© 2008The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

ChapterChapter 7 7

Social Perception and Attributions

Copyright © 2010 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

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Ch. 7 Learning Objectives

1. Describe perception in terms of the information-processing model.

2. Identify and briefly explain seven managerial implications of social perception.

3. Discuss stereotypes and the process of stereotype formation.

4. Summarize the managerial challenges and recommendations of sex-role, age, racial and ethnic, and disability stereotypes.

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Ch. 7 Learning Objectives

5. Describe and contrast the Pygmalion effect, the Galatea Effect, and the Golem Effect.

6. Discuss how the self-fulfilling prophecy is created and how it can be used to improve individual and group productivity.

7. Explain, according to Kelley’s model, how external and internal causal attributions are formulated.

8. Contrast the fundamental attribution bias and the self-serving bias.

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Perception

The process of interpreting one’s environmentSocial perception involves observing and interpreting information about others to be able to understand them and prepare our responses to them.

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Perception: An Information Processing Model

Competing environmental

stimuli People Events Objects

Interpretation and

categorization

Stage 1

Selective Attention/Comprehensi

on

Stage 2

Encoding and Simplification

Stage 3

Storage and

Retention

Stage 4

Retrieval and Response

MemoryJudgments

and decisions

A

B

C

D

E

F

A

C

F

C

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Test Your Knowledge

How are hiring decisions and performance evaluations affected by one’s perceptual process?Based on social perception research, which of the following would NOT be advised?a. Use mostly subjective measures of

performance.b. Be aware of actions that could be

perceived as unfair.c. Train interviewers and managers on how

best to objectively evaluate others.

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Test Your Knowledge

Jamie is a brand-new salesperson who has just graduated from college. Her first task is to sell consulting services to a new potential client. Based on your knowledge of social perception, which of the following would NOT be advised?a. Check her cell phone to show that she is

busy and importantb. Convey a positive attitudec. Dress professionally

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StereotypesStereotype is anindividual’s set of beliefsabout the characteristics of a group of peopleWhat are some commonly held stereotypes?

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Stereotyping: A Mental Shortcut

1) Begins by categorizing people into groups2) Infer that all people in a category possess

similar traits or characteristics3) Form expectations of others and interpret

their behavior according to stereotypes4) Stereotypes are maintained by

1) Overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others

2) Incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors

3) Differentiating minority individuals from oneself

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Characteristics of Stereotypes• Their nature is not always

negative • Women are nurturing• Asians are smart

• Based on generalizations (often inaccurate)• Older workers are more

accident prone• Disabled workers cost a

lot of money to accommodate

• Women are more emotional

• Can lead to poor decisions and discrimination

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Test Your Knowledge

• Under what conditions would the use of stereotypes be less likely?

1. (A) Have more knowledge or (B) Have less knowledge about the individuals you work for or with

2. (A) Encourage similar people to work together or (B) offer opportunities for a diverse set of individuals to gain important job experience

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Perceptual Errors

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Perceptual Errors

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Test Your Knowledge• Josie is a hard-working administrative assistant.

She has a low attention to detail and sometimes handles customer’s calls unprofessionally. However, Josie never misses a day of work and is always on time. As a result, her manager rates her positively on many aspects of her performance. This is an example of which perceptual error?

a. Contrastb. Recencyc. Halod. Leniencye. Central Tendency

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Pygmalion Effect• Someone’s high expectations

for another person result in high performance

Galatea Effect• An individual’s high self-

expectations lead to high performance

Golem Effect • Loss in performance due to low

leader expectations

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A Model of the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Supervisorexpectancy

6

3Motivation

4

Performance

5 1

Leadership

Subordinateself-

expectancy

2

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Test Your Knowledge

• Based on the self-fulfilling prophecy, which of the following would not be advised?

a. Instill confidence in your staffb. Identify errors in employee’s

performance, no matter how minor, and discuss them frequently

c. Treat all new employees as if they have outstanding potential

d. Set high performance goals

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Attributions

Causal Attributions: Suspected or inferred causes of behaviorAndreas has a history of turning in his monthly reports on time and with 100% accuracy. This month Andreas’ reports were accurate but a week late. Why?

a. Andreas doesn’t know how to do monthly reports.

b. Andreas is lazy.c. The information he needed was not available to

meet the deadline.

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Causes of Behavior

Internal factors – Personal characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., ability, effort)External factors – Environmental characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., task difficulty, good/bad luck)

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Kelley’s Attribution Model

Consensus – Involves the comparison of an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers

Indiv

idual Perf

orm

ance

People

A B C D E

People

Indiv

idual

Perf

orm

ance

A B C D E

Low High

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Distinctiveness is determined by comparing a person’s behavior on one task with his or her behavior on other tasks.

Kelley’s Theory of Attribution

Tasks

Indiv

idual Perf

orm

ance

A B C D ETasks

Indiv

idual Perf

orm

ance

A B C D E

Low High

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Consistency is determined by judging if the individual’s performance on a given task is consistent over time.

Kelley’s Theory of Attribution

Time

Indiv

idual

Perf

orm

ance

Time

Indiv

idual

Perf

orm

ance

Low High

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How Kelley’s Model Works

External Attribution•High consensus•High distinctiveness•Low consistency

Internal Attribution•Low consensus•Low distinctiveness•High consistency

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Test Your Knowledge

Recall Andreas…Andreas has a history of turning in his monthly reports on time and with 100% accuracy. This month Andreas’ reports were accurate but a week late. Which of the following dimensions could we use to make attributions about Andreas?

a. Consistencyb. Distinctivenessc. Consensus

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Test Your Knowledge

Nadia’s performance is declining. Her peers performance hasn’t changed, it is occurring on several tasks, and has occurred for the past six months. This represents:

1. High (A) or Low (B) consensus2. High (A) or Low (B) distinctiveness3. High (A) or Low (B) consistency4. The attribution her supervisor is likely to make

is…a. Internalb. External

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Attributional Tendencies

Fundamental Attribution Bias ignoring environmental factors that affect behaviorYour performance is caused by you

Self-Serving Bias taking more personal responsibility for success than failureMy success is because of my effort/abilityMy poor performance is caused by something else (difficulty; bad luck)

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Test Your Knowledge:Overcoming Biases

• For each of these tips, identify which perceptual error is being prevented

--------------------------------- Do not overlook the external

causes of others’ behaviors Identify and confront your

stereotypes Evaluate people based on

objective factors Avoid making rash

judgments