MOTIVATION

The term motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘Movere’ which means to move. The psychology of Motivation deals with “why people behave as they do.” The study of Motivation explains why people behave as they do ? Different people behave differently in the same situation. For instance in a party some people eat and some people may not eat. Some people may dance and some people may not. The study of Motivation explains the ‘why?’ aspect of these behaviors.

Definitions of Motivation “A motive is any particular condition that tends to initiate and sustain activity.”

—Guilford.

C. W. Good (1973) ‘Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining and regulating activity.’

D. O. Hebb (1975) ‘The term motivation refers (i) to existence of an organised phase sequence (ii) to its direction and content and (iii) to its persistence in given direction or stability of content.’

Motivation involves a chain reaction which starts from needs and ends at goal.Needs Wants (Desire) Action GoalNeeds. Needs are created whenever there is a physiological imbalance, or it is the

physiological state of tissue deprivation e.g., When a person is hungry, there is need for food.

Wants (Desire). It is a feeling to satisfy the need. During hunger stage, a person has desire to eat food.

The term needs and wants are used interchangeably.Action. An activity performed by person to fulfill desire. In the previous example of

hunger stage, person performed an action for searching food.Goal. It is that stage, which satisfy the need. In this example food is goal. The person eat

food and reached at the stage of satisfaction.Motive is any condition of the organism that affects the readiness to start upon and

continue in a sequence of behaviour, and motivation is a general term referring to the regulation of need-satisfying and goal-seeking behaviour. Thus Motives :

1. Energize behaviour,2. Select behaviour, and3. Control behaviour.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATIONTheories of motivation are helpful to understand the nature of motivation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsHierarchy of need theory was propounded by Abraham Maslow. Maslow identified five

levels of need.

Self-Actualization

Self-Esteem

Belongingnces Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs.

1. Physiological needs. The physiological needs, is the basic level in the hierarchy. It is also known as basic need. The need of hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex are some examples, According to the theory, once these basic needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate. For example, a starving person will strive to obtain a food that is within reach. However, after eating food, the person will not strive to obtain another one and will be motivated only by the next higher level of needs.

2. Safety needs. The second level of needs is safety need, which is equivalent to security need. Maslow stressed emotional as well as physical safety. The whole organism may become a safety-seeking mechanism.

3. Belongingness need. This level of need corresponds to the affection and affiliation needs. A more appropriate word describing this level would be “social”, which is important for motivators. These include need for love, for acceptance and for giving and receiving friendship.

4. Esteem need. The esteem level represents the higher needs of humans. The need for power, achievement, and status can be considered part of this level. Maslow carefully pointed out that the esteem level contains both self-esteem and esteem from others. It is a need for knowledge or cognitive need.

5. Self-actualization. This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of humans. People who have become self actualized are self-fulfilled and have realized all their potential. It is the need for realizing one’s own potentialities and for continual self development. In effect, self-actualization is the person’s motivation to transform perception of self into reality.

Application in IndustryWhen this theory applied in industry it becomes as given in the following figure:

Self -Actualization

Esteem Needs :Status, Symbol, Promotion

Belongingness needs : Formal and informal work groups, Company Cafeterias,

Company sports programs

Safety NeedsSecurity plans, insurance, pension

Basic needs : Pay, Basic Working Conditions

A hierarchy of work motivation

Evaluation of Maslow’s theoryThis theory have some problem:(i) Maslow’s model has five need levels, but researches suggest that there may be only

two or three levels.(ii) Some people do not progress the hierarchy as Maslow’s suggests they do. Most of

the people more up from basic biological needs to safety needs and on. Some people however skip levels. For example, bungee jumper skip the safety needs level and go straight to satisfying their esteem needs.

(iii) The theory predicts that once the needs at one level are satisfied, the next needs level should become most important. The line of demarcation between one level to another level is not clear.

(iv) There are some people whose self-actualization need is dominant, even before the fulfillment of their lower order needs. The concept of self actualization has been widely misunderstood as it has not been clearly defined by Maslow.Despite, these drawbacks credit should be not denied as this theory is the basis for

motivation.

Role of Manager in Satisfaction of need. The role of manager is to lift the employees from level needs to the higher level ones. It is clear by the flow diagram as given in the following figure:

What is the role of typical manager? The task is to lift the employees from lower level needs to the higher level ones. Employees must be motivated to aspire for self-actualization needs.

Seek satisfaction of self-actualisationYes

Esteem needs satisfied ? Concentrate on fulfilling

esteem needs

Seek satisfaction of esteem needs

Concentrate on fulfilling belongingness

and love needs

Seek satisfaction of belongingness and

love needs

Safety needs satisfied ?Concentrate on fulfilling

safety needs.

Seek satisfaction of safety needs

Physiological Needs satisfied?

Concentrate on fulfilling physiological needs.

No

Belongingness and love needs satisfied ?

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Fig. 5.4 : Flow Diagram of Needs Satisfaction

II. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORYHerzberg proposed two-factor, also known as dual factor theory or motivation—hygiene

theory. First factor is motivator and second one is hygiene factor.Motivators are job elements that do concern actual tasks and duties, e.g.,

responsibilities, work it self. Hygiene factors are those job related elements that result from job but do not involve the job itself. For example, pay and benefits are consequences of work, but do not involve the work itself. Examples of hygiene factors and motivators are given in the following table:

Hygiene factors Motivators

Pay ResponsibilitySecurity GrowthCoworkers ChallengeWorking condition StimulationCompany Policy IndependenceWork Schedule AchievementSupervisors Work itself

The presence of both hygiene factors and motivators can bring job satisfaction and motivation. Herzberg used the term hygiene or maintenance because he termed it describing those factors which prevent occurrence of undesirable consequences. Motivators are intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, advancement and growth. Motivators are also known as satisfiers.

Criticism. There are certain merits of the theory. One of the most significant contribution of Herzberg’s work was the tremendous impact it had on stimulating thought, research and experimentation held on the topic of motivation at work.

Second, the job design technique of job enrichment is based the contribution of Herzberg.

Third, Herzberg categorized the needs in two parts, instead of five as was done by Maslow.

Researchers have criticized the theory because of the methods used to develop the two factors, the idea that factors such as pay can be both hygiene factors and motivators. Employers emphasized on hygiene factor and not emphasized on motivators.

Comparison between Need Hierarchy and Two-factor Theories. There are similarities and dissimilarities between Maslow’s need hierarchy and Herzberg’s hygiene-motivation theories of motivation. Both of them have become very popular and have been widely accepted by academics and managers. The most striking similarity between the two theories is that they assume that specific needs energize behavior. Further more, there appears to be a great deal of agreement as to the totality of human needs. It is reasonable to argue that Herzberg’s motivators satisfy the higher order needs of Maslow’s i.e., self-esteem and self-actualization.

The hygiene factors are the equivalent of the physiological, security and social needs of the needs hierarchy model.

III. ERG TheoryAlderfer offered ERG theory or identified three groups of core needs : existence,

relatedness and growth. He termed his theory as existence, Relatedness, Growth theory. Existence Needs. These needs are concerned with the physical existence of the

organism. They include basics such as food, clothing and shelter and means provided by work organizations to attain these factors, For example, pay, safe working conditions and job security.

Relatedness Needs. These needs are those interpersonal needs that are satisfied through interactions with others both on and off the job.

Growth Needs. These are needs for personal development and improvement. They are not by developing whatever abilities and capabilities are important to the individual.

Relationship among Alderfer’s theory, Maslow’s theory and Herzberg's theoryERG groups of needs are closely related to Maslow and Herzberg categories, but

Alderfer’s ERG needs do not have strict lines of demarcation. This relationship is evident in the following figure:

Fig. The relationship between Alderfer’s ERG needs, Maslow’s five-level hierarchy and Herzberg's two-factor theory.

IV. Mc.Gregor’s X and Y theoryMc.Gregor’s gave two factors-X and Y. Theory X is anxiety producing and theory Y is

anxiety reducing. X has negative aspect and Y has positive aspect.Theory X. Assumptions of theory X(1) Average human being has an innate dislike for work and will avoid work.(2) Because of the above mentioned characteristic most people direct their behavior

towards their work due to punishment. This theory has negative approach of motivation and anxiety producing approach. The knowledge of punishment also works as a motivation.

Theory Y. Assumption of Theory Y.(1) Average human being has an innate like to work.(2) Here punishment has no works and no external stimulus is needed and is self-directed,

self-controlled behavior.(3) Reward is given on achievement basis. Capacity to exercise leads to high production in

industry.(4) Under conditions of modern industrial life the intellectual potentiality of the average

human being are only partially utilized.Application of Theory X and Theory Y

Herzberg’s Two factors

MotivatorsEsteem

Self

Relatedness

Hygiene factors

Existence

Alderfer’ERG Needs

Maslow’sHierarchy of Needs

GrowthSelf Actualization

Love

Safety

Physiological

(1) The employees which have the characteristics of theory X, do not have intrinsic or innate job satisfaction. In theory Y, they have job satisfaction.

(2) In some jobs both theories exists.(3) If less skilled or semi-skilled workers are needed then theory X employees should be taken.(4) In theory X the supervision is loose. In theory Y strict supervision is needed.(5) If Theory Y holds true, an organization can apply these principles of scientific

management to improve employee motivation:(i) Decentralization and Delegation. If firms decentralize control and reduce the number

of levels of management, managers will have more subordinates and consequently will be forced to delegate some responsibility and decision making to them.

(ii) Job Enlargement. Broadening the scope of an employee’s job adds variety and opportunities to satisfy ego needs. (iii) Participative Management. Consulting employees in the decision making process taps

their creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work environment.

(iv)Performance Appraisals. Having the employee set objectives and participate in the process of evaluating how well they were met. If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level of

workforce motivation as employees work to satisfy their higher level personal needs through their jobs.V. McClelland Need Achievement Theory

The theory is concerned with predicting the behavior of those who have either high or low needs for achievement. It has been postulated that those who have high n-Ach tend to “approach” those tasks for which there is a reasonable probability of success and to avoid those tasks which either are too easy (because they are not challenging) or are to difficult (because of fear of failure). Thus the opportunity for success as success with a task can affect the tendency to “approach” it. Their theory postulates that achievement-oriented activity is undertaken by an individual with the expectation that his or her performance will be evaluated in terms of some standard of excellence. Thus, achievement-oriented activity is influenced by the result of a conflict between two opposing tendencies—the tendency to achieve success (n-Ach) and the tendency to avoid failure (n-Aff).

According to McClelland there are three needs present in workplace situation.(i) Need for Achievement (n-Ach). It is the need to excel, to achieve in relation to a

set of standards, strive for success. Individuals with a high need for achievement generally will take moderate risk situation, in which they can take personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems and want concrete feedback on their performance.

(ii) Need for Affiliation (n-Aff). It is a need to makes friend and chooses interpersonal relationship. People dominated by the affiliated need would be attracted to jobs that allow social interaction.

(iii) Need for Power (n Pow). It is need to control others. Satisfaction is obtained by controlling others.

Research has shown that employees who have a strong need for power and achievement often make the best managers (McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Stahl, 1983) and that employees who are motivated most by their affiliation need will probably make the worst managers.

VI. Expectancy TheoryVroom gave expectancy theory. According to this theory an individual should be

rewarded with what he or she perceives as important rather than what the manager perceives.

Example—One individual may value a salary increase, whereas another may value promotion.

This theory contributes an insight into the study of employee motivation by explaining how individual goals influence individual performance. Expectancy theory suggests that work motivation is strongly affected by three factors : Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. It can be expressed as :

Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × ValenceM = E × I × V

It can be expressed as:

The person will make their choice of action or inaction according to whether all three conditions are met or not. The high levels of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence leads to the high motivation. However, even if only one of these is zero then motivation will not ensue.

Expectancy. It is belief that extra effort will lead to improved performance. Performance of the worker is formed according to expectancy, if positive expectancy is there then his effort are more.

Instrumentality. It is belief that good performance will be noticed and rewarded. It refers to the outcome of the individual for the job performance. If performance is high then employees will receive bonus and if performance is low then employees will not receive bonus.

Valence. Value placed on rewards that are offered. It means the attraction and the outcome of the individual. If the worker received bonus then his attraction will be positive

and if not then there will be negative attraction. The range of degree of attraction is from –1 to +1.VII. Equity Theory

Adams introduced equity theory. According to this theory, a person is said to consciously compare his or her outcome/input ratio with that of other persons or other classes of persons whom he or she perceives as relevant to such comparative purposes. Equity is said to exist when an individual perceives his or her own outcome/input ratio to be equal to that of other persons; inequity exists if the person's ratio is not the same as that of other persons, all of these comparisons are subjective, not objective. The process of deciding equity involves social comparison by organizational members. Schematically, equity is represented as follow:Equation of equity

Person’s input (effort)Person’s outcomes (Salary)

=Other person’s input (effort)

Other person’s outcomes (Salary)

Equation of inequityPerson’s input (effort)

Person’s outcomes (Salary)>

Other person’s input (effort)Other person’s outcomes (Salary)

Person’s input (effort)Person’s outcomes (Salary)

<Other person’s input (effort)

Other person’s outcomes (Salary)

ConsequencesIf inequity is present than either the person leaves his job or he stops doing comparison.

There should be proper payment for employees. If the person’s perceived ratio is not equal to the other, he or she will strive to restore the ratio of equity. This “striving” to restore equity is used as the explanation of work motivation. The strength of this motivation is in direct proportion to the perceived inequity that exists. Adams suggests that such motivation may be expressed in several forms. To restore equity, the person may alter the inputs or outcomes, cognitively distort the inputs or outcomes, leave the field, act on the other, or change the other.

III. Performance-Satisfaction TheoryPorter and Lawler extended and studied the relationship between performance and

satisfaction. Porter and Lawler extended the model of Vroom. They studied the relationship between performance and satisfaction,

Valence of reward Abilities Intrinsic Reward

Satisfaction

Reward Probability

Role Perception

Extrinsic Reward

Effort Performance

(1)

(2)(3) (6)

(4)

(5)

(7)

(9)

(8)

Fig.: The Porter & Lawler motivation model.Effort leads to performance and performance may lead to two kinds of reward, i.e.

intrinsic reward, such as self satisfaction and extrinsic reward such as pay, bonus and

status. Both type of reward is necessary for satisfaction. This leads to further effort for performance, i.e. satisfaction will affect the effort. The satisfaction leads to more efforts for performance.

ConclusionMotivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or

need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. The nature of motivation has been explained by content theories and process theories.

APPLICATION OF CONCEPT OF MOTIVATIONA manager must know specific ways which help him/her to motivate his/her

subordinates. There are several practices for motivating employees. Some of these are:* Rewards. * Participative Management *Empowerment.

*Quality of work life.* Manager’s motivation ‘Tool kit’. *Goal Setting.

REWARDS : Reward is any pleasurable or satisfying event or thing that is obtained when some required task has been carried out. People join organizations expecting reward.

Certain basic criteria are essential for rewards to be effective. These includes :* Reward should be quick;

* Reward should be significant;

* The goals and rewards must be known, understandable and attainable;

* Reward must be directly related to performance.

Job status

Organizational Rewards

Membership and Security

Financial Reward

Competency

Types of Organizational RewardsI. Membership and Security based Rewards

An employee received rewards depend upon on the firm which he joins and his security.Example—An MBA taking up a job in MNC such as Wipro or Infosys gets more benefits

than the person who joins state government job. Similarly, senior employee receives more benefits than his or her junior employee.II. Financial Reward on the basis of performance

The recent trend of rewarding an employee is based on financial rewards, which can be classified in four types :

1. Profit sharing;2. Job evaluation; 3. Merit rating; and

4. Bonus. Profit Sharing. Profit sharing is possible on a micro level by treating the particular

activity as a cost and profit center by itself. It serves to motivate the employees to improve their performance and contribute to increase in profits.

Job-Evaluation. In case of job evaluation, the various component factors have to be isolated and evaluated for purposes of inter job comparison. Each factor is assigned a rating on the basis of scale agreed before hand by the union and the management joint committee. The total rating for each job then forms the basis of wage structure.

Merit rating. Merit rating has been used as an indicator of performance. Each employee is rated, typically as excellent, good, average or poor, in respect of the following abilities:

(a) Communication;(b) Human relation, including leadership and motivation;(c) Intelligence;(d) Judgment;(e) Knowledge.Bonus. Financial rewards in the form of bonus or prizes are also used to motivate

employees. For example, Chick-fil-A annually gives more than $13 million in scholarships to employees nominated by their managers for excellent performance (Juergens, 2000). At Net 2000 in Herndon, Virginia, employees who stay with the Durango, or Audi, TT; and at Interwoven in the Silicon Valley, in the bay area of California, employees staying 3 years were given a 3-year lease on a BMW Z-3 (Frase-Blunt, 2001).III. Competency-based Rewards

Competencies are reflected through skills, knowledge and traits that lead to desirable behavior. Competency based rewards are skill based pay. In the skill-based pay, employees are paid on the basis of number of jobs they are capable of discharging, or on the depth of their knowledge. In other words skill based pay sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do competency based or skill based pay encourages employees to acquire a broader range of skills. It facilitates communication across the organization because people gain a better understanding of other’s jobs.

Skill based pay appears to lead to performance improvements. (1) A broad-based survey of fortune 1000 firms found that 60percent of those with skill-

based pay plans rated their plans as successful or very successful in increasing organizational performance, while only 6 percent considered them unsuccessful.

(2) At its Minneapolis plant, Truck Manufacturing needs highly skilled employees to satisfy an increased global demand for the firm’s sensor products. Truck started a training program for production workers so they can learn more complicated tasks. During weekly training classes, Truck encourages employees to acquire new skills such as reading engineers’ blueprints and soldering, shown here. This skill-based pay plan rewards employees for learning new skills. For example, learning new skill can move employees from Assembler 1 to Assembler 2 add increase their pay up to 50percent.

IV. Job Status-based RewardsEvery firm rewards employees for the status of the jobs they are holding. High status job

holders are rewarded high.Example—Supervisor will receive higher rewards than a purchasing assistant.

(i) An advantage of status based rewards in the form of pay is that it helps to maintain feelings of equity. This system tries to maintain internal equity well against external equity. Internal equity means to ensure employees feel their pay is fair when compared to how much other jobs in the firm are paid. External equity means to ensure employees feel their pay is fair when compared to how much people in other firms are paid.

(ii) Job status based reward also motivate employees to compete for positions higher up the organizational hierarchy.This reward system is also diagrammed in the given reward pyramid. (read it from

bottom)

(On-site day care facilities and wellness programs, etc.)

(Vacations, pensions, etc)

(Overtime etc.)

(Seniority increament etc.)

Non-economic

award

Nonwork award

Sacrifice reward

Service reward

Real pay adjustment(Cost-of-living adjustments, etc.)

Skill-based pay adjustment

Base pay (Internally aligned by

job evaluation; determined

primarily by market factors)

Reward PyramidPARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT :Another strategy to motivate an employee is participative management. When subordinates are involved in decision making at all levels, the resultant concept is participative management. There are three groups of managerial decisions. They are:(i) Social decisions, Decision related to hours of work, safety and health.(ii) Economic decisions, related to financial aspects.(iii) Personnel decisions, related to employee hiring, promotions, demotions, transfers, job

design.The main benefit of participative management is that the employee identifies

himself/herself with the job and organization and this leads to more commitment to goals, better acceptance of change and improved communication, which enhanced task performance.EMPOWERMENT :Empowerment is the process of enhancing feeling of self-efficiency (capabilities) and a sense of ‘owning’ a job. Empowered employees are energetic and passionate. They aspire to do better job because they got personally rewarded for doing so.

Empowerment helps to remove the conditions that cause powerlessness while enhancing employee feelings of self-efficacy. Empowerment authorizes employees to cope with situations and enables them to take control of problems as they arise.

Empowerment is facilitated by a combination of factors including values, leadership, job structure and reward systems. Empowerment occurs when power of decision making go to employees who then experience a sense of ownership and control over jobs. Empowered employees feel more responsible, they show more initiative in their work, and enjoy the work done. Empowerment demands team formation. Teams, thus formed are called self-directed or empowered teams. Wipro Corporation has about 30 such teams, Titan, ABB, Tata Information Systems too have their empowered teams. Empowerment consists five stages as given in Fig.

Empowerment results in performance

Identifying conditions of Powerlessness

Implement Empowerment Strategies and Techniques

Remove conditions of Powerlessness and provide self efficacy

information

Feeling of empowerment generated

Fig. Empowerment stages.QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

Quality of Work Life is ensured, when members of an organization are able to satisfy their important personal needs through their experiences in the organization. There are various factors which can contribute to Quality of Work Life (QWL). They are :(i) Fair Compensation. It means fair day pay or an adequate income which meets the

needs of the socially determined standard of living.(ii) Safe Working Conditions. Safety and healthy working conditions, including adequate

hours of work, rest pauses. Physical working conditions that ensure safety, minimize risk of illness and diseases.

(iii) Security and Growth Opportunity. It involved factors like security of employment, opportunity for advancement and self-improvement.

(iv)Respect for the Individual's Personal Rights. Workers have the right to free speech and right to personal privacy in respect of the worker's off the job behaviour.

(v) Autonomy. It deals with the amount of freedom that employees can exercise in their job. For Example, if employees must get permission to Preaches Rs. 10 in postage stamps to mail job-rotated material, the freedom to act is significantly reduced. However, in a position where employee can set their own hours, more autonomy exists.

The conditions that contribute to motivation (equitable salaries, financial incentives, effective employee selection, etc.) will also contribute to QWL.MANAGER’S MOTIVATION ‘TOOLKIT’

The manager should motivate his or her team, both individually and collectively so that productive work place is maintained and developed and at the same time employees derive satisfaction from their jobs.

This may appear somewhat contradictory, but it seems to work. The main tools in the manager’s kitbag for motivating the team are.

(a) Approval, praise and recognition;(b) Trust, respect and high expectations;(c) Loyalty, given that it may be received.Removing organizational barriers that stand in the way of individual and group

performance (smooth business processes. Systems, methods and resources-see outline team building program)GOAL SETTING: To increase motivation, goal setting should be used. With goal setting, each employee is given a goal such as increasing attendance, selling more products, or reducing the number of grammar errors in reports.

For goal setting to be most successful, the goals themselves should possess certain qualities represented by the acronym SMART : specific measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (Rubin, 2002).

Specific. Properly set goals are concrete and specific (Locke & Latham, 2002) A goal such as “I will produce as many as I can” will not be as effective as “I will print 1,000 pages in the next hour.” The more specific the goal, the greater the productivity.

Measurable. Properly set goals are measurable. In the Microsoft study, only 40% of the goals set by employees were measurable (Shaw, 2004).

Attainable. Properly set goals are high but attainable (Locke & Latham, 1990). If an employee regularly prints 1,000 an hour and sets a goal of 4,000 pages performance is certainly not going to increase. Conversely, if the goal becomes 10,000 pages, it will not effective because the employee will quickly realize that he cannot meet the goal.

Relevant. Properly set goals are also relevant. Setting a goal about increasing public speaking skills will not be as motivating to a person working in a landfill as it would be to a police officer who often testifies in court.

Time Bound. Goals work best when there is time frame for their completion. For example, a goal to print 10,000 pages would be more motivating if the goal included a date by which the pages would be printed.

Besides these strategies manager can used the strategies of Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement for motivating employees.

Job Enrichment:Herzberg emphasized the job enrichment in two-factor theory. Job enrichment implies

enriching contents of job. Job enrichment is a motivational technique which emphasizes the

need for challenging and interesting work. Enrichment is the process through which something gets better, more pleasing, more satisfying etc. This expansion and change may take place in a number of ways:

(a) Give more freedom to workers in deciding about work methods, pace sequence, etc.(b) Increase responsibility;(c) Encourage participation; (d) Provide feedback to the workers(e) Redistribute control and grant more authority to workers for making job-related

decisions.(f) Create Autonomous Work Teams – This is job enrichment at the group level. Set a

goal for a team, and make team members free to determine work assignments, schedules, rest breaks, evaluation parameters, and the like.

Job EnlargementJob Enlargement is the strategy adopted by various managers to combat the mal-effects of division of labor. It focuses on enlarging jobs by adding tasks and responsibilities generally with in the same level and periphery. It involves expansion of the scope. Job enlargement is considered a horizontal restructuring method in that the job is enlarged by adding related tasks. Job enlargement may also result in greater workforce flexibility. In job enlargement, the job itself remains essentially unchanged. However, by widening the range of tasks that need to be performed, hopefully the employee will experience less repetition and monotony that are common on production lines which rely upon the division of labor.Difference Between Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment :Job enlargement and job enrichment are tools for motivation and growth and both are useful for motivating workers to perform their tasks enthusiastically. Although job enlargement and enrichment have a relationship with each other, they also possess some distinct features that differentiate them, such as area of expansion, allocation of duties and responsibilities, motivation and profundity.

Job enrichment means improvement, or an increase with the help of upgrading and development, whereas job enlargement means to add more duties, and an increased workload.

By job enrichment, an employee finds satisfaction in respect to their position and personal growth potential, whereas job enlargement refers to having additional duties and responsibilities in a current job description.

Job enrichment is dependent on job enlargement, whereas job enlargement is not dependent on enrichment.

Job enlargement means taking charge of more duties and responsibilities which are not mentioned in the job description.

Job enrichment gives more control and managerial access to perform tasks and responsibilities.

Job enlargement is horizontal, whereas job enrichment is vertical expansion.JOB SATISFACTION

The main aim of psychology in industry is the maximum production with minimum cost, this aim is fulfilled by job satisfaction.Definition of Job Satisfaction

According to Ghiselli & Brown “Job satisfaction is a specific set of attitude towards the job”.

According to Blum & Naylor “Job satisfaction is the result of various attitudes, which employee hold towards his job, toward related factors and towards life in general”.

Job satisfaction is an individuals positive attitudes toward their jobs. The person who is satisfied with his job by saying “I am satisfied with my job.” Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job; an affective reaction to one’s job; and an attitude towards one’s job. Weiss (2002) has argued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviors. This definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors.

According to Ghosh Job Satisfaction is a generalized attitude, resulting from special

attitudes in three areas, (i) Specific job factor, (ii) individual adjustment and (iii) group relationship. These factors can never be isolated from each other.

Satisfaction of needs

Person Needs Expectations

(Tension)

Fulfilment

(Action)

Fig: The meaning of job satisfaction.This figure shows that once person’s need and expectations are fulfilled he gets

satisfaction. Thus, job satisfaction is an individual’s positive and negative attitudes towards their jobs. Job satisfaction is different from motivation. Motivation refers to the willingness to work. Job satisfaction implies a positive emotional state.Dimensions of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is an employee’s attitude towards his job. There are three dimensions of job satisfaction :(i) Job satisfaction is an emotional state to a job situation. This situation cannot be visible

but only inferred.(ii) It is determined by how well outcomes meet or exceed expectations. For example, If

organizational participants feel that they are being treated very well and develop a positive attitude toward the job. They will be satisfied with their job.

(iii) Job satisfaction represents several related attitudesMeasurement of Job Satisfaction

The measurement of job satisfaction is difficult, but it can be measured through a questionnaire. One of the earliest scales of measuring job satisfaction was developed by Hoppock. He developed four terms, each one with seven alternative responses which are given on 7-point scales.

In India, Pestonjee developed S-D (Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction) inventory consisting of co-interrogatory statements, i.e., the items leading to yes-no type of responses. There are four areas including both on the job and off the job factors (job, management, social relations, personal adjustment). Each area includes 20 items.Effect of Job Satisfaction on Work Behavior

Job satisfaction influences work behavior. Job satisfaction is an integral component of industrial relations. Job satisfaction has relation with various aspects of work behavior such as accidents, absenteeism, turnover and productivity. Several studies have revealed varying degrees of relationship between job satisfaction and work behavior.

Research on the relationship between job satisfaction and accidents generally shows that satisfied employees cause fewer accidents. Research reveals that employees of disturbed organizations (poor industrial relations) were less satisfied.

Satisfied employees are more productive. Herzberg et. al., analyzed the results of twenty six studies focusing on the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity. Fourteen of these studies revealed that workers with positive job attitudes were more productive than those with negative attitudes. Rajgopal (1965) analyzed the relationship between the two variables among workers in six textile mills. The results showed high productive mill workers were more satisfied with their job.Outcomes of Job Satisfaction

Outcome of job satisfaction are as follow: (i) Satisfaction and Productivity. Are satisfied workers more productive than their

less satisfied counterparts? This “satisfaction-performance controversy” has raged over the years. Although most people assume a positive relationship, the preponderance of research evidence indicates that there is no strong linkage between satisfaction and productivity. For example, a comprehensive meta-analysis of the research literature found only a ·17 best-estimate correlation between job satisfaction and productivity. Satisfied workers will not necessarily be the highest producers. There are many possible moderating variables, the most important of which seems to be reward. If people receive rewards they feel satisfied and this is likely to result in greater performance effort? Lawler and Porter have developed a model which suggest that productivity leads to satisfaction as shown in the figure 7.2.

PerformanceRewards : Intrinsic extrinsic

Perception of Equity in

the Rewards Satisfaction

Fig.: Model of performance leading to job satisfaction.Performance leads to rewards, and if these are perceived to be equitable employee

satisfaction is the result.The assumption which seems most realistic is that satisfaction and productivity are in a

circular relationship in which each affects the other. Using this model, it can be said that high satisfaction indicates a predisposition to be productive if effective leadership is provided.

(ii) Satisfaction and Turnover. There is a moderate relationship between satisfaction and turnover. High job satisfaction will not, in and of itself, keep turnover low, but it does seem to help. On the other hand if there is considerable job dissatisfaction, there is likely to be high turnover. One group of researches found that for women eighteen to twenty-five, satisfaction was an excellent predictor of whether or not they changed jobs. On the other hand, as job tenure (length of time on the job) increased, there was less likelihood of their leaving. Tenure has also been found to lessen the effects of dissatisfaction among male employees. Job satisfaction is important in employee turnover.

(iii) Satisfaction and Absenteeism. There is an inverse relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. When satisfaction is high, absenteeism tends to be low; when satisfaction is low, absenteeism tends to be high. For example, research among state government employees has found that those who believed that there work was important had lower absenteeism than did those who did not feel this way.

(iv) Other Effects, such as citizenship behaviors. Research reports that highly satisfied employees tend to have better mental and physical health, learn new job related

tasks more quickly, have fewer on-the job accidents, and file fewer grievances. Also on the positive side, it has recently been found that satisfied employees are more likely to exhibit prosocial “citizenship” behavior and activities, such as helping coworkers, helping customers, and being more cooperative.

DETERMINANTS OF JOB SATISFACTIONOR

FACTORS INFLUENCING JOB SATISFACTIONThere are number of factors that influence job satisfaction. These factors can be

classified into two categories :Factors influencing job satisfaction

AgeSexEducation LevelMarital StatusExperience

Related to work environment

Related to Personal life

Work itselfPayPromotionSupervisionWork groupWorking Condition

Factors Related to Work Environment(i) Work Itself. The content of the work itself is a major source of satisfaction. When

the job is less repetitive and then is variation in job content, job satisfaction tends to be higher. Several studies have shown that varied work brings about more job satisfaction than does routine work. Job satisfaction varies almost form 0 to 100 per cent, depending on the job. Ninety-five per cent of group of teachers have expressed feeling of satisfaction with their jobs, while 98 per cent of group of textile employees expressed dissatisfaction with their jobs.

(ii) Pay. Pay is recognized as a significant factor in job satisfaction. Money not only helps people to attain their basic needs but is instrumental in providing upper-level need satisfaction. Employees want a pay system which is simple, fair and in line with their expectations. When pay is seen as fair, based on job demands, individual skill level, and community pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result.(iii) Promotion. Promotion is one of the factor which influence job satisfaction. For example : Individuals who are promoted on the basis of seniority they experience job satisfaction but not as much as those who are promoted on the basis of performance. Chances of promotion encourage each worker even when some other facilities are lacking. The possibility of promotion motivates a worker to put his best and the worker is satisfied with his job. If there is no chance of promotion, the morale of workers is low and they do not satisfied with their jobs.

(iv)Supervision. Supervision tends to improve job satisfaction of workers. Supervisor takes personal interest in his subordinates and allows them to participate in the decision making process. A participative climate created by supervisor has a more substantial effect on workers satisfaction. Supervisor allows their workers to participate in decisions leads to high job satisfaction.

(v) Work Group. The nature of the work group or team will have an effect on job satisfaction. Friendly, co-operative coworkers or team members are a modest source of job satisfaction to individual employees. For example, A good work group team makes the job more enjoyable. Ghosh in another study, also found that ‘friendly people to work with’ was ranked fairly high by better performers whereas it was ranked low by poorer performers.

(vi)Working Conditions. Workers job satisfaction level is also influenced by working condition. If the working conditions are good (clean, attractive surroundings) the personnel will find it easier to carry out their jobs. If the working conditions are poor (hot, noisy surroundings) employee or personal will find it more difficult to get things done.

(vii) Occupational Status. Occupational status is related to, but not identical with, job satisfaction. Almost half of a group of clerks and manual workers stated that they were very happy with their occupations, but only 17 per cent said that they would like to enter their present occupation again. The occupations which they want most often to enter were those of a higher status, their own business, professions, and other independent work. This status depends not only on the way the employee regards the status of values.Factors Related to Personal Life

The main elements of personnel life are as follow:(i) Age. There is a positive correlation between age and job satisfaction. Workers in the

advanced age group tend to be more satisfied because they have adjusted with their job conditions. Studies have found different results in different groups on the relationship of age to job satisfaction. There was higher intrinsic job satisfaction among older employees, but lower financial satisfaction among this group. From the consensus of other studies, age has little relationship to job satisfaction for all employees, but it is important in some job situations. In some groups job satisfaction is higher with increasing age; in other groups job satisfaction is lower; and in others there is no difference.

(ii) Sex. The sex differences was observed and found that females were more satisifed than males (Padmavati, 1995, Ali, et. al 2005). Ghosh (1998) found that the girl operators have greater job satisfaction than boys.

(iii) Educational Level. Generally, more educated employees tend to be less satisfied with their jobs due to higher job aspirations. Indian studies have generally shown that there is a tendency for the more educated workers to be less satisfied and conversely the less educated workers to be more satisfied. The trend possibly reflects the generally prevailing situation in Indian organizations where company advancement or rewards policies in relation to education exist.

(iv)Marital Status. Marital status positively influenced the job satisfaction (Okolo & Eddy, 1994) married workers are more satisfied because they value their jobs more than unmarried workers.

(v) Intelligence. The relation of intelligence of job satisfaction depends on the level and range of intelligence and the challenge of the job. Intelligence accounted for a tiny fraction of the variation in work attitude among Procter and Gamble clerical employees, the brightest having slightly poorer work attitudes. An English investigation showed that the most intelligent girls employed in chocolate factory were most easily bored.

(vi) Level of aspiration. It has been told that the main reason behind a employee dissatisfaction is due to the level of aspiration. Because without being aware of his abilities or his limits start thinking about reaching the top most position and starts living in an imaging world. It is said that more the requirements of a person the more will be dissatisfaction.

Theories of Job SatisfactionJob satisfaction is treated as feeling one has toward the job. The main theretical

approaches to job satisfaction are as follows :(i) Need Fulfilment Theory. According to this theory a person is satisfied when he

gets from his job what he wants. Job satisfaction is positively related to the degree to which one’s needs are fulfilled.

(ii) Equity Theory. This theory believed that a person’s job satisfaction depends upon his perceived equtiy as determined by his input-output balance in comparison with the input-output balance of others. If inequality exits, then it leads to job dissatisfaction. It means receiving more then or less than equitable will produce less satisfaction. The evidence seems to indicate that overpayment inequality can exist (Pritchard and Others, 1972). Thus by the help of equation it can be explained as :

A = B leads to job satisfactionA < B and A > B leads to job dissatisfaction.

(iii) Two-factor Theory. Herzberg developed two factor theory. According to this theory, there are two factor : satisfiers and dissatisfiers. Job satisfaction occurs due to motivators or satisfiers. If the employee gets time to time promotion, achievement and recognition, he is satisfied with his job, whereas hygiene factors such as pay, working conditions and human relations, behaviours of supervisors or co-workers act as dissatisfiers. Their absence causes dissatisfaction but their presence does not result in positive satisfaction.

(iv) Vroom’s Theory. In Vroom’s model, job satisfaction reflects valence of the job for its incumbent. From proposition 2 it would therefore follow that the strength of the force on a worker to remain on his job is an increasing function of the valence of his job. Thus satisfaction should be negatively related to turnover and absenteeism, which it seems to be. Whether or not this valence should also lead to greater production while on the job is less clear, however—a point which again seems to be upheld by the highly ambiguous existing data.

INCREASING JOB SATISFACTIONJob satisfaction can be enhanced by considering following factors:

Factors

Factors related to Management

Factors related to Employees

Job EnrichmentMatch workers with workJob securityPromotion policiesJob DesignWork environment

Communication skillKnowledge related to Job CreativityTeam WorkValue of workFind out meaning in work

I. Factors related to managementThere are various factor related to management that enhances job satisfaction. These

factors are as follows:

(i) Job enrichment. Job enrichment is a deliberate upgrading of responsibility, scope, and challenge in the work itself. Job enrichment usually includes increased responsibility, recognition, and opportunities for growth, learning, and achievement. Large companies that have used job-enrichment programs to increase employee motivation and job satisfaction include AT&T, IBM, and General Motors (Daft, 1997).

(ii) Match workers with work. Managers can enhance job satisfaction by carefully matching workers with the type of work. For example, a person who does not pay attention to detail would hardly make a good inspector, and a shy worker is unlikely to be a good salesperson. As much as possible, managers should match job tasks to employees’ personalities.

(iii) Promotion Policies. Promotion policies have been under fire form unions largely because it was suspected that companies were not fair in selecting employees for advancement. Workers should be assured that they will be promoted strictly on the basis of merit or seniority, and the promise should be kept.

(iv) Job Design. There are five factors of job design that typically contribute to people’s enjoyment of a job:

Skill Variety—Increasing the number of skills that individuals use while performing work.

Task Identity—Enabling people to perform a job from beginning to end. Task Significance—Providing work that has a direct impact on the organization or its

stakeholders. Autonomy—Increasing the degree of decision making, and the freedom to choose

how and when work is done. Feedback—Increasing the amount of recognition for doing a job well, and

communicate the results of people’s work. (v) Work Environment. Management that aspire to creating a work environment that

enhances job satisfaction need to incorporate the following : Flexible work arrangements, possibly including telecommunication. Training and other professional growth opportunities. Opportunities to take responsibility of own work. A stable, secure work environment that includes job security/continuity. An environment in which workers are supported by an accessible supervisor who

provides timely feedback as well as congenial team members. Flexible benefits, such as child-care and exercise facilities. Competitive salary and opportunities for promotion

II. Factors Related to Employees(i) Communication Skills. To create job satisfaction, it is neccessary for employees to

develop excellent communication skills. Employers value and reward excellent reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills.

(ii) Knowledge related to job. For job satisfaction, it is important to aquire job-related knowledge that helps employee to perform tasks more efficiently and effectively. This will relieve boredom and often gets one noticed.

(iii) Creativity. Employees demonstrate creativity and initiative. Qualities like these are valued by most organizations and often result in recognition as well as in increased responsibilities and rewards.

(iv) Team Work. To find out job satisfaction employees develop teamwork and people skills. A large part of job success is the ability to work well with others to get the job done.

(v) Value of Work. For job satisfaction employees should perceive the value in their work and appreciating the significance of what one does can lead to satisfaction with the work itself. This helps to give meaning to one’s existence, thus playing a vital role in job satisfaction.

(v) Find out meaning in work. To enhance job satisfaction, employees have to find out meaning in their work, even if their job is un-challenging, or menial, finding meaning will make it much more bearable, that is how employee feel. There are 10 ways to maintain meaning in work;1. Believe—Believe in what you are doing. 2. Be Honest—Trust in yourself and in others. 3. Don’t be afraid—Fear can and will hold you back-overcome your fears.4. Be objective—Look at the big picture. 5. Respect differences—Be non judgmental. 6. Learn from your mistakes—Learning is key. 7. Support your co-workers. 8. Be enthusiastic—Enthusiasm is contagious. 9. Be results orientated – Performance = potential minus interference 10. Work as part of a team. Conclusion

Job satisfaction refers to the degree to which a job satisfied the needs and expectation of the job holder. Various factors related to the job holder and his work environment determine job satisfaction. There are various strategies used for increasing job satisfaction.

STRESS MANAGEMENTStress is the process that occurs in response to events that disrupt or threaten to disrupt

one physical or psychological functioning.Stress is usually thought of in negative terms. (e.g., a loved one is seriously ill or the

boss gives a formal remind letter for poor performance). This is a form of distress. But there is a positive side or pleasant side of stress caused by good things (e.g., an employee is offered a job promotion). This is form of stress. The term is coined by the Greek word eu, which means good.

The word stress is derived from the Latin term ‘Stringers’ which means “to draw tight” stress is a state of psychological tension produced by the kinds of forces or pressures. Stress is a pressure condition causing hardship.

Thus, stress is a mental, emotional or physical reaction resulting from an individual's response to environmental pressure and similar stimuli. Hans Selye, the father of stress, believes that stress is the spice of life and absence of stress is death.DEFINITIONS OF STRESS

In medical terms stress is described as, “a physical or psychological stimulus that can produce mental tension or physiological reactions that may lead to illness.” When you are under stress, your adrenal gland releases corticosteroids, which are converted to cortisol in the blood stream. Cortisol have an immune suppressive effect in your body.

According to Richard S. Lazarus, stress is a feeling experienced when a person thinks that “the demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize.”

According to Ivancevish and Matteson define stress as “the interaction of the individual with the environment”.

Beehr and Newman define job stress as “a condition arising from the interaction of people and their jobs and characterized by changes within people that force them to deviate from their moral functioning.”

If the person’s body tries to adjust to different circumstances or continually changing environment around us. In this process, the body is put to extra work resulting in “wear and tear”. In other words, your body is stressed. Stress disturbs the body’s normal way of functioning.NATURE OF STRESS: Stress in a many-faceted process that occurs in reaction to events or situations in our environment termed stressors. An important feature of stress is the wide range of physical and psychological reactions that different people have to the same event; some may interpret an event as stressful, whereas other simply take it in stride.

(i) Stressor : The Activators of Stress. The stimuli that can potentially produce stress, it appears that many events which are stressful share several characteristics:

(a) They are so intense, in some respect, that they produce a state of overload—we can no longer adapt to them.

(b) They evoke incompatible tendencies in us, such as tendencies both to approach and to avoid some object or activity.

(c) They are uncontrollable—beyond our limits of control. Indeed, a great deal of evidence suggests that when people can predict, control, or terminate an aversive event or situation, they perceive it be less stressful than when they feel in control (Karasek and Theorell, 1990; Rodin and Salovery, 1989).

(ii) Physiological Responses to Stressors. When person are exposed to chronic sources of stress, however, this reaction is only the first in a longer sequence of responses activated by human efforts to adapt to a stressor. This sequence, termed by Hans Selye (1976) the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), consists of three stages:

alarm stage, in which the body prepares itself for immediate action; arousal of the sympathetic nervous system releases hormones that help prepare our body to meet threats or dangers (Selye, 1979)

resistance begins, in which arousal is lower than during the alarm stage, but our bodies continue to draw on resources at an above-normal rate in order to cope effectively with the stressor.

exhaustion. During this stage capacity to resist is deleted, and susceptibility to illness increases. In severe cases of prolonged physical stress, the result can be death.

Normal level of resistance to stress

Res

ista

nce

to S

tress

Time

Stage IAlarm

Stage 2Resistance

Stage 3Exhaustion

During the first stage, the body

mobilizes its resources

In the second stage, resistance levels off and eventually begins to decline In the third stage,

resistance is depleted, leading

to exhaustion

Fig.: Selye’s general adaptation syndrome.SOURCES OF STRESS

A wide range of conditions and events are capable of generating stress. Such as stressful life events (e.g., death of love one or divorce), hazardous of daily life (too many things to do at once, traffic jam etc.), work related stress. Many factors contribute to stress at work. Several important sources of work related stress are summarized as follows :

Lack of Support from Coworkers

Work Related Stress

Role ambiguity (Uncertainty about

duties)

Lack of participation in decision making

Responsibility for

others

Conflict with other employees

Unpleasant Work Environment

Fig. 8.2 : Sources of Work related stress.There are several causes of stress, which are as follows :

1. Causes of Stress at Home Death of spouse, family, near relative or friend. Injury or illness of any family member. Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister. Separation or divorce from partner. Children’s behavior or disobedience. Children’s educational performance. Hyperactive children.

Argument or heated conversations with spouse, family members or friends neighbours.

Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected expenditure. Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living. Loss of money in burglary, pick-pocketed or share market. Change of place or change of city or change of country.

2. Causes of Stress at Work To meet out the demands of the job. Employee relationship with colleagues. To control staff under you. To train your staff and take work from them. Support you receive from your boss, colleagues and juniors. Excessive work pressure. To meet out deadlines. To give new results. To produce new publications if you are in research area. Working overtime and on holidays. Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss. Change of job. Work against will. Harassment. 3. Other Causes of Stress

Fear, intermittent or continuous. Threats: physical threats, social threats, financial threat, other threats. Uncertainty. Lack of sleep. Somebody misunderstands you. Setback to your position in society. Person having type A personality (aggressive & competitive set high standards,

constant time pressure) are more prone to stress.THE EFFECTS OR CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS

Effect on HealthStress can influence physical, psychological well being, performance on various tasks

and even on the careers.Physical Effects. Stress is known as silent killer. Stress has been implicated in the

occurrence of hert disease, high blood pressure, hardening of arteries, ulcers, diabetes etc.Psychological or Mental Effects. High level of stress may be accompanied by anger,

anxiety, depressin, nervousness, irritability, frustration etc.Behavioural Effects. High level of stress has an effect on behaviour such as

underacting or overacting, sleeplessness, increased smoking, drinking, drug abuse, speech disturbances, withdrawn from relationships.

Above mentioned effects are on the individual stress may also have an effect of organization.Effect on the Organization

Stress also influence an organization, which results in low productivity, poor quality, higher costs, increased absenteeism, low job satisfaction, accident proneness.

Reduced perfor-mance

Burnout

Physical Exhaustion(Feeling of fatigue and

Lack of Energy)

Emotional Exhaustion (Depression, Feelings

of hopelessness)

Attitudinal Exhaustion(Negative views of

others, of oneown work)

Feelings of Low Personal

Accomplishment

Intense work

related stress

Fig. : Burnout : An overviewIndividual exposed to high levels of work-related stress over long periods of time may

suffer from burnout. Burnout is the state involves physical, emotional and mental or attitudinal exhaustion as well as feeling of low personal accomplishments.

The effects of burnout can be overcome. With appropriate help victims of burnout can recover from their physical and psychological exhaustion. If ongoing stress is reduced, individual gain support from friends and they cultivate hobbies and other outside interests; some persons can return to positive attitudes and high levels of productivity.

COPING STRATEGIES FOR STRESS OR MANAGING STRESS

Stress arises from various factors, it is impossible to eliminate it completely. By applying various techniques stress can be reduced. Coping strategies are classified into two parts :

Coping Strategies

Create a supportiveorganizational climate

Reduce conflict andclarify organizationalroleCounselingInstitutional programmes

Organizational culture

Manager’s role

Employee fitness programmesSupport group

Individual CopingStrategies

Organizational CopingStrategies

ExerciseRelaxationSelf ControlCognitive therapy

Biofeed back

Time management

Enrich the design oftasks

Individual Copying Strategies These strategies can be used by an individual to eliminate or reduce stress.

1. Exercise. People of all ages are walking, jogging, swimming, riding bicycles, or playing softball, tennis in order to get some exercise to combat stress. It can help people better cope with stress.

2. Relaxation. Such types of technique are meditation, which eliminate the stressful situation. Meditation involves muscles and mental relaxation. The objective of relaxation technique is to feel physically relaxed.

The research conducted by Robbins evidence that much meditation can have a desirable physical and mental impact on people.

3. Behavioral Self-Control. Managing the own behavior is one of the strategy for reducing stress. This strategy involves individual's controlling the situation, i.e., time management well planned schedule of time to do work. Besides managing their own behavior to reduce stress, people can also become more aware of their limits. They can avoid people or situations that they know will put them under stress.

4. Cognitive Therapy. Ellis rational Emotive Therapy (RET) has been used for reducing stress. RET is a cognitive therapy that focuses on changing irrational beliefs. e.g., Irrational belief is “I am an incompetent worker who cannot handle the work load” it is changed as “I handle this workload as well as anyone else.”5. Biofeedback. A biofeedback machine is used to use to train people to detect and control stress-related symptoms such as tense muscles and related blood pressure. The machine translates unconscious bodily signs into a recognizable cue (flashing light or beeper). Muscle relaxation and meditative techniques are then used to alleviate the underlying stress.

6. Time Management. Most of the people are poor in time management. The result is feeling of work overload, skipped schedules and tension. The truth is, if one can manage time effectively, he or she can accomplish twice as much as the person who is poorly organized. Some basic principles in time management are: (i) preparing daily a list of activities to be attended to;

(ii) prioritizing activities by importance and urgency; (iii) scheduling activities according to the priorities set; and (iv) handling the most demanding parts of job when one is alert and productive.Techniques for time management1. Make out a “to do” list that identifies every thing that must

be done during the day. This helps keep track of work progress.2. Delegate as much minor work as possible to subordinates.3. Determine when you do the best work-morning or afternoon and schedule the most difficult assignments for this time period.4. Set time aside, preferably at least one hour, during the day when visitors or other interruptions are not permitted.5. Have the secretary screen all incoming calls in order to turn away those that are minor or do not require your personal attention.6. Eat lunch in the office one or two days a week in order to

save time and give yourself the opportunity to catch up on paperwork.7. Make telephone calls between 4.30 and 5.00 pm. People tend to keep these conversations brief so that they can go home.8. Do not feel guilty about those things that have not been accomplished today. Put them on the top of the “to do” list for tomorrow.Organizational Coping Strategies

These strategies are designed by management to control job stress.(i) Create a Supportive Organizational Climate. Most organization are highly

formalised with accompanying impersonal climate. Such type of climate can lead to considerable job stress. A copying strategy would be to make the structure more decentralized with participative decision making and upward communication flows.

(ii) Enrich the Design of Tasks. Enriching jobs either by improving job content factors (such as responsibility, opportunity for achievement) or by improving core job characteristics (such as skill variety, task, identity, autonomy,) may had to motivational states.

(iii) Reduce Conflict and Clarify Organizational Role. Role conflict or ambiguity was identified as major individual stressor. It is upto management to reduce the conflict and clarify organizational roles so that this cause of stress can be eliminated or reduced.

(iv)Plan and Develop Career Paths and Provide Counseling. Organizations have interest in the career planning and development of there employees. Individuals get advice once in a while from supervisor.

Counseling is discussion with an employee of a problem that usually has emotional content in order to help the employee cope with it better. Counseling seeks to improve employee mental health and well-being.

Counseling is an exchange of ideas and feelings between two persons, i.e. a counselor and a counselee, so it is an act of communication. It helps employees cope with problems, it should improve organizational performance. Emphasis on counseling also helps the organization become more human and give importance to people’s problems.

Counseling may be performed by both professionals and nonprofessionals. For example, a human resource specialist in counseling and a supervisor who is not trained in counseling may counsel employees. Therapists and personal physicians also counsel employees, and even an employees, and even an employee’s friends may provide counseling.

Counseling confidentiality is necessary so that employees will feel free to talk openly about their problems. It also involves both job and personal problems, because both type of problems may affect an employee’s performance on the job. For example, one employee may be experiencing the stress of new job expectations, while another may be distracted with grief following the death of a family member. Both employees are potential candidates for receiving the benefits of counseling at work.

(v) Institutional Programmes. In order to manage stress institutional programmes can play an important role. The design of work and work schedules should be focused upon to reduce stress. Shift work and long hours of work often cause stress because workers have to constantly adjust to their sleep and relaxation patterns during night shifts.

(vi) Organizational Culture. The proper organizational culture also can be used to help in managing stress. The organizations should strive to foster a culture that reinforces a healthy milk of work and non-work activities.

(vii) Manager’s Role. Supervisors and managers can play an important institutional role in managing stress. A supervisor can play an important role by keeping a reasonable workload for the employees.

(viii) Employee fitness Programmes. Many organizations today have employee fitness programmes. These programmes attack stress indirectly by encouraging employees to exercise which is presumed to reduce stress. Apart from providing exercise facility for employees the organizations can educate all employees on healthier life style options. In the organizational magazines the articles on how to quit smoking, how to control weight, how to manage blood pressure etc. can be published, so that every body can read them and can get benefit from the wellness programmes.

(ix) Support Group. Stress can also be managed by developing and maintaining support groups. A support group is simple a group of family members or friends with whom a person can spend time. (It is the network of helpful activities, interactions, and relationships that provides an employee with the satisfaction of important needs.) Supportive family and friends can help to relieve the stress that builds up during the day. This group can be very useful during times of crisis.

Research conducted by Henderson and Argyle (1985) suggested that when employees have at least one person from whom they can receive social support (e. g. emotional support), they will experience lower stress.Conclusion:

Stress is the result of response to environment and it is an inevitable part of life. Stress arises due to individual, organizational and environmental factors. Various individual and organizational strategies have been used for reducing the stress.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTUREPeople are affected by the culture in which they live. For example, a person growing up

in a middle class family will be taught the values, beliefs and expected behaviors common to that family. Culture is the set of rules, regulations and methods of interaction within the group.

When people in an organization, they bring with them the values and beliefs they have been taught. These values and beliefs are insufficient for helping the individual’s success in

organization. The person needs to learn the culture of organization. Organizational culture is a pattern of basic assumption that are taught to new personnel as the correct way to perceive, think and act on a day-do-day basis.

According to Robbins “Organizational Culture is a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the Organization from other organizations.”

The above definition recognize the importance of shared norms and values that guide organizational participants behaviour. Beliefs, values, Philosophies, traditions all contribute to culture. Hiring policies, management style, work climate of an organization reflect culture. The beliefs and personality of chief executive officers are instrumental in shaping an organization’s culture. Companies with strong organizational of cultures are successful and have dedicated employees. Motorola, McDonald and Proctor & Gamble are examples of such companies.

University is also regarded as organization, having its own culture, classroom is a subculture. For example, University has created a culture of honesty and trust, where each student is expected to adhere to honor codes. For maintaining such type of culture, it uses sanctions such as taking the student before the judicial board, if he caught in cheating or violating some other rule . In classroom subculture has been created by establishing norms such as good attendance and participation in class.Characteristics: Organizational culture has a number of important characteristics :

1. Observed Behavioural Regularities. When organizational participants interact with one another, they use common language, terminology and rituals related to behaviour.

2. Norms. Standards of behavior exist, including guidelines on how much work to do, which in many organizations come to “Do not do too much”, do not do too little. In other words, norms are acceptable standards of behaviour that are shared by the group members. Norms tell members what they ought and olught not to do under certain circumstances.

3. Dominant Values. There are major values that the organization advocates and expects the participants to share. Values are bare convictions about what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or not. Typical examples are high product quality, low absenteeism and high efficienecy.

4. Philosophy. There are policies that set part the organizations beliefs about how employees or customers are to be treated.

5. Organizational Climate. This is an overall feeling that is conveyed by the physical layout, the way participants interact and the way members of the organization conduct themselves with customers or other outsiders.

Types of Culture(i) Dominant Culture. A dominant culture is a set of core values shared by a majority

of the organizations members. For example, most employees at Southwest Airlines seen to subscribe to such values as hard work, company loyalty and the need for customer service. A dominant culture will exert more influnce on employees than a weak one. If the culture is dominant and support high ethical standards. it should have a powerful and positive influence on employee behaviour.

(ii) Subculture. A subculture is a set of values shared by a minority of the organization members. Subcultures are a result of problems or experiences that are shared by members of a department or unit. Subculture is a minicultures within an organization, typically defined by department designation and geographical separation. Subculture can weeken and

undermine an organization for they are in conflict with the dominant culture. e.g. marketing department and financial department.

(iii) Strong Culture. Strong culture exists where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational values. Strong organizational cultures are shaped by strong values and strong leadership. In a Strong culture, the organization’s core values are both intensely held and widely shared. The more members who accept the core values and the greater their commitment to those values is, the stronger the culture is. Consistent with this definition, a strong culture will have a great influence on the behavior of its members because the high degree of shareness and intensity creates an internal climate of high behavioral control. For example, Seattle-based Nordstrom has developed one of the strongest service cultures in the retailing industry. Nordstrom employees know into uncertain terms what is expected to them, and these expectations go allong way in shaping their behavior.

One specific result of a strong culture should be lower employee turnover. A strong culture demonstrates high agreement among members about what the organization stands for. Such unanimity of purpose builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational commitment. These qualities, in turn, lessen employee’s propensity to leave the organization.

(iv)Weak Culture. There is little alignment with organizational values and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.

(v) Tough-Person Culture. People have tough attitudes they are individualistic, high risk taking behaviour. Constriction, cosmetics, television, radio use this culture.

(vi)Work Hard/Play Hard Culture. People behave friendly and use team approach to problem soothing behaviour and able to quickly produce a high-volume of work. Rent estate, computer firms, retail stores use this culture.

(vii) Bureaucratic culture: An organization that values formality, rules, standard operating procedures and hierarchical coordination has a bureaucratic culture. The long term concern of a bureaucracy are predictability, efficiency, and stability.

HOW EMPLOYEES LEARN CULTURE

Stories: Stories about past corporate incidents serve as powerful social prescriptions of the way things should be done. Stories give meaning and identity to organization members and are helpful in orienting new employees.

Rituals: Rituals are everyday organizational practice that repeated routinely. They help dramatize the organization’s culture. They also help achieve desired behavior from

employees and build commonality of culture. Examples are dress of organizational members, how visitors are greeted, how fellow employees are greeted, how much time employees take for lunch.

Material Symbols: The size, shape, location of buildings might reveal organization’s culture. Inside a building there is a treasure trove of physical artifacts. Desks, chairs, cafeteria food, dress attire is the things that might convey cultural meaning.

Language: The language of the workplace speaks highly about the organization’s culture. Many organizations and units within organizations use language as a way to identify members of a culture or subculture. By learning this language, members attest to their acceptance of the culture and in so doing, help preserve it.

CREATING AND SUSTAINING CULTUREHow does Culture begins?

Culture is created by shared experience, but it is the leader who initiates this process by imposing his or her beliefs, values and assumptions at the outset. Cultures basically spring from three sources (1) the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organizations (2) the learning experiences of group members as their organization involves and (3) new beliefs, values and assumptions brought in by new members and leaders.

Each of these sources plays an important role and the most important role for cultural beginning is the impact of founders. Founders have a major effect on external adaptation and internal integration problems. Founder has their one nation, based on their own cultural history and personality, of how to fulfill the idea.

The founders of an organization traditionally have a major impact on that organization's early culture. They have a vision of what the organization should be.Example

The culture of Hyundai, the giant Korean is a reflection of its founder Chung Ju Yung. Hyundai’s fierce, competitive style and its disciplined, authoritarian nature are the same characteristics often used to describe Chung.

Kroc founder of McDonald bought the rights to franchise Mcdonald’s units and eventually bought out the brothers. At the same time, he built the franchise on four basic concepts: quality, cleanliness, service, and price. In order to ensure that each unit offers the customer the best product at the best price, franchisees are required to attend McDonald University, where they are taught how to manage their business. Here they learn the McDonald cultural values and the proper way to run the franchise. This training ensures that franchisees all over the world are operating their units in the same way. Kroc died several years ago, but the culture he left behind is still very much alive in McDonald’s franchises across the globe.How does Culture sustains or maintains

Once a culture is in place, there are types of practices within the organization that act to sustain or maintain it by giving employees a set of similar experiences. Three processes play an important role in sustaining culture.

Sustaining Culture

Selection SocializationTop Management

(i) Selection. The explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals who have the knowledge, skills and abilities to perform the jobs within the organization successfully. The selection process provides information to applicants about the organization. The careful selection of entry level candidates is important. The candidates should be selected on the basis of how well they epitomize the new culture. For example, in organization, there is a culture of team decision making, new employees should have not only the ability but the willingness and personality to perform in such an environment.

(ii) Top Management. The action of top management has a major impact on the organization's culture. How they behave, senior executive establish norms that filter down through the organization as to whether risk taking is desirable, how much freedom managers, should give their employees, what is appropriate dress, what actions will pay off in terms of salary raises, promotions and other rewards.Example

Joseph C. Watson was chief executive from 1961 to 1968 at Xerox Corp. An aggressive, entrepreneurial type with an informal, high derive, innovative, bold, risk taking culture.

(iii) Socialization. It is the process that adopts employees to the organization culture. Socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviors and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization. In other words it is the process, in which new employees learn the behaviors and attitudes they need to be successful in organization. Socialization can be conceptualized as a process made up of three stages, pre-arrival, encounter and metamorphosis. It can be exhibit in the following figure

OutcomesProductivityCommonTurnover

Pre-arrival Encounter Metamorphosis

Pre-arrival Stage. In this stage, each individual arrives with a set of organizational values, attitudes and expectations that occurs before a new employee joins the organization.

Encounter Stage. The stage in the socialization process in which a new employees what the organization is really like and confronts the possibility that expectations and reality may diverse.

Meta-morphosis Stage. Metamorphosis is the stage in the socialization process in which a new employee changes and adjusts to the job, work group and organization. Metamorphosis is complete socialization process, when new members have become comfortable with the organization and their job. Employees have internalized the norms of the organization, and understand or accept those norms. The new employee masters the skills required for his or her new roles and makes the adjustment to values and norms of work group.

IMPACT OF ORGANISATION CULTURE ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCEEmployees form an overall subjective perception of the organization based on factors

such as degree of risk tolerance, term emphasis, and support of people. This overall perception becomes, in effect, the organization’s culture or personality. These favourable or unfavourable perceptions then affect employee performance and satisfaction, with the impact being greater for stronger cultures.

The importance or benefits of organizational culture are as follows :(i) It is important for organization’s success.(ii) It provides organizational identity to employees.(iii) Important source of stability and continuity to the organization.(iv) It helps in stimulating employee enthusiasm for their task.(v) It provides sense of security to its members.(vi) The knowledge of organizational culture helps new commer (new employees) in

understanding the environment of an organization.(vii)High productivity. Organization are given the importance to the values of high

productivity.(viii) If organizational culture has the following characteristics, it leads to high

performance.Conclusion

Thus, the organization culture is created by the values, attitudes, beliefs, and norms of behaviors of staff members. The organizational culture norms of behavior serve to influence and inform the behaviors of new staff members. Unless a staff member conforms to the cultural expectations, they may become isolated from the organization or department.

LEADERSHIP‘Leadership’ is a word that conjures up different images in different people. To some it means charisma; to others, it means power. Leadership can be defined as the process of influencing others to accomplish certain predetermined goods.

According to Blum & Naylor “Leadership can be defined in terms of position in an organisation or their personal qualities.”

The leader possess the following characteristics :L—ListenerE—EmpathyA—Accomplishment (Complete Task)D—Drive (desire for achievement)E—EncourageR—ReceptiveCharacteristics of leadership.

The qualities and abilities of good leaders in industry as summarized by Ganguli are as follows.

(1) A good leader thinks in terms of employee needs and of production needs.(2) A good leader is proved of his work-group and regards it as more efficient and well-

behaved than others.(3) A good leader (specially a factory supervisor) takes a positive attitude toward trade

unionism and believes it to be useful both for improving the workers’ welfare as well as for facilitating production.

(4) A good leader is not punitive. He is not personal but objective in his criticism. He points out the defects in the subordinate’s work. Where he punishes, he does so without taking a revengeful attitude.

(5) A good leader tries to delegate as much as possible of his responsibility commensurate with authority to his subordinates.

(6) General rather than close supervision within the framework of goals and techniques laid down has often been found to be author effective leadership practice.

(7) An effective leader spends his time mostly in supervisory and guidance work rather than doing the same type of work as his subordinates .

(8) An effective leader should be flexible. He should be sensitive to changing conditions and new requirements of the group and adopt his behavior accordingly. He should try to find out what is the real situation and should adapt the appropriate leadership pattern. Leader should be reality centered.Functions

The functions of leadership are as follows :(i) Educator. Educate the group.(ii) Facilitator. Motivate an employee.(iii) Supervision. Supervise an employee.(iv)Evaluator. Evaluate an employee, give value to the work of employee (Praise

of criticism)(v) Coordinator. Act as coordinator between the executive and policy maker.(vi)Executor. Leader act as an executive and obeserve whether workers are working in

organization apropriately or not.(viii) Availability. The leader should be available to all employees. A leader who is

available to his subordinates impresses employee with his interest in their problems and promotes a more effective subordinate superior relationship.

Krech and Crutch field has described the functions of leader and they have divided in three categories.

1. Setting and Achieving Organizational Goals.2. Related to operation of an organization.3. Leader as a figure for a group.1. Setting and Achieving Organizational Goals are divided into three categories or

it has three functions.(a) Leader act as an executive. He works as an executive and see workers are

working properly or not.(b) Policy Maker. Goal and objectives or policies for organization is decided by leaders.(c) Intermediator. Leader function as intermediator situation between the executive

and the policy maker.2. Related to Operation of an Organisation. It consists six functions in itself.(a) Leader act as an expert.(b) Leader act as an external representative.(c) Leader act as surrogate.(d) Leader act as controller.

(e) Leader act as an administrator.(f) Leader act as an arbitrator.3. Leader as a figure for a group. It included five functions in itself.(a) Leader serves as a model.(b) Symbol of the group.(c) Function as ideologist.(d) Act as a father of the group.(e) Function as a scapegoat.

Theories of Leadership or Leader EffectivenessTheories of Leadership. The theories of leadership are as follows :1. Trait theory2. Classical theory of leadership or behavioral approach.3. Contingency theory or situational theory of leadership.1. Trait Theory : This theory has given by Stogdill. According to Stogdill leaders are

born not made. These studies focused on the personal traits of leaders and attempted to identify a set of individual characteristics or traits that distinguished (a) leaders from followers, and (b) successful leaders from unsuccessful leaders. The traits are as follow:

T – Task related knowledgeD – Dominance I – IntelligentM – MotivatorA – Ability to influenceL – ListenerL – Less probability to stress.The comparison of leaders with other leaders and followers by various physical,

intellectual, personality and other traits has been a popular but controversial approach to leadership by researchers.

The trait theory has been criticized on the following grounds:(i) The list of personality traits of successful leader is more than one hundred has

been identified, no consistent pattern has been found.(ii) To define and measure traits is complex process.(iii) This theory does not consider the whole leadership environment because

personal traits are regarded as a part of the whole environment.2. Classical Theory of Leadership. It is also known as behavioral approach. The

behavioral approach states that leadership define in terms of what leadership do rather than in terms of what leaders are. In classical theory the studies are :

(a) Iowa Study; (b) Michigan Study;(c) Ohio Study; (d) The Managerial Grid.

(a) Iowa Study. In the late 1930s, Lippit, White and Lewin has introduced this study from the Group Research Centre in Iowa, they had studied the effects of three leadership styles :

Authoritarian

DemocraticLaissez-faire

Authoritarian. Such type of leader has absolute authority, with no requirement to consult with other members of the group in decision-making. Authoritarian leader are found in the military.Characteristics of Authoritarian Leadership

(i) In it policy making is decided by a leader. (ii) Leader criticized or praise the behavior of an employee.(iii) Authoritarian leaders centralized power and decision making in themselves. Democratic. A leader whose authority springs from the consensus of a group and who

acts in accordance with beliefs and desires of the members of the group.Characteristics of Democratic Leadership

(i) Policy is prepared in the company with the help of leader.(ii) In this group also gain equal importance as leader gain. First of all techniques,

methods or activities are prepared with the advice of the leader and then it is discussed with group.

(iii) In democratic leadership the whole work is left on members and choice is given to them.

(iv)Team work is found among workers in democratic.(v) The democratic leader encouraged group discussion and decision making.Laissez-faire. In such type of leadership style, there is no control of leader. Leader does

not have right to control the activities of group members. Individual is free to make own decision.Characteristics of Laissez-faire Leadership

(i) In it individual is free to make their own discussion.(ii) In it material is supplied by leader. (iii) Leader does not participate in group activities.(iv) Leader does not have right to appraise the activities of group member.(v) No team work takes place in it. Individual is free to do work. There is no commitment

of leader with the group. Workers have self authority to do the work. (b) The Michigan Studies—A group of researchers from the Michigan University survey research center divided leader behavior into two groups :

1. Employee Centered Leader Behavior2. Production Centered Leader BehaviorEmployee centered leaders are those who are greatly concerned about the welfare and

satisfaction of their subordinates.While the production centered leaders placed a stronger emphasis on how the job gets

done, rather than on the subordinates concerns.Results—Results of the Michigan study indicated that leaders who were more employee-

centered and exercised loose supervision were associated with higher productivity and job

satisfaction as compared to employees of leaders who were more production-oriented and supervised their subordinates more closely.(c) Ohio Study. The Ohio study was carried out by Hemphill and his coworkers. The researchers of Ohio State University conducted similar types of investigation looked at two dimensions of leader behavior.

(i) Consideration Structure(ii) Initiating StructureBasically these two terms reflect the same leader behavior orientations as employee

centered and production centered leader behaviors identified by the Michigan school researchers.

The Ohio researchers, however, looked at the consideration and initiating structure behaviors as two distinct dimensions and not as two extremes on the same continuum. When a leader is high on both initiating structure and consideration, the individual's leadership style was termed “Democratic”, when a leader, is high in consideration but low in initiating structure, the style was termed “human relations oriented”, when he was low in both dimensions, the style was called “Laissez-Faire”, and when the leader was high on initiating structure but low on consideration, the style was termed “Autocratic”.

It is clear by following figure:

Low

Human Relations Democratic

Laissez Faire Authoritarian

High

Consideration Behaviour

Low

Initiating StructureBehaviour

High

(i) When consideration high and initiating structure low then human relation takes place.

(ii) When consideration and initiating structure both are high then democratic leadership takes place.

(iii) When both consideration and initiating structure low then Laissez faire takes place.(iv)When consideration is low and initiating structure high then autocratic leadership

takes place. (d) The Managerial Grid. It has been introduced by Blake and Mouton. The grid is

based on the leadership style dimension of concern for people and concern for production. The theory or model is illustrated in following figure :

Fig. 2 : Managerial Grid. According to this 9 × 9 grid model optimal management is 9,9 manager, who is

extremely concerned with both production and the people. Blake proposed that managers be trained to behave in the 9,9 pattern through a two-stage training process (management development followed by organizational development).

2. Contingency Theory of Leadership. Contingency approaches to leadership take the position that there is no one best way to lead in all situations. Effective leadership style will vary from situation to situation, depending on several factors such as the personality, predispositions of the leader, the characteristics of the followers, the nature of the task being done, and other situational factors.

(b) Fiedler’s Contingency Theory—Fiedler (1967) developed a model to predict work group effectiveness by taking into consideration the fit of match among.

1. The Leader’s Style(a) Task oriented(b) Relationship oriented

2. The leader-member relations3. Task structure4. The position power of the leaderCertain combinations of the last three factors are considered to be situations where the

leader finds themself to be in either a high degree of control or low control over the situations. In either of these situations the most effective leader according to Fiedler, will exercise a task-oriented leadership style. Certain combination of the three factors, however are considered to be situations where the leader will have a moderate amount of control and where the relationship oriented leader will be most effective.

Fiedler has said when all three dimensions are high then there is favourable situation for workers he has presented it through diagram.

Task Oriented

HumanRelation

VeryUnfavorable

Unfavorable Favorable VeryFavorable

Style

of L

eade

rshi

p

Favorable of the situation

Fig. 3 : Fiedler’s contingency model.The above figure depicts that under very favorable and very unfavorable conditions, the

task oriented or authoritarian type of leader will be effective. When the condition is moderately favorable and unfavorable, the human relations or democratic style of leader will be effective. Such type of condition, i.e. moderately unfavorable are common for managers in organization. Thus, in organization democratic style of leadership would be most effective.

According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a “favorable situation”. Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.

(c) Path-Goal theory of Leadership—The path-goal theory of leadership is usually associated with Martin Evans (1970) and Robert House (1971) who developed a theory of leadership effectiveness using a contingency approach based on the expectancy theory of motivations.

This theory states that leaders can exercise four different kinds of styles.Directive Leadership (giving directions to the subordinate rather than seeking their

partcipation).Supportive Leadership (being friendly and approachable to subordinates).Participative Leadership (asking for suggestions from subordinates before making

decisions).Achievement oriented Leadership (sets challenging goals and assignments for

subordinates).

1.Job-satisfactions2.Acceptance of Leader3.Motivational behaviour Expectancy that (A)Effort will lead to Performance (B)Performance will lead to valued Rewards

Outcomes Leadership Style1.Directive2.Supportive3.Achievement-oriented4.Participative

1.Ability2.External and Internal Locus of Control3.Task4.Work group

Situational Factor

Fig. 4 : A model of path goal theory.The path-goal theory postulates than any of the four styles can be used effectively by

the leader, depending upon situational factors such as subordinate characteristics and attributes in the work-setting. If there is a good adjustment between the leadership style and the situational factors at the work setting, then subordinate will experience job satisfaction, accept and value the leader as a dispenser of valued rewards, and will engage in motivating behavior because they will know that their effort will lead to performance and that performance will lead to valued rewards, they have given four types of leadership.Path Goal theory is best theory of Leadership

Path goal theory is known as best theory of leadership, because— (i) It concerns how the leader and subordinates perceive their goals. (ii) The main functions of leader is to motivate workers. (iii) The rationale behind the theory is that the leader can help the subordinates to

achieve their goals by providing what is missing in the situation. (iv)Employees are helped by the leader to see the path by which their efforts will lead to

Performance and Performance to desired rewards. This the leader can do by providing the missing links in the situation. For instance, if the task is very ambiguous the leader can help the subordinate by providing greater clarity, through directive leadership. It can be clear by following figure :

Situation Leader Followers Outcomes

Newly formed

work unit

Directivebehaviours (tell fellow workers what to do and

how to do

Reduced roleambiguity

(clearer effort-to-performance

links)

Higher effortHigher

Satisfaction

Directivebehaviours

(make rewardsavailable andcontingent onperformance

Clear perfor-mance-to-reward link(Increasedvalence)

Higher effortHigher

Satisfaction

Fig. 4 : Example of Applying Path-Goal Theory

(v) If the task is too repetitious and boring the leader can provide socio-emotional support;

(vi) If the employees have good skills and desire to contribute to the success of the department, the leader can engage on participative leadership;

(vii) If the employees have a high need for achievement, the leader can lead the employees to higher performance by giving them more challenges and responsibility, thus exhibiting an achievement oriented leadership style.

There is some empirical support that the desired outcomes such as motivated behaviour and job satisfaction occur, when the leader provides the subordinates with whatever is missing in the situation—challenge, support direction etc.

There is style in this theory :1. In this theory leader provide directions to the leader.2. In supportive he supports his workers being a friend.3. In achievement oriented the subordinate has right to achieve their goals.4. In participated the leadership have right in decision making.Thus, Path goal theory is better than others for the reason that it not only suggest what

type of style may be most effective in a given situation but it also explain why it is most effective.(III) Humanistic Theories

(a) Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Pattern—In 1958, Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s used a contingency framework to discuss effective leadership patterns taking a situational approach. They suggested that the use of authority by the manager or the area of freedom given to the subordinate is a function of the

(1) Forces in the manager.(2) Forces in the subordinates.(3) Forces in the situation.Tannenbaum and Schmidt concluded that a successful leader is one who can accurately

assess the forces that determine what behaviour would be most appropriate in any given situation and the leader is able to be flexible enough to adopt the most functional leadership style. This is clear by following figure :

Manager asksgroup to make

decision

Boss Centered Leadership

Subordinate Centered Leadership

Use of Authority by Manager

Area of Freedom for Subordinate

Manager makesDecision and Announces

Manager‘Sells’ decision

Manager presentsproblem and gets

suggestions

Fig. 5 : The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Contingency Model

LEADERSHIP STYLESGanguli in Indian studies has differentiated many different leadership styles which he

names as the bureaucratic, autocratic, idiocratic, and democratic. From various studies Ganguli observes that the companies having predominantly bureaucratic managerial/supervisory style insist on strict obedience to company rules and regulations. There, the employees can feel secure so long as they conform to this. The preoccupation and chief goal of the leaders here is to maintain and expand the particular system of organization as it is. In the autocratic organizations obedience to the superior is emphasized. Its leaders desire to express themselves as fully as possible in their jobs. They want maximum autonomy for themselves and expect strict obedience to their personal orders on the part of their subordinates. The atmosphere in idiocratic organizations has been called idiocratic, manipulative and psychological since the focus of the leader is on the personal ambition of individual works. Since it is easier to manipulate an ambitious person, the idiocratic leaders expect their subordinates to have personal ambition rather than obedience or loyalty. In democratic organizations, the informal groups, customs, codes and conventions are important and the leadership derives his authority from these and from the group as a whole. Cooperation and teamwork are emphasized. The authoritative style, in comparison with the other four gives more balanced view as it takes the more advantageous aspects of the other styles and discards the disadvantages of others.Leadership through Persuasion. One skill that is commonly needed by leaders is the ability to persuade others. Supervisors often need to persuade upper-level managers that a new program will work. There are two important aspects of persuasion, i.e. the communicator and the message.Persuasion by Communication. People having certain characteristics (expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness) can communicate through persuasion more easily than people who lack these characteristics. Expertise. It means having a knowledge related to topic. For persuasion, leader must have a knowlege about a topic.Trustworthiness. Such type of characteristics is necessary for persuasion. For persuasion, a leader can communicate not only that he is similar to them (Deshpande & Satyam, 1994) but also that his goals are the same as theirs (Cantor, Alfonso & Zillman, 1976)Attractiveness. It is also another important characteristics of persuasion. Attractive people are more persuasive than unattractive people (Cialdini, 2000). That is why television commercials use attractive people.The Message. Another aspect of persuasion is the message.There are three types of message : massage discrepancy, one sided views two sided arguments and threats.

LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONSIn organization, leader functions in various ways :(i) Setting and Achieving of Goals. In organization leader is responsible for setting

the goals and execute it. The leader is responsible for seeing that appropriate activities are carried out.

Example—A foreman assigns tasks to workers and sees that those tasks are properly executed.

(ii) Policy Making. Leader performed the function of policy making. He may either establish organizational goals and objectives himself or he may participate with his supervisors or subordinates in establishing them.

(iii) Planning. Planning is immediate between the determination of policies and their execution. From this point leaders make decision concerning the ways and means the organizational goals can be achieved.

Example—A foreman not only assigns tasks to his subordinates but he plan work schedules and devise operational procedures.

(iv) Group representative. The organization may be too large to function as an entity and it is desirable to have a single representative of an organization deal with outside individuals or groups.

(v) Administrator. Leader functions as administrator of rewards and punishments. As leaders, supervisors encourage, upgrade and promote deserving workers and fire poor workers.

(vi)Exemplar Model. The leader serves as an exemplar, a model for others to stimulate. For example : The foreman of a crew of power-lineman who always checks his safety equipment before climbing a pole.

(vii) Ideologist. The leader functions as an ideologist. By presentation of his ideas concerning the group he is a source of beliefs about it.

(viii) Father Figure. The leader may function as a father figure, fulfilling an emotional role for the member of the group. By identifying themselves with their leader, the members of a group draw strength and feelings of security.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT Abraham Zaleznik (1977), for example, delineated differences between leadership and

management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries concerned about substance while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process. Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:

Managers administer; leaders innovate. Managers ask how and when; leaders ask what and why. Managers focus on systems; leaders focus on people. Managers do things right; leaders do the right things. Managers maintain; leaders develop. Managers rely on control; leaders inspire trust. Managers have short-term perspective; leaders have long-term perspective. Managers accept the status-quo; leaders challenge the status-quo. Managers have an eye on the bottom line; leaders have an eye on the horizon. Managers imitate; leaders originate. Managers emulate the classic good soldier; leaders are their own person. Managers copy; leaders show originality.

GROUP DYNAMICS

Human beings exhibit some characteristic behaviour pattern in groups. People involved in managing groups and group members themselves can benefit from studying theories and

doing practical exercises which help them to better understand people’s behaviour in groups and group dynamics.

Formal and informal groups are useful to the study organizational behavior. The Informal organization is a network of personal and social relations not established

or required by the formal organization but arising spontaneously as people associate with one another. The emphasis within the informal organization is on people and their relationships, whereas the formal organization emphasize official positions in terms of authority and responsibility. Informal power, therefore, attaches to a person. Whereas formal authority attaches to a position and a person has it only when occupying that position. Informal power is personal, but formal authority is institutional.

A manager typically holds some informal (personal) power along with formal (positional) power, but usually a manager does not have more informal power than anyone else in the group. This means that the manager and the informal leader usually are two different persons in work groups,

As a result of differences between formal and informal sources of power, formal organizations may grow to immense size, but informal organization (at least the closely knit ones) tend to remain small in order to keep within the limits of personal relationships. The result is that a large organization tends do have hundreds of informal organizations operating throughout it. Some of them are wholly within the institution; others are partially external to it. Because of their naturally small size and instability, informal organizations are not a suitable substitute for the large formal aggregates of people and resources that are needed for modern institutions. Instead, informal organizations complement and hopefully enhances the formal one.

Differences between Informal and Formal OrganizationBasis of Informal FormalComparison Organization Organization

General nature Unofficial OfficialMajor concepts Power and politics Authority and responsibility

Primary focus Person PositionSource of leaders power Given by group Delegated b managementGuidelines for behavior Norms Rules and policiesSources of control Sanctions Rewards and penalties

Why do individuals form into groups ?There are some theories of group formation.(i) Propinquity Theory. Propinquity means that individuals affiliate with one another

because of spatial or geographical proximity. The theory would predict that students sitting next to one another in class, are more likely to form into a group than are students sitting opposite ends of the room.

Example—In organization employees who work in the same area of the plant or office are more likely to form into groups than would those who are not physically located together.

(ii) Balance Theory. The theory states that persons are attracted to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects or goals. The following figure shows this theory.

ZCommon attitude and values

Religion, Politics, Work

Individual X Individual Y

Fig. : A balance theory of group formation.(iii) Tuckman’s Stages or Pure Stage Model. Tuckman’s model states that the

development of ideal group should occur in five stages.

Prestage I Stage IForming

Stage IIStorming

Stage IIINorming

Stage IVPerforming

Stage VAdjorning

Fig.: Stages of group formation

Chracteristics of Group.Group develops certain characteristics. Which are specific to that group. These are as

follows.(i) Norms. It is a major chracteristics of any group. According to Feldman (1984). Norms

are the unspoken and unwritten rules of expected behaviors that apply to a team’s members. Norms are group code of content which dictate the behavior of group members. From individual’s stranded point, norms tell what is expected in certain situations. When

norms are accepted by the group, norms act as a means of influencing the behavior of group members. Norms differ among groups, communities and societies, but they all have them.

(ii) Roles. Roles mean a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Different groups impose different requirements on individuals. No one can play all the roles in a society and every human being plays various roles.

(a) Task oriented roles. In this individual helps the group to reach its goal or task.(b) Socio-emotional roles. In such type of roles employee is supportive and make other

people happy.(c) Self-oriented roles. In this type individual or members of group do things for

themselves, Employees are recognition seekers, i.e. they are paying attention to their own achievements.

(iii) Status. It is socially defined position or ranking given to group members. Status is an important factor in understanding human behavior. In organizations, status can clarify the relationships between group members by providing clear definition of authority and responsibility.

(iv) Size. Another characteristic of group is size. Hall (1976) mentions the optimal size of a group is from 6 to 12 people. Research indicates that smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than are larger ones. Groups of approximately seven members, tend to be more effective for taking action.

(v) Cohesiveness. It is another characteristics of group. Cohesiveness is the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group. For instance, some work groups are cohesive because the members have spent a great deal of time together, or the group’s small size facilitates high interaction, or the group has experienced external threats that have brought members close together. Cohesiveness is important because it has been found to be related to the group’s productivity. According to Cordery (2002), there are three state of factors which influence cohesiveness;

(a) Group level. Size of group is small and members have similarities, who interacts with its members frequently.

(b) Environmental level. It involves, factors such as how insolated the group is, favorable self-evaluation of the group and rewards the group receives.

(iii) Organizational level. It involves the factors such as technology, job design.

QUESTIONS1. In your own words, critically evaluate Maslow’s theory of motivation.2. Discuss the main features of human motivation, which are most important in the people at work.3. Describe the importance of Maslow’s theory of motivation in the context of an organizational framework.4. Explain McGregor’s X and Y theory.5. Make the comparison of Maslow, Herzberg and Alderfer models.6. Throw light upon Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation. Do you think that this theory is important for understanding the motivation of an employee ? Explain it.

7. Explain Vroom’s expectancy theory of work motivation. How does these variables are related to each other.8. Discuss the performance-satisfaction theory of motivation.9. As a manager of an organization, what strategies would you suggest to motivate employees at various levels.10.Which type of motivation practice is useful for an employee ?11.What is reward ? Explain the types of organizational rewards.12.Write short notes on :

(a) Participative Management.(b) Manager’s motivation tool kit.(c) Goal setting.(d) Quality of work life.

13.What do you mean by job satisfaction ? Discuss the dimensions of job satisfaction.14.If job satisfaction is high, would employees perform better for effectiveness of an organization or company ? Explain it.15.What is job satisfaction ? Is job satisfaction influence work behavior ? Explain it.16.Discuss the important factors that influence job satisfaction.17.Explain the determinants of job satisfaction.18.Discuss the various strategies for enhancing the job satisfaction.

OrDescribe the factors, which are useful for increasing the job satisfaction.

19.Write short notes on :(a) Job satisfaction and work behavior.(b) Job enrichment.(c) Job design.

20. What do you mean by organizational culture? Explain its characteristics and give example.21. Define organizational culture.22. Discuss the types of organizational culture.24. How does organizational culture begin? Explain it with the help of an example.25. How does organizational culture maintain or sustains? What steps are involved in

maintaining the Organizational Culture? Discuss it. 26. Discuss the benefits or importance of organizational culture.27. What do you mean by stress ? Explain it with the help of examples.28. Define stress. Discuss the nature of stress.29. What do you mean by general adaptation syndrome ? Explain its stages.30. What factor contribute to stress ?31.‘Stress can influence physical, psychological well being and performance’. Explain this statement.32.What is stress ? How does stress manages.

32. Job stress can be managed at the individual and the organizational levels. Summarize these various strategies for managing stress. 33.Explain the stress management techniques used in organization.34. How can a leader persuade others ?35. Point out the difference between leader and manger.36. Explain the leadership in Organization.37. Briefly summarize the findings of classic leadership studies.38. What is path-goal theory of leadership ? What is the leader’s function in this conceptualization ?39. Indentify the major leadership styles from Blake and Mouten’s. 40. What are some of the needed skills for leaders to be effective ? What are the three major characteristics of those skills ?41.What is group dynamics ? Explain the views regarding group dynamics.42.Explain the dynamics of group formation.43.What is group ? Why does individuals form into groups ?44.Which type of group is useful to the study of human behavior in industry ?45.Define the term group dynamics. How can it influence the morale of the worker ?46.Write short notes on :

(a) Dynamics of formal group.(b) Dynamics of informal group.