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AN INVESTIGATION OF CHALLENGES FACING STUDENTS WITH
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN ACCESSING E-LEARNING: A CASE STUDY OF
TABORA GIRLS SECONDARY SCHOOL
CHARLES NDALAHWA MAKOYE
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER IN SOCIAL WORK OF
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
2017
CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certifies that he has hereby recommends for acceptance by The Open
University of Tanzania a dissertation entitled: An Investigation of Challenges
Facing Students with Visual Impairment in Accessing E-Learning: A Case of
Tabora Municipality, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Masters
of Social Work.
…………………………………………
Dr John Msindai
(Supervisor)
……………………………………………
Date
ii
COPYRIGHT
No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, except for research or private study, critical
scholarly review without written permission from the author or Directorate of
postgraduate studies on behalf of the Open University of Tanzania.
iii
DECLARATION
I, Charles Ndalahwa Makoye, do hereby declare that this dissertation is my own
original work and that has been presented and will not be presented to any other
University for a similar or any degree award.
……………………………………
Signature
……………………………………
Date
iv
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my children, Linda, Chene, Makoye, Kashinje,
Kabula, Sundi, Kasubuya and Ngeleja who have been inspiring me in my studies.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my prime gratitude to the Lord Almighty for giving the confidence and
strength for the successful completion of this dissertation. I acknowledge sincere and
grateful thanks to my Supervisor Dr John Msindai for his constant guidance,
necessary assistance, Kind co-operation and encouragement. His close supervision
and efforts has made this work complete.
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my affectionate and ever-loving mother
Mpelwa Yikobela and my wife Josefina Masanja you have been source of support,
strength, inspiration and encouragement for whatever I am today. I acknowledge the
high quality and timely input of those who actively participated in the work especially
my friends, Nyanda and Oscar for help advice and guidance. Their efforts have made
this report to be what it is.
My deepest appreciation goes to Mr. Johnas Buhori (MSW Coordinator) who created
conducive environment for my studies. Lastly, my special thanks are extended to the
Tabora Girls Secondary School Teachers and the VI Students who were my
respondents.
vi
ABSTRACT
Visual impairment student are facing different problems in the process of learning.
This study investigated the challenges facing students with visual impairment in
accessing e-learning at Tabora Girls Secondary School in Tabora Municipality.
Specifically, the study sought to identify problems facing visually impaired students in
accessing e-learning, examine the current education policy on education provision
through e-learning to students with visual impairment and to evaluate the strategies
that are being implemented to assist visual impaired students access e-learning. A
descriptive research design was adopted where a total of 50 respondents including
visual impairment students, teachers and resource personnel. Data were collected
using structured questionnaires and interview. Research findings revealed that there
are various academic problems facing visually impaired students in accessing e-
learning at Tabora Girls Secondary School. Among the academic problems pointed
out to affect students with VI were; insufficient equipment such as digital recorder,
memory card, Braille, e-book reader device and ICT facilities including computers,
embosser, modems, magnifiers, screen readers. Based on those findings, the study
recommended that in order to enhance learning of students with VI, there should be
adequate resources such as teachers, materials and equipment and facilities. Policy
makers should consider student with special need such as VI students, colleges for
special education should be training teachers of ICT for VI students. There is need to
enhance vocation training and life skills subjects and teachers who will teach ICT for
visual impaired students.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENT
CERTIFICATION.......................................................................................................ii
COPYRIGHT..............................................................................................................iii
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................iv
DEDICATION..............................................................................................................v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................xiii
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................xiv
LIST OFAPPENDICES.............................................................................................xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................xvi
CHAPTER ONE...........................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1
1.1 Background to the Study..................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.................................................................................6
1.3 Research Objectives.........................................................................................7
1.3.1 General Objective.............................................................................................7
1.3.2 Specific Objectives...........................................................................................7
1.3.3 Research Question............................................................................................7
1.4 Scope of the Study............................................................................................8
1.5 Significance of the Study..................................................................................8
1.6 Limitations of the Study...................................................................................8
1.7 Theoretical Framework (The Vivid Holistic Model).......................................8
viii
CHAPTER TWO........................................................................................................10
LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................10
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................10
2.2 Assistive Technology.....................................................................................10
2.3 E-Learning......................................................................................................11
2.4 Inclusive Education........................................................................................14
2.5 Visual Impairment..........................................................................................14
2.6 Theoretical Literature Review........................................................................15
2.6.1 Learning Models for Accessibility of Study Materials..................................15
2.6.2 The VIVID (Vision Impaired using Virtual IT Discovery) Model................19
2.6.2.1 Legal Requirements, Standards, and Guidelines............................................19
2.6.2.2 Institutional Factors........................................................................................20
2.6.2.3 Evaluation, Feedback, and Enhancement.......................................................21
2.6.2.4 Learning Objectives and Outcomes................................................................21
2.6.2.5 Learner Characteristics...................................................................................22
2.6.2.6 Social Elements..............................................................................................22
2.6.2.7 Accessible Curriculum and Teaching Materials.............................................23
2.6.2.8 Accessible Virtual Classroom and Delivery...................................................24
2.6.2.9 Accessible Physical Classroom......................................................................25
2.6.3 VIVID Model Discussion...............................................................................25
2.7 Empirical Literature Review..........................................................................25
2.7.1 E-learning Tools for Visual Needs.................................................................28
2.7.2 Assistive Technology Tailored to Individual Needs......................................29
2.7.2 Access to Appropriate Instruction..................................................................30
ix
2.7.3 Access to Equitable Assistive Technology Devices and Instruction..............31
2.7.4 The way e-Learning Affect a Student who is Visually Impaired...................33
2.8 Literature Review of Policies.........................................................................33
2.9 E-learning Tools and the Needs of Visually Impaired Students....................35
2.9.1 E-learning Platforms and the Needs of Visually Impaired Students..............36
2.10 Research Gaps................................................................................................36
2.11 Conceptual Framework..................................................................................37
CHAPTER THREE....................................................................................................38
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..............................................................................38
3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................38
3.2 Research Design.............................................................................................38
3.3 Area of the Study............................................................................................38
3.4 Target Population...........................................................................................39
3.5 Sample Size....................................................................................................39
3.6 Sampling Procedures......................................................................................39
3.6.1 Purposive Sampling Strategy.........................................................................40
3.7 Research Instruments......................................................................................40
3.8 Validity and Reliability..................................................................................41
3.9 Data Analysis..................................................................................................42
3.10 Ethical Considerations....................................................................................42
CHAPTER FOUR......................................................................................................44
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.................................44
4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................44
4.2 Demographic Characteristics..........................................................................44
x
4.2.1 Gender of Respondents...................................................................................44
4.2.1.1 Ages of Students.............................................................................................45
4.2.1.2 Age of Teachers..............................................................................................45
4.2.2 Education Level of Teachers..........................................................................46
4.3 Challenges Facing Visually Impaired Students in Accessing E-Learning.....46
4.3.1 Availability Teaching and Learning Materials...............................................48
4.3.2 Visually Impaired Student Knowledge in Using a Computer........................50
4.3.3 The Importance of the Use of Computer Based Learning
Materials to VI Student..................................................................................50
4.3.4 Importance of the Use of Screen Readers and Magnifier
Software in Accessing E-Learning to the Visually Impaired Student............51
4.3.5 Problems Faced by Visually Impaired Student on Accessing E-Learning.....52
4.3.6 Level of Awareness within the Secondary School Regarding the
Accessibility of E-Learning for VI Students..................................................54
4.4 Current Education Policy on Education Provision of E-Learning
to VI Students.................................................................................................54
4.5 The Strategies that are being implemented to assist Visual Impaired
Students Access E-Learning...........................................................................56
4.5.1 Accessible E-Learning Environment..............................................................56
4.5.2 Learner Characteristics...................................................................................56
4.5.3 Encouraging Peer Support..............................................................................57
4.5.4 Verbal Communication..................................................................................59
4.5.5 Sensory/Motor Instruction..............................................................................62
4.5.6 Improving Compensatory Skills.....................................................................63
xi
4.5.7 Additional Time..............................................................................................64
CHAPTER FIVE........................................................................................................66
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................66
5.1 Summary of the Study....................................................................................66
5.2 Conclusions of the Study................................................................................68
5.2 Conclusion......................................................................................................69
5.3 Recommendations..........................................................................................71
5.3.1 Recommendations to the Government...........................................................71
5.3.2 Recommendations to Inclusive Schools.........................................................71
5.3.3 Recommendations for Further Studies...........................................................72
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................73
APPENDICES.............................................................................................................77
LIST OF TABLES
xii
Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents..............................................................................44
Table 4.2: Age of Students..........................................................................................45
Table 4.3: Age of Teachers.........................................................................................46
Table 4.4: Education level of Teachers.......................................................................46
Table 4.5: Challenges Facing Visually Impaired Students in ICT.............................47
Table 4.6: Descriptive Data on Problems Facing Visually Impaired
Students in Accessing E-Learning for Teachers and Resource
Personnel....................................................................................................48
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
Figure 1.1: The Vision Impaired using Virtual IT Discovery Model.............................9
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework..............................................................................37
xiv
LIST OFAPPENDICES
Appendix I: Questionnaire for Visually Impaired Students.......................................77
Appendix II: Questionnaire for Teachers and Resource Persons................................78
Appendix III: Interview Guide for Teachers and Resource Personnel........................81
Appendix IV: Observation Checklist..........................................................................82
Appendix V: Research Clearance Letter.....................................................................83
xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AT Assistive Technology
ICT Information Communication Technology
NVDA Non Visual Desktop Application
OUT The Open University of Tanzania
RAS Regional Administrative Secretary
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
VI Visual Impairment Students
xvi
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The use of the e-learning is an integral tool for communication in the twenty first
century (Buckley, 2000). However, there are many people with vision impairments
who need to learn specific skills in order to take advantage of this tool. Such people
have previously been disadvantaged due to inaccessible learning materials or
instructional media which have not been tailored to their specific needs.
Generally, people who have acute vision disabilities find it difficult to obtain suitable
employment. According to department of finance - Australia, this resulted in low
income and in turn affects their quality of life. Numerous research projects report
show low achievement at secondary and tertiary levels for the vision impaired and this
is often the result of a lack of accessibility of the learning materials in addition to a
lack of knowledge and understanding of disabilities by the teaching staff (Dept
Finance, 2010). Figures produced by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2009)
demonstrate that there is a significant difference between educational achievement and
employment income between those with a disability and those without.
Four million people in Australia (18.5%) reported having a disability according to the
results of the Survey of Disability, Ageing and Careers. Vision Australia (2007)
reports that 63% of people who are blind or vision impaired and who are of working
age are unemployed. Education is a vital factor in preparing students to develop into
responsible adulthood who can take their place in the work force. It is therefore
1
important that those with vision impairments are able to access as complete an
education as possible so that they can gain useful employment and participate
constructively in society.
For all students, vision is the primary sense necessary for successful learning and
development (Kelly et al., 2000). One of the main difficulties caused by visual
impairment is the problem of access to information, and with the developing use of
technology. This difficulty is increasing (Armstrong et al., 2010). Without vision,
students and teachers use speech to a much greater extent and a virtual classroom is
needed to supplement the physical classroom and laboratory setting. ICT, to a large
extent remains out of reach in most African education systems although there is
growing interest and commitment for it. The UNESCO’s motto: “Education for All”
has given “Special Education” a place in the agenda of many governments with some
emphasis on providing learners with adequate teaching and learning materials. What
remains is the challenge on how to achieve these targets and commitments.
According to European Agency for Developments in Special Needs Education (2011),
one problem is the lack of basic means of communication and electronic infrastructure
which remains a greatest obstacle for many African Governments; to implement their
plans other challenges include the provision of adequate resourcing for low to medium
technology applications such as teaching - learning aids. One has to look at only the
limited access to computer and information technology to recognize the gap.
The most intimidating task for African Governments is to find the resources to ensure
that teachers have relevant and appropriate teaching tools in the classroom. Currently,
2
the vast majority of their budgets are spent on military hardware and unnecessary
luxurious life infrastructure of Officials and state leaders with little left for "ICT" or
other learning tools including textbooks in Braille and accessible writing equipments
for the visually impaired students (Kelly & Davidson, 2000).
Despite their prevalence, a large majority of special schools are providing education
only for a very small proportion of children with Special Educational Needs (Lanbon,
2011). Governments across the world are moving towards inclusive education.
However, in the continent of Africa, they rarely accompany ICT policies with
adequate resourcing, teacher training or policy changes. On the other hand,
governments in Africa render top priority to poverty and other basic needs. Very little
efforts are for supporting and improving the ICT context. However, they have found it
difficult to deal with the need to "bridge the gap". It has become a complex one
requiring organic home grown solutions, particularly in the face of growing food
insecurity, conflict and unsafe life pattern on the continent (Boison, 2000).
One promising case is the Ethiopian Government’s initiative to use ICT at the senior
secondary level, which aims to provide over 500 high schools with access to plasma
television and educational broadcasting in 2004. However, this new ICT initiative has
not included blind students in the policy. Therefore, blind teachers and students have
become victims of this new ICT educational policy in Ethiopia. The same is what is
happening in the life of blind community in many African countries for last several
years. Indeed, many blind students and teachers had to do for full academic years in
their school without textbooks and other reference materials in Brail. The Braille
versions of their textbooks don’t reach them until after the school years have ended.
3
On their article 232, Technologically Enhanced Open and Distance Learning for All in
Developing Countries In examining the technology challenges in developing countries
Mnyanyi, Bakari and Mbwette (2011) conducted an empirical study and reviewed
literature from Tanzania and other countries, both developed and developing
countries. The review of literature aimed at bringing the reader to the understanding of
concepts used and relate to what is happening in Tanzania and other developing
countries
From IPP Media in Jan 8, 2014 in relation to the project to evaluate the promotion of
disability inclusion in Tanzania, implemented by CCBRT. According to Cosmas
Mnyanyi, the main objectives of ICT literacy programs are to help people with vision
disabilities improve their professional and personal lives, enhance their productivity
and employment prospects, help them gain wider access to information and increase
their ability to participate in and interact with society.
Mnyanyi said as a lecturer at OUT he would make sure people with disabilities do
have equal opportunity to benefit from the full range of mainstream communication
products and services. He said, to many people, being visually impaired means to be
automatically disqualified from fully taking part in various activities because of
physical, mental and social obstacles vision disability traditionally carries. Acquiring
ICT knowledge and skills can drastically change the lives of people with vision
disabilities, he added. It was, however, a big challenge for people with disabilities,
particularly vision disability, to have access on learning and seeking information
through computer. OUT, through a special education department, offers the program
to all people with disabilities, including non-college students.
4
To date 56 people with disabilities have already learned ICT, the ultimate goal being
to ensure all people with disabilities in the country learn ICT. “We use a Non Visual
Desktop Application (NVDA) in our program so as to make them identify the kind of
words that they type by hearing it through wearing earphones.” Dr Cosmas Mnyanyi
of the Open University of Tanzania clarified that not everyone who went to the center
was born with vision disability as some were born with normal vision, only to have
their sight deteriorate in later years or had their vision damaged through accidents. He
said people who are blind or low vision faced a dual challenge in relation to computer
technology, like they need to learn to use mainstream devices and software and
understand how they work. Besides, he said, they have to learn additional skills to use
assistive technology such as screen reading software and magnification systems. If
they cannot see the mouse pointer they learn alternative ways of navigating a screen
and operating the software.
The Information Communication Technology (ICT) has now been recognized as the
driving force and primary gadget for almost all progressive initiatives that rely on
knowledge-based and skills-oriented development activities in all spheres of human
endeavor. That is why the issue of accessibility to information (communication
technology has been brought to the forefront of human rights. In order for equal
access to information communication technology to be a realistic possibility, different
groups of people and sections of the society do require to take part in and to be
entitled for varying degrees of adaptive/assistive technology depending on their
special needs and particular circumstances. This, as a matter of fact, is the focus of
attention of this research.
5
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Usually, persons with visual impairment require more instructional resources than
those without visual impairment to function well. The student with visual impairment
needs ICT tools like auditory and talking devices, Non Visual Desktop Access
(NVDA) and Wind Braille to enhance his or her learning.
This considerably bridges the knowledge gap between the student with sight and the
student with visual impairment. Inopportunely, the student with visual impairment
seems to have been neglected. The visual impaired students do not benefit from e-
learning like their fellow students with vision. This problem is at Tabora Girls
Secondary School in Tabora Municipality, as it is the only school that admits visually
impaired students.
This research was to identify the challenges facing visual impaired students in
accessing e-learning and suggest how to solve the problem. If no measures were taken
the visual impaired students would remain socially excluded. The problem would
continue in the future if it was not solved, as loss of sight to our society would
continue to be there due to different factors, such as diseases, heredity and accidents.
The challenges would continue in the future if not solved. Visual impaired learners in
higher learning institutions suffer from inadequate and in certain instances complete
lack of access to e-learning. The research was on the effort to redress the imbalance
through more technological research on the best ways to impart knowledge to the
visual impaired on applications of e-learning technologies.
6
1.3 Research Objectives
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of the study was to examine the challenges facing students with
visual impairment in accessing e-learning at Tabora Girls Secondary School in Tabora
Municipality.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
(i) To identify challenges facing visually impaired students in accessing e-learning
at Tabora Girls Secondary School.
(ii) To examine the current education policy on education provision through e-
learning to students with visual impairment; and
(iii) To evaluate the strategies that are being implemented to assist visual impaired
students access e-learning.
1.3.3 Research Question
This study sought to address the following questions
(i) What are the challenges facing visually impaired students in accessing e-
learning at Tabora Girls Secondary School.
(ii) Is the existing education policy sufficient to enable students with visual
impairment in secondary schools to access e-learning?
(iii) What strategies can be used to assist the visual impaired students to access e-
learning?
7
1.4 Scope of the Study
The research was conducted at Tabora Girls Secondary School, visual impaired
students and their teachers were involved in this research, it was conducted in the
Municipality of Tabora.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This research was to identify the challenges facing visually impaired students on
accessing e-learning. As a consequence, the finding was to help to design programs
for establishing e-learning infrastructure for supporting students with visual
impairment. Armed with such facilities students with visual impairment had to access
knowledge that if freely available in the websites spread out throughout the world..
It was to add more knowledge on how to assist visually impaired students access e-
learning. The study had to create awareness/help policy makers on improving policies
of education for accessing e-learning for students with visual impairment. The study
gathered the opinions of students with visual impairment and their teachers.
1.6 Limitations of the Study
Time limitation the time available to investigate a research problem and to measure
change or stability over time was pretty much constrained by the due date of the
assignment.
1.7 Theoretical Framework (The Vivid Holistic Model)
As a result of the analysis undertaken as part of this research, a new holistic model
was developed specifically for e-learning environments for the vision impaired. The
8
model was progressively developed over the term of the research based upon relevant
literature and past research in this area. The VIVID Model as illustrated in Figure 1.1
is designed to be integrative, holistic and cyclic in nature in order to provide a
comprehensive and coherent representation of the entire socio-technical environment
within which the vision impaired learner achieves goals. The VIVID model consists of
the following main areas: accessibility standards and guidelines and legal
requirements, institutional factors, evaluation feedback and enhancement mechanisms,
accessible learning outcomes, learner characteristic considerations, social elements,
accessible physical and virtual classrooms, and accessible curriculum and teaching
materials.
Figure 1.1: The Vision Impaired using Virtual IT Discovery Model
Source: (Permvattana, 2012).
9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The literature reviewed touched on accessibility of ICT facilities to students with
visual impairment in schools in Tanzania. Substantial research materials, including
Internet resources and hard-copy documents collected, reviewed, and analyzed.
Government documents such as ICT policy papers, disability legislation, and national
policies on disability significantly contributed to the research. ICT-related technical
documents, catalogues, and brochures from technology manufacturers and dealers
were relied on.
2.2 Assistive Technology
Assistive technology is any item, piece of equipment, software or product system that
is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with
disabilities. Assistive technology is applied to education of students with visual
impairment; however, teachers indicate the need for infrastructure and pedagogical
support. Information technology is an important tool in the inclusion process and can
promote independence and autonomy of students with visual impairment.
Assistive technology is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge comprising products,
resources, methodologies, strategies, practices, and services that aims to promote
functionality for visually impaired people with regard to autonomy, independence,
quality of life, and social inclusion.
From: https://www.atia.org/at-resources/what-is-at/ Assistive technology is any
product or service that maintains or improves the ability of individuals with
10
disabilities or impairments to communicate learn and live independent, fulfilling and
productive lives. Assistive technology is used in education, employment, healthcare,
residential homes and domestic settings. It may be used by all ages, for a wide range
of disabilities or impairments, and for a wide range of activities.
The range of disabilities AT can help includes: autism spectrum disorders; and
blindness and low vision (Barbara Phillips, Executive Director, British Assistive
Technology Association, UK March 2012). The term ‘assistive technology’ can be
defined as “any device or system that allows an individual to perform a task that they
would otherwise be unable to do, or increases the ease and safety with which the task
can be performed.” (Royal Commission on Long Term Care, 1999). This includes a
wide range of devices from simple ‘low tech’ items such as calendar clocks to more
‘high tech’ items such as automatic lighting and telecare sensors.
Assistive technology (AT) is an umbrella term that includes assistive, adaptive and
rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities. Included in this, is the process of
selecting, locating and supporting AT. AT promotes greater independence by enabling
individuals to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had
great difficulty accomplishing by providing enhancing to or changing methods of
interacting with the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. Available from:
https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:9999:ed-5:v1:en.
2.3 E-Learning
E-Learning refers to a range of information and communication technologies that
teachers use in the classroom, online, Examples include: PowerPoint presentations;
11
online tests; course materials on CD-ROMs; and course/learning management systems
(e.g., WebCT, Blackboard, FirstClass).
While eLearning reduces or removes barriers encountered by many people with
disabilities, it can also create new barriers, particularly for people who require
adaptive hardware (e.g., an adapted mouse), or adaptive software (e.g., software that
“speaks” what is on the monitor). For example: Video and audio clips can be helpful
to people with specific learning disabilities, but are inaccessible to people who are
deaf or have visual impairments unless the video and audio content is presented in an
accessible way (i.e., textual description of video, captioning of audio); and Web-based
discussion forums to some learners with print-based learning disabilities find text-
based discussion forums problematic because of the amount of text on the screen.
Anohina, (2005) defines “e-learning” as a learning process that “takes places via any
electronic medium”. In a global perspective, such a term refers, then, to any
educational process making use of technological/electronic media and applications
such as: “web-based teaching materials, hypermedia in general, multimedia
CDROMs, web sites, discussion boards, collaborative software, e-mail, blogs, wikis,
computer aided assessment, educational animation, simulations, games, learning
management software.
In this view, the term “e-learning tools” encompasses at least those tools used for:
12
Online learning: those educational resources made available through
interconnected computer networks, comprising also synchronous and
asynchronous communication tools, when used in an educational perspective.
Computer-based learning: those learning materials locally available on the
user’s PC and used when the computer is not connected to a network.
“M-learning”: those educational tools made available through “mobile devices”
such as palmtops (or handhelds), Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), tablet PCs,
mobile or smart phones; such tools, may also take advantage of the connection to
the net via “wireless transmission” [Hoppe et al, 2003]. The concept of “e-
learning tool” is, then, linked both to the media (hardware devices) employed and
to the programs (software applications) used to support the educational process.
Such software applications can be roughly divided into:
E-learning platforms: those internet-based environments expressly addressed to
the delivery of integrated electronic educational contents and to the management
of a variety of educational activities aimed at fulfilling specific educational
objectives 1 Section 508 of the Rehabilitation ACT Subpart C - Functional
Performance Criteria 1194.31) (Lin and Kuo, 2005). All the digital contents
made available by and through such platforms, are generally called “learning
objects”.
Web based applications: those applications (both designed for educational
purposes and used to fulfill educational objectives) which are directly accessible
using any available browser and which don’t need to be installed on the user PC.
13
Standalone applications: those products (both “educational” and “used for
education”) which cannot be used directly via browser but that need to be
installed locally, on the user machine; this category includes also products
“downloadable” from the Web, but that still need to be installed on the computer.
Equity: It is a stipulation that all people should be treated similarly, unhampered
by artificial barriers or prejudices or preferences, except when particular
distinctions can be explicitly justified.
2.4 Inclusive Education
The educational settings in which students with disabilities are included or educated
with abled peers in a least restrictive environment is called inclusion and or
integration. Non Visual Desktop Access (NVDA): Computer software for accessing the
internet by the visually impaired. Disability: A total or partial behavioural, mental,
physical or sensorial loss of functioning due to disease, malformation, accident or
genetic factors (Ocloo, Morttey & Boison 2005).
2.5 Visual Impairment
The general term used to refer to all levels of vision loss from total blindness to
uncorrectable vision loss (Smith & Luckassan, 1995). It includes blindness and low
vision. Blindness refers to a severe limitation with visual acuity or central vision (not
being able to see a wide area) and the absence of functional use of sight (Smith &
Luckassan 1995). Low vision is limitation in distance vision but is able to see objects
and materials that are a few metres away (Baraga 1983) cited in Ocloo, Hayford,
Agbeke, Gadagbui, Avoke, Boison, Oppong and Essel (2002:34).
14
It is important to be aware that although two children with visual impairment may be
assessed as having the same visual acuity, they may each learn and function in very
different ways. Vision may actually fluctuate or may be temporarily influenced by
such factors as fatigue, light glare, or inappropriate lighting. An understanding of the
type of visual impairment is certainly important, but generalizations about the
student's visual functioning cannot be made solely on the basis of the diagnosed eye
condition.
Visual impairment is divided into two groups with distinct characteristics and needs:
individuals with low vision and individuals with blindness. Low-vision individuals
have impaired visual function even after optical correction and use or are able to use
their vision to perform tasks. In the educational field, students with low vision have
residual vision, which enables them to read printed material with the aid of didactic
resources and special equipment they cannot fully access the program contents: they
will, in fact, miss the overall position of the objects in the screen and this will result in
a real obstacle for the task comprehension, for the possibility of interaction and,
finally, for the achievement of the underpinning educational objectives.
Information technology, the main assistive technology resource applied to educating
visually impaired students, can be defined as computers with programs that allow
students to access the digital environment, promoting individual life and
social/education inclusion. Inclusive schools provide all students with a regular
classroom, thus ensuring adequate and challenging educational opportunities fitted to
15
their abilities and needs, according to the principle of educational inclusion defined in
the Salamanca.
2.6 Theoretical Literature Review
2.6.1 Learning Models for Accessibility of Study Materials
One of the most prominently discussed approaches to accessible e-learning is
Universal Design (UD). This involves designing instructional materials and learning
activities (delivery methods, physical spaces, information resources, technology,
personal interactions, assessments) so they are usable by all students without the need
for adaption or specialized design (Burgstahler, 2007). Burgstahler also points out that
although specific accommodations may be needed for students with disabilities,
applying universal design concepts in course planning and preparation ensures that
access to the course content is maximized for most students and the need for particular
adjustments is diminished.
A number of e-learning models have been presented for students with disabilities.
However, very few of these models are conceptual and holistic. For application into
an e-learning environment specifically for vision impaired students, most of the
proposed accessibility models need modification or honing in order to have value.
There are very few holistic e-learning models that relate to accessibility and disabled
students. This is supported by Seale (2006) who also states that there are very few
original models, theories and metaphors published in the literature to illustrate or build
best practice in accessible e-learning.
16
Many of the approaches and models to e-learning for the disabled are based upon
World Wide Web Consortium’s (W3C) Web Content and Accessibility guidelines
(WAI, 2004). Whilst the guidelines presented by the Web Accessibility Initiative
(WAI) provide a valuable source of checklists, an approach that relies upon lists of
factors for compliance risks a disjointed end product that merely meets the
requirements. In an effort to supplement the guidelines, several researchers have used
these as a foundation for building further theories and/or tools. Daniels and Elliott
(2003) present a set of generic guidelines and processes for testing the accessibility of
e-learning Web sites, based upon an earlier version of the W3C Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines in addition to the earlier work on usability and mobility by
other researchers. The result is a generic set of guidelines and, whilst these guidelines
are useful for ensuring e-learning Web sites are more accessible, the analysis has a
detailed Web-document focus, does not present a holistic perspective and does not
take into account other perspectives and factors.
Lazar et al., (2004) presented the Web Accessibility Integration Model on Web site
accessibility, based upon the influences of stakeholder perceptions, societal
foundations and Web accessibility. Lazar and colleagues argue that societal
foundations are inadequate with regard to current levels of accessibility as education
curriculum does not include accessibility, although accessibility is a government
priority. The stakeholder International Journal of Cyber Society and Education
perspectives included are those of the Web developer and client, who are the
stakeholders who determine whether the Web site is built for accessibility. They posit
that guidelines and tools guide the Web developer and also provide a working
17
definition for Web accessibility. Whilst stakeholder perspectives are essential in the
development of all e-learning Websites, this model is not designed for direct
application into the design of accessible e-learning environments for students with
disabilities.
WAI (2006) presented an accessible e-learning model that is contextual in nature and
centers on the aspect of stakeholder involvement. This model comprises accessibility
drivers in the form of guidelines, standards and legal requirements, a wide collection
of stakeholders in higher education who influence or are influenced by accessibility,
and the responses of these stakeholders via processes resulting in e-learning outcomes
with some level of accessibility. This model provides a more comprehensive approach
to e-learning accessibility, and the focus on the stakeholders and their responses
together with the drivers and mediators, enables a much richer understanding of the
learning environment under study. Seale’s contextualized model is a process model
rather than a holistic design framework, with only partial applicability to accessibility
for vision impaired students with specific requirements.
The most holistic model for accessibility and e-learning emanates from Kelly, Phipps
and Swift (2005). This model is circular in format to illustrate that learning is a
holistic activity and cultural, political and social aspects need to be considered. The
model also places the learner’s needs at the centre of the circle. Kelly and colleagues
highlight the need to consider issues of individual requirements, accessibility, and
usability of e-learning resources, the desired learning outcomes, and local factors
including institutional and subject discipline aspects, as well as the technical
infrastructure. These factors are placed within consideration of quality assurance
18
where standards and guidelines provide a framework for development. A later model
by Kelly, Nevile, Draffan and Fanou (2008) places a variety of student needs into the
outer circle, including disabilities, cultural, economic, geographical and social needs.
The inner circle contains a collection of learning activities and resources that relate to
the learning objectives. This holistic model for Web accessibility for e-learning
focuses on accessible learning outcomes rather than accessible resources.
Whilst all these models provide valuable input in the design of specialized e-learning
environments for the vision impaired, there is much subjective interpretation when
such models are applied in practice. It is difficult in many circumstances to define
International Journal of Cyber Society and Education.
The VIVID Model as illustrated in Figure 1 is designed to be integrative, holistic and
cyclic in nature in order to provide a comprehensive and coherent representation of
the entire socio-technical environment within which the vision impaired learner
achieves goals. The VIVID model consists of the following main areas: accessibility
standards and guidelines and legal requirements, institutional factors, evaluation
feedback and enhancement mechanisms, accessible learning outcomes, learner
characteristic considerations, social elements, accessible physical and virtual
classrooms, and accessible curriculum and teaching materials.
2.6.2 The VIVID (Vision Impaired using Virtual IT Discovery) Model
The VIVID Model is summarized in Figure 1. In the diagram, the outer circle provides
the context and direction, containing the legal requirements, standards and guidelines,
factors that relate to the institutional management of the learning environment as well
19
as the means of evaluating not only compliance to these requirements but also
providing a mechanism for feedback and enhancement of different parts of the total
environment. These factors are usually not within the direct control of those
developing and delivering the courses. The inner circle relates to more direct aspects
of the learning environment, linking the social, technological, and educational needs
and characteristics of the students with the learning materials and their delivery.
2.6.2.1 Legal Requirements, Standards, and Guidelines
The standards and guidelines such as the WAI from the W3C are recognized by
government and Web service organizations. Some countries have laws regarding
accessibility and non-discrimination policies which guide and drive the requirements
for accessibility. Web designers, Web developers and instructional designers refer to
these for the design of learning environments for the vision impaired if accessibility is
to be achieved. The developer must choose which laws, standards and guidelines are
appropriate for the learning situation at hand and the needs of the disabled students.
International Journal of Cyber Society and Education Regular evaluation of standards
compliance is also recommended.
2.6.2.2 Institutional Factors
Institutions have their own strategies, policies, regulations and directive processes that
influence the offering and running of educational courses and the environment in
which they are delivered. The objectives of the institution have a bearing upon these
factors and indirectly affect the accessible e-learning environment. Courses in IT for
adult vision impaired students could be offered by universities, technical colleges,
private colleges, or support organizations that are registered training organizations.
20
The funding models of these institutions affect the provision of resources to these
courses. Support organizations relying upon donations and grants may not be able to
provide an equivalent quality of service and infrastructure such as is provided by a
fully government funded organization that specializes in education. Large educational
institutions such as universities are likely to have other support structures already in
place such as disability services, assistive technologies and learning support
mechanisms. Senior Management of the institution will have a bearing upon the
activities through decisions made at an institutional level, and these factors must be
considered when planning, designing, developing and delivering e-learning education
to vision impaired students.
2.6.2.3 Evaluation, Feedback, and Enhancement
In order to maintain an appropriate and accessible IT e-learning environment for the
vision impaired, there is a need to ensure that the objectives of the environment
continue to be met so that the vision impaired students can achieve the learning
outcomes to a predefined level of acceptance. This requires that activities to not only
evaluate how well the environment is complying with guidelines and standards and
achieving in relation to the objectives, but also to provide feedback on all sections of
the environment. This enables modifications and enhancements to be put in place to
ensure the needs and objectives are met on a continual basis.
2.6.2.4 Learning Objectives and Outcomes
Learning outcomes are commonly pre-set by the curriculum and instructional
designers, and these often reflect an assumption that students are able-bodied. In
21
standard educational courses these learning outcomes expect the vision impaired
students to meet International Journal of Cyber Society and Education the same
learning outcomes as sighted students. Learning outcomes in the VIVID model take
into account the vision disability of the students, and instructional designers need to be
cognizant that although learning objectives will be the same as for sighted students,
the learning outcomes may need to be adjusted. An outcome that requires students to
perform an action using a specific tool or approach that is inaccessible is not a valid
learning outcome in this learning environment. The investigation underlying this
research has shown that many learning outcomes focus not on the outcome itself but
the method of achieving that outcome. Accessible learning outcomes must reflect
what vision impaired students should have achieved as a result of successfully
completing accessible IT e-learning courses. Accessible learning outcomes must
integrate fully with accessible learning content, delivery and infrastructure in order to
present a holistic learning environment. It is important, therefore, that the design of
the learning environment is built with accessible learning outcomes as a foundation.
2.6.2.5 Learner Characteristics
In order to achieve accessible individual learning experiences, it is necessary to
consider the individual’s specific needs, background and demographic and cultural
factors. The individual’s needs with relation to the disability, such as level of vision,
the age when the vision impairment occurred (i.e. congenitally blind or blindness
through disease), any other medical issues and any other disabilities, will affect needs
in a learning environment. Background factors include the individual’s age, gender,
knowledge and experience of IT, knowledge and experience of the assistive
22
technologies, quality of Internet connection, type and responsiveness of assistive
technologies used, acceptance of new technologies and applications, and Web
application behaviors in general. Geographic and cultural factors will affect the way
the individual connects to the Internet and the applications within the learning
environment and the way communication with teachers and other students occurs.
2.6.2.6 Social Elements
Social elements refer to the ways in which information assist the students to
communicate, understand, belong, respect and share knowledge as part of a like
learning community. Being able to communicate with teachers and other students in a
real-time and online environment via a virtual classroom is essential. Applications
such as Ventrilo International Journal of Cyber Society and Education can provide a
virtual classroom environment where teachers broadcast lectures, take questions
during the broadcast, and encourage learner participation and discussion. Virtual
classroom software applications also enable the students to hear what other students
are saying as well as facilitate conversations with teachers.
In addition to classroom communications, the vision impaired students are able to
communicate with other students on a one-to-one or group basis using free
communication methods such as e-mail, Skype and social networking sites such as
Facebook and MySpace. The building of a group identity is important to vision
impaired students who spend the majority of their lives in isolation, either physically
on their own, or because of an inability to interact with the environment (people,
objects) due to disability. The learning group enables the students to form bonds and
23
develop relationships of trust as they interact together either virtually or in a physical
classroom.
2.6.2.7 Accessible Curriculum and Teaching Materials
The learning materials forming the basis of the courses must be fully accessible.
While UD principles provide a sound basis for accessibility, the teaching and learning
materials need to be accessible to the vision impaired, and this usually requires
additional accessibility considerations. Blind students can almost certainly not access
images in many formats (bitmap, JPEG, GIF). Flash diagrams are not translatable by
screen readers and many interactive tools are also not identifiable or translatable by
assistive technologies. The majority of the problems faced by vision impaired students
are related to inaccessible curriculum and teaching materials. The VIVID model
incorporates the need for careful consideration and testing to ensure that essential
elements are fully accessible. These include teaching materials, practical laboratory
exercises, assessments, e-doing tools, games and quizzes, and any additional teaching
resources and computerized tools, such as simulations and operating systems.
Vision impaired students also require more time to complete learning tasks and
assessments. During this research it was found that blind students require between two
and three times the amount of time to complete tasks. This is due to the use of
assistive technologies and an inability to see and become familiar with the content and
assimilate it to previous knowledge and understanding. International Journal of Cyber
Society and Education
24
2.6.2.8 Accessible Virtual Classroom and Delivery
Virtual classroom refers to a learning environment where teachers and students are
separated by space or time or both, and the teacher provides course content through
the use of methods such as course management applications, multimedia resources,
the Internet, video recorded lectures, tutorials and case studies.
Students receive the content and communicate with the teachers via the same
technologies, and skills in using assistive technologies, such as a screen readers or
screen magnifiers, are a pre-requisite for vision impaired students who require a sound
working knowledge of these tools and their limitations. Designing accessible virtual
classroom and delivery mechanisms should include consideration of assistive
technologies, vision impaired teachers, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) or
equivalent, accessible manuals for virtual classroom operations, sighted teachers to
manage the entire environment and assistive technology technicians.
2.6.2.9 Accessible Physical Classroom
In many circumstances, e-learning environments incorporate physical classrooms that
support the Web-based learning materials. Even distance learning students with vision
impairments require an appropriate physical learning space. The analysis
demonstrated that the requirement for an accessible physical classroom for vision
impaired students should include considerations to ensure the physical environment is
safe and accessible, including appropriate computer desks and workspaces, ergonomic
chairs, personal computers and laptops, microphones, printers, electronic USB
Whiteboards, accessible teaching aids and an effective and safe classroom layout.
25
2.6.3 VIVID Model Discussion
The VIVID model has been developed as a theory building project based upon
detailed analyses of two large IT e-learning environments designed specifically for
students with severe vision disabilities. The model does not aim to be universally
accessible. However, it does include universal accessibility foundations and
considerations. The model is yet to be fully applied into a new e-learning environment
and such an exercise will undoubtedly highlight changes, additions and enhancements
that will add value to the research already carried out. (www.academic-
journals.org/ojs2/index.php/IJCSE/article/viewFile/.../136 by R Permvattana).
2.7 Empirical Literature Review
In the field of education, the basic concept of “Non – discrimination” entails the
ability of all people to have “equal opportunity in education, regardless of their social
class, ethnicity, background or physical disabilities” (Klironomos, et al.2005).
Students with disabilities have the right to expect the same standard of education as
their schoolmates and, in this view, they also have the right to access and use
mainstream educational tools, including ICT based ones, which are generally referred
to as “e-learning tools”. Such tools are worldwide considered powerful tools to foster
learning (Hitchcock, et al, 2003); but, at the same time, it is well known that, due to
the widespread use of technological tools, “disadvantaged or excluded groups,
including the unskilled, disabled and the elderly, face the danger of further
marginalization […], In fact, with the advent of the digital computer, and its broad
penetration, disabled and elderly people face serious problems in accessing computing
devices (Stephanidis and Savidis, 2001). Anderson (2006) stresses that, in the field of
26
education, while technologies are beneficial and have been shown to help with
educational tasks, their design and usability are an issue.
Students with disabilities often face difficulties in accessing and in using e-learning
tools and, depending on the type of impairment; the types of obstacles encountered
vary considerably. In recent years, the World Health Organization (2004) has
emphasized that “childhood blindness remains a significant problem, with an
estimated 1.4 million blind children below age 15”; the problem appears even more
relevant if we consider also the students with visual impairments other than blindness
(the incidence of low vision being generally estimated three times greater than
blindness). In the same report, in fact, it was found that, in 2002, there were 161
million (about 2.6% of the world population) visually impaired people in the world, of
whom 124 million (about 2%) had low vision and 37 million (about 0.6%) were blind.
Data of the World Health Organization seem to confirm, then, that sight impaired
students are a relevant percentage of the overall population of the students with
disabilities [Viisola, M., 1999]. Such students, in principle, could highly benefit from
using ICT for educational purposes but they actually, despite the availability of a
growing number of technology-enhanced and sophisticated assistive devices, face a
number of accessibility problems [Burzagli et al., 2004].
The task of listing all such problems is not easy, mainly because students with visual
disabilities are a highly dishomogeneous category showing a wide range of different
specific abilities, disabilities and needs; blind and low vision students, for instance,
27
despite the fact that they are both often simply referred to as “visually impaired”,
present very different visual problems, find different obstacles and ask for different
kinds of help and support.
What’s more, even the category of low vision students is a highly heterogeneous one:
it encompasses a wide variety of different visual characteristics. In this perspective,
the different instructional tools (those ICT based, as well as the traditional ones), may
meet or not to the needs of each single user, depending on her/his specific impairment.
After a brief review of the e-learning tools that are widely used for educational
purposes, examples are provided of some problems encountered by students with
visual disabilities in accessing and using e-learning material. Such problems often
result into true obstacles for the effective use of the tools and may also have a negative
influence on the overall learning process. In the end, a glance is taken to the
accessibility requirements addressing the specific needs of visually impaired people
established by the Italian law in force, which directly recalls the Section 508
Rehabilitation Act1.
2.7.1 E-learning Tools for Visual Needs
While affording the choice of the e-learning tools to be used in concrete educational
settings by visually impaired students, from one side, it is important to consider the
nature, the specific features and the functionalities of the technological tools at hand;
from the other side, it is necessary to take into account the actual, specific needs of the
potential user/s (which are, of course, related to their impairments). To this end, in the
following, an overview and a basic classification of the main tools used in the field of
28
e-learning is proposed; subsequently, a quick look is taken to the different needs of the
different categories of visually impaired students and to the main obstacles that they
may encounter.
Briefly stated, the principle barriers are: a lack of information about assistive
technology; the high cost and severely limited sources of financial assistance for
assistive technology; insufficient numbers of organizations and personnel able to
provide instruction in the use of new technology; and developments such as the
graphical user interface which hamper access to new computer and electronic
information technology (p. 9).
While there are many issues related to the use of assistive technology by individuals
with visual impairments, three areas surface as critical issues within the field. First,
the provision of assistive technology is commonly based upon disability and not the
particular needs of the individual. Secondly, instruction by qualified educational
professionals is often hindered by lack of pre- and in-service training on assistive
technologies. Lastly, forces such as location, cost, and personnel often hinder the
availability of assistive technologies for individuals with visual impairments.
2.7.2 Assistive Technology Tailored to Individual Needs
No single solution for access to technology is appropriate for every student with a
visual impairment. Even students with the same visual loss may require instruction in
different types of assistive technology based upon their unique needs. Specifically,
students with visual impairments may require assistive technology which may focus
upon (a) speech access, (b) braille access, (c) print access, (d) tactile communication
29
systems, or (e) any combination of these access modes.
Determination of access mode(s) must be guided by skilled specialists in the education
of students with visual impairments who have comprehensive expertise in blindness
and low vision specific assistive technology and who can also access individual
learning characteristics. These specialists must collaborate with other special
educators, general assistive technology specialists, general educational technology
specialists, and educational evaluators to conduct thorough diagnostic evaluations to
determine the specific needs of students with visual impairments.
Then they must insure that those needs are met by planning, implementing, and
continuously monitoring instruction in the use of appropriate technology, including
sufficient training in the efficient use of specific technology. Students with visual
impairments must have access to and instruction with blindness and low vision
specific assistive technology tailored to individual unique needs, learning styles,
visual abilities, and preferences to maximize lifelong efficiency, interest, and
productivity in their education, home, and community lives.
2.7.2 Access to Appropriate Instruction
With appropriate instruction, assistive technology can provide a powerful array of
tools for students with visual impairments. Appropriate instruction includes designing
a plan of individualized assistive technology instruction and teaching a specialized
hierarchy of skills that is based upon diagnostic evaluations. For example, developing
the ability to navigate a computer desktop, using word processing software as well as
other commonly used mainstream software programs, and effectively using the
30
Internet to search for specific information, send e-mails, and participate in online
learning may be goals for students with visual impairments. To develop these larger
goals, most students will begin with keyboarding skills. These skills must be taught
systematically and consistently. Students who master basic keyboarding can then be
taught to use a word processing program to proofread, check spelling, and compose
and revise documents. Students who master basic word processing can then be taught
to use the Internet. The ability to effectively and efficiently use the Internet will allow
students to have independent access to a wide variety of information and to participate
in online communication.
Instruction in the use of appropriate assistive technology devices--speech, large print,
and/or braille--must take place concurrently with instruction in keyboarding, word
processing, and in use of the Internet. Also, appropriate instruction may include
introduction to or mastery of other blindness and low vision specific assistive
technology devices such as electronic note takers, video magnifiers (CCTVs),
scanners, optical character recognition (OCR) systems, accessible global position
systems (GPS), braille translation software, braille and print embossers, screen
magnification software, etc. Students with visual impairments and additional
disabilities must have access to instruction in the use of appropriate assistive
technology such as switches and communication boards tailored to their particular
visual abilities.
2.7.3 Access to Equitable Assistive Technology Devices and Instruction
Access to and instruction with assistive technology must be driven by individual
needs, not by logistical constraints such as availability of equipment, location or
31
model of service delivery, or funding restraints. Currently, some students with visual
impairments have access to a wide range of blindness and low vision specific assistive
technology devices, while others have none at all (Kelly, 2008). Also, some students
with visual impairments have access to teachers who are well-prepared to deliver
special instruction in blindness and low vision specific assistive technology, while
others do not (Abner & Lahm, 2002; Edwards & Lewis, 1998; Kapperman, Sticken, &
Heinze, 2002; Murphy, Hatton, & Erickson, 2008; Parker et al., 1990; Sahfi, Zhou,
Smith, Kelley, 2009; Smith, Kelley, Maushak, Griffin-Shirley, & Lan, 2009). This
inequity must be eliminated.
To assure that appropriate assistive technology devices and instruction are available to
students, educational teams must carefully assess students’ needs—considering both
current and future needs—and must specify goals and objectives for meeting these
needs on the individual education plan, including intensity of instruction, who will
provide the instruction, and the specific type of assistive technology required. As
specified in IDEA (2004), school districts must assure that all students have equitable
access to assistive technology devices and instruction as documented by the
individualized education program. University programs must address the lack of
blindness and low vision specific assistive technology knowledge in future teachers of
students with visual impairments. Professional development opportunities must be
provided through partnerships among school districts, universities, organizations, and
assistive technology vendors to ensure that professionals stay abreast of emerging
technologies and have the opportunity to become proficient in the use of the assistive
technology that they will be teaching students with visual impairments to use.
32
Instruction in blindness and low vision specific assistive technology is a fundamental
component of the curriculum for students with visual impairments that must be
tailored to individual needs through diagnostic and ongoing evaluation. All students
with visual impairments should have appropriate instruction in the use of blindness
and low vision specific assistive technology by a highly-qualified educator.
Instruction should be goal-oriented; focused on academic, vocational, and independent
living skills; and should build on a hierarchy of skills.
Finally, logistical constraints must not impede access to assistive technology and
appropriate instruction in the use of assistive technology for all students with visual
impairments. Teachers of students with visual impairments and orientation and
mobility specialists are responsible for collaborating with other professionals to
identify and address individual needs while also staying abreast of current and
emerging assistive technology. School districts are responsible for providing
equipment and supporting professionals in the provision of instruction as documented
by the educational team. Universities are responsible for providing instruction in the
area of blindness and low vision specific assistive technology that effectively prepares
professionals with expertise in the broad array of assistive technology that is
appropriate for students who are visually impaired. Collaboration between all
stakeholders will facilitate readily available, up-to-date, and on-going professional
development.
33
2.7.4 The way e-Learning Affect a Student who is Visually Impaired
According to Nielsen (2001), it is 6 times more difficult for someone to use the
Internet using a screen reader than using no assistive technology. Nielsen's study was
carried out with people who had at least 3 years experience of using the assistive
software and at least 3 months experience of using the Internet.
However, e-learning via the Internet may well enable the student to access more
materials and work more independently than they could using traditional methods. A
student with a visual impairment may also need more time to complete assignments
and may need more induction into using a VLE but, it is important to remember that
each student will be different.
2.8 Literature Review of Policies
From the foreword of the minister of education and vocational training Hon. Mrs.
Margaret Simwanza Sitta (MP) Minister for Education and Vocational Training. Dar
es Salaam, July, 2007 stated that: Tanzania cannot afford to overlook the importance
of information and communication technology (ICT) for improved access, equity,
quality and relevance of education. In our inter-connected world, knowledge and
information are becoming corner stones for the development of a society, as is the
ability to communicate. It is our duty to prepare our children so that they can benefit
from and contribute to our country´s development in the information age. We must
therefore take advantage of the full range of ICTs, from radio and mobile telephony to
computers and the Internet, to build the foundation for a well educated and learning
knowledge society.
34
The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training has developed this policy to guide
the integration of ICT in basic education. The policy covers pre-primary, primary,
secondary and teacher education, as well as non-formal and adult education. It is
guided by the overall objectives of education policies, and relevant national
development policies, including the Tanzania National ICT Policy of 2003. Since ICT
is a cross-cutting tool, this policy is also linked to ICT activities in other areas and
sectors, especially vocational training, higher education, and regional administration
and local government.
The benefits of ICT can only be reaped through the commitment and collaboration of
all stakeholders. This is why we have consulted a wide range of stakeholders in the
development of this policy, from the public and private sectors, civil society and
academia. We appreciate the valuable inputs of all sectors, and the importance they
have attributed to this policy. It is hoped that this policy provides a comprehensive
framework for future partnerships to harness the power of ICT for the realization of
Tanzania’s educational objectives.
The MoEVT ICT Policy for basic education has the mission of integrating ICT to
enhance access, equity, quality and relevance of basic education, while stimulating
and improving teaching and life long learning (MoEVT, 2007). Along side, the
strategy of poverty reduction by employing the use of ICT is being indicated by the
Ministry of Communications and Transport (MoCT), National ICT Policy of Tanzania
vision which state that (MoCT, 2003):
“By exploiting its unique geographical position, Tanzania becomes a regional hub of ICT infrastructure providing ICT-based solutions that enhance sustainable socio-economic development, which addresses national and regional poverty reduction concerns”
35
The ICT for e-learning project to a big extend supports strategies that has been
pinpointed by the National ICT policy (MoCT, 2003) which emphasizes the use of
ICT-based solutions and the concerned MoEVT ICT Policy which wants to integrate
ICT in education.
The objectives of the MoEVT, (2007) ICT Policy for basic education namely; to
facilitate the development and use of ICT as a pedagogical tool for teaching and
learning, and to promote development of local content for basic education the
objectives of the MoEVT, (2007) ICT Policy for basic education namely; to facilitate
the use of ICT as a tool for assessment and evaluation of education, as well as
administration and management Internationally, Tanzania like any other country has
to abide with the international strategies towards the use of ICT.
2.9 E-learning Tools and the Needs of Visually Impaired Students
Examples of what kind of accessibility and usability problems can be found in the
different categories of software applications are provided in the following, keeping
aside, for the moment, all the possible problems linked to the use of computers in their
standard configuration and of other specific hardware devices.
While considering such obstacles, it is important to reflect on the fact that they are
strictly related to the type of user impairment. Blind and low vision students encounter
different types of obstacles: in order to fully to access the contents, in fact, the first
category needs necessarily to rely on screen readers, while the second category, thanks
to optical aids and/or to specific customization options, may access a much wider
variety of software applications, including, often, those with graphic interface. Other
36
significant differences can be found among the needs of the different categories of low
vision students due to the wide variety of their visual impairments
[Dini et al, 2006].
2.9.1 E-learning Platforms and the Needs of Visually Impaired Students
E-learning platforms often pose a number of different problems to visually impaired
students: small characters, crowded pages, pop up windows, iconic menus, and
complex forms to be filled in, The availability of appropriate customizing options
could help to avoid such problems.
2.10 Research Gaps
Based on the literature review, many studies have focused more on investigating
different perceptions and views of ICT technicians, developers, education policy
makers/planners and teachers towards e-learning, forgetting the voice of learners with
visual impairments who are among of the affected ones in the e-learning/users of ICT
tools. As it is shown above, none of the reviewed studies had focused directly on
learners with visual impairments for the sake of seeking their views, perception and
experiences on the challenges they face in learning and participation in e-School.
Furthermore, tracing the context where the current study was conducted, very few
empirical studies on e-learning at the secondary school level in Tanzania had been
conducted. Thus in order to cover the existing knowledge gap, it was very important
for the current study to explore the life experiences and views of learners with visual
impairments towards challenges they face in learning and participation in e-learning in
secondary schools in Tanzania.
37
Challenges Technological InstitutionalPersonal
Access to E-Learning
User education E-learning literacy skills
Adaptive Technology Availability
Training Knowledge
Usage
2.11 Conceptual Framework
E-learning for the visually impaired students is a means to removing a digital barrier
to the visually impaired students. As information is power, it is through the use of
ICT this can be made possible. Moreover, ICT offers great opportunities of social
inclusion and equity.
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework
Source: Field Data, 2016
38
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the methodologies of the study involving areas such as, the
study area, research design, target population, sample, sampling procedures,
instruments for data collection, data collection procedures, validity and reliability of
the instruments, data analysis and statistical procedures, and lastly ethical
consideration.
3.2 Research Design
The design that was adopted for this study was descriptive survey. The objective of
descriptive research was to observe, describe and document aspects of the situation as
it naturally occurs. With descriptive research, the conditions already existed and the
researcher picked the vital variables for breakdown of the relationships. Descriptive
research is concerned with the conditions or relationships that exist such as
determining the nature of prevailing conditions, practices and attitudes; opinions that
are held; processes that are ongoing and trends that are developed (Best &Khan,
1998). They maintain that with descriptive research, accurate description of activities,
objects, processes and persons is the objective.
3.3 Area of the Study
This study was carried out in the Tabora Municipality. Tabora Girls Secondary School
in the Tabora Municipal was selected for this study because it was the only school
with visually impaired students in Tabora Municipality.
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3.4 Target Population
The target populations for the study were all the students with visual impairment in
Tabora Girls Secondary School, teachers and staff members who teach or serve the
students with visual impairment. There were 37 students with visual impairment and
13 teachers including resource persons.
Students with visual impairment were targeted because they were the ones who faced
the challenges in accessing e-learning at Tabora Girls Secondary School. Teachers
were targeted because they were the ones who assisted students with visual
impairment in case of a need; teachers were trained to assist visually impaired
students.
3.5 Sample Size
According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2009) for the purpose of external validity of the
research, the sample should be as large as possible depending on the time for the
research and its purpose. Similarly, when the population is not too large, it is better to
work with the entire population. Therefore, for the purpose of external validity of this
study, all the 37 students with visual impairment at Tabora Girls Secondary School
and all the 11 teachers who teach them including the 2 resource persons made the
sample of this study.
3.6 Sampling Procedures
Sampling procedure refers to the total part of the research plan that indicates how
cases are to be selected for the observation (Kombo & Tomp: 1958:78). The study
employed the following procedures to get the sample.
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3.6.1 Purposive Sampling Strategy
Purposive sampling is a form of non-probability sampling in which decisions
concerning the individuals to be included in the sample are taken by the researcher,
based upon a variety of criteria, which may include specialist knowledge of the
research issue, or capacity and willingness to participate in the research. In this study,
purposive sampling technique was used to select all respondents for this study.
According to Patton (2002) purposive sampling is a form of non-probability sampling
in which decisions concerning the individuals to be included in the sample are taken
by the researcher. Therefore, the researcher purposively included all the population in
this study.
3.7 Research Instruments
Kothari (2004:7) defines research instruments as the techniques the researcher uses in
performing research operations in data collection. This study used questionnaire in
collecting data. Questionnaires were developed by the researcher to collect data. Each
item on the questionnaire was coded to identify the rating of each response choice.
There were two sets of questionnaires. A set of questionnaire was developed for
Teachers and Resource Persons and the other set was developed for students with
visual impairment in the Tabora Girls Secondary School of the Tabora Municipality of
Tanzania.
The questionnaires were developed based on a five point modified Likert’s scale
namely, (1) strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3) Undecided, (4) Disagree, (5) Strongly
Disagree. The questionnaire was administered by the researcher and his team with
help from some teachers and resource persons in the school. All the items were read to
41
the respondents and their responses ticked. To ensure external validity, the
respondents responded to the items on the spot and were collected at the spot. To
ensure internal validity the respondents stimulated to give their independent and
impartial responses to the items.
Questionnaire was suitable because they were operative in collecting large data within
relative short time than other procedures such as interviews and observations.
Additionally, the researcher used questionnaire because it was less expensive and
takes a little time to administer.
3.8 Validity and Reliability
Validity is described as the degree to which a research study measures what it intends
to measure. There are two main types of validity, internal and external. Internal
validity refers to the validity of the measurement and test itself, whereas external
validity refers to the ability to generalize the findings to the target population. Both
are very important in analyzing the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of
a research study. However, here the study focused on the validity of the measurement
technique (i.e. internal validity). The following were the explanations concerning
different ways of achieving validity in a research methodology:
Credibility: This emphasizes on the researcher’s ability to take account all of the
complexities that present themselves in a study and to deal with patterns that are not
easily explained. They include methods for achieving prolonged participation, peer
debriefing, and triangulation of results from various sources of data which provide an
efficient and effective for verifying the credibility of the data collected.
42
Transferability: The objects of study should be context-bound, the global research is
not to produce truth statement that can be generalized to others, rather to develop
descriptive, context–relevant statements. The methods for achieving and collecting
detailed description of the data itself as well as the context so the reader can make
comparisons to other context effectively.
Dependability: This is the stability of the data. Methods of achieving; overlap
methods and ensure you have properly provided and explained them on aspects and
spheres of research methodology as a subject matter towards success and also good
and advanced research.
3.9 Data Analysis
Data collected were recorded and analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The
quantitative data collected using questionnaires were edited, coded and analysed using
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software and excel to compute
percentages and tabulation. The percentage was calculated according to the number of
frequencies after the interpretation of the data and was presented quantitatively by
means of charts, tables and graphs and the qualitative data from unstructured
interview were recorded by taking notes and using a tape recorder. They were
analysed using narrative and content analysis techniques. This helped to give in-depth
information.
3.10 Ethical Considerations
Ethics are values to consider before, during and after the whole process in research.
Before starting collection of data a researcher got clearance from The Open University
43
of Tanzania. A letter from The Open University of Tanzania submitted to the Regional
Administrative Secretary (RAS) to write a notifying letter to the institutions from
which data will be collected. The researcher made it clear to the informants about the
purposes of the investigation as well as the benefits and risks they would face in their
participation for the research project.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on data presentation and discussion of the findings in relation to
the purpose of the study, research objectives and research questions. The prime
objective of the study was to fulfill three main tasks namely to identify problems
facing visually impaired students in accessing e-learning at Tabora Girls Secondary
School, to examine the current education policy on education provision through e-
learning to students with visual impairment and to evaluate the strategies that are
being implemented to assist visual impaired students access e-learning in Tabora
Municipality and Tanzania at large.
4.2 Demographic Characteristics
Respondents’ characteristics were analyzed based on gender, age and education level
as described below.
4.2.1 Gender of Respondents
Table 4.1 shows the distribution of gender of the respondents. Among 37 students
respondents contacted, all 37 (100%) were female and 8 (73%) of teachers were
female while 3 (27%) were male. As shown in Table 4.1, female respondents were
more than male respondents. The skewed distribution of respondents towards females
was in accordance with the fact that the school under study is for girls.
Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents
GenderStudents Teachers
Frequency Percent Frequency PercentMale - - 3 27Female 37 100 8 73Total 37 100 11 100
Source: Research Data (2014)
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4.2.1.1 Ages of Students
The analysis on the age of students as shown in Table 4.2 reveals that 8r respondents
(22%) belongs t o age group of 13-15 years, 9 respondents (24%) belongs to age
group of 16-18years, 20 respondents (54%) belongs to 19-20 years. Therefore, most of
the students in this study were aged between 19 and 20 years.
Table 4.2: Age of StudentsAges Frequency Percentage13-15 8 2216-18 9 2419-20 20 54Total 37 100
Source: Research data (2017)
The age groups 13 – 15 year olds 8 respondents (22%) and 16 – 18 year olds 9
respondents (24%) does indicate a fall in the number of students with visual
impairment, prompting us to ask whether this fall by more than half is due
improvements in water supplies, hygiene, sanitation and health facilities or advances
in medicine and broadening of medical facilitation. Definitely education expansion
and sensitization of communities could be a factor.
4.2.1.2 Age of Teachers
Table 4.3 indicates that a large number of teachers at Tabora Girls Secondary School
are seasoned professionals who have been in the teaching profession for a long time.
46% have ages between 36-45 ages and 27% are aged 36 – 45 years, while those aged
21-35 years were only 9%. The paucity of young teachers is also a matter for concern.
For continuity purposes, it is necessary for the Government to undertake a deliberate
46
vigorous campaign of increasing the employment of teachers with diploma and degree
qualifications in secondary schools. Particular attention should be paid to special
education.
Table 4.3: Age of Teachers
Ages Frequency Percent21-35 years 1 936-45 years 3 2746-55 years 5 4656-60 years 2 18Total 11 100
Source: Research data (2017)
4.2.2 Education Level of Teachers
It was contented by researcher that the educational level of the respondents was
important in assessing on challenges facing students with visual impairment in
accessing e-learning and this was as follows: 27 per cent of respondents were
bachelor degree holders, 64 per cent were diploma holders and 9 percent were master
degree. The education level of respondents was necessary as it enabled the researcher
to obtain the information from the right people who were considered to reason and
provide relevant information of the research. The data were summarized in Table 4.4
Table 4.4: Education level of Teachers
Source: Research data (2017)
Education level Frequency PercentDiploma 7 64Degree 3 27Masters degree 1 9Total 11 100
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4.3 Challenges Facing Visually Impaired Students in Accessing E-Learning
The first objective of this study was to identify problems facing visually impaired
students in accessing e-learning at Tabora Girls Secondary School.
Table 4.5: Challenges Facing Visually Impaired Students in ICT
Item Measured
Stro
ngly
ag
ree
Agr
ee
Neu
tral
Dis
agre
e
Stro
ngly
di
sagr
ee
There are sufficient equipment/ teaching and learning materials for all visually impaired students in accessing e-learning
2 1 4 9 21
As a visually impaired student you have knowledge in using a computer
3 5 17 10
As a visually impaired student do you see the importance of the use of computer or ICT based learning materials
23 7 1 2 4
The use of screen readers and magnifier software in accessing e-learning to the visually impaired student are very essential
19 13
1 3 1
You are facing problems as visually impaired student on accessing e-learning
15 16
1 3 2
There is high level of awareness within the secondary school regarding the accessibility of e-learning for students with visual impairment
68 31
1 4 9
Source: Research data (2017)
To achieve this, students were requested to indicate the extent of the issue through
observation at their school on problems facing visually impaired students in accessing
48
e-learning. Six items identifying problems facing visually impaired students in
accessing e-learning on a five-point Likert scale were administered to students.
Results are presented in the Table 4.5 and 4.6. For teachers at Tabora Girls Secondary
school, a similar questionnaire was administered. The results of the inquiry are shown
in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Descriptive Data on Problems Facing Visually Impaired Students in
Accessing E-Learning for Teachers and Resource Personnel
It Measured
Stro
ngly
ag
ree
Agr
ee
Neu
tral
Dis
agre
e
Stro
ngly
di
sagr
ee
There is awareness within the secondary school regarding the accessibility of e-learning for students with visual impairment
2 1 1 6 3
Policy of Tanzania as a teacher of students with visual impairment is good 0 1 2 3 7
You have enough ICT resources in this school 14 1 0 7 4As a special education teacher for VI student you have knowledge in using a computer 1 2 1 3 6
During teaching and learning process students with visual impairment are involved in computer based learning
1 0 1 6 5
Source: Research data (2017)
4.3.1 Availability Teaching and Learning Materials
As indicated in Table 4.5, 30 of students (81%) stated that there were insufficient
equipment/ teaching and learning materials for all visually impaired students. This
was further affirmed by 11(79%) of teachers and resource personnel who participated
in the study. They argued that the school had insufficient equipment/ teaching and
learning materials for all visually impaired students in accessing e-learning. One
teacher said,
49
The materials provided are not enough for all students. The braille machines are not enough and students shy off taking them to class because of the noise they produce and also some lack competence in using them. They fear that the noise produced by these machines may disturb the rest of the students.
The findings revealed that although there were few equipment/teaching and learning
materials for all visually impaired students for example, braille machines in the
resource room, students with visual impairment were not comfortable in using them
and they did not like to use them in class because of the noise they produced which
could disturb other students.
On the other hand, all resource persons supported learners with visual impairment by
confirming that there were no braille books in the school and the students highly
depended on their sighted peers in doing their assignments through group discussions
and some notes provided by the teachers were put into braille by the resource room
personnel. The sighted students supported the lack of learning resources; they all said
that libraries were not equipped with resources for students with visual impairments
making it difficult for them to enjoy the library services especially when doing their
exercises, assignments and revisions for their end of terminal examinations.
The teachers and resource persons, who participated in key informant interviews, also
agreed with the students that the libraries were not equipped with the relevant
materials for students with visual impairments. The findings agreed with findings by
Simon et al, (2010) who found out that schools did not have appropriate teaching and
learning resources to help students with visual impairment learn better in inclusive
classrooms. Moreover the findings revealed that, teachers do not have enough
50
knowledge of inclusion and how to teach students with visual impairment in inclusive
classrooms.
The findings again agreed with a study done by Marylyn (2008) who found out that
one key accommodation that is absolutely essential is access to textbooks and
instructional materials in the appropriate media and at the same time as their sighted
peers. For students who are blind this may mean Braille and/or recorded media. For
student with low vision, this may mean large print text or the use of optical devices to
access text and/or recorded media while in class.
4.3.2 Visually Impaired Student Knowledge in Using a Computer
Research findings displayed in Table 4.5 indicated that 27 respondents (73%) either
strongly disagree or disagree with having knowledge in using a computer. This
concurs with responses from the resource persons who declared that visually impaired
students’ do not have no enough knowledge in using computers due to the fact that
they are not exposed to computer room because there is no computer software that
supports them in using computer. In the same line, data collected from teachers and
resource personnel revealed that 9(69%) had no adequate knowledge in using
computers. This was due to the fact during their courses in colleges there was no
special programme that was provided to them concerning e-learning for visual
impairment students. These findings are supported by the findings of Lazar (2004)
which assert that the present Web Accessibility Integration Model on Web site
accessibility do not support visual impairment students, based upon the influences of
stakeholder perceptions, societal foundations and Web accessibility. Lazar and
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colleagues (2004) argue that societal foundations are inadequate with regard to current
levels of accessibility as education curriculum does not include accessibility, although
accessibility is a government priority.
4.3.3 The Importance of the Use of Computer Based Learning Materials to VI
Student
Concerning the issue of the importance of the use of computer based learning
materials to VI student, 30 students (81%) agreed that computer was important in
learning material to visual impairments. This was further supported by teachers and
resource personnel who commented that computer technology has a promise to
revolutionize both teaching and learning in to visual impairment students. One teacher
said that,
With the popularization of the Internet in the early 1990s, access to information, ease of communication, and the ability to become part of an electronic community, is among the multiple resources that have become widely available to students.
The findings above concur with the findings by Harris (1999) who wrote, “I have
reports from every type of educational institution of students demanding the
implementation of email and Internet access ...” (p. 244). We know that computers are
being used and that students appear to welcome the technology; but does this use and
enthusiasm translate into perceptions of increased learning and increased course
effectiveness.
52
4.3.4 Importance of the Use of Screen Readers and Magnifier Software in
Accessing E-Learning to the Visually Impaired Student
Data displayed in Table 4.5 on the issue of importance of the use of screen readers and
magnifier software in accessing e-learning to the visually impaired students, the
information indicate that 32 respondents (86%) agreed with the statement that the use
of screen readers and magnifier software in accessing e-learning to the visually
impaired student is very important. In connection to this, one resource personnel
commented that:
Screen readers and magnifier software in the e-learning mode helped VI students to make available online course notes, work at their own pace, learn from home, get online course materials/resources other than notes, get information anywhere and at any time, feel more independent, save time and money, allow the use of adaptive technology, and be anonymous and reduce social anxiety. At the same time, all of them were not fully satisfied with their participation in the e-learning activities.
The findings above are affirmed by Dini et al, (2006) who argues that while
considering such obstacles, it is important to reflect on the fact that they are strictly
related to the type of user impairment. Blind and low vision students encounter
different types of obstacles: in order to fully to access the contents, in fact, the first
category needs necessarily to rely on screen readers, while the second category, thanks
to optical aids and/or to specific customization options, may access a much wider
variety of software applications, including, often, those with graphic interface. Other
significant differences can be found among the needs of the different categories of low
vision students due to the wide variety of their visual impairments.
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4.3.5 Problems Faced by Visually Impaired Student on Accessing E-Learning
Regarding the issue of problems faced by visually impaired student on accessing e-
learning, data in Tables 4.5 indicate that 31 VI students (84%) agreed with the
statement that visually impaired student face problems on accessing e-learning. The
same kind of response was given by teachers and resource personnel who said that in
spite of the tremendous opportunities afforded by e-learning for learners with VI
students there are a variety of barriers that interfere with their effective use. Moreover,
data collected from teaches and resource personnel on the involvement of VI student
in computer based learning indicated that 11(84%) argued that during teaching and
learning process students with visual impairment were not involved in computer based
learning. One resource personnel said:
Those in charge of supporting and deploying e-learning generally do not confirm ahead of time whether newly purchased academic software is compatible with adaptive software that reads what is on the screen to individuals with print impairments. PowerPoint presentations in class, if not posted online ahead of time, can cause difficulties for students with visual and other disabilities requiring adaptive software to read and follow the presentation. Video clips posted on a course website with no captioning can pose problems for students with hearing impairments. Websites can pose problems for students with learning, visual, and neuromuscular disabilities even when they use adaptive software such as screen magnification, screen reading and dictation software.
The findings above concur with the findings by Harris (1999) which revealed that
problems faced by vision impaired students are different from those experienced by
sighted students. Most e-learning environments are designed for sighted students,
utilizing complex visual images and interactive features; however students with acute
vision impairments are not able to utilize these features and must rely on applications
to translate the contents of screen displays and documents into forms that are
54
accessible. Learning environments for people with VI stuudents need specific
considerations in design and implementation to ensure their appropriateness and
accessibility.
In the same vein, Hoppe et al (2003) mentioned different problems related to VI
student in e-learning that included: accessibility of websites and course/learning
management systems (CMS); accessibility of digital audio and video; inflexible time
limits built into online examinations; PowerPoint/data projection during lectures;
course materials in PDF, and lack of needed adaptive technologies. Students also
mentioned technical difficulties using e-learning and connecting to websites and
CMS, problems downloading and opening files, web pages that would not load, video
clips taking too long to download, poor use of e-learning by professors and their own
lack of knowledge working with e-learning.
4.3.6 Level of Awareness within the Secondary School Regarding the
Accessibility of E-Learning for VI Students
Regarding the level of awareness within the secondary school regarding the
accessibility of e-learning for VI students’ data revealed that majority of student
11(84%) were not aware on the accessibility of E-learning for visual impairment
students. This again was confirmed by 6(69%) of the teachers and resource personnel
who comment that there was poor awareness on accessibility of e-learning with visual
impairment students.
55
4.4 Current Education Policy on Education Provision of E-Learning to VI
Students
The second objective of this study sought to examine the current education policy on
education provision through e-learning to students with visual impairment in Tabora
Municipality. In this part, the participants were asked to indicate if the current
education policy laid emphasis on provision of e-learning to students with visual
impairment.
Figure 4.1: Level of Satisfaction with the Current Policy on e-learning to the VI Students
Source: Research Data 2017
Majority of the students were not satisfied with the education policy because it did not
emphasize on provision of e-learning to students with visual impairment. Figure 4.1
show how respondents were no satisfied.
Data from Figure 4.1 indicated that majority of respondents/students were not satisfied
with education policy on education provision through e-learning to students with
visual impairment. This implies majority of the students are demoralized on e-learning
education because facilities that favour them are not enough. This was further
56
revealed by 10(77%) of the teachers and resource personnel who participated in the
study. They argued that, the absence of political will to help the children with visual
impairment in accessing e-learning made their life difficult. One of them remarked,
As I have pointed out, that it is very unfair to build classrooms which are not friendly for children with visual impairment. Many politicians keep on saying that it is too costly to handle the visual impairment problem. This statement is unacceptable because children with visual impairment are very few and can be supported fully by the Government and charitable organizations.
The findings are supported by South-North Centre for Dialogue and Development,
(2006) which reported that the provision of mobility devices is generally a low area of
priority for many governments in the developing countries including Tanzania; and, as
a result, it is often not reflected in national legislation, policies or strategies. A global
survey carried out in 2005 on the implementation of the United Nations Standard
Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (2014)
showed that, of 114 of countries that responded to the survey 50% including Tanzania
had not passed relevant legislation, and 48% did not have policies in place relating to
the provision of assistive devices.
4.5 The Strategies that are being implemented to assist Visual Impaired Students
Access E-Learning
From this research objective, data are discussed according to the following sub-
headings:- accessible IT e-learning environment, learner characteristics, accessible
physical classroom, accessible virtual classroom and delivery.
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4.5.1 Accessible E-Learning Environment
Majority of students and teachers through interview agreed that accessible E-learning
environment was very essential for assisting visual impaired students access e-
learning. One of the teachers commented that,
In order to maintain an appropriate and accessible IT/e-learning environment for the vision impaired, there is a need to ensure that the objectives of the environment continue to be met so that the vision impaired students can achieve the learning outcomes to a predefined level of acceptance.
The findings above concur with the findings by WAI (2006) which revealed that the
environment is complying with guidelines and standards and achieving in relation to
the objectives, but also to provide feedback on all sections of the environment. This
enables modifications and enhancements to be put in place to ensure the needs and
objectives are met on a continual basis.
4.5.2 Learner Characteristics
Majority of the teachers commented that in order to achieve accessible individual
learning experiences, it is necessary to consider the individual’s specific needs,
background and demographic and cultural factors. One of the teachers commented
that,
The individual’s needs with relation to the disability, such as level of vision, the age when the vision impairment occurred (i.e. congenitally blind or blindness through disease), any other medical issues and any other disabilities, will affect needs in a learning environment.
These findings are supported by the findings of Burgstahler (2007) which assert that
background factors include the individual’s age, gender, knowledge and experience of
IT, knowledge and experience of the assistive technologies, quality of Internet
58
connection, type and responsiveness of assistive technologies used, acceptance of new
technologies and applications, and Web application behaviors in general. Geographic
and cultural factors will affect the way the individual connects to the Internet and the
applications within the learning environment and the way communication with
teachers and other students occurs.
4.5.3 Encouraging Peer Support
Some teachers considered the help from fellow students as helpful to students with
visual impairments to access e-learning. Teachers said to put efforts encouraging
fellow low vision students to help students with visual impairments by providing e-
learning notes and clarifying difficult concepts to them. In order to be motivated to
help, these helpers are exempted from other duties. Teacher gave this statement:
I encourage fellow students with low vision to help students with Visual Impairments academically and in various activities in the class because their participation in e-learning is not good. The good thing is that, these students are exempted from other outside activities in order to motivate them to help students with visual impairments.
In order to make sure this strategy works, on the other side head of school through
interview said, they encourage students with visual impairments to use their friends to
help them, whenever they need assistance from them. Consider this statement:
…..they encourage students with visual impairments to use their friends to get
lesson notes. I also use extra time if available for the slow learners so that they
understand better the lesson…...
Through observation it was observed that there were some kinds of assistance to
students with visual impairments from their fellow students. But this assistance did
59
not result from teacher’s encouragements but it was low vision students’ own
initiatives.
This finding above concur with the finding by Lipsky & Gartner, (1997) which
revealed that peer assistance and support, is very helpful in improving academic
achievements of all students in the class. It is even more helpful to students with
visual impairments.
It is suggested that, students with visual impairments in classroom, should be paired
with their fellow students without visual impairments. For example, through their
fellow students, they will be able to organize their works and find correct page. These
fellow students will also help them to repeat teacher’s instructions (UNESCO, 2001).
Peer support seems important to students with visual impairment, considering what
the teachers said that performance of visually impaired students is not good compared
to other students without visual impairments.
Understanding this importance of peer assistance the teachers, especially teachers
claimed that they encouraged it in the class. Through observation it was revealed
several ways of helping and assisting students with visual impairments from low
vision students. This is consistent with the claim that, assistance from other students
can help students who are academically lagging behind to accomplish activities, and
achieve higher performances, they could not do achieve on their own (Vygotsky,
1978; Wade, 2000). This is what Vygotsky (1978) called the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD). ZPD is the gap in knowledge between what a student can
60
achieve alone and what he/she can achieve when assisted by more capable peers.
Through peer assistance, the gap of knowledge becomes filled. However, through
observation teachers were not seen encouraging students towards helping students
with visual impairment; rather it was students’ own initiatives. But it might also be
true that students’ initiatives to provide help and assistances to students with visual
impairments observed today are the results of long term efforts and encouragements
that have been instilled into the minds of students by their teachers. Therefore,
students have developed a spirit of helping them even without teachers’ daily
encouragement.
4.5.4 Verbal Communication
Another strategy mentioned by teachers, was calling names of students with visual
impairments, and using voice in order to capture the attention of the students with
visual impairments. Teachers said, they use loud voice when they are in the
classroom.
They normally talk loudly in the class in order that all students hear what they teach because some students with low vision prefer to sit at the back of the class.
In addition to the use of verbal interaction, teachers pointed out of calling students’
names as important in attracting attention and making the lesson interactive. In this
regard, one teacher said he calls the names of students with visual impairments to
ensure their presence in the lesson, and make them feel that they are included.
Furthermore, the academic master supported this statement by saying:
In the classroom I normally call their names to make them participate effectively especially when I ask them questions and they have to answer these questions.
61
The problems to voice projection and calling students’ names is, understanding the
language of instruction (English) is the barrier to whatever a teacher talks in the class.
The Class teacher said that, this is a problem even if loud voice is maintained. In
addition, another teacher said; even if you call their names to answer questions, they
do not respond appropriately because many students do not understand the language
of instructions (English). Teachers are forced to mix with Swahili language, the
National language. This is revealed in this statement by head teacher:
Students with VI do not understand English language; therefore teachers sometimes must mix with Swahili language. Sometimes they may ask you to elaborate a concept in Swahili. This makes them to rely on creaming the concepts instead of understanding them.
Moreover, through observation it was observed that teachers mastering students’
names. Teachers were also observed to project and maintain loud voice in the class,
except the Head mistress. The Headmistress could not sometimes talk loudly to
enable students with VI at the back to hear well. Furthermore, teachers were using
ambiguous language. These teachers were using words and phrases that possibly put
the students with visual impairments in dilemma, because they could not see
what/who exactly their teachers was pointing or referring to. For example, The
Headmistress was heard using phrases like “this region”, “that region”, “do you
remember this one?” etc. Also the academic teacher said that words like “this” or
“that” to show things written on their Braille paper.
The findings above concur with the findings by Spungin, (2002) which revealed that
verbal information remains to be one of the most important sources of information to
students with visual impairments. Teachers equally saw verbal information and its
adaptations as important to these students in inclusive classroom. Teachers mentioned
62
the use of verbal communication as their strategy to attract attention from the students
with VI. Teachers were also observed to maintain the voice at an audible level.
This is important to help all the students with VI in the class hear what their teacher
says. Similarly to this, Best (1992), comments that, it is important for the voice of the
teacher to be loud and pleasant. By pleasant it means that it should produce a relaxed
tone and pitch. The voice of the teacher also, needs to be interesting to listen to. Speed
of talking, volume and pitch are very important to make the voice interesting for
students with VI.
Likewise, for the same reason stated above, it is seen as important for a teacher to call
students’ name, when a response is required or if a teacher wants to encourage them to
ask questions, instead of using words like “you” in order for a student with VI to
know exactly who is addressed. It is good that teachers considered this, and they were
able to maintain this requirement in inclusive classroom for the benefit of students
with visual impairments. According to Mastropieri & Scruggs, (2010) & Salisbury
(2008), if names of students with visual impairments are directly called, their attention
towards the lesson is going to be drawn. UNESCO (2001) adds that, it is important to
use students’ names during class discussions so that students with visual impairment
are in the position to understand who is talking.
However, teachers were observed using ambiguous language. Mastropieri & Scruggs
(2010) discourages the use of ambiguous language and phrases like “over here”, “this
and that”. They say that, ambiguous language should be avoided when a teacher is
teaching, because it cannot help students with visual impairments to understand what
63
the teaching is referring to. Other teachers and the Class teacher also stated a barrier
to the use of this strategy, especially on the use of loud voice. They said that, students
do not understand English language. Hannell (2007) and Grace & Gravestock, (2009),
stress that, language is an important tool used to transfer information between a
teacher and a student; and that it is important in the learning and thinking process of
the student. This means that, students should be able to understand the language used
to communicate in the class. Since teachers mentioned this language problem of their
students, it can be anticipated that failure of these students, with visual impairments,
to understand the language of communication, leads to failure to grasp the lesson
content, and finally leading to poor performance of students including those with
visual impairments in inclusive classrooms.
4.5.5 Sensory/Motor Instruction
Concerning the issue of sensory or motor instruction both teachers and VI students
agreed that there was lack of visual, imitative and normal play opportunities which
hinder the ability of students with visual impairments to acquire these fundamental
skills through the natural process of development and maturation as a result of regular
physical education activities. Instruction in remediation of identified needs in this area
should be provided, as needed, by a team of instructional personnel that may include
the following: classroom teacher, special class teacher, teacher of students with visual
impairments, adapted physical education specialist, orientation and mobility specialist,
occupational therapist, and physical therapist. One teacher argued that;
“Sensory/motor development needs to overlap with several other areas of need including body strength and endurance, balance, gait and posture, and concepts of directionality. In some cases certain
64
skills and abilities are prerequisite to the development of more sophisticated skills in other areas, particularly orientation and mobility, daily living skills, and career and vocational education”
The findings above concur with the findings Corn and Koenig, (1996) which revealed
that areas the student may need instruction in consultation with specialists in
maximizing their use of vision, developing gross motor skills, developing fine motor
skills, developing strength, stamina, and endurance in legs, arms, and hands,
identifying textures tactually and underfoot, identifying kinesthetic and proprioceptive
sources and identifying olfactory sources.
4.5.6 Improving Compensatory Skills
Majority of respondents, teachers and students with visual impairment, agreed that
mastery of compensatory skills will usually means that the visually impaired student
has access to learning in a manner equal to that of sighted peers. Compensatory skills
include such learning experiences as concept development, spatial understanding,
study and organizational skills, speaking and listening skills, and adaptations
necessary for accessing all areas of the existing core curriculum. Communication
needs will vary, depending on degree of functional vision, effects of additional
disabilities, and the task to be done. Children may use braille, large print, print with
the use of optical devices, regular print, tactile symbols, a calendar system, sign
language, and/or recorded materials to communicate. One teacher commented that,
“In order to prepare students for the workplace, they must be provided with skills necessary to use computers competently. A necessary skill in using a computer is keyboarding and students must learn how to type quickly, accurately and with correct technique. One of the first steps in becoming proficient in technology and computer skills is to learn how to type on the QWERTY keyboard. Keyboarding instruction is an essential
65
first step, since the keyboard allows the students to control the computer, as well as to use it for writing and gathering information from electronic sources.”
The findings was supported by Warren, (1994) who argued that Learning touch typing
skills (typing without looking at the keys) will not only improve the student's speed
and accuracy but will also minimize the need for the student to shift their gaze
between the source, screen, and keyboard. Keyboarding instruction used to be
introduced when students were older, but young children are being introduced to the
computer earlier and earlier. Waiting until the student is in upper elementary grades or
middle school to teach keyboarding is too late as most students will have developed
bad keyboarding habits by that time. Although a point can be made that young
children have not physically developed enough to learn to type, if they are using
computers in pre-K and kindergarten classes, they will develop bad habits which will
be hard to break. My philosophy is that it is important to begin instruction at this
young age to avoid the development of bad habits as well as to get a head start on
teaching access to digital print and to provide the student with a means to produce
print that is legible to themselves and others.
4.5.7 Additional Time
The extra time in doing classroom activities, is another strategy mentioned by
teachers as useful to students with visual impairments. Two teachers said that it is
important for students with VI to be allocated extra time during assignments and
examinations due to different reasons associated with their inability to see. Teachers
narrated that:
66
……sit for their exams and they are given extra time. There is a time to read questions for them before they start doing it……I also add them time for doing homework.
On the same issue academic teacher added that:
In all kinds of examinations, students with visual impairments are given 20 minutes extra for every 1 hour. This is because a student using Perkin’s Braille or stylus is slower in writing than a sighted student. Also, when I give them homework, I add them extra time.
Teachers understand that extra time for students with visual impairment is crucial to
accomplish their written and practical home work that is why teachers and Academic
teacher took this into consideration. They referred 20 minutes additional time
considered by the Government for National wide examinations. They also stated
adding time for these students at their personal level. It is true according to
Mastropieri & Scruggs (2010) that, students with visual impairments spend more time
in many of the activities they do in the class, as compared to other students without
visual impairments. For example, reading printed papers for students with low vision,
as well as reading and writing in Braille for students with blindness, takes a lot of time
as compared to the time spent by other students without visual impairments.
67
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of the Study
The main objective of the research was to examine the challenges facing students with
visual impairment in accessing e-learning in inclusive education environments in
Tanzania, particularly in Tabora Municipality. The study was particularly concerned
with the extent to which the ongoing computer technological advances have been
incorporated into the provision of education to the visually impaired Tabora Girls
Secondary School was arena of the investigations. The study revolved around four
specific objectives: (i) examining the e-learning infrastructure at Tabora Girls’
Secondary School; (ii) identifying the problems facing visually impaired students in
accessing e-learning; (iii) examining the current education policy on education
provision through e-learning to students with visual impairment; (iv) evaluating the
strategies that are being implemented to assist visually impaired students in accessing
e-learning.
Tabora girls’ secondary school has designed for inclusion that students with low
vision, blind and sighted are studying together. Sighted students they are always
assigned by teachers to read for visual impaired student while they care taking notice.
Sometimes when their in discussion visual impaired students benefits from their
fellow sighted students because they sighted student are used as quick reference for VI
students. Moreover, when sighted students read for visual impaired students they do
benefit much because they utilize effectively the time that they using to read for VI
students they also gain through reading for VI students.
68
Findings in this study have revealed that there are various academic problems facing
visually impaired students in accessing e-learning at Tabora Girls Secondary School.
Among the academic problems pointed to affect students with VI were:
(i) Insufficient equipment such digital recorder, memory card, braille, e-book
reader device and ICT facilities including computers, embosser, modems,
magnifiers, screen readers.
(ii) It was also found that the majority of respondents were not satisfied with
education policy on provision of e-learning for visual impairment students
because the education is silent on e-learning for VI students. Data revealed that
the current education policy of education of Tanzania is silent on e-learning for
visual impaired students.
This study found limited support mechanisms for enhancing learning among VI
students in accessing e-learning that included; encouraging peer support from their
teachers and themselves, voice projection and extra training of teachers and extra time
in doing classroom activities. In the same vein, teachers and students suggested the
adoption of proper verbal communication approaches and peer support for the VI
student from sighted students, exemption of the VI and students assisting the visually
impaired from extra duties and extra time in doing classroom activities.
In general, the study has shown that students with visual impairment do face a lot of
problems in the e-learning process at Tabora Girls Secondary School. It is clear from
the study that certain improvements have to be put in place in order to solve the
problems faced by visually impaired students in accessing e-learning. In several ways
69
in the school the visual impaired students were socially integrated but were
academically excluded in several spheres of personal education and skills
development because of lack of resources enabling access to the academic material
which are now widely available to the majority of sighted students. However, if the
promises of inclusion are to be realized, certain conditions must hold in the schools –
such as the recruitment of sufficient skilled and competent teachers in e-learning for
VI students, adequately resourced schools, positive attitudes among all stakeholders,
suitable curriculum backed by proper assessment methods, pro-inclusion educational
policies that are properly implemented, and instructional leaders who are well versed
and prepared to implement inclusion teaching policy; and ICT policy of Tanzania
should consider students with special needs such as VI students.
5.2 Conclusions of the Study
The study clearly indicates there is a lot of intellectual potential in the visually
impaired in Tanzania, which rightly deserves to be nurtured and developed through
integrated education systems. Such potential was clearly evident in the way they
participated in the deliberations in this study; which leaves no doubt that the benefits
which the society gains from educating the visually impaired is enormous.
On the basis of the findings of this study, the researcher was able to conclude that; the
infrastructure for the VI at Tabora Girls Secondary School, such as classrooms, library
and ICT facilities were available; but very inadequate to suit the needs of students
with visual impairment in accessing e-learning. Most of the infrastructure at school,
such as classrooms, ICT facilities was not suitable for visual impaired in accessing e-
learning. Infrastructure conditions especially those students with visual impairment in
70
accessing e-learning were very poor and unattractive due to little care and
consideration to students with visual impairment in accessing e-learning. Teaching
and learning methods/approaches used by teachers were not inclusive to VI students.
Libraries and requisite texts were not adequate to students specifically those with
visual impairment who were highly affected academically by being unable to access
necessary e-learning materials which are not supportive to VI students. It was clear
that the visually impaired students are those with visual problems be it partial, low
vision, or total blindness, as such need higher education to be liberated from the
shackles of pity and sympathy. The paper found out that the educational needs of the
visually impaired include computer application, optical aids, and Braille writing
materials, issues of mobility, funding, library resources, personnel availability and
physical infrastructural facilities.
It was clear from the above findings that the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training and teachers in special education have not been actively searching for state
of the art equipment and technologies for teaching of the visually impaired students.
Most of the equipment and technology seen at the school was old and obsolete.
Therefore, this is a major handicap to the advancement of the teaching environment of
the visually impaired in inclusive schools.
5.2 Conclusion
The study clearly indicates there is a lot of intellectual potential in the visually
impaired in Tanzania, which rightly deserves to be nurtured and developed through
integrated education systems. Such potential was clearly evident in the way they
71
participated in the deliberations in this study; which leaves no doubt that the benefits
which the society gains from educating the visually impaired is enormous.
On the basis of the findings of this study, the researcher was able to conclude that; the
infrastructure for the VI at Tabora Girls Secondary School, such as classrooms, library
and ICT facilities were available; but very inadequate to suit the needs of students
with visual impairment in accessing e-learning. Most of the infrastructure at school,
such as classrooms, ICT facilities was not suitable for visual impaired in accessing e-
learning. Infrastructure conditions especially those students with visual impairment in
accessing e-learning were very poor and unattractive due to little care and
consideration to students with visual impairment in accessing e-learning. Teaching
and learning methods/approaches used by teachers were not inclusive to VI students.
Libraries and requisite texts were not adequate to students specifically those with
visual impairment who were highly affected academically by being unable to access
necessary e-learning materials which are not supportive to VI students. It clear that the
visually impaired are those with visual problems be it partial, low vision, or total
blindness, as such need higher education to be liberated from the shackles of pity and
sympathy. The paper found out that the educational needs of the visually impaired
include computer application, optical aids, and Braille writing materials, issues of
mobility, funding, library resources, personnel availability and physical infrastructural
facilities.
It was clear from the above findings that the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training and teachers in special education have not been actively searching for state
72
of the art equipment and technologies for teaching of the visually impaired students.
Most of the equipment and technology seen at the school was old and obsolete.
Therefore, this is a major handicap to the advancement of the teaching environment of
the visually impaired in inclusive schools.
5.3 Recommendations
5.3.1 Recommendations to the Government
(i) In order to enhance learning of students with VI, there should be adequate
resources such as teachers, materials and equipment and facilities.
(ii) The government through its Policy makers should consider student with
special need such as VI students,
(iii) Colleges for special education should be training teachers of ICT for VI
students. There is need to enhance vocation training and life skills subjects and
teachers who will teach e-learning for visual impaired students.
(iv) The government should introduce many colleges for special education
teachers; instead of few colleges for the whole country. This will help to cater
the shortage of special education teachers in secondary schools and then to
introduce the course of e-learning in colleges for teaching Students with VI
and vice versa
5.3.2 Recommendations to Inclusive Schools
(i) School heads and specialized teachers should hold awareness campaigns to
sensitize sighted Students and mainstream teachers on classroom practices that
should not be discriminatory toward students with VI. In the process, all the
73
stakeholders (students with VI, administrators and personnel) should receive
some guidance services so that they may be prepared for the classes and
problems associated with it.
(ii) Specialized teachers have to be motivated to work beyond normal working
hours via special salaries and allowances. Good payment will enable others to
learn special needs education but failure to do that even specialized teachers will
drop from their professions.
5.3.3 Recommendations for Further Studies
This study was specifically carried out in Tabora Municipality to find out the
problems facing students with visual impairment in Tabora. However, further studies
are needed to find out means which were suggested by this study on how to address
problems facing students with visual impairment in accessing e-learning and put into
actions so as to enable creating conducive learning environments for all VI students.
Similar studies can be carried out in other inclusive secondary schools in other
regions so that the findings can be compared and generalizations be made conducive
learning environments for all VI students.
74
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APPENDICES
Appendix I: Questionnaire for Visually Impaired Students
Dear Student,
I am Charles Makoye, a student at the Open University of Tanzania who is collecting
data for MSW dissertation on the challenges facing students with visual impairment in
accessing E-learning: a case study of secondary schools in Tabora Municipal where
the VI students are found. You are not required to write your name on this piece of
paper. Please assist me in providing information as requested in the following
sections.
Thank you in advance.
Instructions:
Do not write your name anywhere on this questionnaire. Tick the right answer on the
space provided.
1. Name of school………………………
2. What is your Sex?
Female ( )
Male ( )
3. How old are you?
10- 15 years ( )
16 – 20 years ( )
21 – 25 years ( )
4. Which form are you?
79
Form one ( )
Form two ( )
Form three ( )
Form four ( )
5. What is the nature of your visual impairment
Blind ( )
Low vision ( )
Descriptive Data on Problems Facing Visually Impaired Students in Accessing E-
Learning for Students
Item MeasuredSt
rong
ly
agre
e
Agr
ee
Neu
tral
Dis
agre
e
Stro
ngly
di
sagr
ee
There are sufficient equipment/ teaching and learning materials for all visually impaired students in accessing e-learningAs a visually impaired student you have knowledge in using a computerAs a visually impaired student do you see the importance of the use of computer or ICT based learning materialsThe use of screen readers and magnifier software in accessing e-learning to the visually impaired student are very essentialYou are facing problems as visually impaired student on accessing e-learningThere is high level of awareness within the secondary school regarding the accessibility of e-learning for students with visual impairment
80
Appendix II: Questionnaire for Teachers and Resource Persons
Dear Teacher
I am Charles Makoye, a student at the Open University of Tanzania who is collecting
data for MSW dissertation on the challenges facing students with visual impairment in
accessing E-learning: a case study of Tabora girls secondary school. I assure you that
any collected information will be used for this study only and will be confidential.
You are not required to write your name on this piece of paper. Please assist me in
providing information as requested in the following sections.
Thank you in advance
Name. of School ……………
Instructions:
Put a tick (V) in the appropriate space.
1. What is your Sex?1
Female ( )
Male ( )
2. What is your age?
20 – 25 ( )
30 – 35 ( )
40 – 45 ( )
50 - 55 ( )
60 above ( )
3. For how long you have been teaching?
81
More than ten years ( )
Less than ten years ( )
4. What is your education level
Diploma ( )
Bachelor degree ( )
Master degree ( )
Descriptive Data on Problems Facing Visually Impaired Students in Accessing E-
Learning for Teachers and Resource Personnel
Item Measured
Stro
ngly
ag
ree
Agr
ee
Neu
tral
Dis
agre
e
Stro
ngly
di
sagr
ee
There is awareness within the secondary school regarding the accessibility of e-learning for students with visual impairmentPolicy of Tanzania as a teacher of students with visual impairment is goodYou have enough ICT resources in this schoolAs a special education teacher for VI student you have knowledge in using a computerDuring teaching and learning process students with visual impairment are involved in computer based learning
82
Appendix III: Interview Guide for Teachers and Resource Personnel
1. What are the academic problems do VI student face in accessing e-learning
2. What are problems as a teacher of the visually impaired students on teaching
them how to access e-learning?
3. What essential ICT materials for students with VI are not available in the
school?
4. What suggestions do you have on how to help or improve the existing condition
of E-learning in your school?
5. Do education policy emphasis e-learning for VI students.
83
Appendix IV: Observation Checklist
School…………………………
Time……………………………..
Date……………………………..
1. Observe the constructed buildings for the favor of students with visual
impairment
- Is the classroom environment organized into specific areas for different
activities? Examples:
- Are these areas accessible to the VI student?
- Are there modifications in the environment for VI student's visual needs?
(e.g. lighting, highlighting, tactual markers, etc.) Examples:
2. Observe supportive Services provided to students who are visually impaired
- Does the teacher's instructional style reflect an understanding of the VI
student's sensory needs? Examples:
- Is there a schedule with planned activities for the day?
- How is the schedule communicated to the VI student?
- Does the schedule reflect activities that support the VI student's IEP goals
and objectives?
- Are the VI student ACTIVELY participating in instructional activities?
Examples observed:
84
- Do the activities reflect appropriate modifications for the VI student's
sensory needs? Examples observed:
- Are there opportunities for choice making? Examples observed:
- Are activities meaningful for the VI student? Examples observed:
3. Observe the interactions between sighted teachers, students with visual
impairment and sighted students.
- How are upcoming transitions communicated to the VI student? Examples
observed:
- How are the VI students communicating? Is it appropriate for their sensory
abilities?
- Is the VI student initiating responses?
4. Observe Computer lab if accessible to the visually impaired students
- Are ICT Resource Persons and related service professionals trained in the
modifications and strategies needed by the VI students due to their sensory
abilities?
- Are ICT Resource Persons involved in direct instruction given sufficient
supervision and support to appropriately interact and instruct?
Activity Action
85
Appendix V: Research Clearance Letter
86
