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WORK FORCE DIVERSITY
Donald E. KlingnerProfessor, School of Policy and Management
Florida International University3000 N.E. 145th Street
North Miami, FL 33181-3600305/940-5984 phone305/940-5980 fax
Prepared for the International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration, Jay Shafritz, ed. New York: Henry Holt & Co. All rights reserved: not to be quoted or copied without the express written consent of the author and publisher.
draft #3: November 14, 1994
Introduction
Work force diversity is the fundamental change in the
composition of an organization's work force that is now occurring in
the United States and other developed countries as their cultures and
populations become increasingly diverse. This demographic diversity
is accompanied by economic pressures, as technological change and
globalization of the economy increase public and private employers'
demands for a highly trained work force. And political pressures by
women, minorities, older workers, immigrants, and persons with
disabilities have resulted in legal changes in the employment rights
of groups formerly excluded by law or custom from desirable
professional and technical jobs (see discrimination, age;
discrimination, disability, discrimination, gender, discrimination,
racial).
As a result of these changes, organizations need to design and
implement work force diversification programs. These involve subtle
but sweeping changes in how they do business: changes in
organizational mission, culture, policy and practice.
Because work force diversity is caused by the impact of
societal changes on organizations, the organizational changes it
causes are not isolated. Rather, they are related to other emergent
trends in public personnel management such as targeted recruitment,
employee development, Total Quality Management, and non-adversarial
dispute resolution. But they also conflict with other emergent human
resource management trends caused by the same pressures: alternative
methods of service delivery, temporary employment, and job
simplification.
The changes caused by work force diversification generate
changed role expectations for all groups in public agencies:
appointed and elected officials, managers and supervisors, employees,
and public personnel managers. Because the objectives and underlying
assumptions of diversification programs conflict with those of other
prevalent management trends, work force diversification programs
generate conflicts that make effective performance by each more group
more difficult and demanding.
There are many examples of successful and unsuccessful work
force diversification programs in a range of public- and private-
sector organizations. And successful programs generally share common
characteristics, as do unsuccessful ones.
This article will:
1. define work force diversity and work force diversification;
2. discuss its origin and history;
3. distinguish work force diversification from equal employment
opportunity and affirmative action;
4. examine its impact on organizational mission, culture, and
five areas of personnel management policy and practice:
recruitment and retention, job design, education and training,
benefits and rewards, and performance measurement and
improvement;
5. show its connection to some contemporary public management
trends such as employee involvement and participation,
employee development, Total Quality Management, and non-
adversarial dispute resolution; and its conflicts with other
trends such as temporary employment, cost containment, and job
simplification;
6. explore how work force diversification changes role
expectations and causes role conflict for elected officials
and public administrators (managers, supervisors, employees,
human resource managers, and affirmative action compliance
specialists);
7. present successful and unsuccessful examples of work force
diversification programs; and
8. based on these examples, describe the characteristics of
successful programs, and unsuccessful ones.
Definition: Work Force Diversity and Work Force Diversification
Work force diversity is a term that describes the range of
employee characteristics that are increasingly present in the
contemporary work force of the United States and other developed
countries. Although disagreement does exist over the specific
definition of diversity, for our purposes it includes differences in
employee and applicant characteristics (race, gender, ethnicity,
national origin, language, religion, age, education, intelligence,
and disabilities) that constitute the range of variation among human
beings in the work force.
Work force diversification is a set of changes in
organizational mission, culture, policies and programs designed to
enhance an organization's effectiveness by shifting its focus from
tolerating diversity to embracing diversity. In public agencies, a
diversification program includes a range of personnel functions: job
design, recruitment and retention, pay and benefits, orientation and
training, and performance evaluation and improvement.
Origin and History of Work Force Diversity
Work force diversity has its origins in complex and
interactive social, economic, political and legal changes that are
taking place in Europe, the United States, and other developed
nations today.
The work force in modern industrialized nations is becoming
socially more diverse. In the United States, it is comprised
increasingly of immigrants whose primary language is not English, and
whose primary norms are not those of "mainstream" American culture.
And in the United States, for example, only 15% of the increase in
the work force between 1985 and 2000 will be white, non-Hispanic
males; 64% of the growth will be women; and the remaining 31% will
comprise non-white males (native-born and immigrant) (Jamieson and
O'Mara, 1991). It will be older. And new and current workers will
require technical and professional skills increasingly in short
supply because of growing deficiencies in our educational system
(Johnston and Packer, 1987).
Work force diversity is not an isolated social change. It
results from increasing economic pressures for organizations to
remain competitive in the new global economy. Organizations strive
for diversity because an organization that effectively manages
diversity is more effective at producing goods or services suitable
for a diverse market. And a diverse organization is more effective
at selling them, because consumers from diverse groups are attracted
to the products or services of an organization that is attuned to
their culture, language and values.
Work force diversity is also based on increased political
power and legal protection of diverse groups, as these groups evolve
through several stages of empowerment and protection. First, members
of diverse groups are almost automatically excluded from the work
force, except for unskilled positions, because they are outside the
"mainstream" culture. This exclusion may be based in law as well as
custom. Second, as economic development and labor shortages
increase, these groups are admitted into the labor market, though
they face continued economic and legal discrimination and are
excluded from consideration for desirable professional and technical
positions. Third, as economic development and labor shortages
continue, and as their political power continues to increase, group
members are accepted for a range of positions, and their employment
rights are protected by laws guaranteeing equal employment access
(equal employment opportunity). Fourth, as these groups become
increasingly powerful politically, efforts to reduce the considerable
informal discrimination that continues in recruitment, promotion, pay
and benefits lead to establishment of work place policies such as
salary equality and employment proportionate with their
representation in the labor market. Achievement of these goals is
encouraged by voluntary affirmative action programs. If voluntary
achievement efforts are unsuccessful, conformance may be mandated by
affirmative action compliance agencies or court orders. Fifth,
continued social and political changes lead to the welcoming of
diversity as a desirable political and social condition, and
continued economic pressures lead to the development of work force
diversification programs for organizations that desire to remain
competitive.
These stages in the evolution of political power and legal
protection for diverse groups in the work force are shown below:
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________
Political Power and Legal Protection for Diverse Groups
in the Work Force
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________
Stage Employment Status Legal Protections
1 excluded from the work force none
2 admitted to the work force, but none
excluded from desirable jobs
3 accepted into the work force equal
employment
opportunity laws and
programs
4 recruited into the work force
affirmative action laws
5 welcomed into the work force
diversification programs
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________
Difference Between Diversification, Equal Employment Opportunity, and
Affirmative Action
Because the work force diversification programs found in the
contemporary work place are the current stage of an evolutionary
process defined by increased social participation, political power
and legal protection for minorities, it is understandable that some
people consider work force diversification programs to be simply "old
wine in new bottles" -- a contemporary variant on the equal
employment opportunity or affirmative action programs that have
characterized personnel management in the United States for the past
thirty years. However, work force diversification differs from equal
employment opportunity or affirmative action programs in five
important respects.
First, their purposes are different. Equal employment
opportunity programs are based on organizational efforts to avoid
violating employees' or applicants' legal or Constitutional rights.
And affirmative programs are based on organizational efforts to
achieve proportional representation of selected groups. But work
force diversification programs originate from managers' objective of
increasing organizational productivity and effectiveness.
Second, diversification programs include all employees, not
just employees in specified groups. Affirmative action laws protect
only the employment rights of designated categories of persons (in
the United States, such groups as Blacks, Hispanics, native
Americans, Asian Americans, workers over 40, women, and Americans
with disabilities). But work force diversification programs are
based on recognition not only of these protected groups, but also of
the entire spectrum of characteristics (knowledge, skills, and
abilities) that managers and personnel directors need to recognize
and factor into personnel decisions in order to acquire and develop a
productive work force.
Third, work force diversification programs affect a broader
range of organizational activities. Affirmative action programs
emphasize recruitment, selection, and sometimes promotion because
those are the personnel functions most closely tied to proportional
representation of protected groups (see bureaucracy, representative).
But work force diversification programs include all personnel
functions related to organizational effectiveness (including
recruitment, promotion and retention, job design, pay and benefits,
education and training, and performance measurement and improvement).
Fourth, work force diversification programs have a different
locus of control. Affirmative action and equal employment
opportunity programs are based on managerial responses to outside
compliance agencies' requirements. However, work force
diversification programs originate as internal organizational
responses to managerial demands for enhanced productivity and
effectiveness (although this response is itself a reaction to
demographic changes in overall population).
Fifth, because of all of the above factors, the entire effect
of diversification programs is different. Affirmative action
programs tend to be viewed negatively by managers and employees,
because they are based on a negative premise ("what changes must we
make in recruitment and selection procedures to demonstrate a "good
faith effort" to achieve a representative work force, and thereby
avoid sanctions by affirmative action compliance agencies or
courts?"). In contrast, those work force diversification programs
that are most successful tend to be viewed as positive by managers
and employees, because they are based on a different question ("what
changes can we make in our organization's mission, culture, policies
and programs in order to become more effective and more
competitive?").
Impact on Organizational Mission, Culture, Policy and Practice
Work force diversification has an impact on organizations that
is both sweeping and subtle. It affects their mission, culture,
policy and practice in ways that are obvious and unexpected,
cumulative and dramatic.
Impact on Organizational Mission
Work force diversification encourages changes in the
organization's mission, or purpose. It starts from a recognition
among managers and personnel professionals that human resources are
increasingly vital to organizational survival and effectiveness; and
that diversification programs are the best way to foster the
effective use of human resources (National Performance Review, 1993).
Impact on Organizational Culture
Work force diversification requires changes in organizational
culture -- the values, assumptions and communication patterns that
characterize interaction among employees. These patterns are
invented, discovered or developed by members of the organization as
responses to problems; they become part of the culture as they are
taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel
in relation to these problems (Schein, 1981). Viewed from this
perspective, diversification is a change in the way organizations do
business, rather than just an adaptation of existing personnel
policies and programs to meet the specialized needs of minorities and
women. It is an effort to describe and understand the range of
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that members of diverse
cultures of diverse groups can bring to the work place. It is an
effort to consciously utilize these KSAs as a key to making
organizations successful and productive.
Impact on Human Resource Management Policy and Practice
A organization's decision to use work force diversity to
increase effectiveness causes changes in its human resource
management policy and practice (see human resources management).
Policy and practice are the rules and procedures that implement
organizational objectives. With respect to work force diversity,
these policies and practices are management's strategic plan for
accomplishing its mission through work force diversification. And
they are a message to employees, managers, and political leaders
about the value the agency places on diversity in particular and on
human resources in general. In an agency with effective human
resource management and effective work force diversification policies
and programs, this message is explicit and positive.
Work force diversification programs affect five specific areas
of human resource management policy and practice: recruitment and
retention, job design, education and training, benefits and rewards,
and performance measurement and improvement (see recruitment, job
design, training and development, and performance appraisal).
Recruitment and retention policies and programs include those
strategies already commonplace in affirmative action programs:
increasing the applicant pool of under-represented groups, increasing
their selection rate by developing valid alternatives for tests that
have an disparate impact, and evaluating performance evaluation and
mentoring systems so as to encourage retention. Yet they differ
because of the ways work force diversification differs from
affirmative action. Their purpose is productivity enhancement
through a diverse work force rather than legal compliance through
recruitment or selection quotas (see goals and quotas); they apply to
a broader spectrum of applicant and employee characteristics; they
include a broader range of personnel activities; their locus of
control is internal rather than external, and their tone is positive
rather than negative.
Job design is also affected, in that work force diversification
efforts usually lead managers to consider changes in where and how
employees do work (Morgan and Tucker, 1991). To attract and retain
women with child- and elder-care responsibilities into the work
force, options that offer flexibility of work locations and schedules
need to be considered. To attract and retain persons with
disabilities, reasonable accommodation must be offered to make the
work place physically accessible and to make jobs available to
persons who are otherwise qualified to perform the primary duties of
the position (ADA, 1992).
Education and training programs are influenced in two ways by
diversification programs. First, employer concerns with the
educational preparation of future workers have led to greater
employer involvement in areas that used to be considered the domain
of public school systems. Work force training programs now include
basic skills unrelated to specific job tasks (such as literacy and
English as a second language). And there is increasing interest in
strengthening federal and state sponsored job training programs, and
in sponsoring joint business-government policy initiatives such as
tax incentives for costs associated with business training programs.
Second, employers now routinely develop and present managerial and
supervisory training courses on multi-cultural awareness and
sensitivity.
Pay and benefit policies often become more flexible and innovative as
diversification progresses. Because women are the traditional family
care givers, an employer's ability to attract a diverse work force
depends upon providing flexible benefits; benefits for part-time as
well as full-time positions; parental leave, child- and elder-care
support programs; and phased retirement policies for older workers
(see family leave and flexitime).
Performance measurement and productivity improvement programs often
change focus because of the assumptions underlying work force
diversification programs. Managers and supervisors now need to
consider the differing values and motivational perspectives of a
diverse work force (Rubaii-Barrett and Beck, 1993). Work force
diversity has also brought about changing definitions of productivity
based on the need for variation in managerial styles, and resultant
dramatic increases in organizational effectiveness (Loden and
Rosener, 1991). And as work teams themselves become more diverse,
group evaluation techniques that recognize the importance of
individual contributions to work teams also need to be encouraged.
The common threads linking these five areas of personnel
policy and practice are their common objective of increased
organizational effectiveness, and their cumulative impact on
organizational culture. Organizations that wish to attract and keep
a diversified work force must change the culture of the organization
to create a climate in which persons from diverse groups feel
accepted, comfortable and productive. And this is why the tone of
work force diversification programs differs from their affirmative
compliance program predecessors -- affirming diversity is different
from tolerating or accepting it.
Work Force Diversification and Other Management Trends
Public policy and administration is a river of theory and
practice comprising many currents, some conflicting with each other.
Thus, it is to be expected that work force diversification programs
are consistent with some contemporary management trends, in that they
share common assumptions and objectives. And these programs are
inconsistent with other trends that derive from opposing assumptions
and objectives.
Consistent Management Trends
Work force diversification programs are consistent with trends
such as employee involvement and participation, employee development,
Total Quality Management, and non-adversarial dispute resolution.
Employee involvement and participation are considered essential for
maintaining high productivity (at least among employees in key
professional and technical positions). Even in the absence of
significant financial rewards, employees tend to work happily and
effectively when they have the necessary skills, see their work as
meaningful, feel personally responsible for productivity, and have
first-hand knowledge of the actual results of their labor. These
psychological states are most likely to result from work designed to
incorporate characteristics such as variety, significance,
self-control, and feedback. They are the objective of work place
innovations such as delegation, flexible work locations and
schedules, job sharing, management by objectives (MBO), and Total
Quality Management (TQM).
Employee development is related to diversification, at least for key
professional and technical employees, because it (a) focuses planning
and budget analysis on human resources; (b) facilitates cost-benefit
analysis of current training and development activities; and (c)
facilitates communication and commitment of organizational goals
through employee participation and involvement (Rosow and Zager,
1988; and Bernhard and Ingols, 1988). This includes training for
diversity (Solomon, 1993).
Total Quality Management (TQM) is an organizational change process
that involves a combination of top-down and bottom-up activities:
assessment of problems, identification of solutions, and designation
of responsibilities for resolving them. It focuses on the connection
between the quality of the work environment and the quality of
individual, team and organizational performance (Deming, 1988). It
is similar to team building and organizational development (French
and Bell, 1990). And it is congruent with work force diversification
efforts because, like diversification, it focuses on a transformation
of organizational culture, policies and programs so as to enhance
productivity.
Non - adversarial dispute resolution is a philosophy and practice that
has become more common because the challenge of channeling diversity
into productivity is complicated by the breadth of expectations
members of diverse cultures bring to their work, both as individuals
and as members of those cultures. Without a method of settling
disputes that models the organization's commitment to tolerance and
respect, differences lead only to divisiveness that consumes
organizational resources without positive results (Thomas, 1990).
And there is general recognition that traditional adversarial dispute
resolution techniques are not particularly effective at resolving
organizational conflicts: they build acrimony, harden bargaining
positions, and delay the resolution of the original conflict.
Therefore, innovative conflict resolution techniques such as "win-
win" negotiation and group problem-solving have become more popular.
These "non-adversarial" techniques are often more effective, and the
have the additional advantage of modeling the organization's
commitment to respect, tolerance, and dignity.
Opposing Management Trends
On the other hand, work force diversification also conflicts
with other current trends in human resource management that are
caused by some of the same economic pressures: temporary employment,
cost containment, and job simplification.
Temporary and part-time employment is an increasingly common
phenomenon in the public and private work place because it offers
managers and personnel managers overwhelming advantages --
flexibility, cost control, and circumvention of personnel ceilings or
civil service rules. But it does have disadvantages for applicants
and some employees, in that it has also meant the creation of two
segmented labor markets (Doeringer and Piore, 1975): a primary
market for skilled managerial, professional and technical positions
characterized by high pay, high status, and job security; and a
secondary market for less skilled laborer and service positions
characterized by low pay, low status, and employment insecurity.
While employers will increasingly utilize minorities and women
because of changing work force demographics and a labor shortage,
most new jobs will be created in the service sector and filled
through the secondary labor market (Hudson Institute, 1988), and most
employment opportunities for minorities and women will be in these
new jobs rather than in more desirable professional and technical
positions filled through primary labor markets. Jobs filled
(coincidentally mainly by white males) through the primary labor
market have relatively high qualifications, and this marked
difference in qualifications creates a "glass ceiling" that hinders
development or promotion of employees (particularly minorities and
women) from jobs filled through the secondary market (see glass
ceiling).
Cost containment due to economic pressure also runs counter to the
pay and benefit innovations fostered by work force diversification
programs, in that they lead to reduced pay and benefits for all
employees. Professional and technical employees will continue to
receive comparatively liberal health benefits to help ensure
retention and loyalty. But their pension benefits will continue to
be eroded by longer vesting periods, higher retirement ages, and a
shift to defined-contribution programs. Their health care benefits
will continue to be reduced through increased premiums, longer
waiting periods, and benefit limitations. But it will be worse for
temporary or part-time employees, who often receive no pension,
health care, vacation, or sick leave benefits of any kind.
Job simplification is also a logical outcome of the increased use of
temporary and part-time employees: employers are forced to lower
skill demands or training costs by "simplifying" rather than by
"enriching" jobs. That is, employers invest little, if anything, in
training temporary employees. And wherever possible, jobs filled
through the secondary labor market are redesigned to minimize
knowledge and skill requirements so that even untrained and
unmotivated employees can perform them satisfactorily. This means
designing jobs with simple and repetitive tasks, rather than giving
employees control over a complete job. It makes making quality
control a supervisory responsibility (as in traditional, hierarchical
organizations) rather than empowering individuals or work teams to
perform this function themselves. And for these temporary employees,
the relationship between employees and employer is unlikely to be
more than an economic transaction (pay for work). The assumptions
underlying management of "permanent" professional and technical
employees (such as involvement, participation, employee development,
and careers) will not apply to temporary employees.
Implications for Elected Officials and Public Administrators
Work force diversity implies changing role expectations and
role conflict for elected officials, managers and supervisors,
employees, personnel professionals, and affirmative action compliance
specialists charged with developing or implementing personnel
management policies in public agencies.
Elected Officials
For elected officials, it means making difficult choices among
policy options that often conflict. These include pressures for
"reinventing" government that take the form of continued pressure on
public agencies to measure outputs, increase efficiency, and enhance
political accountability. In public personnel administration, it
means the relative ascendancy of political responsiveness and
efficiency as values; and the need for personnel administrators to
work with other systems (besides traditional civil service and
collective bargaining) to enable agencies to reach objectives and
control costs (Klingner and Nalbandian, 1993). And providing public
services outside of traditional civil service systems controls the
apparent size of the public "bureaucracy" while enhancing
opportunities for contracting out. Consequently, much government
growth has been through secondary labor market mechanisms, and
through alternative vehicles for delivering public services:
purchase of service contracting, franchise agreements, subsidy
arrangements, vouchers, volunteers, self-help, regulatory and tax
incentives (International City Management Association, 1989). While
it is possible to influence the personnel practices of contractors
through minority business programs and "set-asides" (contracting
quotas), the use of alternative methods of service delivery reduces
the ability of the public sector to directly shape agency mission,
culture, policies and procedures so as to achieve work force
diversity.
Managers and Supervisors
Managers and supervisors are faced with the need to maintain
productive organizations in the face of two contradictory truths: it
is usually easier to make decisions and resolve conflicts in a
homogeneous organization, at least in the short run; and
organizations must be adaptable to heterogeneous and shifting
environments in order to survive in the long run. This means that
managers will continue to be evaluated along two criteria -- short-
term productivity, and changes in organizational culture which enable
the organization to enhance long-term effectiveness.
Employees
Employees face the need to communicate, interact, form work
teams, resolve conflicts, and make decisions with other employees who
may be unlike them in many characteristics. And they will do so in a
climate of increased work place tension due to the transformation of
labor markets and increased employment opportunity for skilled and
unskilled foreign workers. These changes pit workers against each
other, and pit new applicants against current employees.
Human Resource Managers
As always, human resource managers face the need to manage
human resource efficiently and effectively. With respect to work
force diversity, this means the need to develop and apply two
apparently contradictory human resource strategies: policies for
temporary employees designed to control costs, and policies for
permanent employees designed to ensure loyalty, participation and
asset development as human resources. Yet because asset development
and cost control are both valid objectives, this ambivalence will
continue. And because effective human resource management depends
upon the communication of clear and consistent messages, public
personnel managers find it increasingly difficult when they must send
different messages to different employees.
In general, therefore, work force diversity is consistent with
demands on public officials and administrators for more innovation.
Human resource managers who recognize the dynamism and conflict
inherent in their roles are more likely to maintain an innovative and
appropriate balance between conflicting objectives. But cultivating
innovation among public managers requires characteristics usually not
present in the culture of contemporary organizations -- reward
systems that reinforce risk-taking, and do not penalize failure.
Affirmative Action Compliance Specialists
The transition from affirmative action compliance to work
force diversification presents affirmative action compliance
specialists with a difficult dilemma. Traditionally, affirmative
action specialists have relied upon their authority as interfaces
between the organization and external compliance agencies. Given the
five critical differences between affirmative action compliance and
work force diversification, these specialists need redefine their own
role and culture in the organization.
Examples of Work Force Diversity Programs in Practice
There are many examples of successful and unsuccessful work
force diversification programs in a range of private- and public-
sector organizations. Examples include:
- The National Performance Review (1993) recommended a number of
changes to move managers from an orientation toward personnel
procedures toward creation and maintenance of a quality,
diverse work force.
- Corning Glass Works evaluates managers on their ability to
"create a congenial environment" for diverse employees.
- Mobil Corporation created a special committee of executives to
identify high-potential female and minority executive job
candidates, and to place them in line management positions
viewed as critical for advancement through the "glass ceiling"
(Morgan and Tucker, 1991).
- Dr. Robert McCabe, President of Miami-Dade Community College,
recently won a MacArthur Foundation Award for educational
leadership, including a ten-year emphasis on Work force
diversity as a key to community involvement and mission
achievement.
- AT&T Bell Laboratories focuses its recruitment efforts on
acquiring "the best and the brightest, regardless of race,
lifestyle or physical challenges. This has resulted in a
comprehensive diversification program.
- Dallas, Texas developed a diversification program that
involved modifications in the delivery of city services, and
the formation of a development corporation for an
underdeveloped minority area of the city.
- San Diego, California developed a diversification program that
involved a shift in organizational culture, and consequent
changes in policy and practice.
Characteristics of Effective and Ineffective Programs
In almost all cases, the effort to implement work force
diversification programs starts with both top-level support and
efforts of a broad-based committee that assesses organizational
culture, sets goals, and suggests policy and program alternatives.
If the focus of diversification is an organization, the focus of
diversification programs is internal climate, policies and programs.
In large organizations, the policy and program alternative stage may
involve the work of several related task forces, each focusing on a
defined area of personnel practice such as recruitment and retention.
If the focus is an entire city or community, the focus may include
economic and social development initiatives as well.
Effective Work Force Diversification Programs
Experts have proposed a relatively uniform set of criteria for
assessing the effectiveness of work force diversity policies and
programs. These include:
a. a broad definition of diversity that includes a range of
characteristics, rather than only those used to define
"protected classes" under existing affirmative action;
b. a systematic assessment of the existing culture to determine
how members at all levels view the present organization;
c. top-level initiation of, commitment to, and visibility of work
force diversity as an essential organizational policy rather
than as a legal compliance issue or staff function;
d. establishment of specific objectives;
e. integration into the managerial performance evaluation and
reward structure;
f. coordination with other activities such as employee
development, job design, and TQM; and
g. continual evaluation and improvement.
Ineffective Work Force Diversification Programs
On the other hand, insufficient top-level commitment or
organizational visibility generally renders diversification efforts
unsuccessful because the program's long-term impact on organization
mission or culture is inadequate (Denison, 1990).
Donald E. Klingner
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