALANTI-ISLAMICPOLEMICBIOGRAPHYTheMediaeval Europeanwritings about the biography of Islamand its ProphetMuhammadhadnotbeenassembledacademically.ManyCatholictheologianshaddismissedIslam“asthesummitofallheresy”(Jefferson,47).Intheirviews,theQur’ān,Islam’sholybook,wasnothingbutamererepetitionoftheBible,anditsclaimofnewdivineoriginfromGodwasaformof“blasphemy” (Jefferson, 16). European scholars have long endeavoured to describe theQur’ān'smaterial on Christianitywith reference to the interpretations of Christian heretics.



The prototypical work of the Christian heresies influenced Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh). ItbecameaWesternthemeofOrientalistscholarshiponstudyingthelifeofProphetMuhammadandtheQur’ān.Thisthemeisaverymisrepresentativeviewofreligion,becausereligionisnottheresultofignorance,ornotknowingtheanswerstotoughquestions.Islamicreligionistheverybasisthatprovidesgood,coherent,andlogicalanswerstokeyquestions.Forinstance,theQur’ānitselfpointstohumansurroundingsandthewaythingsworkasasignofGod:

“ItisHewhosendsdownwaterfromthesky.Fromityoudrinkandfromitcometheshrubsamongwhichyougrazeyourherds.AndbyitHemakescropsgrowforyouandolivesanddatesandgrapesandfruitofeverykind.Thereiniscertainlyasigninthatforpeoplewhoreflect.Hehasmadethenightandthedaysubservienttoyou,andthesun,themoonandthestars,allsubjecttoHiscommand.Thereinarecertainlysignsinthat forpeoplewhousetheir intellect. Andalso,thethingsofvaryingcolorsHehascreatedforyouintheearth.Thereiscertainlyasigninthatforpeoplewhopayheed.ItisHewhomadetheseasubservienttoyousothatyoucaneatfreshfleshfromitandbringoutfromitornamentstowear.Andyouseetheshipscleavingthroughitsothatyoucan seekHisbounty,and so thatperhapsyoumay show thanks. Hecast firmlyembedded mountains on the earth so it would not move under you, and rivers,pathways,andlandmarkssothatperhapsyoumightbeguided.Andtheyareguidedby the stars. Is HeWho creates like himwho does not create? Owill you not payheed?”(TheGloriousQur’ān,16:10-17)

Islam is free of the blasphemy. The profoundest truth is in both the Christian and Islamictraditions.Theaestheticargumentfinallycomesdowntothis:onceonehashadatasteoftheexquisite beauty and charm of the Islamic theological tradition, one can hardly imagine notengaging it further (Cragg, 276-95). Cragg viewed Islam as a sum of all Christian heresies.AccordingtoPeter,MohammedhimselfhadbeentaughtbyaNestorianmonknamedSergiuswho “made him a Nestorian Christian,” and Mohammed’s teaching was a mish-mash ofSabellianism,Nestorianism,Manicheanism,and Judaism.False teachingwasbadenough,butPeter was equally concerned with Muslim practice. Even if, as Peter concedes, the Qur’ānrecords truths about the prophets and Jesus, Muslims reject the sacraments, which aresomethingthat“noonebesidesthesehereticseverdid”(Kritzeck,129-136).TheMediaevalChristianwritingsonthelifeofProphetMuhammadwerewritteninLatinandafewwere in English such as Jacob de Voraigne’s Golden Legend (c.1260), RanulphHigden’sPolychronicon(c.1442-4),WilliamLangland’sPiersPlowmanandtheanonymousMandeville’sTravels (both late fourteenth century). These texts were produced in at least one editionduringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.Inmedievalpolemicbiographiesithadalwaysbeen essential in establishing the life ofMuhammad as ‘an essential disproof of the Islamicclaim to revelation’ (Daniel, 1993: 100). Any sample of seventeenth-century opinion showspolemic continuity. There was a sensible diminution of bias, which showed in WilliamLithingdow'sstrictlyscientificenquiryintothephenomenaoftravel.LithingdowclaimsthathesawtheProphet'sgraveinMecca.The impression of the destined role of Islam in punishing Christian sinswas popular in theChristianWest.TheriseofIslaminPalestineandthefailureofthecrusadesandthenthefallofConstantinople by the forces ofMehmet II in 1453were dominated by theological concerns‘detectedscourgesofGodeverywhere’(Patrides,126-135).Thisarticleprovidesadetailed.Itwas readby theearlymodernwritersas anoverviewof IslamasapunishmentofGod.The



earlymodernprovidentialistvisionof thesuccessof theTurkswasasGod’spunishment forChristian sin. Although Christian mediaeval writers wrote was in fact divorced from therealitiesofcontroversy,itcontainedanumberofwarningsaboutwhatProphetMuhammad'steachingsabout,sothatrealencounterwiththemwouldhavehaditssurprises,butwouldnothavehadonlysurprises.TheChristianMediaevalpointsofviewaremostalikeliesinthefactthattheystudyIslamselectively,ratherthaninpursuitofanabstractandjudicialassessment(Daniel,1993:303).TheattitudesofsomeChristianswhocouldappreciateIslamicvirtuesandarguethatMuslimstooktheirreligionmoreseriouslythantheChristiansdid,orthatMuslimsfastedandgavetothe poor more rigorously than the Christians did (Taylor, 154). It is worth nothing thatAbraham’sGeiger’s“WhatdidMuhammadAcquirefromJudaism?”(1833), isnotparticularlyinterested in the idea that heretical, or better, non-Rabbinic (or otherwise non-standard)Jewish sectsmight have found theirway toArabia and influencedMuhammad. C.Rabin, forexample, argues: “To sumup, there canbe littledoubt thatMuhammadhad Jewish contactsbeforecomingtoMedina;itishighlyprobablethattheywereheretical,anti-rabbinicJews;anda number of terminological and ideological details suggest the Qumran sect” (Rabin, 128).During the Early Middle Ages, the Christian world largely viewed Islam as a ChristologicalheresyandMuhammadasafalseprophet.BytheLateMiddleAges,Islamwasmoretypicallygroupedwith heathenismandMuhammadviewed as inspiredby the devil. In the article onIslamfortheEncyclopædiaBritannica,FazlurRahmannoteshowtheMuslimconceptofGodrelatestothereligiouscontextinwhichthefaitharose:

ThispictureofGod-whereintheattributesofpower,justice,andmercyinterpenetrate-is related to the Judeo-Christian tradition, whence it is derived with certainmodifications, and also to the concepts of pagan Arabia, to which it provided aneffectiveanswer.ThepaganArabsbelievedinablindandinexorablefateoverwhichman had no control. For this powerful but insensible fate the Qur’ān substituted apowerful but provident and merciful God. {In "Islam." Encyclopædia Britannica(EncyclopædiaBritannicaPremiumService,2004).}

TheWestern twelfth century attitude toward the Saracen becamemore belligerent (Daniel,1979: 114–15). The stereotype of the Saracen as a heretic or enemy of the faith that waspromulgatedbyWesternwriterslikeGuibertofNogent,PetertheVenerable,RobertofKetton,and, especially the authors of the chansons de geste, first found expression in the earlyeleventh-centuryworksofAdemarofChabannes(ca.989–1034). Forinstance,intheFrenchsongs chansons de geste (1150–1250) Saracens are portrayed as idolaters who practicedperverserites,blasphemedtheChristianGod,andworshippedthegodsMuhammad,Apollyon,and Termagant. Although faring better in learnedworks, the Saracen remains the focus ofWesternpolemic.Manycommentators includeslanderousaccountsof the lifeofMuhammadandvehementdenunciationsoftheQurdanandIslamintheirworks(Daniel,1979:235–40).GuibertofNogentprovidesaparticularlygoodexampleofthegrowinghostilitytowardIslam.InhishistoryoftheFirstCrusade,GuibertprovidesthemostscandalousaccountofthelifeofMuhammad,declaring“itissafetospeakevilofonewhosemalignityexceedswhateverillcanbe spoken” (Southern, 31). Even Peter the Venerable, who provided one of the mostenlightenedapproachestoIslam,identifiestheSaracenasahereticandprecursorofAntichrist.Indeed,learnedandpopularwritersdevelopedtheimageoftheSaracenasenemytojustifythecrusadesandexpresstheirownreligiousfervor(Jones,202–203).ThethirteenthcenturyEuropeanbiographerscompletedtheirworkonthelifeofMuhammadina seriesofworksby scholars suchasPedroPascual,RicoldodeMonteCroce, andRamon



Llull in which Muhammad was depicted as an Antichrist while Islam was shown to be aChristian heresy. For instance, in depicting the Islamic rituals by Christians, the Saracen,accordingtoAdemar,doesnotmerelyrejectChristianteachingbutalsomocksitbyparodyingChristianrites.Thus,withhisscandalousportrayalofIslamicritualAdemarfurtherseparatesthe Saracen from the community of the Christian faithful. In fact, those churchmen andMedieval scholarsheld that Islamwas theworkofMuhammadwho in turnwas inspiredbySatan. Muhammad was frequently calumniated and made a subject of legends taught bypreachersas fact.Forexample, inorder toshowthatMuhammadwas theanti-Christ, itwasasserted thatMuhammaddiednot in the year 632but in the year 666 – thenumber of thebeast – in anothervariationon the theme thenumber "666"wasalsoused to represent theperiod of timeMuslimswould hold sway of the land (Setton, 4-15). A verbal expression ofChristiancontemptforIslamwasexpressedinturninghisnamefromMuhammadtoMahound,the "devil incarnate" (Reeves, p.3). Others usually confirmed to pious Christians thatMuhammadhadcometoabadend(Reeves,1-5).Accordingtooneversionafterfallingintoadrunkenstuporhehadbeeneatenbyaherdofswine,andthiswasascribedasthereasonwhyMuslimsproscribedconsumptionofalcoholandpork(Reeves,1-5).Inanotheraccountofthealcohol ban, Muhammad learns about the Bible from a Jew and a heretical Arian monk.Muhammadandthemonkgetdrunkandfallasleep.TheJewkillsthemonkwithMuhammad'ssword.HethenblamesMuhammad,who,believinghehascommittedthecrimeinadrunkenrage,bansalcohol(Bushkovich,128).ItisnotthatLullwasdeceitful,butthatthecapacityforself-delusion is infinite. He and all his predecessors who were addicted to the TrinitarianargumentinitsmorerationalistformsshownosuspicionthatitwasinadequateforanybutaChristianaudience.TheWestern people find themselves drawn to Islam, because the attraction of a faith oftenpopularly misconstrued as representing a hostile and alien culture in an increasinglysecularised society (Poole 2002; Fetzer and Soper 2003; Asad 2002). Englishmen oftentravelledtoSpaininordertostudyatthegreatcentresoflearninglikeCordoba,andwitnessedfirst-handthe‘culturalsuperiority’oftheMuslimsthere,whichmusthaveleftsomemarkuponthem(Daniel1979:273).Asearlyasthe8thcentury,KingOffa,theAngloSaxonKingofMercia(d. 796) ordered theminting of a coin inscribedwith the Arabic words ‘la ilaha illa-Allahuwahdahu la shareeka lahu’; there is no god except Allah and He has no partner (Carlyon-Britton1908:55-7).ThecrusadesledtoaprofoundermisunderstandingofIslamintheWest.Thecrusademovementcontinuedformanycenturies,Muslimcommunitieswereforthefirsttime brought under Western rule. The Western people had the opportunity of prolongedcontact with them in the newly conquered territories. One consequence of this was that itbecamepossible forWesternCatholics toobtainamoreaccuratepictureof the Islamic faith(France,247-57).SomeWesterntheologianssoughttobecomebetterinformedaboutthefaithofIslam.Althoughtheyobtainedagooddealofhighqualityinformation,understandingofthefaitheludedthembythatroute.However,thegreaterdegreeofcontactwithMuslimsandtheircivilizationwhich thecrusadesproducedresulted inagrowthofrespect forsome individualMuslimsandawidespreadadmirationforsomeaspectsoftheirculture.TravelerslikeMarcoPolo’sTravels(1298),intheMiddleEastwereoftenimpressedwiththekindness,generosity,strictness, and honesty of Muslim culture, while they were offended by the call to prayer,Muslimmarriagepractices,andtheMuslimrejectionoflifelongasceticismandcelibacy.Ontheotherhand,Westerners’travelsinArabiagottheWesttolearnmoreaboutIslamandProphetMuhammad (Pbuh). European travelers like Zen, JohnCabot, Pero de Covilha, VonHarff, DaSilveira,DaQuadraand laterFranciscoAlvarezmadetravel toArabiaandthe Islamicworld.They claimed seeing ‘Mohammed’s tomb at Mecca’ (Beckingham, 158). For example,



Mandeville explains that Prophet Muhammad prohibited the drinking of wine after he hadslaughteredaChristianhermitwhilebeingdrunk(Oueijan,11-12).Thosemedieval treatments of Islam find little favour today, even amongChristians, yet as apurely historical matter, the medieval accounts have some points in their favor. ThatMohammed had contact with a Syrian monk is mentioned in the hadith, collections ofMohammed’swordsandactionsthatserveformostMuslimsasasecondsourceofauthorityalongside the Qur’ān (Sahas, John of Damascus, p. 73). As Sahas points out, the monk’sprophecy was frequently used by Muslim apologists to rebut the claim that Mohammed’spropheticministryhadnotbeenannounced(Netton,112).AnditisclearthatMohammedhadwidercontactwithChristians.Oneof thekey themesof theQur’ān isadenialof theTrinity,sinceitis“farfromhisglory”forAllah“tobegetason”(Kritzeck,144-145). Ithasapolemicvalue, rather than one purely for edification. It might most reasonably edify a Christian tounderstandthegreatpraiseofChristthatthereisintheQur’ān.Islam’saccountofhistoryhasaplace for Jesus and Christianity. To be sure, the Jesus of Islam is not the Jesus of the NewTestament:HeisnotthedivineSonincarnate,Hewasnotcrucifiedandraised(TheGloriousQur’ān,4.157),andheisnotreigningattheFather’srighthand.Ofcourse,IslamicrejectionoftheChristiangospelsas‘corrupted’wouldhavebeenanathematoChristianwriters.ManyintheWesternmedievalworldbelievedthatMuhammadhimselfhadapostatizedfromChristianity, and someevenbelievedhehadoncebeena cardinal (Singleton, vol.2,503). Inthesereligiouspolemics, incidentally, IslamictheologiansweregenerallyhandicappedbythefactthatJesusandMosesarerepeatedlyandreverentiallymentionedintheQur’ān,andMaryhasawholechapterofIslam’sholybooknamedafterher.ThusMoses,Jesus,andMarycouldnot be subjected to nasty attacks similar to those hurled at Islam and ProphetMohammad(Pbuh). Prophet Muhammad was sent to reconcile Moses and Jesus. Islam was and is areasonable religion and Prophet Muhammad was and is admirable like Abraham or Jesus.Muhammad's role as the final prophet of God was to confirm the authentic teachings ofprevious prophets and to rectify mistakes or innovations that followers of previousmonotheistic faith traditions had introduced into the original religion of humankind.Muhammad isalsoviewedas theconduit for thecompletionofGod'sguidance tohumanity;thescopeofhismissionisseenasencompassingallpeople,ratherthanaspecificregion,grouporcommunity.Furthermore,his lifeservesasaperfectmodelofhowtopractice Islamfully.Allah,theAlmighty,says:"Wehavesentyouforthtoallhumankind,sothatyoumaygivethemgoodnewsandwarnthem."(TheGloriousQur’ān,34:28).ForMuslims,theQur’ānisthustheWordor SpeechofGod, andProphetMuhammad's teachings are instructedbyGodHimself.Allah theAlmighty says, "Andmost certainly, thou (OMuhammad) are ofmost sublime andexaltedcharacter"(TheGloriousQur’ān,68:4).Andsays:“VerilyinthemessengerofAllahyehaveagoodexampleforhimwholookethuntoAllahandtheLastDay,andrememberethAllahmuch”(TheGloriousQur’ān33:21).Many English students graduated from schools and universities of Muslim Spain and Sicily.AmongthemwerefamousscholarsasRogerBacon(1214-92),WilliamofMalmesburg(1090-1143), John of Salisbury (1115-1180), Thomas of Erceldoune (1220-1297), Mathew Paris(1195-1259) andRanulfHigden (1300-1364) aswell as JohnErigena (810-877). TheydrewtheMedievalTraditiontoattackonMuhammad'sProphethoodwasworkedoutingreatdetail.The creationof a legendofhis lifewasan importantpartof anti-Islamicpolemicandof theChristianapproachtoIslam.Forinstance,thenotionofMuhammadnotonlyasafalseprophet,butasagodoridoltobeworshipped,foundregularlyinchansonsdegeste,notunexpectedlyreappears in many Italian texts such as Orlando—Muhammad is expressly called false andfallacious. (Falso Malchometto” Orl. VIII, 39, 5; XIX, 7, 1). Prophet Muhammad is called



“Muhammad God” or “Muhammad our god” on several occasions in Pulci’s Morgante(MacomettoIddio”Morg.IV,43,2;VIII,9,6).MuslimidolsareattimescalledJupiter,Apollo,orMahomet; chroniclers of the First Crusade occasionally refer to their adversaries as“Mahummicolae”: “Muhammad-worshippers.” Therefore, the terms “Muslim,” “Islam,” andtheirequivalentsareneverused.RaouldeCaenwrotehisGestaTancredi,inmixedproseandverse, sometime between Tancred’s death in 1112 and Raoul’s before 1131. Raoul glorifies(andexaggerates)Tancred’smilitaryachievementsduringandaftertheFirstCrusade.The fact is ignored. Prophet Muhammad himself abolished the idol-worship that he found(Daniel,1993:205).TherewasnopolemicpurposetosayanythingonidolworshippingsincetheQur’ānic condemns it. Such remarks onArab idolatrymay have beenmisunderstood bycarelesswriters. St JohnofDamascus relates that therewas such a stone,without assertingthatMuhammaddidnothave itdestroyed; thenaturalway tounderstandhis textwouldbethat pagan worship had ended (Daniel, 1993: 312). On the other hand, the MessengerMuhammad(Pbuh)alsosaid:“theinkofthescholarismoreholythanthebloodofthemartyr”andhe encouragedhis disciples to seek knowledge as far as China, if necessary (AmeerAli,361).MoreoverWattcallsforacompleterejectionofthemedievalchargesof"imposter"and"liar" levelled againstMuhammad explaining that contemporary sound scholarship does notacceptsuchfrivolouschargesanymore.ProphetMuhammad'sprovensincerityleavesnoroomtoquestion the fact thathewasable todiscriminate the revelation fromhisotheractivities.Watt'sdescriptionofMuhammadintroducesavariantfromthetraditionalimageintheWest,heemphasizes:

Hisreadinesstoundergopersecutionsforhisbeliefs,thehighmoralcharacterofthemenwho believed in him and looked up to him as leader, and the greatness of hisultimateachievement-allarguehisfundamentalintegrity.TosupposeMuhammadanimpostorraisesmoreproblemsthan it solves.Moreover,noneof thegreat figuresofhistoryissopoorlyappreciatedintheWestasMuhammad(9).

The lack of interest in Islamic religious practicemarks the failure to recognise any kind ofspiritual life in Islam; but this does not apply evenly to all aspects, and it is not that theauthentic Islamic accent in religion was wholly unfamiliar. As an alternative of a positiveargument,ChristiansthoughtthatMuhammadhadtaughthisfollowersmoreandgreaterevilthings. Thepoint is that therewas in theWest someknowledge that Islamwas a systemofpositive requirements, and not only a series of relaxations (Daniel, 1993: 203). Praise ofMuslimpractice,toshameChristians,equallywithattemptstodescribeIslamicmorals,madeitclear that tosomeextent IslamandChristianitydrewuponacommonstockofprecepts.Forinstance,theSaracenswereaccusedofthedishonouredpracticebyturningtheChristianriteofprayerupsidedownandindulgeinaritualanalkiss.Islam affirms the existence of a universal bond that unites all humans. The Glorious Qur’ānaddressesitselftoallhumanitysaying(IV:1):“Omankind!BecarefulofyourdutytoyourLordWhocreatedyoufromasinglesoul(nafs)andfromitcreateditsmateandfromthemtwainhathspreadabroadamultitudeofmenandwomen.”Thisversereferstotheunityofmankindandtoitsdiversity.AllhumansareseenasthechildrenofGodsincetheyoriginatedfromthesamesoul(Steigerwald,207).IntheearlytimesoftheProphethoodofMuhammadtheMeccanmerchantsdisbelievedandcontemptthesimplicityofthepoorProphet.ProphetMuhammadand his followers experienced the usual ups and downs of warfare. "As a paradigmaticpersonality, Muhammad has important lessons not only for Muslims, but also for Western



people. His lifewas a jihad: aswe shall see, thisword does notmean "holywar", itmeans"struggle".Muhammadliterallysweatedwiththeefforttobringpeacetowar-tornArabia,andweneedpeoplewho are prepared to do this today.His lifewas a tireless campaign againstgreed,injustice,andarrogance"(Armstrong,2006:7).Peter’stranslationoftheholyQur’ānwasbackedbypolemicpurpose.IanJenkinsremarksonthepurposesofPetertheVenerableandthecommissioningofthefirstWesterntranslationofthe Qur’ān in 1143, the investigation of Islamic material, and in particular the Qur’ān, hadgenerally been intended to serve two purposes: firstly to facilitate the conversion of the‘infidel’throughdisputationand,secondly,toprovidewarningsandhomileticmaterialaimedatdeterring the faithful fromconversionand to inculcate ahostile andanathematic attitudetowardsIslamintheaudienceorreadership.Inearlymodemefforts,usuallypurportedtobeaimedatachievingandcommunicatingamoreaccuratepictureofthebeliefsofMuslims,thisdualpurposecontinued tohold true,although theambition towardsconversionbecame lessprominent, perhaps suggesting a more realistic assessment of the direction in whichconversions tended to happen and of the limited possibilities, given the balance of powerbetweenEastandWest,whichexistedtoconvertMuslimstotheChristianfaith.In thehistoryofProphetMuhammad(Pbuh), theMeccanpaganspersecuted theProphet forhis call to Islam.Aswell the lawlessness of thedesert nomadwas tough to bring creativity.IslamwasaperfectrevelationtoMuhammad(Pbuh).TheprovidenceofGodwasbehindhimand the documentation of the Islamic revelation. Daniel states that "the world situation inMuhammad'sdaywasbetterdocumentedandunderstoodthanthatintheArabianPeninsula"(Daniel,1993:80).TheQur’ānisofGodwhosays:

WebelieveinAllah,inwhathasbeenrevealedtous,whatwasrevealedtoAbraham,Isma’il [Ishmael], Ishaq [Isaac], Jacob and the Tribes, and inwhatwas imparted toMoses, Jesusand theotherprophets fromtheirLord,makingnodistinctionbetweenanyofthem,andtoHimwesubmit(TheGloriousQur’ān,2:135).

ThecontrastbetweenMuhammadandChrist,thethoughtofMuhammadasafalseChrist,wereoftenpresent inChristianminds (Daniel, 1993:87).TheWesternWritersdealtwith Islamicevents as legends, fables and myths. As well as authentically Islamic legend, some genuinehistorywasrecounted(Steigerwald,176).ProphetMuhammadplaysamajorroleintheDivinequest;heistheUniversalMan,thePerfectHumanBeing,thetotaltheophanyofDivineNames,theprototypeofcreation.MuhammadistheLogos“DivineWord,”whoselightwasmanifestedinaparticular aspect in eachofprecedingProphets (Abraham,Moses, Jesus).Muhammad isthe best example of the perfect spiritual realization. The notion of union does not meanbecomingonewithGod,butthemysticmustrealizethealreadyexistingfactthatheisonewithGodsinceGodisImmanent.TheWesternmanifest falsityaccountonIslamand itsProphet isa traditionneverends.TheWesternwritingsaboutProphetMuhammadcontainlittleinformationthatitwouldhavebeenaltogetherhopelesstomaintainasignificantattentiontohislifeintheWesternpublicdebate.TreatmentandsubstanceintheWesternwritingsaboutProphetMuhammadaretraditionallyChristian,butitischaracteristicallyWesterninpresentation.TheWesternaudienceisunableto make better understanding of Islam and its Prophet. They become left neutral or evensensitive. Chronological research discipline of the life of Prophet Muhammad is ofcomparatively ongoing growth. The European strange and remote societies are onreconstruction of the Prophet's biography or Sirah research and work on a sympathetic



exploration of Christian beliefs. Mediaeval society did not achieve a better knowledge andunderstandingofSirah.

EARLYMODERNWESTERNUNDERSTANDINGOFISLAMThe earlymodernWestern viewof the biography of ProphetMuhammadmerelymasks theancienttradition.ToexaminetotallytheattitudeofanyagetowardsProphetMuhammad,thedistanceisverycloseofthoseoftheMedievaltraditioninthetwocenturiesbefore1150.ManyearlymodernWesternwriterswere certainly aware of the arguments against Islam and itsProphet Muhammad (Pbuh), most of them originating in Europe at the time. Europeanevangelists gave their attention in examining Islam and Prophet Muhammad's biographychiefly to Christians, Latin orOriental, living under Islamic rule, rather than to theMuslimsthemselves. For centuries, most Christian theologians refused to even accept Islam as anAbrahamic religion– they stubbornly refused to callMuslimsby their chosenname, insteadinsistingonlabellingthemas“Mahometans”orsomeotheriterationofProphetMuhammad’sname. Saracens, another pejorative used to refer toMuslims, was also commonly used andessentiallyequatedallMuslimswithArabs.Some early modern Western writers permanently seem to display independent judgementmostwhentheyaretalkingofauthenticencountersandleastwhentheyarguetheory,dogma,orthelifeofMuhammad(Pbuh).Therefore,NormanDanielinIslamandtheWestcalledthatkindofbiographyofProphetMuhammadas ‘polemicbiography,’a formofanti-hagiography,which represented theprophetof Islamas adeceptive, violent and sexually aberrant figure.ThepolemicbiographiesofMuhammad (Pbuh),withinearlymodemwritingson the Islamicworld,remainedanessentialcomponentintherefutationofthebeliefsofMuslimsandinthedepictionofthebehavioursofMuslimsthroughtherepresentationofMuhammadastherootof theirmanyperceivedvices.Thepolemicbiographyand the form found in thechansondegeste, medieval romances and miracle plays, which represented him as a pagan deity,constitute the twomajor tropes of representing Muhammad in medieval and early modemtexts.Throughout theperiod that this thesisexamines, these twoapproaches toMuhammadparadoxicallycoexisted,althoughitwasthesub-genreofthepolemicbiography,includedasitwas in amultitude of texts across genres, which would eventually constitute the dominantdiscourse inrelation toMuhammadduring theearlymodemperiodandwhichwill formthefocusofthisinvestigation.The polemic biography found in theological works, histories and travel writings. Themythologies contained in the polemic biographies, regarding the perceived nature ofMuhammad’s life, personality, behaviours, teachings and cultural and religious background,functioninthehistoryofWesternrepresentationsofIslamandinanti-Islamicpolemicastherootsofall Islamicbelief,andtogreatextentas the foundationalmatter forconstructingthe‘nature’ ofMuslims. During themedieval and earlymodemperiods the attempt to discreditMuhammad(Pbuh),throughtheproductionofthescurrilouslegendscontainedinthepolemicbiographies,constitutedacentraltechniqueinthecritiqueofthereligionofIslam,itsculturesandbelievers.Rossreinforcesthe ideaof Islamasareligionofviolenceandof itsspreadthroughconquestandcompulsionofthevanquished,anideawhichwillbediscussedatgreaterlengthinalatersectionofthisthesis.RossevengoesontostatethatMuslimsthemselvesareunabletofindanyother justification for their faith aside from a providential argument based on expansionthroughconquest,describinghow:



[...] the greatestDoctors of their Religion have never alleged anything for the truththereof; but the success of their Wars, and greatness of their Empire, than whichnothingismorefallacious: forthatwhichbothinformer,andthese latterAgeshathbeencommontothebadwiththegood,cannotbeacertainevidenceofthejusticeofaCause,orthetruthofReligion.(Ibid.,Sig.A3).

Renaissance writings of the history of the Prophet seem extremely indebted to mediaevalprototypes.IntheChristiantheological‘deformity’ofProphetMuhammadasthe‘Imposter’isadistortedimage.InhisintroductiontohisQur’ān,RossgoesfurtherandattributestoProphetMuhammad physical deformity in the form of a scabrous (‘scald’) head caused by scurvy(‘scurf).RosspossiblyderivedhisdescriptionoftheprophetfromGeorgeSandysRelationofaJourney,whodescribesMuhammad(Pbuh)inthefollowingterms:

Meane of stature hewas, & evill proportioned: having ever a scald head,which (assome say) made him wear a white shash continually; now worn by his sectaries(Sandys,53).

ThedescriptionhasSandysmaking the incrediblesuggestion that thewearingof turbansbyMuslimsoriginatesintheemulationofProphetMuhammad’suseofawhitesashtocoverhisdiseased scalp. The connection between physical deformity, disease and spiritual andmoralturpitudewasacommononeinmedievalandrenaissancewritings,andalthoughlittlementionwas made of Prophet Muhammad’s appearance in the polemic biographies, many includedreferencestoProphetMuhammadasanepileptic(withallitscontemporaryassociationswithdemonic possession) or as being otherwise diseased through his dissolute lifestyle. Inintroducing the topic of Islam in The Preachers Travels (1611), in the context of describingArabiansociety,JohnCartwrightobservesthat:

[...]itshallnotbeamissetoinsertawordortwo,ofMahometandhissuperstition,whowasborne in this country,andhath seduced thegreatestpartof theworldwithhisabominablereligion(Cartwright,105).

Once again Cartwright sets up an oppositional approach to the subject of Islam, and alsodemonstrates the trope of ProphetMuhammad as ‘seducer’whichwas so often repeated inearlymodemtexts.TheattitudeofthetextsexaminedinthissectioninapproachingIslamandthe figure of Prophet Muhammad are typical of those found across genres in earlymodemwriting inEnglishon the topic,demonstrating the contentionof this thesis thatanobjectiveapproachtoanexaminationofIslaminBritainduringthisperiodwasallbut impossible, thenegativedominantideologies,whichhadbeenoperatinginEuropeforcenturiesinrespecttotheMuslimworld,being toopowerful for theChristiancommentator toovercome.Like JohnCartwright, other early modern writers' view of the Muslims and Prophet Muhammad ingeneralisdestructive,anattitudetowardsIslamthatwasindeedcommoninsixteenth-centuryEurope.The unity of Christendom broke down in the sixteenth century, secular attitudes graduallyemergedthattransformedtheTurkfromanenemyofChristintoanenemyofthenation;butwhen literarycriticssuchasSamuelC.Chewtookupthequestion, they foundthatdistortedmedievalperceptionsabout Islamwerestillwell represented inTudorculture.RefutationofIslamby Churchmenwas not an easy task. Luthermakes it clear that in his judgement it isdifficultforaChristiantheologiantorefuteIslamsuccessfullyandremarksthat:



Ifitshouldcometothepointofarguingaboutreligion,thewholepapistry,withallitstrappingswouldfall.NorwouldtheybeabletodefendtheirownfaithandatthesametimerefutethefaithofMuhammad,sincethentheywouldhavetorefutethosethingsthattheythemselvesmostapproveandforwhichtheymoststrive(Simon,260).

There is a list of false accounts about ProphetMuhammadwhich contains only stories thatseemedtoconfirmChristianallegations(Daniel,1993:236).Forinstance,though,LutherwasunconvincedwiththeProphethoodmessageofProphetMuhammad,helocatedhisattemptatanalysingTheGloriousQur’āninthecontextoftherefutationofothererroneousfaiths,statingthat:

AsIhavewrittenagainsttheidolsoftheJewsandthepapists,andwillcontinuetodosototheextentthatitisgrantedtome,soalsohaveIbeguntorefutetheperniciousbeliefsofMuhammad,andIwillcontinuetodosoatmorelength(Ibid.,263).

Many earlymodern attitudes toProphetMuhammadhavedevelopedbecause of the secularapproachtothehistoryofIslam.Forinstance,intheEnlightenmentandoftheRomanticage,therewereno longerChristianattitudes thoughsomeChristian ideassurvivedexplicitlyandimplicitly the Mediaeval tradition. Hachicho remarks that Joseph Pitts was the first knownEnglishman to visit Al-Ka`bah in Mecca, and the first to write in 1704 about Makkah andMedinah,andhedescribedtheholyHajjfrompersonalexperience(Hachicho,197).Pittsgivesdetaileddescriptionsofthewholeceremoniesofal-Hajj,andofthegreatHarm,orsanctuary,andoftheKa`bah,whichhevisited,andevenhadapeepintoitsinterior.Inaddition,thereisafairdescriptionofthecaveofHira,andoftheholygraveofProphetofMuhammad(Pbuh)inMedina.Pitts'remarksaboutMakkahgivethemancreditforhisveracity.Twocenturieslater,RichardBurton,whomadethesamepilgrimage,testifiedtoPitts'account.Forashortperiodoftime,booksaboutIslambecamethesourcesofpubliclibrarieswithdenigratedwritingsaboutthe Prophet (Pbuh). These works were all unfair to describe the Prophet. Some books areJamesSilkBuckingham’sTravelsamongtheArabTribesInhabitingtheCountriesEastofSyriaand Palestine (1825), SirWilliam Oduseley Travels in Various Countries of the East (1819-1823),DavidPrice’sChronologicalRetrospectofMahommedanHistory(1811-1821),CharlesMills’HistoryofMahommadanism(1820),Washington Irving'sMahometandHisSuccessors(1850),SamuelBush’sLifeofMahomet(1830),GodfreyHiggins’AnApologyfortheLifeandCharacteroftheCelebratedProphetofArabiacalledMohamed,ortheIllustrious(1829).Thefair and accurate information in those books had enlightened the English Knowledge withrealityaboutIslamanditsProphet.

PROPHETMUHAMMADINTHEMODERNWESTThe Western historians used to use a corrupt spelling of Prophet Muhammad such as'Mohmet', 'Mahmet',or 'Mahoo'(As inShakespeare'sKingLear).Thesecorruptspellinghavebecomesynonymousasimposterforcenturies.NowtheWestidentifiesMuhammadwith'TheProphet'or'ProphetMuhammad'.Stubbe,apioneerEuropeanscholar,urgedthattheProphetof Islam should be identified in accordance with his own spelling 'Muhammad,’ and not asEuropeanscalledhim'Magmed,'or 'Machomet'(Bosworth,32-3).SomeChristianwritersareabided with the Mediaeval tradition of distorting the image of the Prophet without anyscientificproof.Forexample,ThomasAquinasstatesthatthefalseprophetseducedthegulliblewithpromisesofcarnalpleasure,filledtheirmindswithnaivefabrications,andforbadethemtoreadtheChristianscriptureslesttheyshowhimupforaliar(Aquinas,22-25;Waltz,81-95).



Itisamorecomplexmodeofcross-referencefindsconnectionlessinevidentparallelsthaninissues on which Islam and Christianity appear to agree on some point, making mutuallyacceptableassertions,butforverydifferentreasons.SoProfessorKennethCraggremarksthattheGodof Islam is like theGodof Christianity.Hebuilds his inter-theology on less obviousgrounds in his discovery of intriguing Christological crossovers. In the Qur’ān, 4:172: "TheMessiah would never shrink from being servant of God," calls to mind Paul's startlingaffirmationofJesus'refusaltoavoidservanthoodbyclaimingason'sprivilege(Cragg,1-10).Infact,ProfessorNormanDanieladmitsthatthereisnosimilaritybetweentheGloriousQur’ānand other scriptures on earth since theQur’ānic themes have no parallel in the Testaments(1966,35).TheTestamentsdescriptionofGodisinferiortotheIslamicdescriptionofGodintheQur’ān. The evangelic God isweak and less powerful than the perfect God in the Islam,'Allah(God)isunlikeotherthings’(TheGloriousQur’ān,42:11).The greatness of the Prophet’s message in describing Allah, the Almighty which becomesevidentfromHisattributesofperfection,mentionedintheQur’ān.Heisfreefromallfaultsandiswithoutanyblemish,andbeyondanyallegation:

"AllthatisintheheavensandtheearthgivesglorytoGod.HeistheMightyandWise.ToHimbelongsthedominionoftheheavensandtheearth.HeonlygiveslifeandHeonlygivesdeath,andHehaspoweroverall things.He is theFirstand theLast, theApparent and theHiddenandhas knowledge of all things. It isHewho created theheavensandtheearthinsixdays,andthensatonthethrone.Heknowsallthatgoesintotheearthandallthatemergesfromitandallthatcomesdownfromheavensandallthatascendstoit.Heiswithyouwhereveryouareandisawareofwhateveryoudo.He has sovereignty over the heavens and the earth and to Him turn all affairs. Hemakesthenightpassintotheday,thedaypassintothenightandHehasknowledgeofwhatisconcealedinthehearts"(TheGloriousQur’ān,57:1-6).

ThetotalrejectionoftheChristianthoughttotheProphethoodofMuhammaddoesnotgiveapersuadedanswertostopthechallengeof Islamasanattractivereligiontosimplemen.TheWest is still unprepared to understand the term 'prophet' for Muhammad. Like ProfessorMartinForward,manyChristianwritersprefernottousethistitle'prophet'forMuhammad.As Forward remarks, "Christians deceive themselves when they think that by callingMuhammad a prophet, they mean the same or even a comparable thing" (Forward, 120).Therefore, Jomier and Forward, unlike the other contemporarywriters such asWatt, Küng,Cragg, and Kerr, regard Prophet Muhammad as a political and religious genius withoutassigninghimtheterm'prophet'.AlthoughtheseattemptsbyJomierandForwardseemtobeanhonestChristianresponsetothequestionofMuhammad'sstatus,theydonotcontributetotheunderstandingofMuhammad'sreligiousandspiritualvision(Armstrong,1992:14).WesternscholarsofreligiousstudiesdefineIslamexplicitlyintermsofChristiandoctrine,andattempttomeasureitagainstthestandardofChristiantruth.Thebasicassumptionisthatitispossible to distinguish a collective essential ground between Christianity and Islamwithoutdenying that their devout traditions are certainly different. The wide span of the Westerninterest in Islam in general and in Prophet Muhammad in particular makes it extremelydifficult to cover in one research or academic work. For the last fourteen centuries manyWesternwritershavebeenreacting toProphetMuhammadasa subjectand tohismessage,thereforethepointofresearchfocusistobenarroweddownhere.The Western biographers and writers namely; Sir William Muir, Professor David SamuelMargoliouth,ProfessorWilliamMontgomeryWattandKarenArmstrongare themost latter-



dayrenownedWesternnon-MuslimbiographersoftheProphet.Theirwritingsareconsideredto have played a key role in reshaping the inherited distorted image of the Prophet in themindsof theWesternreaders.These three inparticularareusually included inbooksaboutWesternviewsofProphetMuhammed (Pbuh).Moredetailswill be givenbelowabout thesethreemajor biographers (Buaben's and others). Out of these widely circulated biographies,ProfessorMontgomeryWatt'sworkslikeMuhammadinMecca(1953),MuhammadinMedinah(1956)andMuhammadProphetandStatesman(1961),areprobablythemostread.Amongstmanyofhiswidelycirculatedworks, theseparticularonesabout theProphetwere themostpopularintheMuslimandthenon-Muslimworldalike.Theyhavebeenreprintedseveraltimesandtranslated intomany languages likeArabic,French, Japanese,SpanishandTurkish.WattandArmstrongarechosenhereasexamplesbecausebotharecomparativelyrecentand lessbiasedbiographersandbecauseoftheirconsiderableacademicandscholarlyapproachesandresearchmethods.Watt'sMuhammadinMeccaandArmstrong'sMuhammadaProphetofOurTime (2006), Martin Ling's Muhammad His life Based on the Earliest Sources (2006) isprobablyoneofthemostunbiasedbiographiesoftheprophethoweveritisnottobediscussedhere as he converted to Islam andnaturally his viewswill bemore reflective to the Islamicprospective.)aretobeexaminedhereindetails.The misrepresentation of Prophet Muhammad in the Western writings is made of biasedoutlookstoProphetMuhammadandcontinuallymisrepresentshimaccordingly.Thisdistortedimage became one of the received ideas of the West and formulated the Western line ofthoughtaboutIslamandthecharacterofitsProphet(Gunny,26).).MaximeRodinsonfindsthattheriseofthefieldofstudyofOrientalismwhichmainlyoriginatedinEuropeinintheMiddleAges and that the field was born out of pragmatic necessity and the result was a greatlydistortedvisionofthings(Rodinson117).TheChristianapproachestootherfaithslackenoughknowledge. It is sometimes imperfect. For many European thinkers, Islam is a parody ofChristianity,and,moreparticularly, IslamisaJudaizingparodyofChristianity.PeterLeithartbelievesthatamoreresponsivelookatthefaceinthemirrorwillbebetterthannotignoringthewarts(Leithart,1).TheChristianconceptionofreligiontakesasthebasisoftheDivinerevelationnottherevealedbook,i.e.,theQur’ānortheBiblebutJesusChrist.SeenthroughtheeyesofChristology,Islamcould not be anything other than ‘Muhammadanism’, and any scholarly treatment of it wasboundtobebasedonthefigureof theProphetof Islam. Itwaswithinthis frameworkthatanumber of historicist and materialist accounts were given to prove that the ProphetMuhammadwasnotanauthenticprophetandthathismotiveswerebasicallypolitical,tribalor economic.The two-volumeworkofMontgomeryWatt, the celebratedWestern scholar ofIslamisonthelifeofProphetMuhammad.IthasbecomeoneofthemostwidelyreadbooksonthelifeoftheProphetbothintheWestandtheIslamicworld.Ithasalsobeenacclaimedasanobjectivebookbasedonhistoricalsources,without,thus,necessarilyfollowingthefootprintsof received prejudices and ignorance about Islam and its Prophet. Dr.Watt has presented ahighlydistortedpictureofthelifeandteachingsofProphetMuhammad(Pbuh).Western prejudiced and distorted delineation of the character of Prophet Muhammad andIslamisawful.InsteadofbeinggratefultotheProphetofIslamforamelioratingthelotoftheChristians of the East by relieving them from the tyranny and thraldom of the ByzantineChurchandculturaladvancementof theChristiansof theWest invariousrealmsof thought,andthegeneraladvancementofscienceandcivilizationintheworld,ChristiansandWestern



writers have reacted to by presenting the personality of the Prophet of Islam in a highlydistortedmanner.PhillipK.Hitti,forinstance,writesinhisbookIslamandtheWest:Memories of Crusades past and hopes for others to come lingered for generations.Zoroastrianism,Buddhismandother lesshighlydevelopedreligionswereneversubjectedtosuchabarrageofabuseandcondemnation.Itwasprimarilyfear,hostility,andprejudicethatcoloured the Western views of Islam, and conditioned their attitude. Islamic beliefs wereenemy'sbeliefs,and,assuch,suspect,ifnotfalse(Hitti,48-49).TheWesternandChristianpolemicsonIslamicissuesareallsurfacetodisgraceIslamanditsProphet.Inthehistoryof ideas,manyWesternpeoplearesuddenlymoreinterestedinIslamcould be a positive development, but if the knowledge that is produced only reinforces anOrientalistperspectivethenthiswillbeanopportunitylost”(Poole,2002:3).Muhammadwascentralasasourceofguidancefortheworldcommunities.Infact,ProphetMuhammadwasacharismatic leaderwithmany admirable qualities.Hewas not founder or inventor of Islam.ProphetMuhammadwas as amodel and a source of inspiration formankind to emulate intheirlives.ProphetMuhammaddeservesaplaceamongthegreatinfluentialfiguresofhumanrights history. Therefore, many early Christians believed in Prophet Muhammad due to hismission and references to him in Christian scriptures which are clear to have faith in hismission. The idea that prevailed throughout the centuries was that the Islamic value of anindividualistobejudgedbyGodalone,notbyotherhumans.Thus,whencomparedwiththehistoryofChristianity,therehavenotbeeninIslamasmanymassacresinthenameofreligion.This tolerant legacy which characterized Islamic history is quite different from the recentattitudeofcertainextremists(Steigerwald,206).SomemoreobjectivestudiesandwritingsabouttheProphet'slifeappearedonthesurfaceandawholewealthofliteratureaboutIslamwasbeingintroduced.Increasingnumbersofscholars,writersandresearchersarebecomingknownfortheirmoresympatheticapproachestoIslam.WriterslikeMontgomeryWatt,KarenArmstrongandothersarebecominggenerallyacceptedintheMuslimworldastheyshowsomedeviationfromthetraditionaldivisiveandsubjectiveapproaches followed by earlier biographers and writers. In his introduction to his secondeditionof Islamand theWest-TheMakingofan Image1993,NormanDanielconcludes thatdespite all the attempts of Christian writers to pursue impartiality there is still lingeringremnantsfromthemedievalbiases:Christians have always tended to make the same criticisms; and even when, in relativelymodern times, some authors have self-consciously tried to emancipate themselves fromChristianattitudes,theyhavenotgenerallybeenassuccessfulastheythought(Daniel,1993:11).TheirrelianceonauthenticIslamicsourcesisnottooverwhelmtheMuslimreaderandpreventhim from questioning their motives and methodology. Like many other orientalists', theirwritingsaretobereaddeeplyfromaMuslimlensesandsuchworksneedtobescholasticallyexaminedbeforebeingintroducedtothepublicasfullyobjectiveworks.TheworkofsincereMuslimscholarsisextremelyneededinthepresenttimetoassistinreshapingandrecreatingtheimageofIslam,itsconceptsandProphetintheWesternminds.

CONCLUSION

TheestablishmentoftheWesternacademicawarenessabouttheProphethoodofMuhammadhelped theWest to appreciate ProphetMuhammad (Pbuh).Western consensusmade faultsanddeformitiesofopiniononProphetMuhammad. Itwasuniversal todefamehim.Norman



DanielremarksthattheunpleasantimageofIslamthattheChristiansdrewwasdrawntoseemunpleasanttotheChristianeye(Daniel,1993: 264).ThewholeWesternpolemiconProphetMuhammad was really intended to defend Christianity or Western civilization. WesternhypothesisaboutMahomet,thathewasaschemingimposter,aFalsehoodincarnate,thathisreligionisameremassofquackeryandfatuity,beginsreallytobenowuntenabletoanyone.Thelies,whichwell-meaningzealhasheapedaroundthisman,aredisgracefultotheWestonly(Carlyle,895).OftenmediaevalargumentsagainstIslamwhichwerecapableofbeingappliedagainstanyreligionwerenowusedagainstChristianity.Theothercontrarymovementismorethanatease;thesamedeviceofMuslimauthorshiphadalreadybeenusedtoattackChristiandoctrineandtheChurches.Later,therewaschangeintheChristianandEuropeanculture.Islamophobia existed in premise before the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, but itincreasedinfrequencyandnotorietyduringthepastdecade.Moreover,themisappropriationof religious labels by Jihadist ideologues and leaders is deliberate and designed tomobilisesupport for, and divert criticism from,what are in effect, highly political goals (Awan, 209).However,thesearerenderedmootpoints, forwhateverthedistortedtheological justificationbehindJihadistacts,itremainsanindeliblesociologicalfactthattheseindividualsconsideredthemselvestobeMuslim,andindeedIslamprovided(atleastintheirminds)theraisond’êtrefor their acts of violence and terror (Awan2007b, 208). It iswithmore investigation in theEnglishOrientallibrarytothesourcesofinformationonIslamandthelifeandthemissionofProphetMuhammad(Pbuh)whichisneededbytheWesternandMuslimwritersforaproperunderstandingofthelifeandthemissionoftheProphet(Pbuh).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThis projectwas funded by theDeanship of Scientific Research (DSR), University of Jeddah,Jeddah,undergrantNo.(G-189-857-1436).Theauthor,therefore,acknowledgeswiththanksDSRtechnicalandfinancialsupport.

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Western Polemic Writings about Muhammad's Prophethood