( Lies Rebuttal Series ) Crucifixion or Crucifiction in Ancient Egypt

8/14/2019 ( Lies Rebuttal Series ) Crucifixion or Crucifiction in Ancient Egypt

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O my two companions of the prison! As to one of you, he will pour out the wine for his lord todrink: and as for the other, he will be crucified, and the birds will eat from his head. Thus is thecase judged concerning which you both did enquire. [12:41]

As for the mention of crucifixion in the time of Moses, when the Pharaoh's magiciansbelieved in the message of Moses, the Pharaoh threatened them by saying:

Be sure I will cut off your hands and your feet on apposite sides, and I will cause you all to dieon the cross. [7:124]

(Pharaoh) said: Ye put your faith in him before I give you leave. Lo! he doubtless is your chief who taught you magic! But verily ye shall come to know. Verily I will cut off your hands andyour feet alternately, and verily I will crucify you every one. [26:49]

(Pharaoh) said: "Believe ye in Him before I give you permission? Surely this must be yourleader, who has taught you magic! be sure I will cut off your hands and feet on opposite sides,and I will have you crucified on trunks of palm-trees: so shall ye know for certain, which of uscan give the more severe and the more lasting punishment!" [20:71]

The Qur'an also supplies a very important piece of information concerning thePharaoh. The Pharaoh is addressed as the Lord of the Stakes.

Before them (were many who) rejected apostles,- the people of Noah, and Ad, and Pharaoh, theLord of Stakes... [38:12]

Seest thou not how thy Lord dealt with the Ad (people),-Of the (city of) Iram, with lofty pillars,

The like of which were not produced in (all) the land? And with the Thamud (people), who cut

out (huge) rocks in the valley? And with Pharaoh, Lord of Stakes? (All) these transgressed

beyond bounds in the lands, And heaped therein mischief (on mischief). [89:6-12]

A key tool of Qur'anic exegesis is the internal relationships between material indifferent parts of the Qur'an, expressed by Qur'anic scholars as: al-Qur'an yufassirubaduhu badan, i.e., different parts of the Qur'an explain each other. In other words,what is given in a general way in one place is explained in detail in another place.What is given briefly in one place is expanded in another.

Using this principle, we can see that the Pharaoh, who is addressed as the Lord of Stakes, perhaps used stakes for crucifying people. Also why is the Pharaoh called theLord of the Stakes in the Qur'an? Was it because he was the one who had the supremeauthority over who meted out the punishment of crucifixion? Did the mutilation of aperson precede his crucifixion? This is something that we would like to investigate inthis essay.


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2. Cross, Crucifixion And Punishment In Antiquity

The terms 'Crucifixion' and 'Cross' are widely used but what do they really mean? Inthe sections which follow we shall attempt to define these terms as accurately and asconcisely as possible. Although crucifixion did not originate with the Romans, manyreference works tend to discuss only the Roman method of crucifixion used in thetime of Christ. To avoid such a limited understanding, numerous references wereconsulted in order establish the correct meaning and interpretation of these terms.

WHAT IS CRUCIFIXION?

Crucifixion is the act of nailing, binding or impaling a living victim or sometimes adead person to a cross, stake or tree whether for executing the body or for exposingthe corpse. Crucifixion was commonly practiced from the 6th century BCE until the4th century CE, when it was finally abolished in 337 CE by Constantine I. It wasintended to serve as both a severe punishment and a frightful deterrent to others andwas unanimously considered the most horrible form of death.

The Oxford Companion to the Bibledefines " Crucifixion " as:

The act of nailing or binding a person to a cross or tree, whether for executing or for exposingthe corpse. [1]

Similarly, the Anchor Bible Dictionarydefines " Crucifixion " as:

The act of nailing or binding a living victim or sometimes a dead person to a cross or stake(stauros or skolops ) or a tree ( xylon ). [2]

This is completely opposite to the Christian missionary Vargo's definition of crucifixion, who claimed that it is a method of "putting a living person on a cross inorder to kill him".

The New Catholic Encyclopaediadefines " Crucifixion " as:

Crucifixion developed from a method of execution by which the victim was fastened to anupright stake either by impaling him on it or by tying him to it with thongs... From this form of execution developed crucifixion in the strict sense, whereby the outstretched arms of the victimwere tied or nailed to a crossbeam ( patibulum ), which was then laid in a groove across the topor suspended by means of a notch in the side of an upright stake that was always left in positionat the site of execution. [3]


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And in discussing the Christian belief in the crucifixion of Christ, Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary defines " Crucifixion " as:

the method of torture and execution used by the Romans to put Christ to death. At a crucifixionthe victim usually was nailed or tied to a wooden stake and left to die...

Crucifixion involved attaching the victim with nails through the wrists or with leather thongs to acrossbeam attached to a vertical stake... [4]

WHAT IS A CROSS?

The word cross is the translation of the Greek stauros. The cross (Greek stauros;Latin crux) was originally a single upright stake or post upon which the victim waseither tied, nailed or impaled. Regarding the meaning of this word Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary defines the " Cross " as:

an upright wooden stake or post on which Jesus was executed... the Greek word for crossreferred primarily to a pointed stake used in rows to form the walls of a defensive stockade. [5]

Vine's Expository Dictionary Of New Testament Wordsdefines the Greek wordstauros as:

Stauros denotes, primarily, "an upright pale or stake." On such malefactors were nailed forexecution...

The method of execution was borrowed by the Greeks and Romans from the Phoenicians. Thestauros denotes (a) "the cross, or stake itself," e.g., Matt. 27:32; (b) "the crucifixion suffered,"e.g., 1 Cor. 1:17,18, where "the word of the cross," RV, stands for the Gospel; Gal. 5:11, wherecrucifixion is metaphorically used of the renunciation of the world, that characterizes the trueChristian life; Gal. 6:12,14; Eph. 2:16; Phil. 3:18. [6]

According to A Dictionary of Bible, Dealing With Its Language, Literature And Contents, Including The Biblical Theology, in New Testament usage the word

stauros seems only to refer the true "cross":[Stauros ] means properly a stake, and is the tr. [i.e., translation] not merely of the Latin crux (cross), but of palus (stake) as well. As used in NT, however, it refers evidently not to thesimple stake used for impaling, of which widespread punishment crucifixion was a refinement,but to the more elaborate cross used by the Romans in the time of Christ. [7]

The opinion is that the New Testament usage of stauros refers only to the true "cross"is not strictly true. The term stauros actually has a much wider application, being usedto refer to both a single stake and a crossbeam. In Hastings' Dictionary Of The Bible he states:


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The Greek term rendered 'cross' in the English NT is stauros (stauroo = 'crucify'), which has awider application than we ordinarily give to 'cross' being used of a single stake or upright beamas well as of a cross composed of two beams. [8]

In New Testament usage stauros primarily refers to an upright stake or beam used asan instrument for punishment:

The Greek word for 'cross' ( stauros ; verb stauroo ; Latin crux , crucifigo , 'I fasten to the cross')means primarily an upright stake or beam, and secondarily a stake used as an instrument forpunishment and execution. It is used in this latter sense in the New Testament. [9]

The word stauros had at least three different meanings in the New Testament alone.The plank which supports the arms of the victim ( patibulum in Latin) was itself calledstauros (Luke 23:26); the stake or tree trunk on which the patibulumwas nailed wasalso called stauros (John 19:19); and the whole complex together ( patibulumandstake) was also called stauros (John 19:25). [10]

The Catholic Encyclopaedia(under " Archaeology of the Cross and Crucifix ")mentions that a primitive form of crucifixion on trees had long been in use, and thatsuch a tree was also known as a cross:

The penalty of the cross goes back probably to the arbor infelix, or unhappy tree, spoken of by

Cicero (Pro, Rabir., iii sqq.) and by Livy, apropos of the condemnation of Horatius after themurder of his sister. According to Hschke (Die Multa, 190) the magistrates known as duoviri

perduellionis pronounced this penalty (cf. Liv., I, 266), styled also infelix lignem (Senec., Ep. ci;

Plin., XVI, xxvi; XXIV, ix; Macrob., II, xvi). This primitive form of crucifixion on trees was long

in use, as Justus Lipsius notes ("De cruce", I, ii, 5; Tert., "Apol.", VIII, xvi; and "Martyrol.

Paphnut." 25 Sept.). Such a tree was known as a cross (crux). On an ancient vase we see

Prometheus bound to a beam which serves the purpose of a cross. A somewhat different form is

seen on an ancient cist at Prneste (Palestrina), upon which Andromeda is represented nude,

and bound by the feet to an instrument of punishment like a military yoke i.e. two parallel,

perpendicular stakes, surmounted by a transverse bar. Certain it is, at any rate, that the cross

originally consisted of a simple vertical pole, sharpened at its upper end. Mcenas (Seneca,

Epist. xvii, 1, 10) calls it acuta crux; it could also be called crux simplex. To this upright pole a

transverse bar was afterwards added to which the sufferer was fastened with nails or cords, and

thus remained until he died, whence the expression cruci figere or affigere (Tac., "Ann.", XV,

xliv; Potron., "Satyr.", iii)...

ORIGINS OF THE ENGLISH WORDS "CRUCIFIXION" & "CROSS"


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The Greek word for cross stauros (Latin crux) refers primarily to an upright stake orpole. [11] The noun "crucifixion" does not occur in the New Testament, but the

corresponding verb "to crucify" appears frequently. [12] In Classical Greek usage theroot verb stauroo actually means "to impale" or "to fence with pales" (Liddell-Scott-Jones Lexicon of Classical Greek). However, there appears to be no common wordfor the "cross" in the Greek, as the word crux (cross) is Latin. The Concise Dictionary Of The Biblestates under " Cross ":

Except the Latin crux there was no word definitively and invariably applied to this instrument of punishment [i.e. cross] . [13]

Concerning the origin of the Latin crux Merriam-Webster's Word Histories states:

..the Latin noun crux 'cross, gibbet' was taken into Old French as crois and into Spanish ascruz ...

The original sense of crux in classical Latin was an instrument of torture, whether gibbet, cross,or stake. By extension it meant 'torture, trouble, misery'. With this in mind, English borrowedcrux in the sense of 'a puzzling or difficult problem'. From this sense developed its use for 'anessential point requiring resolution', as in "the crux of a problem," and the sense of 'a main orcentral feature', as in "the crux of an argument." [14]

Lewis & Short Latin Dictionaryalso mentions the same meanings:

a tree, frame, or other wooden instruments of execution on which criminals were impaled orhanged. [15]

Furthermore, the word crux is the core of several English words including"crucifixion":

The Latin crux is also the core of the English words crucial, crucifix, crucifixion, cruciform,crucify, and excruciating. The English cross derives from crux through either Old Irish or OldNorse. The English cruise also derives from crux, which became crucen 'to make a cross' inMiddle Dutch and kruisen 'to sail crossing to and fro' in Modern Dutch before being borrowedinto English in the seventeenth century. [16]

SUMMARY

Crucifixion is the act of nailing, binding or impaling a living victim or sometimes adead person to a cross, stake or a tree, whether for executing the body or for exposingthe corpse. Crucifixion was intended to serve as both a severe punishment and afrightful deterrent to others. It was unanimously considered the most horrible form of death.


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The cross (Greek stauros; Latin crux) was originally a single upright stake or postupon which the victim was either tied, nailed or impaled. This simple cross was later

modified when horizontal crossbeams of various types were added. Scholars are notcertain when a crossbeam was added to the simple stake, but even in the Romanperiod the cross would at times only consist of a single vertical stake. In many cases,especially during the Roman period, the execution stake became a vertical pole with ahorizontal crossbar placed at some point, and although the period of time at which thishappened is uncertain, what is known is that this simple impalement became knownas crucifixion. Whether the victim was tied, nailed or impaled to the stake, the sameGreek words were still used to describe the procedure.

Although in New Testament usage the Greek word stauros (cross) is said to refer to acrossbeam, the term actually has a much wider application, being used to refer to botha single stake and a crossbeam. The four most popular representations of the crossare: (i) crux simplex |, a "single piece without transom"; (ii) crux decussata X , or St.Andrew's cross; (iii) crux commissa T , or St. Anthony's cross; and (iv) crux immisaa or Latin cross upon which Jesus was allegedly crucified. [17]

A primitive form of crucifixion on trees had long been in use, and such a tree was alsoknown as a cross ( crux). Different ideas also prevailed concerning the material formof the cross, and it seems that the word had been frequently used in a broad sense. TheLatin word crux was applied to the simple pole, and indicated directly the nature andpurpose of this instrument, being derived from the verb crucio, "to torment", "totorture." The practice of crucifixion was finally abolished in 337 by Constantine I outof respect for Jesus Christ, whom he believed died on the cross.

3. Crucifixion In Antiquity

Martin Hengel, Professor of New Testament and Early Judaism studies at TbingenUniversity, Germany, stresses that all attempts to give a perfect description of the

crucifixion in archaeological terms are in vain as there were just too many differentpossibilities. He says:

All attempts to give a perfect description of the crucifixion in archaeological terms are thereforein vain; there were too many different possibilities for the executioner. Seneca's testimonyspeaks for itself:

I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their

victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their

arms on the gibbet. [18]


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Although the procedure was subject to wide variation according to the whim andsadism of the executioner, victims were often executed by being impaled on a stake.

The earliest reference to impalement is found in the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1700BCE). It says:

153. If a seignoir's wife has brought about the death of her husband because of another man,they shall impale that woman on stakes. [19]

Let us now consider some examples of crucifixion in antiquity which are invoked inscholarly literature.

CRUCIFIXION IN ANCIENT ASSYRIA

Perhaps one of the best examples of the variation of crucifixion in the form of impaling the enemies comes from the times of the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser III (859 BCE - 824 BCE). Figures 1 and 2 show people being impaled by a stake throughtheir private parts and chests, respectively.


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Figure 1: Shalmaneser III's campaign in north Syria: town of Dabigu (top), impaled inhabitants of Syrian town (below). Also notice that the inhabitants have been

impaled by a stake through their private parts.[20]

Figure 2: Attack of the walls of a town by a seige-engine supported by bowmen protected by

shields. The bodies of the three townsmen are impaled outside the wall. Here the stake went

through the chest. [21]

The famous account for the evidence of the Assyrian crucifixion, often repeated in the

scholarly literature, is that of Assyrian king Ninus who had the Median king Pharnuscrucified.

, .

ho de tautis basileus Parnos parataxamenos axiologo dunamei kai leiphtheis, tn te stratiotntous pleious apebale kai autos peta teknon epta kai gunaikos aichmalotos lphtheisanestaurthi.


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And the king of this country, Pharnus, meeting him in battle with a formidable force, wasdefeated, and he both lost the larger part of his soldiers, and himself, being taken captive,along with his seven sons and wife, and crucified. [22]

The English translation uses the word "crucified" which is the translation of the Greek word anestaurthi from the verb anastauro meaning "to impale". This word is nowusually translated to mean "impale" in the literature. [23] It should be noted, however,that it is believed that the report of Diodorus has no historical value. [24] Nevertheless, itis interesting to note that the example of crucifixion given in early Assyrian times wasnothing but impalement. In spite of the evidence of crucifixion or impalement in theCode of Hammurabi and in Assyria, many authors wrongly refer to Herodotus' (5thcentury BCE) writings as the source to claim that the earliest references of crucifixion

comes from Persia. [25]

HERODOTUS' ACCOUNTS OF CRUCIFIXION

Herodotus was born in Halicarnassus, Anatolia not long after 480 BCE and died sometime between 430-420 BCE. [26] Herodotus refers to the stake as a method of execution,but also gives an example of a victim being nailed on a board. We will discuss a fewinstances where he mentions impalement in his Histories.

1.128. [1] . , , " ' ' ." [2] , , , , . [3] , .

[1.128.1] dialuthentos de tou Mdikou. strateumatos aischrs, hs eputheto tachista hoAstuags, eph apeilen ti Kuri "all' oud' hs Kuros ge chairsei." [1.128.2] tosauta eipasprton men tn Magn tous oneiropolous, hoi min anegnsan meteinai ton Kuron, toutousaneskolopise , meta de hplise tous hupoleiphthentas en ti aste tn Mdn, neous te kaipresbutas andras. [1.128.3] exagagn de toutous kai sumbaln toisi Perisi hessth, kai autoste Astuags ezgrth kai tous exgage tn Mdn apebale.

[1.128.1] Thus the Median army was foully scattered. Astyages, hearing this, sent a threateningmessage to Cyrus: "that even so he should not go unpunished"; [1.128.2] and with that he tookthe Magians who interpreted dreams and had persuaded him to let Cyrus go free, and i mpaledthem; then he armed the Medes who were left in the city, the youths and the old men.[1.128.3] Leading these out, and encountering the Persians, he was worsted: Astyages himself was taken prisoner, and lost the Median army which he led. [27]


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Note that the English translation uses the word "impaled" which is the translation of the Greek word anaskolopise from the verb anaskolopizmeaning "to fix on a pole orstake, to impale".

3.125 [3] : , , , , . [4] : , , .

[3.125.3] apokteinas de min ouk axis apgsios Oroits anestaurse : tn de hoi hepomennhosoi men san Samioi, apke, keleun spheas heuti charin eidenai eontas eleutherous, hosoide san xeinoi te kai douloi tn hepomenn, en andrapodn logi poieumenos eiche. [3.125.4]Polukrats de anakremamenos epetelee pasan tn opsin ts thugatros: elouto men gar hupo touDios hoks huoi, echrieto de hupo tou hliou, anieis autos ek tou smatos ikmada.

[3.125.3] Having killed him (in some way not fit to be told), Oroetes then c rucified him; as forthe Samians in his retinue he let them go, bidding them thank Oroetus for their freedom; andthose who were not Samians, or were servants of Polycrates' followers, he kept for slaves.[3.125.4] So Polycrates was hanged aloft, and thereby his daughter's dream came true; for hewas wahed by Zeus when it rained, and the moisture from his body was his anointment by thesun. [28]

Note that the English translation uses the word "crucified" which is the translation of the Greek word anestaurse from the verb anastauro meaning "to impale". Alsonotice that the victim Polycrates had already been killed before being crucified.

3.132. [1] , . [2] , , , : . .

[3.132.1] tote d ho Dmokds en toisi Sousoisi exisamenos Dareion oikon te megiston eichekai homotrapezos basilei egegonee, pln te henos tou es Hellnas apienai panta talla hoi parn.[3.132.2] kai touto men tous Aiguptious itrous, hoi basilea proteron into, mellontasanaskolopieisthai hoti hupo Hellnos itrou hessthsan, toutous basilea paraitsamenoserrusato: touto de mantin leion Polukrate epispomenon kai apmelmenon en toisiandrapodoisi errusato. n de megiston prgma Dmokds para basilei.


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[3.132.1] So now having healed Darius at Susa Democedes had a very grand house and ate atthe king's table; all was his, except permission to return to his Greek home. [3.132.2] When theEgyptian chirurgeons who had till now attended on the king were about to be impaled for beingless skilful than a Greek, Democedes begged their lives of the king and saved them; and hesaved besides an Elean diviner, too, who had been of Polycrates' retinue and was left neglectedamong the slaves. Mightily in favour with the king was Democedes. [29]

Again note that the English translation uses the word "impaled" which is thetranslation of the Greek word anaskolopieisthai from the verb anaskolopizmeaning"to fix on a pole or stake, to impale".

3.159. [1] . , : : , .

[3.159.1] Babuln men nun hout to deuteron haireth. Dareios de epeite ekratse tn

Babulnin, touto men sphen to teichos perieile kai tas pulas pasas apespase: to gar proteron

heln Kuros tn Babulna epoise toutn oudeteron: touto de ho Dareios tn andrn tous

koruphaious malista es trischilious aneskolopise , toisi de loipoisi Babulnioisi apedke tn polin

oikeein.

[3.159.1] Thus was Babylon the second time taken. Having mastered the Babylonians, Dariusdestroyed their walls and reft away all their gates, neither of which things Cyrus had done at thefirst taking of Babylon; moreover he i mpaled about three thousand men that were prominentamong them; as for the rest, he gave them back their city to dwell in. [30]

This is Herodotus' famous account of how Darius I, king of Persia, crucified 3,000political prisoners. Note that the English translation uses the word "impaled" which isthe translation of the Greek word anaskolopise from the verb anaskolopizmeaning"to fix on a pole or stake, to impale".

9.120 [4] : , . , , : .

[9.120.4] tauta hupischomenos ton stratgon Xanthippon ouk epeithe: hoi gar Elaiousioi ti

Prtesilei timreontes edeonto min katachrsthnai, kai autou tou stratgou tauti noos


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ephere. apagagontes de auton es tn Xerxs ezeuxe ton poron, hoi de legousi epi ton kolnon

ton huper Madutou polios, pros sanidas prospassaleusantes anekremasan : ton de paida en

ophthalmoisi tou Artakte kateleusan.

[9.120.4] But Xanthippus the general was unmoved by this promise; for the people of Elaeus

entreated that Artayctes should be put to death in justice to Protesilaus, and the general himself

was so minded. So they carried Artayctes away to the headland where Xerxes had bridged the

strait (or, by another story, to the hill above the town of Madytus), a nd there nailed him to

boards and hanged him; and as for his son, they stoned him to death before his father's eyes. [31]

Note that neither of the two verbs anastauro or anaskolopizappear in the onlydetailed account of crucifixion given by Herodotus in which the victim was "hanged"by being nailed to boards or planks.

There appears to be no word for "crucifixion" as such in Greek. The Greek text of Herodotus speaks of "impalement" which is sometimes translated as crucifixion.Herodotus uses the verbs anaskolopizand anastauro both of which mean "toimpale". Generally Herodotus uses the derivatives of the verb anaskolopizfor livingpersons and anastauro for corpses. After him the verbs become synonymous, 'tocrucify', in modern literature.

As mentioned earlier, the Greek word for "cross" stauros, actually denotes an uprightstake or pole. The word crux (cross) is Latin and is also the core of several Englishwords including "crucifixion". In many cases, especially during the Roman period, theexecution stake became a vertical pole with a horizontal crossbar placed at somepoint, and although the period of time at which this happened is uncertain, what isknown is that this simple impalement later became to be known as crucifixion.Whether the victim was tied, nailed or impaled to the stake, the same Greek wordswere still used to described the procedure.

CRUCIFIXION IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Jewish law requires that a man who has committed a sin worthy of death be impaledon a stake in accordance with the Biblical passage in Deuteronomy 21:22-23.

And if a man have committed a sin worthy of death, and he be put to death, and t hou hang himon a tree; his body shall not remain all night upon the tree, but thou shalt surely bury him thesame day; for he that is hanged is accursed of God; that thou defile not thy land which Jehovahthy God giveth thee for an inheritance. [Deuteronomy 21:22-23, NIV]


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The impression given by these translations is a person who has been lynched or whois bound by ropes to a tree. This is perhaps incorrect. The Hebrew word talah canhave the meaning of "to hang" a corpse upon a stake after execution; according to thecontext, however, it is translated more properly "to crucify" or "to impale" as we findin the Jewish Publication Society'stranslation of the Tanakh, i.e., the Hebrew Bible.

If a man is guilty of a capital offense and is put to death, and you impale him on a stake, youmust not let his corpse remain on the stake overnight, but must bury him the same day. For animpaled body is an affront to God: you shall not defile the land that the Lord your God is givingyou to possess. [Deuteronomy 21:22-23, JPS Tanakh ] [32]

The key words in Deuteronomy 21:22-23 are talah and ets; and in this verse they

refer to a person hanging on a pole or stake as understood from the Gesenius's Hebrew And Chaldee Lexicon To The Old Testament Scripture.

(a)


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(b)

Figure 3: The meaning of (a) talah and (b) ets in the Hebrew Bible. [33]

The fact that a man who has committed a sin worthy of death should be impaled on astake, is also stated in the Encyclopaedia Judaica:

HANGING is reported in the Bible only as either a mode of execution of non-Jews whopresumably acted in accordance with their own laws (e.g., Egyptians: Genesis 40:22; II Sam.21:6-12: Philistines; and Persians: Esther. 7:9), or as a non-Jewish law imported to or to beapplied in Israel (Ezra 6:11), or as an extra-legal or extra-judicial measure (Joshua 8:29).However, biblical law prescribes hanging after execution: every person found guilty of a capitaloffense and put to death had to be impaled on a stake (Deuteronomy 21:22); but the body hadto be taken down the same day and buried before nightfall, "for an impaled body is an affront toGod" (ibid ., 23). [34]

It appears that the talmudic and midrashic literature also had a similar understandingof the word talah.[35] Thus, it is not a tree that the criminal is "hanged" upon, but theets (tree, wood, stake, plank) upon which the criminal is impaled or crucified. In anycase the impaling was not the means used to execute the criminal; he was first put todeath by stoning, and his corpse was then exposed as a warning to others. The firstmention of impalement in the Bible occurs in Genesis 40:19. The Jewish PublicationSociety'stranslation of the Hebrew text of this verse reads:


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In three days Pharaoh will lift off your head and impale you upon a pole; and the birds will pickoff your flesh. [Genesis 40:19] [36]

This verse suggests that the Israelites first learned of impalement not from theAssyrians but from the Egyptians. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (c. 37 c.100) reports many incidents of crucifixion in his Antiquities Of The Jews. Josephususes only (ana)stauroun (the verb stauroun occurs frequently in the New Testament),even in his commentary on the verse Genesis 40:19.

[2.72] : , ' , : : [2.73] ' . : , .

[2.72] kai ho men homoian tn prorrsin esesthai ti tou oinokhoou prosedoka: ho de Ispossumbaln ti logismi to onar kai pros auton eipn, hs eboulet' an agathn hermneuts autigegonenai kai ouch hoin to onar auti dloi, legei duo tas pasas eti tou zn auton echeinhmeras: ta gar kana touto smainein: [2.73] ti triti d' auton anastaurthenta boran esesthai

peteinois ouden amunein hauti dunamenon. kai d tauta telos homoion hois ho Ispos eipenamphoterois elabe: ti gar hmerai ti proeirmeni genethlion tethuks ho basileus ton menepi tn sitopoin anestaurse , ton de oinochoon tn desmn apolusas epi ts auts hupresiaskatestsen.

[2.72] And he expected a prediction like to that of the cupbearer. But Joseph, considering and

reasoning about the dream, said to him, that he would willingly be an interpreter of good events

to him, and not of such as his dream denounced to him; but he told him that he had only three

days in all to live, for that the [three] baskets signify, that on the third day he should be

crucified, and devoured by fowls, while he was not able to help himself. Now both these dreams

had the same several events that Joseph foretold they should have, and this to both the parties;for on the third day before mentioned, when the king solemnized his birth-day, he crucified the

chief baker, but set the butler free from his bonds, and restored him to his former

ministration. [37]

Note that the English translation uses the word "crucified" which is the translation of the words anastaurthenta and anestaurse from the Greek anastauro meaning "toimpale". The Smith's Bible Dictionaryalso observes that the hangings reported inGenesis 40:19 refer to crucifixion.


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Crucifixion was in use among the Egyptians, (Genesis 40:19); the Carthaginians, the Persians,(Esther 7:10); the Assyrians, Scythains, Indians, Germans, and from the earliest times amongthe Greeks and Romans. Whether this mode of execution was known to the ancient Jews is amatter of dispute. Probably the Jews borrowed it from the Romans. It was unanimouslyconsidered the most horrible form of death. [38]

Similarly, the Encyclopaedia Judaica says that:

There are reports of crucifixions from Assyrian, Egyptian, Persian, Greek, Punic, and Romansources. [39]

Given these facts, it is strange that the Christian missionaries have claimed thatcrucifixion was not known in Egypt during the time of either Joseph and Moses even

though the Judeo-Christian scholars have pointed to its existence in Egypt. Let us nowturn our attention to the evidence of crucifixion from ancient Egypt.

4. Crucifixion In Ancient Egypt

According to the Christian missionaries, their evidence that the Qur'an is in errorwhen it mentions crucifixion in Egypt is based on "archaeology and history". If onereads their material, it is neither based on any archaeological evidence nor anyhistorical investigation! Another example of the missionary's unparalleled arrogance

about the historical investigation on this issue can be seen here and here . So much fortheir "crucifiction" theories!

Rather ironically, the missionaries have even managed to misrepresent the evidenceused to forward their own "facts". The missionaries, referring to the famousEncyclopaedia Britannica, proclaimed they were providing "one authoritativereference":

Crucifixion, an important method of capital punishment, particularly among the Persians,Seleucids, Jews, Carthaginians, and Romans [was practiced] from about the 6th century BC tothe 4th century AD. Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, abolished it in theRoman Empire in AD 337, out of veneration for Jesus Christ, the most famous victim of crucifixion. ... [The earliest recording of a crucifixion was] in 519 BC [when] Darius I, king of Persia, crucified 3,000 political opponents in Babylon.

By the use of [] brackets, the missionaries hoped to convey that the first recordedincidence of crucifixion was in 519 BCE during the reign of Darius I, King of Persia.All they managed to convey however was their own distortion of source material. Letus see what Encyclopedia Britannica actually says:


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an important method of capital punishment, particularly among the Persians, Seleucids,Carthaginians, and Romans from about the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD. Constantinethe Great, the first Christian emperor, abolished it in the Roman Empire in AD 337, out of veneration for Jesus Christ, the most famous victim of crucifixion. ... In 519 BC Darius I, king of Persia, crucified 3,000 political opponents in Babylon. [40]

So this "one authoritative reference" championed by the missionaries turns out to be areference to their own misunderstanding and distortion. Now that it is abundantlyclear that Encyclopaedia Britannica does not provide information in relation to thefirst recorded instances of crucifixion in world history, let us now deal with the issueof crucifixion in Egypt using the information obtained from Egyptology.

HIEROGLYPH FOR CRUCIFYING OR IMPALING A PERSON UPON ASTAKE

The first thing to establish is whether there exists any hieroglyph that mentionsimpaling people on stakes. The best place to start is Die Sprache Der PharaonenGroes Handwrterbuch gyptisch, a concise Egyptian-German dictionary. Thehieroglyph depicting impalement on a stake is shown below. [41]

Figure 4: Hieroglyph writing for "Stake. rdj hr = To put on the stake (for punishment)"; det. =

determinative, hieroglyph for classifying Egyptian words. Here it shows an impaled man bent

upon a stake. [42]

A recent edition of Die Sprache Der Pharaonen Groes Handwrterbuch gyptischgives even more information on the hieroglyphs showing impalement as

seen below. [43]


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Figure 5: Hieroglyph writing for Pfahl, i.e., "Stake". The interesting ones of 2, 3, 5, and 6. Also

see "Pfhlen".

This is the clearest example that people in Egypt were crucified by impaling them onstakes. What about the times in which this punishment was imposed in Egypt?

EVIDENCE OF IMPALEMENT IN ANCIENT EGYPT

In order to understand the evidence of crucifixion by impaling people on a stake inEgypt, we present a simplified chronology of ancient Egyptian history containingroyal names associated with the period for easy reference. Unless otherwise stated,specific dates for particular Dynasties and Kings that we quote within this paper aretaken from Nicolas Grimal's book, A History of Ancient Egypt .[44] Please note that the


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exact Egyptian chronologies are slightly uncertain, and all dates are approximate. Thereader will find slightly different schemes used in different books.

Dynasties

Dates BCE (approx.) Period Some Royal Names

Associated withPeriod

1 & 2 c . 3150 - 2700 Thinite PeriodNarmer-Menes, Aha,

Djer, Hetepsekhemwy,Peribsen

3 - 6 c . 2700 - 2190 Old Kingdom

Djoser, Snofru, Khufu

(Cheops), Khafre(Chephren),Menkauhor, Teti, Pepy.

7 - 11 c . 2200 - 2040 First Intermediate Neferkare, Mentuhotpe,Inyotef

11 & 12 c . 2040 - 1674 Middle Kingdom Ammenemes,Sesostris, Dedumesiu

13 - 17 c . 1674 - 1553 Second Intermediate

Sobekhotep II,Chendjer, Salitis,

Yaqub-Har, Kamose,Seqenenre, Apophis.Hyksos formed 15thand 16th Dynasties

18 - 20 c . 1552 - 1069 New Kingdom

Ahmose, Amenhotep(Amenophis),

Hatshepsut, Akhenaten(Amenophis IV),Horemheb, Seti

(Sethos), Ramesses,Merenptah

Table I: Chronology of Egyptians Dynasties

Keeping this in mind, let us now look at the evidence of crucifixion by impalingpeople on a stake in Egypt. The evidence is arranged in chronological order.

A. Theban Account Papyrus (Papyrus Boulaq 18)

Papyrus Boulaq 18 is dated to the early Second Intermediate Period reign of Chendjer / Sobekhotep II; both of them kings from the 13th Dynasty. The account in PapyrusBoulaq is given below. [45]


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Figure 6: Mentioning of impalement in the Theban account papyrus (Papyrus Boulaq 18).

a blood bath (?) had occurred with (by?) wood (?) ... the comrade was put on the stake, land

near the island ...; waking alive at the places of life, safety and health ...

B. Stela Of Amenophis IV (Akhenaten)

Amenophis IV or Akhenaten was known as the Heretic King. He was the tenth kingof the 18th Dynasty in the New Kingdom Period. This is an interesting stela showingthe Nubian prisoners of war being impaled.


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Figure 7: Excerpts from the Stela of Amenophis IV, showing impalement of Nubian prisoners of

war.

List (of the enemy belonging to) Ikayta: living Nehesi 80+ ?; ... | ... their (chiefs?) 12; totalnumber of live captives 145; those who were impaled ... | ... total 225; beasts 361. [46]

Interestingly, The New International Dictionary Of The Biblesays:

Crucifixion was one of the most cruel and barbarous forms of death known to man. It waspracticed, especially in the times of war, by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Egyptians, and laterby the Romans. So dreaded was it that even in the pre-Christian era, the cares and troubles of the life were often compared to a cross. [47]

C. Abydos Decree Of Sethos I At Nauri, Year 4.

Sethos I belonged to the 19th Dynasty in the New Kingdom Period. His rule precededthe rule of Ramesses II. Below is his interesting decree at Nauri.


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Figure 8: Excerpts from the Abydos Decree of Sethos I at Nauri, Year 4.

... Now as for any superintendent of cattle, any superintendent of donkeys, any herdsmanbelonging to the Temple of Menmare Happy in Abydos, who shall sell of any beast belonging tothe Temple of Menmare Happy in Abydos to someone else; likewise whoever may cause it to beoffered on some other document, and it not be offered to Osiris his master in the Temple of Menmare Happy in Abydos; the law shall be executed against him, by condemning him, impaledon the stake, along with forfeiting(?) his wife, his children and all his property to the Temple of Menmare Happy in Abydos, ... [48]

D. Amada Stela Of Merenptah: Libyan War (Karnak)

Merenptah, son of Ramesses II, defeated the threat posed by the Libyans. Hebelonged to the 19th Dynasty in the New Kingdom Period. Here the prisoners wereimpaled on the stake on the South of Memphis.

Figure 9: Excerpts from the Amada Stela of Merenptah; Libyan War (Karnak).

... Never shall they leave any people for the Libu (i.e., Libyans) , any who shall bring them up intheir land! They are cast to the ground, (?) by hundred-thousands and ten thousands, theremainder being impaled ('put to the stake') on the South of Memphis. All their property wasplundered, being brough back to Egypt... [49]


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E. The Abbott Papyrus

This is an account of the Great Tomb Robberies of the 20th Dynasty in the NewKingdom Period. Notice that the oath includes mutilation before the actualimpalement.

Figure 10: Excerpts from the Abbott Papyrus that deals with the oath on pain of mutilation and

impalement.

... The notables caused this coppersmith to be examined in most severe examination in theGreat Valley, but it could not be found that he knew of any place there save the two places hehad pointed out. He took an oath on pain of being beaten, of having his nose and ears cut off,and of being impaled, saying I know of no place here among these tombs except this tombwhich is open and this house which I pointed to you... [50]

F. Papyrus BM10052

This is an account of the Great Tomb Robberies of the 20th Dynasty in the NewKingdom Period. Notice that the oath includes mutilation before the actualimpalement.

Figure 11: Excerpts from Papyrus BM10052.

The scribe Paoemtaumt was brought. he was given the oath not to speak falsehood. He said, AsAmun lives and as the Ruler lives, if I be found to have had anything to do with any one of thethieves may I be mutilated in nose and ears and placed on the stake. He was examined with thestick. He was found to have been arrested on account of the measurer Paoemtaumt son of Kaka.[51]


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These hieroglyphs are by no means the only ones. There exist others from the NewKingdom Period showing impalements. [52]

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Ancient Egypt was known for some of the worst kinds of capital punishments. Theancient Egyptians understood the necessary deterrent that these punishmentsprovided. It appears that punishment in ancient Egypt became more severe with thetimes, especially with the advent of the New Kingdom Period. The punishments in theNew Kingdom Period were very brutal and included beatings, mutilation,impalement, and being treated as a slave. The Lexikon Der gyptologie- anencyclopaedia of Egyptology, gives a brief overview of the different forms of punishment in Egypt under the heading " Strafen " (i.e., punishment / penalties). Itsays:

Decrees and trial documents, in the latter particularly from oath formulas, have given us thefollowing judicial punishments. Physical punishments, as the most severe for capital crimes ...the death penalty by impaling, burning, drowning, beheading or being eating by wild animals.Only the King or the Vizier had the right to impose such punishment. High ranking personalitieswere granted by the King to commit suicide.

Physical punishments were also mutilation punishments by cutting off hands, tongue, nose and

or ears, castration as well as beatings in the form of 100 or 200 strokes, often with 5 bleedingwounds, occasionally with 10 burn marks. Sometimes also the part of the body, e.g. the soles of the feet, which had to be beaten.

Frequently there were prison sentences in addition to physical punishments, such as exile to

Kusch, to the Great Oasis or to Sile, with the obligation of forced labour as mine worker or stone

mason as well as loss of assets. Women were banished to live in the outbuildings at the back of

the house. Prison sentences as we know them were unknown. There were just remand prison for

the accused and witnesses for serious crimes before and during the trial. Abuse of office was

punished by loss of office and transfer to manual work. [53]

Similarly Lurje in his Studien Zum Altgyptischen Recht (Studies In The Ancient Egyptian Law) states:

Among others we find mutilation, mutilation and deportation to forced labour in Ethiopia, justdeportation to forced labour in Ethiopia, impaling ( tp-ht ), punishment in form of 100 beatingsand adding 50 wounds, punishment in form of 100 beatings and withdrawal of part or all of thedisputed assets, punishment in form of 100 beatings and payment of twice the value of thematter in dispute, asset liability, cutting off of the tongue, loss of rank and transfer to theworking class, handing over to be eaten by the crocodile and finally living in the outbuildings of the house. [54]


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It is clear that one of the severest penalties in ancient Egypt included mutilation,mutilation and then impalement especially in the New Kingdom Period. The

mutilation includes cutting off hands, tongue, nose and ears or even castration. Harshpenalties such as crucifying by impalement would be imposed only by either the Kingor the Vizier. John Wilson had discussed the authority of the King or the Vizier toimpose punishments which the interested readers might find useful. [55] Thus theQur'anic address of referring to Pharaoh as "Lord of Stakes" certainly fits very wellwith the available evidence. It also adds irony due to the fact that even though thePharaoh claimed to be god, the greatest act of his lordship was confined to killingpeople by putting them on the stake.

TIMING IS EVERYTHING

When did Joseph and Moses enter Egypt? As far as the missionaries are concerned,they had claimed the dating provided by them is "conservative".

We have, however, no record that Egyptians used crucifixion as punishment in the time of Moses(1450 BC, conservative date; 1200 BC at the latest) or even Joseph (1880 BC, conservativedate).

The "conservative" dating of the missionaries correspond quite closely with the NewChronology proposed by David Rohls in his book A Test of Time.[56] This is therevisionist dating not the "conservative" dating. Fortunately, we have A Waste of Time homepage on the internet that includes a collection of articles written byscholars of Egyptology such as Professor Kenneth Kitchen as well as amateursrefuting many of the claims of Rohl. Even the evangelical Christians do not takeRohls' work seriously . We wonder why the missionaries insist on using suchdiscredited scholarship to advance their fictitious arguments.

The majority of scholars say that Joseph entered Egypt during the time of the Hyksos.The Hyksos belonged to a group of mixed Semitic-Asiatics who infiltrated Egypt

during the Middle Kingdom and became rulers of Lower Egypt during the SecondIntermediate Period. They formed the 15th and 16th Dynasties. The generallyaccepted theory appears to be that Moses lived during the reign of at least two kings,Rameses II and his successor Merneptah in the New Kingdom Period.

Let us now gather the evidence that we have acquired so far about crucifixion inEgypt. Table II shows the ruler of Egypt when people were crucified by impaling onstakes as well as the time when Joseph and Moses entered Egypt.


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Dynasties

Dates BCE(approx.) Period

Ruler When CrucifixionHappened Prophet

3 - 6 c . 2700 -

2200Old

Kingdom

7 - 11 c . 2200 -

2040First

Intermediate

11 & 12 c . 2040 -

1674Middle

Kingdom

13 - 17 c . 1674 -

1553Second

Intermediate

Sobekhotep II, Chendjer (13thDynasty).

Hyksos formed 15th and 16thDynasties

Joseph

18 - 20 c . 1552 -

1069New

KingdomAkhenaten (Amenophis IV),

Ramesses, Merenptah Moses

Table II: This Table provides information about the ruler of Egypt wh en people were crucified by

impaling on stakes and the time when Joseph and Moses entered Egypt.

What is interesting to note is that the earliest available evidence of the occurrence of crucifixion in Egypt is seen in the Papyrus Boulaq 18 from the time of Sobekhotep II / Chendjer of the 13th Dynasty in the Second Intermediate Period. Joseph, according tomajority of scholars, entered Egypt during the rule of the Hyksos who formed the15th and 16th Dynasties in the Second Intermediate Period. This means that

crucifixion happened in Egypt even before Joseph entered Egypt.

Crucifixion also happened before Moses came to Egypt, during the Amenophis IV(Akhenaten). It also happened after the event of Exodus as seen in the papyri relatedto the Great Tomb Robberies of the 20th Dynasty. This completely refutes the claimof the Christian missionaries that the mention of crucifixion in the Qur'an during thetime of Joseph and Moses is historically inaccurate.

5. Conclusions


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Contrary to the missionaries' own imaginative definition, crucifixion, as attested in avariety of sources, can be understood as the act of nailing, binding or impaling a

living victim or sometimes a dead person to a cross, stake or tree, whether forexecuting the body or for exposing the corpse. However, all attempts to give a perfect description of the crucifixion in archaeological terms are in vain as there were just toomany different possibilities depending upon the whim of the executioner. The "cross"was originally a single upright stake or post upon which the victim was either tied,nailed or impaled as seen in the ancient references to crucifixion. Accordingly, as wehave demonstrated, it would not only be inappropriate but also historically inaccurateto restrict our understanding of the scope and application of crucifixion as it waspracticed during Roman times, especially throughout the early Christian period.

With regard to ancient Egyptian history, we can observe a progression in the 'cruelty'of punishments with time, acutely so during the New Kingdom period ( c. 1552 c.1069 BCE). Without delving into the intricacies of ancient Egyptian criminal law, wecan undoubtedly observe that one method of punishment was crucifying people byimpalement. The earliest extant evidence for this severe form of punishment is foundduring the reign of Sobekhotep II / Chendjer in the Second Intermediate period ( c.1674 c. 1553 BCE), as indicated by the Papyrus Boulaq 18. Moving forward to theNew Kingdom period ( c. 1552 c. 1069 BCE), we have numerous papyri, includingthe Abbot Papyrus and Papyrus BM10052, as well as numerous stele including theStela of Amenophis IV, Abydos Decree of Sethos I at Nauri and Amada Stela of Merenptah, indicating the punishment of crucifixion by impalement. These datescorrespond well with the dates the majority of scholars attribute to Joseph and Mosesentry into Egypt. Therefore, based on this historical appreciation of ancient Egyptianhistory, crucifixion, as evidenced in a variety of hieroglyph papyri manuscripts andstela, was practiced as impalement, and, this form of punishment was already wellestablished by the time Joseph entered Egypt. In sum, the story as narrated in theQur'an correlates very well with the available evidence.

Equipped with an academically accepted chronology of ancient Egyptian history andan accurate historical understanding of what the words 'cross' and 'crucifixion'actually mean, once again, we find the missionaries making unsubstantiated claims. [57] Their "facts" are based on unproven ancient Egyptian chronologies that have receivedscathing reviews from fellow academics not to mention their own theologians.Combined with a superficial understanding regarding the concepts of "cross" and"crucifixion", and how this form of punishment was expressed by different culturesand civilisations (both ancient and modern), the missionaries struggle to form anytype of cogent argumentation and instead distort source material and make extensive


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use of soundbites. In fact, the only thing in error here is the missionaries' "researchmethodology", which, in this particular instance, can properly be characterised as

lightweight and schizophrenic.

Perhaps it is best to conclude with H.S. Smith's observation in his book The FortressOf Buhen: The Inscriptions:

... I think the sense of nty hr htw 'those who are on the stakes' cannot be mistaken; theevidence for the Egyptians impaling their enemies is far too strong to be doubted. [58]

And Allah knows best!

References & Notes

[1] " Crucifixion ", in B. M. Metzger and M. D. Coogan (eds.), Oxford Companion ToThe Bible, 1993, Oxford University Press: Oxford & New York, p. 141.

[2] G. G. O'Collins, " Crucifixion " in D. N. Freedman (Editor-in-Chief), Anchor Bible Dictionary, 1992, Volume I, Doubleday: New York, p. 1207.

[3] " Crucifixion ", New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1981, Volume IV, The CatholicUniversity of America: Washington, p. 485.

[4] " Crucifixion Of Christ ", in H. Lockyer, Sr. (General Editor), F. F. Bruce et al.,(Consulting Editors), Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 1986, Thomas NelsonPublishers, p. 267.

[5] " Cross ", in H. Lockyer, Sr. (General Editor), F. F. Bruce et al., (ConsultingEditors), Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 1986, op. cit., p. 265.

[6] " Cross, Crucify ", Vine's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, Click here .

[7] " Cross ", in J. Hastings et al. (eds.), A Dictionary of Bible, Dealing With Its Language, Literature And Contents, Including The Biblical Theology, 1898,Volume I, T. & T. Clarke: Edinburgh, p. 528.

[8] " Crucifixion ", in J. Hastings (Revised by Frederick C. Grant and H. H. Rowley), Dictionary Of The Bible, 1963, 2nd Edition, T. & T. Clarke: Edinburgh, p. 193. For


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a similar explanation of the Greek word stauros see J. H. Thayer, Thayer's Greek-English Lexicon Of The New Testament Coded With Strong's Concordance

Numbers, 2005 (7th Printing), Hendrickson Publishers Inc.: Peabody (MA), p. 586.

[9] " Cross, Crucifixion ", J. D. Douglas (Organizing Editor), The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 1980, Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester (England), p. 342.

[10] Only the cross-beam was actually carried to the site of the execution, not theentire cross: "..after being whipped, or 'scourged,' dragged the crossbeam of his crossto the place of punishment, where the upright shaft was already fixed in the ground."Encyclopaedia Britannica.

[11] " Cross, Crucifixion ", J. D. Douglas (Organizing Editor), The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 1980, op. cit., p. 342.

[12] " Crucifixion " in G. A. Buttrick (Ed.), The Interpreter's Dictionary Of The Bible, 1962, Volume I, Abingdon Press: Nashville (TN), p. 746.

[13] " Cross ", in W. Smith (ed.), Concise Dictionary of the Bible, Its Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural History, Condensed from the Larger Work ,1880, 5th Edition, John Murray: London.

[14] " Crucifixion ", The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories, 1989-1995 Merriam-Webster, Inc., (Multipedia, CD-ROM Edition by Softkey 1995).

[15] " Crux ", C. T. Lewis & C. Short, A Latin Dictionary, Click here .

[16] " Crucifixion ", The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories, 1989-1995 Merriam-Webster, Inc., (Multipedia, CD-ROM Edition by Softkey 1995).

[17] " Cross " in The Easton's Bible Dictionary. Available online .

[18] M. Hengel, The Cross Of The Son Of God , 1976 (1981 Print), SCM Press:London, p. 117; idem., Crucifixion In The Ancient World And The Folly Of The Message Of The Cross, 1977, SCM Press Ltd: London, p. 25.

[19] T. J. Meek, " The Code Of Hammurabi " in J. B. Pritchard (Ed.), The Ancient Near East: An Anthology Of Texts And Pictures, 1958, Princeton University Press:Princeton (NJ), p. 155.


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[20] J. B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East In Pictures Relating To The Old Testament , 1954, Princeton University Press: Princeton (NJ), No. 362, p. 126 forpicture and p. 292 for text.

[21] ibid ., No. 368, p. 128 for picture and p. 293 for text..

[22] C. H. Oldfather (Trans.), Diodorus Of Sicily, 1933, Volume I, WilliamHeinemann Sons: London, 2.1.10, pp. 352-353. A similar translation was made G.Booth (Trans.), The Historical Library Of Diodorus The Sicilian, In Fifteen Books.To Which Are Added The Fragments Of Diodorus, 1814, Volume I, J. Davis:London, 2.1.10, p. 100. It reads

Being thus strengthened, he invaded Media, whose king Pharnus coming out against him with amighty army, was utterly routed, and lost most of his men, and was taken prisoner with his wifeand seven children, and afterwards crucified.

[23] For example, Gosse says:

According to Diodorus (ii.1) Ninus impaled Pharnus, the king of Media.

See P. H. Gosse, Assyria; Her Manners And Customs, Arts And Arms: Her Manners And Customs, Arts and Arms Restored From Her Monuments, 1852,

Society For Promotion Of Christian Knowledge: London, p. 349. Similar statement isalso seen in W. Palmer's Egyptian Chronicles. With A Harmony Of Sacred And Egyptian Chronology, And An Appendix On Babylonian And Assyrian Antiquities,2006, Volume II, Elibron Classics, p. 908. The text reads

Ninus then attacked Pharnus, king of Media, and after a great victory took him prisoner andcaused him to be impaled.

[24] M. Hengel, Crucifixion In The Ancient World And The Folly Of The MessageOf The Cross, 1977, op. cit., pp. 22-23.

[25] The earliest reference to crucifixion comes from the Code of Hammurabi as wehave seen earlier. For those who claim that the earliest evidence of crucifixion comesfrom Persia see D. G. Burke, " Cross " in G. W. Bromiley (Gen. Ed.), The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1979 (Fully Revised, Illustrated),Volume I, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: Grand Rapids (MI), p. 828;"Cross, Crucifixion " in A. C. Myers (Ed.), The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, 1987,William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: Grand Rapids (MI), p. 246; G. R.Osborne, " Crucifixion " in W. A. Elwell (Gen. Ed.), Encyclopedia Of The Bible,


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1988, Volume I, Marshall Pickering: London, p. 555; G. G. O'Collins, " Crucifixion "in D. N. Freedman (Editor-in-Chief), Anchor Bible Dictionary, 1992, Volume I, op.

cit., p. 1207.

[26] " Herodotus ", Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2004 DVD, 1994 2004 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

[27] A. D. Godley (Trans.), Herodotus (In Four Volumes), 1966, Volume I (Books Iand II), William Heinemann Ltd.: London & Harvard University Press: Cambridge,pp. 167-169.

[28] A. D. Godley (Trans.), Herodotus (In Four Volumes), 1963, Volume II (BooksIII and IV), William Heinemann Ltd.: London & Harvard University Press:Cambridge, p. 155.

[29] ibid ., p. 163.

[30] ibid ., pp. 193-195.

[31] A. D. Godley (Trans.), Herodotus (In Four Volumes), 1969, Volume IV (BooksVIII and IX), William Heinemann Ltd.: London & Harvard University Press:

Cambridge, p. 299.

[32] Tanakh: The New Translation Of The Holy Scriptures According To TheTraditional Hebrew Text , 1985, Jewish Publication Society of America: Philadelphia& Jerusalem, pp. 307-308.

[33] S. P. Tregelles (Trans.), Gesenius's Hebrew And Chaldee Lexicon To The Old Testament Scripture: Translated With Additions And Corrections From The Author's Thesaurus And Other Works, 1881, Samuel Bagster And Sons: London, p.dccclxv and p. dcxlvi, respectively; Also see F. Brown, S. Driver & C. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew And English Lexicon Coded With Strong'sConcordance Numbers, 2005 (9th Printing), Hendrickson Publishers: Peabody (MA),pp. 1067-1068, Strong's Concordance Number 8518 and pp. 781-782, Strong'sConcordance Number 6086, respectively; J. Strong, The New Strong's ExhaustiveConcordance Of The Bible, 1990, Thomas Nelson Publishers: Nashville (TN), No.8518, p. 152 (Hebrew) and No. 6086, p. 109 (Hebrew), respectively.

[34] " Capital Punishment " in Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1971, Volume 5,Encyclopaedia Judaica Jerusalem, col. 142.


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[35] M. Jastrow (Compiler), A Dictionary Of The Targumim, The Talmud Babli And Yerushalmi, And The Midrashic Literature, 1903, Volume I, Luzac & Co.:London and G. P. Putnam's Sons: New York, p. 1282.

[36] Tanakh: The New Translation Of The Holy Scriptures According To TheTraditional Hebrew Text , 1985, op. cit., pp. 64.

[37] F. Josephus (Trans. W. Whiston), Antiquities Of The Jews, available online .

[38] " Crucifixion ", Smith's Bible Dictionary, available online .

[39] " Crucifixion " in Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1971, Volume 5, EncyclopaediaJudaica Jerusalem, col. 1134.

[40] " Crucifixion ", Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2004 DVD, 1994 2004 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

[41] R. Hannig, Die Sprache Der Pharaonen Groes Handwrterbuch gyptisch - Deutsch (2800-950 v. Chr.), 1995, Kulturgeschichte Der Antiken Welt - 64, VerlagPhilipp Von Zabern: Mainz, p. 929.

[42] It seems that this hieroglyphic determinative is quite rare. Joyce Tyldesley, whilediscussing the crime and punishment in Egypt, says:

The preferred method of execution was by impaling on a stake. The rare hieroglyphicdeterminative for this type of execution shows a man suspended by the centre of his torso onthe point of a pole. The man lies face down so that his arms and legs dangle towards theground. Death would have been quick if the spike pierced the heart or a major blood vessel. If not, the condemned faced a long, excruciating demise.

See J. Tyldesley, " Crime And Punishment In Ancient Egypt ", Ancient Egypt: The History, People & Culture Of The Nile Valley, 2004 (June/July), Volume 4, Issue 6,p. 31; For a similar treatment albeit in slightly more detail, please see J. Tyldesley, Judgement Of The Pharaoh: Crime And Punishment In Ancient Egypt , 2000,Phoenix: London, pp. 64-66.

[43] R. Hannig, Die Sprache Der Pharaonen Groes Handwrterbuch gyptisch - Deutsch (2800-950 v. Chr.), 2000, Kulturgeschichte Der Antiken Welt - 86, VerlagPhilipp Von Zabern: Mainz, p. 964.

[44] N. Grimal ( Trans. Ian Shaw), A History Of Ancient Egypt , 1988 (1992 print),Blackwell Publishers: Oxford, pp. 389-395.


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[45] The image is taken from W. Heck's Historisch-Biographische Texte Der 2. Zwischenzeit Und Neue Texte Der 18. Dynastie, 1975, Otto Harrassowitz:Wiesbaden, p. 10.

For a detailed study and translation of Papyrus Boulaq 18 see A. Scharff, " EinRechnungsbuch des Kniglichen Hofes Aus Der 13. Dynastie (Papyrus BoulaqNr. 18) ", Zeitschrift Fr gyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde, 1922, Volume57, pp. 51-68. Relevant material is on p. 62. The translation in German reads

gemacht wurde dort ein Blutbad(?) mit (durch?) Holz(?)... der Genosse tp-ht , landen bei derInsel ...; lebend erwachen an den Sttten des Lebens, Heils und der Gesundheit ...

Scharff left the " tp-ht " untranslated. He compares it with Papyrus Abbott and says"wo es etwa 'Marterpfahl' bedeutet", i.e., where it signifies possibly "stake", see p. 62.

[46] H. S. Smith, The Fortress Of Buhen: The Inscriptions, 1976, Forty EighthExcavation Memoir, Egyptian Exploration Society: London (UK), pp. 125-127 andPlate 29.

[47] " Cross ", in J. D. Douglas, M. C. Tenny, The New International Dictionary Of The Bible: Pictorial Edition, 1987, Regency Reference Library (USA) & MarshallPickering (UK), p. 242; Also see " Crucifixion ", New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1981,Volume IV, op. cit., p. 485.

[48] K. A. Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical And Biographical, 1975,Volume I, B. H. Blackwell Ltd.: Oxford (UK), No. 56, 1. The image was taken fromhere; K. A. Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions: Translated & Annotated (Translations), 1993, Volume I (Ramesses I, Sethos I and Contemporaries),Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: Oxford (UK), p. 48 (No. 56, 1).

[49] K. A. Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical And Biographical, 1982,

Volume IV, B. H. Blackwell Ltd.: Oxford (UK), No. 1, 13. The image was taken fromhere; K. A. Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions: Translated & Annotated (Translations), 2003, Volume IV (Merenptah & The Late Nineteenth Dynasty),Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: Oxford (UK), p. 1.

[50] T. E. Peet, The Great Tomb Robberies Of The Twentieth Egyptian Dynasty: Being A Critical Study, With Translations And Commentaries, of The Papyri InWhich These Are Recorded , 1930, II Plates, The Provost & Fellows Of WorcesterCollege At The Clarendon Press: Oxford, Plate III, Papyrus Abbott No. 5, 7; T. E.Peet, The Great Tomb Robberies Of The Twentieth Egyptian Dynasty: Being A


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Critical Study, With Translations And Commentaries, of The Papyri In WhichThese Are Recorded , 1930, I Text, The Provost & Fellows Of Worcester College AtThe Clarendon Press: Oxford, p. 40.

[51] T. E. Peet, The Great Tomb Robberies Of The Twentieth Egyptian Dynasty: Being A Critical Study, With Translations And Commentaries, of The Papyri InWhich These Are Recorded , 1930, II Plates, op. cit., Plate XXXIV, PapyrusBM10052 No. 14, 24; T. E. Peet, The Great Tomb Robberies Of The TwentiethEgyptian Dynasty: Being A Critical Study, With Translations And Commentaries,of The Papyri In Which These Are Recorded , 1930, I Text, op. cit., p. 156.

[52] See D. Lorton's " The Treatment Of Criminals In Ancient Egypt Through TheNew Kingdom Period ", Journal Of The Economic And Social History Of TheOrient , 1977, Volume XX, Part 1, pp. 32-35. Apart from the stela and papyri that wehave discussed, there are also other examples where crucifixion by impaling peopletook place.

[53] " Strafen " in W. Heck & E. Otto, Lexikon Der gyptologie, 1986, Volume VI,Otto Harrassowitz: Wiesbaden, Columns 68-69. The original in German reads:

Aus Dekreten und Prozeakten, dort vor allem aus Eidesformeln, sind uns folgende

Rechtsstrafen berliefert: Krperstrafen, als schwerste fr todeswrdige Verbrechen ... dieTodesstrafe durch Pfhlen, Verbrennen, Ertrnken, Kpfen oder Gefressenwerden durch wildeTiere. Ihre Verhngung blieb allein dem Knig oder dem Wesir vorbehalten. HochgestelltenPersnlichkeiten gestattete der Knig den Selbstmord.

Krperstrafen waren auch die Verstmmelungsstrafen durch Abschneiden von Hnden, Zunge,Nase und oder Ohren, Kastration sowie die Prgelstrafen in Form von 100 oder 200 Schlgen,vielfach mit 5 blutenden Wunden, gelegentlich mit 10 Brandmalen. Manchmal war auch dieKrperstelle, z. B. Fusohlen, angegeben, auf die zu schlagen war.

Als Nebenstrafe zu einer Krperstrafe traten vielfach Freiheitsstrafen, wie die Verbannung nachKusch, zur Groen Oase oder nach Sile, die mit der Verpflichtung zur Zwangsarbeit alsMinenarbeiter oder Steinbrecher sowie dem Verlust des Vermgens verbunden waren. Frauenwurden zur Unterbringung im Hinterhof des Hauses verurteilt. Gefngnisstrafen in unseremSinne waren unbekannt. Es gab lediglich eine Untersuchungshaft fr Angeklagte und Zeugen beischweren Straftaten vor und whrend des Strafverfahrens. Amtsdelikte wurden mit Amtsverlustund Versetzung in den Arbeiterstand bestraft.

Also see " Hinrichtung " in W. Heck & E. Otto, Lexikon Der gyptologie, 1977,Volume II, Otto Harrassowitz: Wiesbaden, Columns 1218-1219.

Die alte tituelle Form des, "Erschlagens des Feindes" wird auch spterhinnoch als Strafedurchgefhrt, wobei die Leichen dann (kopfber) aufgehngt werden. Die bliche Form des


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"Ttens lebender Menschen", angewandt bei Verbrechern und (gefangenen) Feinden, war dasPfhlen; daneben wird Verbrennen erwhnt oder das dem Krokodil Vorwerfen. Im Harimsprozez. Z. Ramses' III. wurde hochstehenden Verurteilten gestattet, Selbstmord zu tun. Das Ttendurch Verbrennen gilt in der SpZt als rituelle Vernichtung des Bsen vor dem Gott.

The translation reads:

The old titular form of "beating the enemy to death" is executed even later on as punishmentwhere the corpses are hanged up (upside down). The usual form of the "killing of living people"used for criminals and (captured) enemies, was impaling, burning at the stake is also mentionedor being thrown to the crocodile. In the Harim trial at the time of Ramses III the high rankingconvicting criminals were allowed to commit suicide. Later the killing by burning was regardedas ritual destruction of evil before God.

[54] I. M. Lurje, Studien Zum Altgyptischen Recht Des 16. Bis 10. Jahrhundertsv. u. Z., 1971, Hermann Bhlaus Nachfolger: Weimar, p. 146. The quote reads:

Wir finden u. a. Verstmmelung, Verstmmelung und Deportation zur Zwangsarbeit nachthiopien, einfach Deportation zur Zwangsarbeit nach thiopien, Pfhlung ( tp-ht ), Strafe inForm von 100 Schlgen und Beifgung von 50 Wunden, Strafe in Form von 100 Schlgen undEntziehung eines Teils oder des gesamten umstrittenen Vermgens, Strafe in Form von 100Schlgen und Bezahlung des zweifachen Wertes des Streitgegenstandes, Vermgenshaftung,Abschneiden der Zunge, Verlust des Ranges und Versetzung in den Arbeiterstand, bergabe zumFra durch ein Krokodil und schlielich Unterbringung im Hinterhofe eines Hauses.

Also see W. Booch, Strafrechtliche Aspekte Im Altgyptischen Recht , 1993,Academia Verlag: Sankt Augustin, pp. 73-74. These pages deal exclusively withimpalement in ancient Egypt; For impalement as a punishment for perjury see J. A.Wilson, " The Oath In Ancient Egypt ", Journal Of Near Eastern Studies, 1948,Volume VII, No. 3, pp. 129-156.

[55] J. A. Wilson, " Authority And Law In Ancient Egypt ", Supplement To The Journal Of The American Oriental Society, 1954, No. 17, pp. 1-7.

[56] D. M. Rohl, A Test Of Time, 1995, Volume I: The Bible - From Myth ToHistory, Random House UK Ltd.: London.

[57] Robert Morey confidently claims that "crucifixion was not used in the time of Pharaoh although the Quran says so in Sura 7:124." See R. Morey, The Islamic Invasion: Confronting The World's Fastest Growing Religion, 1992, HarvestHouse Publishers: Eugene (OR), p. 142; Also see D. Ali & R. Spencer, Inside Islam: A Guide To Catholics, 2003, Ascension Press: West Chester (PA), p. 73. Accordingto Daniel Ali and Robert Spencer, "the Koran has Pharaoh threatening with


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crucifixion, a punishment that was not devised until centuries later - and then by theRomans, not the Egyptians"; According to Newman, the mention of crucifixion in

Moses' time "appears to be an anachronism of Muhammad, since crucifixion wasknown to the Jews through the Romans, who had in turn taken it from Carthage." SeeN. A. Newman, Muhammad, The Qur'an & Islam, 1996, Interdisciplinary BiblicalResearch Institute: Hatfield (PA), p. 367.

The only exception that we have come across is the Christian apologist Mateen Elass.He says circumspectly:

The question of whether the practice of crucifixion was known and applied in Pharonic Egyptneed scholarly investigation.

See M. Elass, Understanding the Koran: A Quick Christian Guide To The Muslim Holy Book , 2004, Zondervan: Grand Rapids (MI), p. 181, Chapter 8, note 2.

[58] H. S. Smith, The Fortress Of Buhen: The Inscriptions, 1976, op. cit., p. 127.

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With the exception for those images which have passed into the public domain, theuse of these images for commercial purposes is expressly prohibited without theconsent of the copyright holder.


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