WHAT INFLUENCES TEACHERS TO USE ICT IN ROAD SAFETY EDUCATION?

George Koutromanos National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

koutro@math.uoa.gr

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the factors that influence teachers’ intention to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching. This software was aimed at a target group of 8-13 year-olds and was intended to provide teachers and students with information, interaction and activities to stimulate learning about road safety. The objectives of the study were to: 1) investigate the influence of attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control on teachers’ intention; and 2) compare the predictive validity of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) in predicting teachers’ intention. A total of 228 teachers of primary schools in Greece were surveyed about their intention to use “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching. The results showed that teachers’ intention was influenced by the perceived behavioural control (beta=.508), attitude toward the behaviour (beta=.230) and subjective norm (beta=.145). In, addition, the results showed that the TRA and TPB in general did provide a framework for the prediction of intention. However, the TPB did account for more variance in teachers’ intention than the TRA. Results of the study are discussed in terms of increasing the intention of teachers to use ICT in their teaching.

Keywords: ICT, educational software, teachers, Theory of Planned Behaviour.

1 INTRODUCTION In most European countries, road accidents remain the single major cause of death of young people [1]. The road traffic accidents in Greece constitute the third clear cause of death for the general population after cardiovascular diseases and neoplasms [2]. According to Greek Government more than 28.000 people were injured in road accidents in Greece in 2007 and more than 1.700 of them fatally (see www.ydt.gr). Road safety education should provide individuals with the necessary knowledge and encourage attitudes and behaviour patterns which decrease the probability of their becoming accident victims and causing an accident likely to harm themselves and others [2]; [3]; [4]; [5].

Over the last 25 years, research has been conducted at international, national and institutional levels to investigate the factors which influence the road safety education in schools (e.g. [6]; [7]; [8], [9]; [10]). The results of this research have shown that the factors that influence the teaching of road safety education in schools are similar to those factors that influence curriculum implementation. These factors are related to characteristics of the innovation, characteristics at the local authority level, characteristics at the school level and factors external to the school system (see [11]; [12]).

At the school level, the successful introduction and implementation of an innovation depends on the teachers who implement the innovation in practice. According to Fullan [12], “educational change depends on what teachers do and think” (ibid, p. 115). More specifically, every innovation requires teachers to change in three dimensions: the possible use of new materials, the possible use of new teaching approaches, and the changes in their beliefs and attitudes.

Over the last three decades a number of studies have focused on the psychological factors that influenced the introduction of innovations in schools (see e.g. [12]). For instance, these studies have focused on the attitudes of those involved in the innovations and their behaviour to implement the educational changes in their teaching. The results of most of the studies show that the implementation of innovations depends on the teachers’ attitudes towards the innovation (see e.g. [13]; [14]). While a number of empirical studies have shown the sociological factors that influence road safety education in schools (see e.g. [6]; [8]), however little research has been conducted toward understanding and predicting teachers’ intention and behaviour to teach about road safety education in their schools. In

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addition, no research has been found in the literature on the effects of specific psychological factors (e.g. attitudes towards behaviour, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control) on teachers’ intention to use specific educational software in their schools. The aim of this study was to investigate the psychological factors that influence teachers’ intention to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching, using as theoretical framework the Theories of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Planned Behaviour (TPB) (see Section 2).

Figure 1. Example of a screen from “The Chariot of the Sun”.

Figure 2. Example of a screen from “The Chariot of the Sun”.

Figure 3. Example of a screen from “The Chariot of the Sun”.

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This educational software was developed by the author of this study. The design and development of the software was based on the theory of Piaget and Vygotsky (see [15]; [16]; [17]). Multimedia elements like texts, audio, graphics, video and animations were the important aspects used in developing the software in order to create a teaching and learning material which is interactive, interesting and effective. The “Chariot of the Sun” was aimed at a target group of 8-13 year-olds and was intended to provide teachers and students with information, interaction and activities to stimulate learning about road safety. “The Chariot of the Sun” includes three main parts to raise road safety awareness, enhance knowledge regarding street signs, influence pupils’ attitudes and behaviours and to provide opportunities to integrate road safety into the curriculum of primary and secondary education. The first part includes four stories which illustrate safe road behaviour for young users. The second part includes 48 video clips, which demonstrate factors affecting pedestrian, driver and passenger safety. Some examples covered are: safe places to walk and play; busy roads and traffic problems; street signs; stop, look, listen, think; wearing seat belts; and safer places to cross in busy roads. Each story and video clip include games and activities which can be used to generate class or groups discussion about the different problems that people meet on roads. In general, ‘The Chariot of the Sun’ is a fully interactive package for pupils and teachers, and offers a variety of computer graphics, text, video clips, sound and animation. Furthermore, it provides many resources (e.g. pictures), teachers’ notes and suggests extended teaching activities. In order for teachers to use this educational software they need to adopt cooperative learning and a project method in their teaching, at least, for one school year. Examples of this software are presented in Figures 1, 2 and 3 above.

The objectives of this study were to: 1) investigate the influence of attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control on teachers’ intention; and 2) compare the predictive validity of the TRA and TPB in predicting teachers’ intention to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching.

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (see Figure 4) has been used as a model for the prediction and explanation of behavioural intention and behaviour ([18]; [19]). According to this theory, the behaviour is determined by the intention which is engaged in the behaviour. In turn, intention is determined by the attitude toward the behaviour and subjective norm. Attitudes are the overall affective and instrumental evaluations of performing the behaviour by the individual. Subjective norms assess the social pressures on the individual to perform or not to perform a behaviour.

Figure 4: The Theory of Reasoned Action

(Source: [19])

Behaviour

Intention

Behavioural Beliefs

Attitude Toward the Behaviour

Subjective Norm

Normative Beliefs

Attitudes and subjective norms are underpinned by behavioural and normative beliefs. According to behavioural beliefs “a person who believes that performing a given behaviour will lead to mostly positive outcomes will hold a favourable attitude toward performing the behaviour, while a person who believes that performing the behaviour will lead to mostly negative outcomes will hold an unfavourable attitude” (ibid, p. 7). According to normative beliefs “a person who believes that most referents with whom he is motivated to comply think he should perform the behaviour will perceive social pressure to do so” (ibid, p. 7).

In education, the TRA has been used to predict behaviours such as classroom attendance (e.g. [20]), teaching science using hands-on activities (e.g. [21]), enrolling in a high school science course (e.g. [22]), enrolling in elective physical science course (e.g. [23]), mathematics learning (e.g. [24]) and science learning (e.g. [25]). However, the TRA works most successfully when applied to behaviours

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that are under a person’s volitional control (for example, the person can decide at will whether to perform the behaviour) [26].

To deal with these limitations, Ajzen ([26]; [27]; [28]) developed the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (see Figure 5). In that theory, Ajzen added a third component which he labelled perceived behavioural control. Perceived behavioural control is the individual’s perception of the extent to which performance of the behaviour is easy or difficult while holding motivation constant [27]. In addition, perceived behavioural control is determined by control beliefs which are “beliefs about the presence factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behaviour and the perceived power of these factors” ([28] p. 1).

Figure 5: The Theory of Planned Behaviour

Attitude Toward the Behaviou

Behavioural Beliefs r

(Source: [28], p. 1)

The TPB has been successfully applied to a wide range (e.g. there are over 800 studies) of health and other behaviours (see www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~aizen/). The TPB has also been applied in technology adoption and usage contexts to explain an individual’s adoption of ICT.

For instance, Harrison, et al., [29] used the TPB to explain and predict small business executives’ decisions to adopt Information Technology. They found that attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control were all significant in predicting a small business executive’s decision. According to Harrison et al., [29], the TPB could be used as a general theory of ICT adoption in small businesses. Morris and Venkatesh [30] used the TPB to investigate the impact of age on new software usage by workers. They found that younger people were influenced by attitude towards the behaviour while older people were more influenced by subjective norm and perceived behavioural control. However, the influence of subjective norm on the older people did diminish over time.

The theory has also been used in more recent research into the uptake of ICT in schools (e.g. [31]; [32]; [33]; [34]; [35]). For example, Czerniak, et al., [31] applied the TPB in order to examine 204 science teachers’ intention to use educational technology in their classrooms. They found that teachers’ intention was influenced by subjective norms (e.g. influence of colleagues, parents), and perceived behavioural control (e.g. funding, enough equipment, more software). Perceived behavioural control provided the strongest influence on behavioural intention. Attitude toward behaviour did not have a significant influence on intention.

A more recent study by Koutromanos [34] has used the Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour to examine the influence of the psychological factors of head teachers, district officers and school counsellors on their support of the uptake of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in their schools as well as the factors that influence teachers to use ICT in their teaching. 181 teachers, 72 head teachers, 43 district officers and 47 school counsellors completed questionnaires designed to measure the uptake of ICT, and the components of the TRA and TPB during March-June, 2002. The results of this study showed that the TPB in general did provide a framework for the prediction of intention and behaviour. In addition, the TPB statistically significantly increased the explained variance in intentions to use ICT in teaching as well as intentions to support the uptake of ICT in schools than the TRA.

In a more recent study, Koutromanos and Papaioannou [36] applied the TPB to investigate the factors influencing undergraduate students’ intention to use ICT in their teaching of Greek language during the school years 2008-2010. They administered a questionnaire to 102 Greek final-year undergraduate university students. Their results indicated that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control provide significant, linear contributions to the prediction of students’ intention to use ICT in their teaching.

Subjective Norm

Normative Beliefs Intention Behaviour

Perceived Behavioural

Control

Control Beliefs

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3 METHOD

3.1 Subjects and procedure Subjects were primary school teachers who were enrolled at the University of Athens (Faculty of Primary Education) in order to attend a specific training programme called ‘Academic and Professional Upgrade of Primary Education Teachers’. During this training programme teachers, according to their teaching experience, had to attend a particular number of modules for six months to one year. Among the modules they attended was ICT in education. During this module (September-December 2005), teachers received instruction by the author of this study regarding how to use ICT as well as the educational software ‘The Chariot of the Sun’ in their teaching. In addition, a free copy of the software was distributed to each one of them. Participants responded to questions about their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, and intentions for performing the behaviour (i.e. using the educational software of road safety education ‘The Chariot of the Sun’ in teaching). Furthermore, behavioural, normative and control beliefs regarding the use of ‘The Chariot of the Sun’ educational software were identified and measured (see [37]). In the present study only data regarding intention, attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control were used and only subjects who gave complete responses for all questions were used for analysis; thus, the resulting sample size in this study was 228.

3.2 Questionnaire The questionnaire contained items designed to measure the variables of the TRA and TPB. The questions on the final questionnaire were phrased and scaled exactly as recommended by Ajzen and Fishbein [19] and Ajzen [28]. Each question was scored from 1 (negative end) to 7 (positive end).

A pilot study was conducted in order to validate the questionnaire. The pilot version of the questionnaire was administered to 25 teachers, who were excluded from the sample of the main study. Feedback was obtained about the length of the questionnaire, the format of the scales and questions ambiguity. The items of the final version of the questionnaire are presented and discussed in the following sections.

3.2.1 Intention Three different 7-point scales were used to assess teachers’ intentions to use “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching during the present school year (2005-2006) (extremely unlikely/extremely likely, definitely true/definitely false, strongly disagree/strongly agree). Most specifically, the three intentions scales were formulated as follows: 1) I intend to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006): (extremely unlikely/extremely likely). 2) I will use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006): (definitely true/definitely false). 3) I plan to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006): (strongly agree/strongly disagree). The average response to the three items served as a measure of intention.

3.2.2 Attitudes towards the behaviour Teachers were presented with the item: “For me to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006) is…”. Five pairs of adjectives were rated each on a 7-point scale (harmful/beneficial, pleasant/unpleasant, good/bad, worthless/valuable, enjoyable/unenjoyable). Responses to the five items were averaged to provide an attitude toward the behaviour measure.

3.2.3 Subjective norm Subjective norm was measured by five items on seven-point scales that ranged from 1 to 7. The items were: 1) “It is expected of me that I will use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006): extremely likely/extremely unlikely”. 2) “Most people who are important to me think that I should/I should not use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006)”. 3) “The people in my life, whose opinions I value would approve/disapprove of my using the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006)”. 4) Most people who are important to me use ICT in their teaching: (completely true/completely false). 5) The people in my life whose

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opinions I value use/do not use ICT in their teaching. Responses were averaged to yield a measure of subjective norm.

3.2.4 Perceived behavioural control The following four items assessed perceived behavioural control over using “The Chariot of the Sun” in teaching: 1) “For me to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006) would be (impossible/possible). 2) If I wanted to I could use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006) (definitely true/definitely false). 3) How much control do you believe you have over using the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in your teaching during the present school year (2005-2006) (no control/complete control). 4) It is mostly up to me whether or not I will use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in my teaching during the present school year (2005-2006) (strongly agree/strongly disagree). The average response to the four items served as a measure of perceived behavioural control.

3.3 Data Analysis All analyses were performed using SPSS (version 16). Descriptive analysis of variables of the TRA and TPB was used. Cronbach’s alphas were calculated to determine the internal consistency of the subscales for the TRA and TPB constructs. Pearson’s correlation was used to calculate separately the relationships among intention and attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control. In order to predict teachers’ intention to use the educational software “The Chariot of the Sun” during the school year 2005-2006 as well as to compare the predictive validity of the TRA and TPB hierarchical regression analysis (the statistical procedure recommended by Ajzen, [27]) was used.

4 RESULTS Table 1 presents descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum score) among the variables of the TRA and TPB. The mean intention score was 6.30, which indicated that teachers have strong intention to use the educational software “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching.

Table 1 - Means (M), Standard Deviations (SD), Cronbach alpha, Minimum and Maximum score for variables of the Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behaviour.

Variable Number of items M SD Minimum Maximum Cronbach

alpha Intention

3 6.30 0.86 4 7 .84

Attitude toward the behaviour 5 6.49 0.75 4 7 .91

Subjective norm 5 6.18 0.89 3 7 .81

Perceived behavioural control 4 5.61 1.17 2 7 .79

Note: Possible range for each variable was 1 to 7.

Table 2 – Pearson correlation for variables of the Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behaviour.

I A SN PBC Intention (I) 1 .565* .499* .695* Attitude toward the behaviour (A) 1 .506* .515* Subjective norm (SN) 1 .467* Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC) 1 *: * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The mean attitude toward using “The Chariot of the Sun” score of 6.49 showed that respondents have positive attitudes towards this educational software. In addition, the mean score of 6.18 showed that

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the social influence was positive for respondents to use the software. Finally, the mean perceived behavioural control score of 5.61 indicated that the teachers of this study think they do have relatively high control over using or not using “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching.

The Pearson correlations among the components of the TRA and TPB are shown in Table 2. All variables were found to correlate with intention. Perceived behavioural control (r=+.695, p<0.01) had the strongest correlation with intention, followed by attitude (r=+.565, p<0.01) and subjective norm (r=+.489, p<0.05). This means that the more favourable the attitude and the subjective norm, and the greater the perceived behavioural control, the stronger is the teachers’ intention to use the educational software “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching.

As we have seen earlier (see Section 3.3) the next stage in the analysis was to conduct a hierarchical regression analysis on the data. In order to predict teachers’ intention, variables from the TRA were entered in the first block. Table 3 presents the results of this analysis.

Table 3 - Regression analysis of the Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behaviour variables on teachers’ intention.

Adjusted R2

Beta t p

Intention (Block 1: Theory of Reasoned Action)

0.375

Attitude toward the behaviour

.421 6.915 .000

Subjective norm .286 4.693 .000 Intention (Block 2: Theory of Planned Behaviour)

0.549

Attitude toward the behaviour

.230 4.147 .000

Subjective norm .145 2.687 .008 Perceived behavioural control

.508 9.393 .000

*. Significant (p<.05)

Attitude and subjective norm explained 37.5% of the variance in teachers’ intention to use the educational software “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching. When the additional variable of the TPB, perceived behavioural control, was added into the second block of the regression analysis, the Adjusted R2 increased to 54.9%. Attitude was the most important predictor in TRA model and the second important predictor in TPB model, whereas perceived behavioural control was the most important. Subjective norm was the least important predictor of both theories (i.e. TRA and TPB).

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The present study examined the factors that influence teachers’ intention to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching. The TRA and TPB were used as theoretical framework. The results of the regression analysis showed that teachers’ intention was significantly influenced by attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control.

Perceived behavioural control was the most significantly important factor in the prediction while the attitude was the second important factor and subjective norm the third important factor. This result confirms those of a number of studies across behaviours (e.g. [38] [39], [34]). This finding suggests that even if teachers have positive attitudes towards using the educational software “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching they will not use it unless they also perceive that they have control over their use of “The Chariot of the Sun”. Therefore, increasing teachers’ feelings of control over their use of “The Chariot of the Sun” is likely to generate the greatest increase in their intention to use it in their teaching. According to Koutromanos [34], this may be done by increasing the availability of those support services and resources (e.g. hardware and software, training programmes) that facilitate teachers’ use of ICT in their schools.

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In sum, it seems that Greek teachers’ intention to use specific educational software in their teaching of road safety education is based upon considerations of perceived behavioural control, the likely consequences of performance (i.e. attitude) and normative expectations (i.e. subjective norm) in that order.

Another objective of this study was to compare the predictive validity of the TRA and TPB in predicting teachers’ intention to use the educational software of road safety education “The Chariot of the Sun” in their teaching. The results showed that the TPB is better than the TRA. Most specifically, inclusion of perceived behavioural control as a predictor of teachers’ intention significantly increased the explained variation in intention in comparison with the Theory of Reasoned Action. These data provide further support for the TPB, adding to a considerable body of literature supporting this theory (e.g. [27]; [38]; [39]). Most specifically, the results showed that the variables of the TPB, could explain a relatively high percentage (i.e. 54.9%) of the variance in teachers’ intention to use the educational software “The Chariot of the Sun”. This is a high percentage compared with the range of other intentions explained in the previous meta-analysis reviews of the TPB (see [38]; [39]). However, this finding means that 45% of the variance, on average, remains to be explained. Previous TRA and TPB studies (e.g. [27]) have shown when the explained variance of intention or behaviour is not very high this means that other psychological (e.g. past behaviour) or external variables (e.g. demographic characteristics and personality traits) influence individuals’ intention or behaviour. The regression models of the present study did not consider those variables. Therefore, future studies should examine the contributions of other factors to the prediction of teachers’ intention and behaviour.

Finally, the sample used in this study consisted of teachers who were involved in a specific training programme of the University of Athens. One of the modules that they attended was ICT in education. Given their involvement in this module, teachers in this study had presumably more positive attitudes towards the use of the educational software “The Chariot of the Sun” as well as stronger subjective norms and perceived behavioural control than other teachers. Therefore, future research should clarify whether the impact of the variables of the TRA and TPB is stronger for involved teachers than for less involved teachers.

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