Monuments and Memory in the Age of Augustus

The Roman RepublicTacitus associates the idea of a Republic with the ideas of ‘liberty and the consulship’. The actual era of the Republic was interrupted by brief dictatorships, which increased in their claims of power until they led to the imperial power of Augustus. However, the Romans val-ued their idea of the Republic highly, and Augustus’ imperial role was both a reaction to it and drew on its popularity as a model.

The Republic was viewed by later authors as a Golden Age, and there was a movement to re-store it. Augustus himself claimed in the Res Gestae that he restored the Republic, a claim that is also shown by a coin depicting Augustus lifting a personified Res Publica to her feet. He shared responsibility with his peers, despite commanding a higher title.

The aims of the Republican system were:

1. To place power with the people2. To limit that power by rotation and collegiality

The system was stable because all bodies could overrule each other and competition was fierce, so theoretically no one could upset the system.

Towards the end of the Republic, the empire expanded. There were more resources, more wealth, for those of the elite who were in power to compete with each other. The competition became fiercer and more brutal. There was a breakdown of aristocratic consensus and co-op-eration was reduced. The wealth gap also increased, which naturally led to a rise in dictators, since the poor became more powerful as they became angrier. It was easy for leaders from the elite to appeal to that anger, which was supported by the professionalism of the army, giv-ing military leverage to the leader.

This competitive structure was reflected in the architecture of the city of Rome. There were many monuments supporting powerful individuals, such as tombs, columns, statues and tem-ples. These were power statements made by the military and the elite to ensure both their own

10 tribunes of the people

12-20 quaestors

4 aediles

4-6 praetors

2 consul

s

concilium plebis

comitia tributa

comitia centuriata

senate increasing formal power

increasing actual power

and their family’s success. The triumphal route, which was the dream of every Roman man to process along, was marked all around by such monuments.

The dictators stood out above all these monuments by having the funds to build even bigger ones, such as Sulla’s tabularium and Pompey’s Theatre. Such struc-tures set the precedent for Augustus’ own architectural regime.

LivyTitus Livius Patavinus lived between 59 BC and 17 AD, which makes him almost an exact contemporary of Augustus. He was a rich man from Padua, but was not born a member of the Roman political elite.

Livy wrote a history of Rome chronologically in the Annals format, in 142 books. We have books 1-10, which cover Aeneas to 293 BC, and books 21-45, which cover 219-167 BC. The history extended up to 9 BC. We also have the Periochae, which as summaries of each book, written by a later author. However, these are not entirely accurate or reliable.

In each book, Livy divides the events into domi (domestic events) and militiae (military events). This creates a constant pattern of expansion and contraction, moving the focus out-wards then bringing it back into Rome. The structure emphasised the fact that to be a good Roman, one had to excel both abroad and at home, and that Rome was constantly at war. In contrast to this, Augustus’ reign placed a huge emphasis on peace.

Livy began his works in 30 BC and made them a continu-ous project for the rest of his life. The first 5 books were published between 27 and 25 BC, which was in the middle of huge political change, so would have had an influence on current affairs. This makes them a good source for the time of Augustus, as they give an indication of Roman culture at the time.

The preface to his works begins in a self-deprecating way, acknowledging that although the readers may be interested in current affairs, ancient history would allow them to es-cape from it. It places great emphasis on the importance of memory and reputation, acknowl-edges that the early stories may be more myth than actual history, but compares the early moral values with their ensuing decline. He looks to history to find guidance for both the present and the future.

Livy believed that exempla could be drawn from history. This meant looking at historical fig-ures and characters to promote moral examples of behaviour, such as the example of Marcus

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

I restored the Capitol and the The-atre of Pompey, both works at great

expense, without inscribing my name upon them.

RES GESTAE

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

As inherited values gradually col-lapsed, traditional morality was first undermined and then like a

house of cards collapsed with ever-increasing rapidity, until the head-

long plunge towards disaster brought us to our present state, in

which we find our vices intolerable.

LIVY

Atilius Regulus in keeping his word (fides). Livy gives exempla for almost every situation and almost every type of person. He uses these to engage the reader, to make them select their moral code to follow as they read his his-tory. Augustus often looked at exempla for his own moral code, and even used them to instruct other people in their behaviour. Many of the statues in the Forum of Augustus were characters from Livy’s histories.

Although Tacitus says that Livy was a sympathiser with Pompey (even Augustus calls him a Pompeian), Livy and Augustus were friends. Livy also treats the assassins of Caesar with equality, not denying that they did kill him, but also ac-knowledging them for their achievements. He also takes care to explain the aetiology of cus-toms and traditions, such as the origins of the spolia opima. This raises the interesting ques-tion of how he may have viewed Augustus’ changing of the tradition of the spolia opima – in his histories, Livy calls upon the reader to judge for themselves. Augustus may also have re-ferred to Livy when deciding which pronomen to take: he was considering calling himself Romulus. Livy gives an extended history of Romulus, exploring both his good and bad deeds, and concluding with a positive opinion.

Augustus and ApolloAugustus had a close affiliation with the god Apollo. This could have been for a number of reasons:

1. He was staying in Apollonia when he heard of Caesar’s death and his own inheritance2. The battle of Actium took place near a sanctuary to Apollo3. A piece of public land near his house on the Palatine was struck by lightning and said

to be claimed by Apollo, so Augustus built a temple to him there4. He rebuilt the temple to Apollo at Actium5. He came to a banquet of the Twelve Gods as Apollo6. He melted down statues of himself and used the profits to dedicate offerings to Apollo

Apollo was associated with art, moder-ation and self-knowledge: all attributes that Augustus strove to achieve.

In the propaganda war between Octa-vian and Antony, they took on associa-tions with different gods. Antony was more associated with Dionysus: Plutarch relates that he entered Eph-esus surrounded by people dressed as maenads and was hailed with epithets

used of Dionysus, such as ‘The Gentle’ and the ‘Bringer of Joy’. However, the positive pro-

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

I genuinely believe that Rome, as a state, has achieved unprecedented greatness, unparalleled respect for religion, unrivalled wealth of noble

exemplars.

LIVY

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

About 80 silver statues of myself on foot, on horseback, or in a chariot, had been erected in

the city. I myself removed them and with the money realised from them I placed gold gifts in the temple of Apollo in my name and in that of

those who put up the statues in my honour.

RES GESTAE

paganda could also be turned around: Octavian’s supporters chose to see Antony/Dionysus with the epithet ‘the Devourer’, and mocked his claimed descent from Hercules with the story of Hercules being enslaved by an Eastern queen, while Antony’s supporters chose to call Oc-tavian by ‘Apollo Tortor’.

Once he was emperor, Octavian built the Temple to Palatine Apollo next to his house on the Palatine hill. This was said to be the most beautiful temple in Rome. The temple was filled with Greek sculpture, had a library with both Greek and Latin texts, and was large enough to accommodate meetings of the senate. The splendour of this temple emphasised the modesty of Augustus’ own property next to it. In the temple, Apollo was represented with a lyre, which promoted the idea of a peaceful god. However, the doors depicted Apollo as the slayer of the Niobids and the victor over the Gauls at Delphi, which symbolised a vengeful god. Statues of the Danaids filled the porticoes, an iconography that was full of symbolism of the East/West conflict and civil war.

There was already an old temple to Apollo at the foot of the Capitol. This was restored by Gaius Sosius, who was an important lieutenant of Mark Antony. After Actium, Octavian par-doned him and allowed him to complete his temple. Although this monument was begun in competition with Octavian, it was completed in tribute to him. This temple depicted the Ama-zonomachy, which was more East/West conflict symbolism.

The Forum of AugustusThis construction contrasts with the Temple to Palatine Apollo: Apollo was a Greek god and associated with peace, whereas the Forum was very much a Roman statement that was asso-ciated with war. Where the Temple was chiefly a reaction to the Battle of Actium, the Forum was built as a dedication and statement of revenge after the Battle of Philippi.

The Roman forum and Caesar’s forum both preceded the Forum of Augustus. Fora had a sim-ilar function to the agora: they were centres for politics, trade and legal affairs. The Roman forum was an open, unplanned space, filled with memorial statues. This contrasted with the structured spaces of the fora of Julius Caesar and Augustus, which extended out of the Ro-man forum. The forum of Julius Caesar centred around the temple to Venus Genetrix, which emphasised the Julian family’s descent from Venus, while the forum of Augustus centred around the temple to Mars Ultor, which emphasised the descent of Romulus from Mars. These two fora were therefore associated, through their tutelary deities, with the foundation myth of Rome.

Later emperors imitated the style of the Forum of Augustus, with its exhedra on each side of the main forum rectangle, and colonnades of summi viri. The forum was Augustus’ greatest architectural project, a personal project funded from spoils of war. The temple of Mars Ultor was the second biggest in Rome – outsized only by the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. It was made entirely out of marble. It con-tained a statue of Augustus on a qaudriga in the centre, which held the inscription pater patriae. The large open space in the centre of the forum and the lower height of the (finely decorated) colonnades helped to emphasise the size of the temple. The wall behind the temple shielded it from fires, which were common in the Subura.

The Forum was first vowed after the battle of Philippi, but was actually completed 40

years later, due to the time taken to acquire the land from private owners. The dedication of the temple was rushed to coincide with the ceremony of the toga virilis of Augustus’ grand-som Lucius. The Forum served several functions for war, as listed by Suetonius and Cassius Dio:

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

SUETONIUSThe temple of Mars was built in fulfilment of a vow made during the war of Philippi, under-taken by him to avenge his father's murder. He ordained that the senate should always as-semble there when they met to deliberate re-specting wars and triumphs; thatthence should be despatched all those who were sent into the provinces in the command of armies; and that in it those who returned victorious from the wars should lodge the tro-

All along the colonnades were statues of great Roman leaders. In the left exhedra was Aeneas carrying Anchises and leading Ascanius, along with the early kings of Alba Longa and the early Julii. A statue of Romulus stood in the right exhedra. This formula represented that of a Roman house, which would have the death-masks of the family’s ancestors along the walls of the entrance-hall, and therefore placed Augustus as the paterfamilias of all great Romans.

PropertiusPropertius lived from 49/7 – 16 BC as an equestrian. He seems to have been financially inde-pendent, but may have had patronage from Maecenas. He published his first book of poetry at around the time of the battle of Actium. Where some poetry of the Augustan era was hailed as everlasting monuments, and certain poems as monuments specifically to Augustus, Proper-tius’ poetry is difficult to define as either supportive or counter-cultural. Propertius wrote love elegies, which was a new genre with one line of hexameter and one of pentameter. It was begun by Cornelius Gallus, the first prefect of Egypt. It was often used in opposition to epic poetry.

Book 1

After the Battle of Philippi, Octavian had to settle 4000 veterans by taking land from farmers. Lucius and Fulvia, Mark Antony’s brother and wife, started to revolt against him in Perusia in 41 BC. Octavian’s grip on Italy at the time was tenuous, so he and Agrippa besieged the rebels and made them surrender in March 40 BC. This gave out a clear message for future re-bellions. In Book 1, Propertius writes poems from the point of view of one of the victims of Perusia. He goes out of his way to connect himself with that area, even claiming that he came from that area, whereas in fact he was from Assissi. He does not give a positive view of the outcome of the battle of Perusia, neither directly attacking Augustus nor defending him.

Book 2

Propertius addresses Maecenas and rejects the composition of epic. In this rejection, he hon-ours Caesar’s achievements, but at the same time mentions the worse aspects of his rise to power. He would rather have his poetry be a source of comfort to lovers than a monument to

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

CASSIUS DIOThose who were passing from the class of boys and were being en-rolled among the youths of military age should invariably [go there]; that those who were sent out to commands abroad should make that their starting-point; that the senate should take its votes there in re-gard to the granting of triumphs, and that the victors after celebrat-ing them should dedicate to this Mars their sceptre and their crown; that such victors and all others who receive triumphal honours should have their statues in bronze erected in the Forum; that in case military standards captured by the enemy were ever recovered they should be placed in the temple; that a festival should be cele-brated besides the steps of the temple by the cavalry commanders of each year . . . .

Augustus. He also protests against Augustus’ ideal Roman: the non-adulterous child-bearing type. Propertius wants to be able to love his Muse, Cynthia, however he wants.

Book 3

Propertius compares love and war, mentioning Caesar’s achievements but preferring the ben-efits of love. He often portrays himself as a slave to his mistress, a servitium amoris. This is exactly how Antony is portrayed with Cleopatra, and is again the opposite of the ideal Ro-man, who would be an independent, powerful man. Equivalents of slave status, such as a lover or a gladiator, were extremely shameful in Roman society. However, Propertius argues that the more servile one becomes, the greater benefits one can reap – not only from a com-manding lover, but from Augustus. The more people obey him, the more powerful they can become.

Book 3 also contains his famous poem about Cleopatra. It is mostly offensive, but contains some sections that compare her rule to Octavian’s.

HoraceHorace was born from a freedman in 65 BC in Southern Italy. It was therefore a huge achievement for him to rise to the friendship of the emperor from such a relatively low back-ground. However, his father was wealthy enough as an auctioneer (yielding equivalent wealth to the equites) to give Horace the best education available by sending him to Rome and Athens, which allowed him to be educated with the sons of senators.

When Horace was in Athens, he became caught up with the circle of Brutus and Cassius. Al-though he fought with them (and therefore on the wrong side!) at Philippi, he was a tribune – a rank usually reserved for equites. After the Battle, he had his property confiscated, but bought a respectable post in the bureaucracy under Octavian. He then had a farm bought for him by Maecenas, which, along with his poetry, allowed him to become financially indepen-dent.

Horace imitates Antilochus in his poetry, especially when he looks back on his youthful mili-tary adventures, and plays himself as the anti-hero. Virgil introduced Horace to Maecenas, and through him became friends with Augustus, who liked his poetry so much he offered him the post of secretary. Horace turned this post down, but did accept the commissions of writ-ing the Secular Hymn, a victory hymn for Tiberius and Drusus, and a fourth book of lyric po-etry. At first, Horace did not address or honour Augustus at all, but then did write an epistle for him after a brief reproach.

Horace’s works were the Satires (ironic moral instruction), the Epodes (ironic iambic poetry), the Odes (archaic Greek epic) and the Epistles (letters).

The Carmen Saeculare

• A saeculum was a period of 100 years, rep-resenting the longest human lifespan.

• The Secular Games involved feasts and sac-rifices.

• They were missed in 49 BC because of Cae-sar crossing the Rubicon, so Augustus cele-brated them later in 17 BC.

• Traditionally the Secular Games celebrated the gods of the underworld, and sacrifices happened at night, but Augustus changed them to daytime celebrations in honour of Apollo and Artemis, motherhood and child-birth, with emphasis on new beginnings. Ho-race’s poem reflected this, and was per-formed on the 3rd June by a chorus of 27 boys and 27 girls.

Odes

The most famous of these is Ode 1.37 about Cleopatra. It begins ‘nunc est bibendum’, along the theme of drink and the appropriate time to drink: Romans can drink now that Cleopatra is dead; Cleopatra got drunk with Antony but sobered up for the Battle of Actium; Cleopatra drank venom to secure her doom. By combining the ideas of drinking moderated by the ap-propriate time to drink, Horace combines the Bacchic and Apollonian principles of Antony and Octavian.

Horace addresses his first Ode to Maecenas, who had been left in charge of Italy while Agrippa and Octavian were campaigning. This poem talks of portents and a huge flood in as-sociation with Octavian’s consideration to take on the name Augustus – which was possibly a warning against going the same way as Caesar, and being killed because of taking on a name that gave him too much power. Horace parallels Octavian with Mercury rather than Apollo.

In Ode 3.30 Horace declares his poetry as an immortal monument for himself. He claims that his monument is more durable than Augustus’ marble ones.

VirgilPublius Vergilius Maro was born in 70 BC near Mantua. Little is known about him, apart from the fact that in 41-42 BC, his land was confiscated for the veterans of the Battle of Philippi. He went to Rome to retrieve the land, and succeeded after he entered the circle of Maecenas. His works include the doubted Appendix Vergiliana from his youth, the Eclogues

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

When night spreads o’er the earth and sun has veiled its light, there make your sacri-fices of lambs and goats...conciliate with sacrifices too the Ilithyae, goddesses of

childbirth...by day and not by night, since for the gods of heaven it is the day that is

the right and proper time to offer up a sac-rifice. Phoebus Apollo too...let him receive

offerings like these. Let Latin hymns be sung by boys and girls to fill the Immortals’

shrine.

ZOSIMUS (SYBILLINE ORACLES)

(10 short poems about shepherds), the Georgics (4 books of didactic epic on farming) and the Aeneid (12 books of heroic epic).

The Eclogues

These are modelled on the Idylls of Theocritus, a Greek poet from Syracuse. They are set in the fantasy land of shepherds and singers, with love poems and contests between the char-acters. They show an idealised view of the countryside from a city-dweller’s perspective. They were published in 38-9 BC, when the outcome of Actium was still uncertain. There are only a couple of political references, for example eclogue 8, where Virgil describes a poetic contest, but interrupts it with a reference to Sophocles, which could be an indirect address to Pollio or Octavian, who wrote tragedy. Eclogue 4 is certainly ad-dressed to Pollio, and is known as the Messianic eclogue, because it talks of a new birth and new golden age. This perhaps refers to the attempted truce between Antony and Octavian through the marriage of Octavia, and hopes for a child to cement the truce.

Eclogue 9 refers to the land around Mantua being confiscated, as does Eclogue 1, which con-trasts two shepherds: one who has had his land confiscated, the other who has kept his.

Eclogue 6 is almost a rejection of writing epic, which addresses another of his patrons, Varus, telling him to look for another bard for the task.

The Georgics

These are modelled on Hesiod. They appear as a farm-ing manual, but are again a city-dweller’s ideal of the country life. They deal more with the meaning of life in the context of farming. They were written during the civil war, and first read to Octavian in 29 BC. They be-gin with an address of Octavian as a god, and Book 1 ends with a prayer to the great gods to let Octavian save home.

Book 3 seems to show Virgil moving towards his composition of epic. He compares his fu-ture work to a temple in which he can place a statue of Caesar, describing in detail the con-quests he will tell of, the aetiology of the Romans and the Julian clan. However, in the actual Aeneid, Virgil does not quite fulfil this.

The Aeneid

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

We are now forced to leave the confines of our country, the landscape we love. For we are refugees...

Shall I ever see again...the borders of my country? Will some blaspheming soldier now possess my fallow fields,

once lovingly tilled? Or some barbarian harvest my crops? That’s the price we pay, we wretched citizens, for civil dis-cord. Ours was the labour in sowing the fields, theirs the

reward.

VIRGIL, ECLOGUE 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Lost is all honour for the plough-man’s trade; our fields squalid,

bereft of farmers, lie untilled; into straight swords are melted all our

round pruning hooks.

VIRGIL, GEORGICS 1

Later epic poets used this monument to Augustus as a model. Servius, a 4th century commen-tator, says that Virgil’s aim was to imitate Homer and to praise Augustus through reference to his ancestors. However, Virgil’s praise of Augustus is not always direct, so does not exactly answer Augustus’ request for an epic poem dedicated to him. This may be because the aim to praise Augustus clashes with the aim to emulate Homer: Homer was not commissioned to write his poetry. Virgil tries to split the difference by keeping his praise ambiguous, for ex-ample:

• Homer uses many nature similes to describe his epic world; Virgil does the same, but also draws instances from daily Roman political life. When he describes a statesman calming the senators’ passion, he could be referring to Augustus, or a character like Bato, the last champion of the Republic, and a staunch opponent of Caesar.

• Jupiter’s prophecy about a man closing the gates of war of the temple of Janus seems to refer to Augustus – but the passage also contains unmistakeable references to Julius Caesar.

• Aeneas introduces himself as ‘pius Aeneas’, which is a principle emulated by Augus-tus. However, the fact that he introduced himself with his epithet is distinctly un-Homeric, and may be a discreet criticism of the gods’ treatment of him despite his piety.

• Dido could be seen as a parallel to Cleopatra: an Eastern queen who keeps the hero from his goal, yet behaves much more reasonably and generously than Aeneas in Book 4. When he meets her again in the underworld, she keeps her nobility.

• In Book 6, Anchises does explicitly point out Augustus and lists his achievements. However, this visit ends with the death of Marcellus, leaving ambiguity about the fu-ture of Rome after Augustus’ death. Aeneas also leaves via the gate of dreams, which casts yet more uncertainty over the convincing nature of these prophecies about Rome.

• Although Augustus is depicted fighting with Agrippa and celebrating his triple tri-umph on Aeneas’ shield, some of the other details don’t match. This could show the difficulty in the interpretation of art and the ambiguity of the prophecy.

• Aeneas’ response to Pallas’ death copies Achilles’ tradition of human sacrifice – but is a distinctly un-Roman tradition. He seems to become more un-Roman towards the end of the story, at first demonstrating the ideal Roman principles, then becoming more and more driven by revenge.

The Aeneid may be read in two different ways:

1. As a story of salvation of the Trojan wanderers, leading to the establishment of Rome2. As a story of increasing violence, despair and darkness, where Aeneas moves from

being an Augustan hero to one driven by revenge by Turnus’ murder of Pallas

OvidOvid says that he prepared to write epic, but ended up writing in love elegy metre. His works include:

The Amores

These are a collection of love elegies in 3 books. He begins these books with the word ‘arma’, which is a direct reference to Virgil. He says that if he had not written love elegy, he would have written an epic to rival that of Virgil’s.

The Ars Amatoria

Ovid sets himself up as a teacher of love, to educate his fellow Romans about relationships. He plays the erotodidaskalos, telling both men and women how to hone their amatory skills. This work may have run foul of Augustus’ moral reforms, even though it was not addressed to married women and did not promote adultery. Ovid does however play with the moral re-forms in his poetry, which was risky. It was because of this work and an ambiguous ‘error’ that Ovid was banished to Tomis. In apposition to the Ars Amatoria, Ovid wrote the Remedia Amatoris!

The Metamorphoses

Ovid finally wrote epic, in 15 books, covering the stories of creation to the age of Augustus along the theme of physical change. Ovid saw these as his masterpiece, legacy and monument that encapsulate both Greek and Roman values. The Metamorphoses deal with Greek myths, but are written in Latin and incorporate references to Augustus. They epitomise Roman ap-propriation of Greek mythology while passing on a huge amount of information that later painters and writers would draw on for inspiration. The Metamor-phoses incorporate many kinds of erotic desires, show anthropomorphic deities, celebrate corporeality rather than spirituality, show change, chaos and the discon-tent of civilisation through stories of revenge, murder and cannibalism – so overall are very un-Augustan in their themes.

The Fasti

At the same time as the Metamorphoses, Ovid was writing the Fasti, a six-book poem about the Roman calendar, covering January to June. However, they are clearly unfinished – and do not cover the most politi-cally important months, July and August.

The Tristia and the Epistulae ex Ponto

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

A city there arose...destined to set on every land on earth a conqueror’s foot.

Rome, may a universal rule be yours forever, and for ever your the rule of Caesar; may you oft possess not one but several Caesars; and when you

tower o’er a conquered world, I pray that you may stand for ever head and

shoulders over lesser men.

OVID, FASTI 4

These were written from his exile. They are an apologetic account of his life and poetic ca-reer, encompassing his own work and that of other poets as well as trying to defend his writ-ing.

The Augustan constitutional settlementAugustus spent 45 years in sole power, gaining it after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. During that time, he developed a political system that seemed to work. Everything Augustus did aimed to restore the Res Publica and preserve it.

42 BC Julius Caesar was deified and Octavian became ‘divi filius’

43-38 BC

Octavian was part of the Triumvirate of himself, Mark Antony and Lepidus, under the Lex Titia

37 BC The Triumvirate is renewed

33 BC This second Triumvirate expires, Octavian is consul for the 2nd time

32 BC There is an open oath of allegiance by the whole of Italy to Octavian

31 BC The Battle of Actium, Octavian’s 3rd consulship

30 BC Octavian’s 4th consulship in absentia

29 BC Octavian’s 5th consulship in absentia, begins to be called imperator, awarded cen-sor’s authority on his return to Rome with Agrippa, celebrates his triple triumph

28 BC 6th consulship jointly with Agrippa. They carry out the first lustration (ritual cleans-ing) of the Roman people since 70 BC and revise the senate list. Octavian cancels the Triumviral decrees

27 BC Octavian’s 7th consulship. On January 27th he officially restores power to the senate and is awarded the title ‘Augustus’. This transferral of potestas from himself to the senate was a long process (Res Gestae)

23 BC Augustus resigns the consulship. The senate begged him to take on supreme power of laws and moral, but he refused as it did not correspond with mores maiorum. He is given tribunician powers instead, along with a colleague, which involved:

• A formal position within the precincts of Rome• A right to summon people to assembly• Capital jurisdiction• The power to veto laws and decrees

And proconsular imperium maius, which involved:• Command in war• Capital jurisdiction• Power greater than the other proconsulars

22-19 BC

Campaigns in the East. In 20 BC the standards lost in Parthia by Crassus and Antony were returned

18 BC Augustus’ provincial and Agrippa’s proconsular imperium are renewed for 5 years, Agrippa is given tribunician powers.

13 BC Augustus returns from campaigns in Gaul and Spain, and celebrates by building the Ara Pacis Augustae

12 BC Lepidus dies, Augustus become Pontifex Maximus

Augustus’ Moral LegislationIt is not clear whether or not Augustus had a cohesive plan for his regime, but elements of a plan come through most strongly in his moral reforms. He states in the Res Gestae that he revived old laws and ‘handed on many model practices for posterity to imitate’ – he was looking to the past to create precedent for the fu-ture.

The moral reforms started in 28 BC, when Octavian and Agrippa were censors. Octavian possibly tried to introduce new legislation when he cancelled his Triumviral decrees. This is implied in a poem by Propertius, which states that his lover Cynthia was glad for a law that might separate them to be repealed.

The laws he appointed later in 18 BC were the

Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus

This imposed heavier penalties on unmarried men and women, offered privileges for mar-riage and children such as precedence when being chosen for office, allowed anyone except senators to marry freedwomen, forbade senators from marrying disreputable women, decreed that women had to re-marry one year after being widowed and 6 months after a divorce, or the penalties imposed for being single would re-apply.

Lex Iulia de adulteris coercendis

Adultery was defined as applying to a married woman. The penalty for adultery was death, and the confiscation of half the estate of a re-spectable person, corporal punishment for moder-ately wealthy people and relegation for poor people.

Augustus later introduced more laws, such as the Lex Iulia maiestatis in 8BC, which decreed death for traitors against the emperor and demolishing of their memory; the Fufia Coniuria in 2 BC, the Lex Aelia

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Augustus was the first to bring written libel within the scope of this law.

TACITUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Unmarried people who are forbid-den by the lex Julia to receive inher-

itances and legacies, and also the childless whom the lex Papia for-

bids to receive more than half of an inheritance or of legacies...

GAIUS

Sentia in 4 AD and the Lex Papia Poppaea in 9 AD, which was a modification of the Lex Iulia, al-lowing women to stay single for longer. In AD 5, he passed a law that allocated people places to sit in the theatre according to marriage status.

The Augustan Foreign PolicyVirgil sets out an ideology to hold the whole of the known world under Roman sway. However, this was not a realistic foreign policy.

There was expansion of the Roman Empire to the North, and Augustus intended to expand the empire to the Rhine and the Elbe. He dealt with revolts in Pannonia in AD 6-9, but Varrus lost three legions in Germany in AD 9. Augustus was certainly looking to expand the empire himself, but advised his successors not to expand the em-pire further. Augustus’ foreign exploits included:

Egypt

Added to the Roman Empire after the death of Cleopatra. Octavian symbolised its acquisition by the transferral of the obelisks to Rome.

Parthia and Armenia

Rome had a history of defeat in Parthia. Crassus had gone there in 53 BC, but instead lost lives and the standards. In 36 BC, Antony led an-other expedition there, but lost more men and more standards.

However, in 20 BC there was a diplomatic agreement with the Parthians to return the stan-dards, which was presented as a victory. In the same year, the Armenians rejected their king, and Augustus installed a man who had received his education in Rome. 20 years later, Gaius (Augustus’ grandson) met the Parthian king on an island in the Euphrates.

Judaea

Herod had supported Antony through the civil war, but after Actium came to Octavian offer-ing his support. Octavian was impressed and kept Herod as a client-king. Herod re-named and re-built several cities in his honour.

Spain

Augustus campaigned in Spain in 24-26 BC. This was the final campaign for which he opened the gates of the Temple of Janus.

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

This spectacle...with the two armies, Roman on one side, Parthian on the other...I was lucky

enough to see with my own eyes. On this occa-sion the Parthian king first dined with Gaius

on the Roman bank of the Euphrates, then Gaius dined with him on enemy soil.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

And when he reached Egypt, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, [Augustus]

not only heaped fresh honours upon [Herod], but also transferred on him the

territory which had been annexed by Cleopatra.

JOSEPHUS

The Alps

In 16-15 BC there were major campaigns in the Alps led by Tiberius and Drusus. Augustus claims in the Res Gestae that he pacified them.

Germany

From 13-9 BC Tiberius and Drusus campaigned in Germany. In 9 BC Varus lost several le-gions in the Teutoberg forest, and Tiberius tried to repair the damage the following year.

Religion under AugustusRoman religion was a set of practices interwoven within society. Therefore Augustus could not claim that he had restored religion, as that was inherent in society. He could claim to have restored the temples, to have taken up religious positions and to have reinstated certain reli-gious practices. There does not seem to have been a particular decline in religion in duty or piety before Augustus, but the state of the temples had certainly declined. Augustus built four key temples:

1. The temple of Mars Ultor2. The temple of Jupiter Feretrius3. The temple of Jupiter Tonans4. The temple of Palatine Apollo

Religious ceremony was closely connected with political positions. In the Res Gestae, the list of religious offices is placed in the middle of his political ones. Each phase of moral reform was accompanied by great religious ceremony. Augustus pontificate positions also allowed him to control the calendar, influencing Roman daily life.

Augustus was a member of the four key religious groups, all of which he held for life:

1. Pontificate since 48 BC2. Quindecimvir since 37 BC (one of 15 commissioners for sacred rites, in charge of the

Sibylline books, foreign cults and the Secular Games)3. Septemvir since 16 BC (one of 7 men in charge of sacred feasts)4. Augur since 41 BC (official diviner)

When he became Pontifex Maximus, he was the official head of state religion and in charge of the Vestal Virgins. Later, the role of Pontifex Maximus became part of imperial powers.

Around the ancient world, there arose a cult to the numen of Augustus. Altars to him were built at Fanum, Puteoli, Pergamum, Narbonne and Lugdunum.

Suetonius and BiographyA biography is an account of the life events of a human being. It was first used as a term in the 5th and 6th centuries BC. Precursors of biography were Thucydides, Pericles and Xenophon, who wrote about individuals within their historical works. Socratic literature from Xenophon and Plato was semi-biographical, as it reflected the characters of the speakers. An-cient biography would draw on any source, whether historical, fictitious or semi-biographical. Funeral speeches were a good source for biographies, as these would cover important factors such as their family, origin, hometown, education, talents, financial resources, appearance, relatives, friends, marriage, public posts and honours and fecundity. Hellenistic biography (founded by Hermippus, who had a tendency towards sensationalism) tended to focus on philosophers and writers; Suetonius was the first to move the genre to politicians. Roman bi-ography began better historical investigation and had a didactic element.

Suetonius was the leading biographer of the imperial period. He sets out his material chrono-logically and draws on both historical and local sources, creating a wide characterisation. His two key works were the Lives of the Caesars and On Great Men. Suetonius was born after AD 70 to a wealthy equestrian family. He entered political life under Trajan and continued under Hadrian, where in his position as secretary he had access to the imperial archives. However, he was eventually disgraced and fell from court.

‘De viris illustribus’ is a collection of works on various characters divided by genre: gram-marians, rhetoricians, poets and historians. ‘de vita Caesarum’ survives almost completely in-tact, covering the emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian. Nepos had already written some biographies on these characters, so Suetonius drew on him as a model. However, he set out his own biographies very distinctly: he defined the date and emperor at the beginning of each Life, and emphasises the private lives of the emperors, characterising them under vices and

virtues to create moralisation. Suetonius’ target audience was the equites, which explains his clarity, colloquialism and fluid style.

Apart from the Res Gestae, Suetonius’ Life of Augustus is the most important document on Augustus we have. Other works on him were written by Greek authors from the Easter part of the Empire. Suetonius had the advantage of being Italian, so understood Roman customs, and yet was distanced enough from Augustus’ reign to be objective, as well as being able to draw on a number of resources.

The structure of the Life of Augustus is as follows:

• 1-4: AUGUSTUS’ ANCESTRY• 5-8: AUGUSTUS’ BOYHOOD• 9-19: THE CIVIL WARS• 10: Augustus and Antony: Mutina• 11: Hirtius and Pansa: suspicion of foul play• 12: 43 B.C.: Octavian abandons the Optimate faction• 13: The Second Triumvirate: Philippi (42 B.C.) Proscriptions• 14: 40 B.C.: Perusia (15: ‘Arae Perusinae’)• 16: 38-36 B.C.: Sicily: Sextius Pompeius and Lepidus Naulochus• 17: 2 September 31 B.C.: Battle of Actium• 18: Antonius and Cleopatra• 19: Conspiracies and rebellions• 20-25: AUGUSTUS’ FOREIGN WARS AND MILITARY POLICY• 20: Wars Augustus fought in person• 21: Wars fought by proxy (legati). Frontier policy• 22: Peace: The Temple of Janus• 23: Triumphs and Disasters• 24: Military discipline• 25: Slaves in the military, military rewards. Augustus’ caution• 26-28: AUGUSTUS AND THE CONSTITUTION: THE ‘PRINCIPATE’• 26: The consulships (31-23, 12, 5)• 27: The triumvirate. Tribunicia potestas. Censorships• 28: Augustus and the Republic. The new regime• 29-34: SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS• 29: Public works in Rome• 30: Social services: fires and floods, road repair• 31: Religious policy• 32: Brigandage. Legal reforms• 33: Augustus as judge• 34: Moral legislation. Concern over the birth rate• 35-42: POLITICAL REFORMS: SENATE, EQUESTRIAN ORDER, THE PEOPLE• 35: Lectio Senatus. Legislative procedures• 36: Official bureaucratic procedures• 37: Senatorial committees. Revival of the censorship• 38: Military service for senators and equites• 39: Revision of the roll of the Equestrian order

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

The deified Augustus was a mild princeps. When, as triumvir, he shared the state with others, he

could kill the best of them.

SENECA

• 40: The populus: grain dole, elections, citizenship• 41: Augustus’ generosity• 42: Augustus’ moderation• 43-45: POLICY ON PUBLIC SPECTACLES• 43: Shows given by Augustus• 44: Legislation on public spectacles• 45: Augustus’ personal tastes. Actors• 46-50: ITALIAN AND IMPERIAL POLICY• 46: Colonies in Italy• 47: Provincial policies: Imperial visitations• 48: Client Kingdoms

• 49: Imperial troops. The cursus publicus. Military treasury

• 50: Augustus’ signet ring. The Sphinx• 51-60: AUGUSTUS’ PUBLIC VIRTUES• 51: clementia• 52: reverentia• 53: civilitas• 54: tolerantia• 55: Treatment of opposition• 56: humanitas. Behaviour in comitia and courts• 57: Equestrians and the plebs: Affection for Augustus• 58: Pater Patriae (2 B.C.)• 59: Prayers for his long life• 60: Gratitude on the part of client kings• 61-67: AUGUSTUS’ FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD• 61: His mother (Atia) and sister (Octavia Minor)• 62: His wives (Scribonia, Livia Drusilla)• 63: Julia his daughter• 64: His grandchildren (Gaius, Lucius, Agrippa Postumus, Agrippina Maior)• 65: Family disasters• 66: His close friends: Salvidienus, Gallus, Agrippa, Maecenas• 67: Slaves and freedmen• 68-83: AUGUSTUS’ PERSONAL HABITS AND PRIVATE LIFE• 68: Charges of effeminacy and homosexuality• 69: Charges of adultery and loose living• 70: A blasphemous banquet• 71: Summary of his vices• 72: His houses. The theme of ‘simplicity’• 73: Furniture and clothing• 74: Entertainment• 75: Holidays and feast days• 76: Food and appetite• 77: Drink• 78: Sleep• 79: Personal appearance• 80: Intimate details• 81: Health• 82: Personal care

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

As a speaker, Augustus possessed a spontaneity and grace of expression appropriate to the dignity of his own

position as princeps.

TACITUS

• 83: Exercise• 84-89: AUGUSTUS AS

A MAN OF LETTERS• 84: Oratory• 85: Written works: prose

and verse• 86: Style• 87: Peculiarities of ex-

pression• 88: Grammar, secret code• 89: Greek studies• 90-96: PERSONAL RE-

LIGION IN AUGUS-TUS’ LIFE

• 90: Lightning• 91: Dreams• 92: Omens• 93: Attitude to foreign cults• 94: Omens of Augustus’ birth and destiny• 95: Omens of his youth and public life• 96: Omens of his battles and victory

• 97-101: AUGUSTUS’ DEATH, BURIAL, AND DE-IFICATION (A.D. 14)

• 97: Omens of death• 98: Cause of death. The last journey to Nola• 99: The deathbed and last words• 100: His burial, honors, and deification ceremony• 101: His will, bequests, and final instructions

This basic pattern is the same for all the Lives. Details of physi-cal appearance and speeches were important, as they were thought to reflect character.

VitruviusVitruvius’ ‘de Architectura’ is the only extant source on architecture of the ancient world. It provides important information on Greek and Roman architectural techniques.

Vitruvius was trained as an architect under Caesar and was in charge of war machines under Augustus. He constructed aqueducts and the basilica at Farno, and received a pension from the princeps. He wrote his work upon retirement and dedicated it to Augustus.

The term ‘architect’ had a much wider meaning in the ancient world, covering the construc-tion of war machines and clocks as well as buildings. Vitruvius deals with these, and both pri-vate and public structures. He defines the knowledge an architect ought to have as both prac-tical experience (fabrica) and intellectual capacity (ratiocinatio). These should be interwoven to create the best architect. Skills an architect should have included:

Writing For communicating ideas

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

There were so many mutinies in his armies, so many bouts of life-threatening illness, Marcellus’ suspect ambitions, the dis-grace of Agrippa’s banishment, the fact that he was so often a target for assassination and the accusation that he murdered his own children. He knew much sorrow...at his daughter Ju-lia’s adultery. Then came the disaster to Varrus’ legions with the disgrace it brought to his own reputation, the enforced re-

jection of Agrippa Postumus...

PLINY

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Leisure seemed to him so great a blessing that he relished it in imagi-nation because he was denied it in reality. He derived the greatest joy from imagining the day on which he

would be able to lay aside his greatness.

SENECA

Drawing For sketches

Geometry, optics and arithmetic For calculation

Artistic talent, moral values and natural philosophy

For decorations and motifs

Musical knowledge For constructing theatres and war machines

Medicine and astronomy For choosing appropriate sites

Law For avoiding lawsuits and abiding by building regulations

Vitruvius sets out a rigorous and expansive education programme for architects. He advises them not to specialise in all the subjects, but to have a general knowledge of them all or a specialism in one. He compares this with oratory: a good speech should have a good present-ing style and a thorough background theoretical knowledge. Through this educational pro-gramme, Vitruvius tries to consolidate and promote the position of the architect in Roman so-ciety. He emphasises the importance of the utilitas of his work, setting it out in a clear, con-cise way (perspicuitas and brevitas). He is very particular about plagiarism, and takes good care to refer to his sources in order to allow future readers to refer to them.

Vitruvius’ writing also reflects Augustus’ building programme. He places huge emphasis on public hygiene and public architectural development in an orderly space. He also considers architectural constructions in relation to people, taking into account the lie of the land and the nature of the enemy for the construction of war machines, as well as the expense of the con-struction using local resources.

Vitruvius focuses on brevity, clarity, transparency, morality, perpetuity, respect, relativity and unselfishness.

Transforming RomeAugustus transformed his city into a text as well as a structure, through the writing and in-scription of the Res Gestae. These were set up as two bronze pillars in Rome. Chapters 19-21 describe the significant buildings constructed in Rome.

In 182 BC, Rome was held in contempt by its Greek contemporaries due to its lack of adorn-ment. At the time Pella was laid out with a central palace, when Rome was still a gathering of villages on the Esquiline, Capitoline and Palatine, with terracotta temples. Pergamum had its great altar and Alexandria its grid pattern, central palace, Museum and Library.

In the wake of this, Rome was transformed. Marble temples were introduced, the Campus Martius was built, and so was Pompey’s Theatre complex, which included a temple, a senate-house and porticoes.

Augustus used four role models when constructing his city. The first was Romulus, who made the city grow very fast and very impressively. The second was Servius Tullius, who en-larged the circuit of the city by including two more hills and divided the city into districts. The third was Furius Camillus, who rebuilt the city after a great fire. The fourth was Alexan-der the Great, who showed that a ruler must consider how his city is fed and watered. Essen-tials that a city needed were:

• A marketplace

• A place of worship

• A military stronghold

• A central palace

Augustus achieved all these in his construction of the Forum of Augustus and his completion of the Forum of Julius Caesar, in his restoration and construction of temples, in setting up the Campus Martius on the Paulus Capreae, and by creating a free area around the temple of Apollo and his own residence on the Palatine Hill. He also created a focus on the imperial family through his construction of his Mausoleum, in which Marcellus, Agrippa, Octavia and himself were buried.

Augustus said on his deathbed that he had transformed Rome from a city of brick to a city of marble. Even Maecenas said that beauty would inspire allies with respect and enemies with fear.

The SuccessionThere was no precedent for the succession of an emperor. The candidates for succession were:

Marcellus

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

While Marcellus was aedile...he stretched awnings across the forum...to improve condi-

tions for those engaged in litigation.

PLINY

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Augustus...had already begun to depend on [Marcellus] and to lay upon his shoulders the

burden on empire. He was a young man of quick intelligence and great abilities, blessed

with a truly remarkable degree of self-restraint and moderation.

SENECA

Agrippa

23 BCMarcellus was made an aedile, but died

24 BCMarcellus was made a member

of the

25 BCMarcellus married

Augustus' daughter

42 BCMarcellus was born.

He was the son of

12 BCAgrippa

died, holding

17 BCAgrippa

organised the

21 BCAgrippa divorced his wife

25 BCAgrippa built the

Pantheon

23 BCOn his

deathbed, Octavian

28 BCOctavian

and Agrippa

Gaius and Lucius[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

[Agrippa] was a man of the highest character, un-conquerable by hard work, lack of sleep or danger.

He gave his obedience willingly, but to one man only, but was eager to command others. In all he did, he would brook no delays, but no sooner had

he made a decision than he acted on it.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa Postumus

The third son of Julia and Agrippa, he was adopted when the other two died. He was exiled 3 years later and died in AD 14 when Tiberius came into power.

AD4 Gaius dies in Lycia

AD 2Lucius dies in

Marseille

1 BCGaius

marries Livia Julia

10 BCGaius

headed the

17 BCGaius was

born. they were

20 BCLucius

was born

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

There were decrees at Pisa and Etruria set honouring Gaius and Lu-

cius posthumously.

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

He had adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lu-cius, into the family of the Caesars, and, be-fore they had even laid aside their boy’s to-gas...[they were] named princeps iuventutis and...designated consuls. Both Lucius...and

Gaius...were carried off either by a death fated to be premature or by the treachery of their

stepmother, Livia.

TACITUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Agrippa [Postumus] who had been adopted by his natural grandfather at the same time as Tiberius...revealed a

strange depravity of mind and an impetuosity of tempera-ment. His vicious habits grew daily more deplorable until

he died.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

Tiberius

Portraiture of AugustusStatues of Augustus on foot, on horseback and on col-umns were erected all over the city. His portrait was also depicted on coinage, especially showing famous monuments, such as the quadriga. Roman portraits tended to show their subjects as serious and old, with realistic faces and exaggerated lines and creases. This was known as verism. There was also the Hellenistic style of portraiture, according to the heroic model. Al-

though the body would be idealised and toned, the face would be represented veristically. Pompey represented his face realistically but modelled his hair on Alexander the Great. Caesar preferred to be depicted severely, with a heavy chin and elongated face. Augustus’ image was very widely copied and disseminated, so had to be cen-trally defined as a type and then distributed in replicas. There were three main types of Au-gustus:

The Actium type (40s BC)

Defined by the fringe swept across the forehead and a clear formation of locks.

The Forbes type (30-27 BC)

Defined by a different hairstyle, with shorter locks on the forehead.

The Prima Porta type (27 BC onwards)

Defined by a longer fringe than the Actium type, swept all the way across the forehead. It was based on the statue of Augustus at Prima Porta, which was 7 feet tall and emulated the Doryphoros. He held something in his left hand and had Cupid by his feet. This reflected the style of Polycleitus and created a Classical image. It gave the impression of an ageless, myth-

AD 14

AD 13

AD12

AD 10-

AD 4

AD 2

2 BCJulia

6 BCTibe

8 BCTibe

11 BC

12-9 BC

13 BC

16-15

42 BC

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

In Nero’s adoption ceremony the following words, Caesar’s own,

were added: “I make this adoption for the sake of Rome.”

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS

ical emperor, emphasised by the perfect proportioning. However, differences between Augus-tus and the Doryphoros include sharper cheekbones and more prominent ears. Augustus is also depicted in the Prima Porta style on the Ara Pacis.

The Res GestaeThe Res Gestae list Augustus’ achievements. We can assume that this list of achievement is true, because they were very openly publicised, so any mistake spotted in it would ruin the re-liability of the entire work. The Res Gestae were published posthumously and set up on bronze columns outside the Mausoleum of Augustus. We no longer have these, but we do have Greek copies of the text from four places in Turkey. They were inscribed on the walls of important buildings, such as the temple dedicated to the Emperor. The Res Gestae is an Au-gustan text, but a Tiberian inscription, because the inscriptions were set up during the reign of Tiberius.

The model for the Res Gestae could be a eulogium, for example the eulogy of Marius in the Forum of Augustus. Marius held the consulship seven times, as well as other political posi-tions. His military career was also exemplary: he fought several tribes and won a triumph. However, this list of achievements is nothing compared to that of Augustus. Every aspect: political, military and public honours, are taken in turn and excelled in by Augustus.

The four main enemies are not mentioned by name in the Res Gestae. Mark Antony is re-ferred to as a ‘faction’, Brutus and Cassius as ‘those who butchered my father’, and Sextus Pompeius as ‘the pirate’.

The Res Gestae is divided into three sections. Sections 1-14 deal with his early life and hon-ours; sections 15-24 deal with his expenses to Rome and his generosity; sections 25-33 deal with the foreign policy. The final sections tell of the bestowal upon him of the title ‘pater pa-triae’. There is also an appendix to the Res Gestae, calculating exactly how much money was involved in Augustus’ power.

The Res Gestae were written at least 1 year and 4 months before he died. The main draft could have been written in 2 BC, because that was when the title ‘pater patriae’ was bestowed on him.

The Res Gestae are incredibly concisely written, and carefully balanced with what it does and does not mention. For example, section 6.2 says that he refused honours that were not in ac-cordance with the mores, but took them on anyway as part of his tribunician power. Section 20.1 says that he ‘added Egypt to the Roman Empire’ rather than that he conquered it. Sections 22 and 23 show the huge weight placed upon public entertainment by Augustus. It makes his generosity very clear, but also shows that he provided the money for a lot of games that were pre-sented under different names. The exotic animals men-tioned also show his largesse. He makes it very clear that he produced the Secular Games together with Agrippa and dates it using the consulships. However, he makes it clear that he was the first to organise the Games of Mars. 55 geographical terms are contained in the Res Gestae. For example, section 26 contains place names from all over the ancient world, which would need a map to understand. 100m from where the Res Gestae were displayed outside the Mausoleum, there was the map of Agrippa. Brian Bosworth says that the Res Gestae stands in the Hellenistic model of apotheosis. It is not only a record of achievements; it is a justification for his deification. The Hellenistic precedent says that a person can be dei-fied for military achievements and/or for public benefaction. The Res Gestae have a monu-mental quality. In the provinces, they provide the signature for the Empire.

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished the civil wars, being mas-ter of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power to the

control of the senate and the Roman people. In return for this service of mine by decree of the senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with

laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian senate-house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. After that time I excelled all in authority, but I had no more power than others who were

my colleagues in each magistracy.

RES GESTAE 34.2-34.3

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE

He laid aside the title of triumvir and presented himself as consul, content to defend the people by

virtue of tribunician power.

TACITUS

It was ordained by law that I should be sacrosanct forever and should have the tribunician power for the

rest of my life.

RES GESTAE