- VTU University all Sem lecturer notes | …vtu.allsyllabus.com/cse/sem_2/CHEMISTRY/ENGINEERING...petrol, octane and ce tan e numbers. Gasoline and d iesel knockin g and their mechanism,

egaP 1

yrtsimehC gnireenignE 22EHC41 : edoC .buS :skraM.A.I 52

40 : keew /sruoH 30 :sruoH.maxE .maxE 05 : sruoH latoT 001 : skraM

eludoM -1 ygolonhceT yrettaB dna yrtsimehcortcelE

yrtsimehcortcelE uqe tsnreN fo noitavireD ,noitcudortnI : noita .laitnetop edortcele rofsepyT latem :sedortcelefo - latem ,noi latem - ,maglama ,sag ,noi tlas latem .evitceles noi & xoder

ecnerefeR dna lemolac fo snoitacilppa dna gnikrow ,noitcurtsnoc ;noitcudortnI :sedortceleadnats fo tnemerusaeM .sedortcelelCgA/gA .edortcele lemolac gnisu laitnetop edortcele dr

.edortcele ssalg gnisu Hp fo noitanimreted ,edortcele ssalg fo gnikrow dnanoitcurtsnoC noitartnecnoc etylortcele no smelborp laciremun ,etylortcelE & edortcelE:sllec noitartnecnoC

.sllec :ygolonhceT yrettaB I noitacifissalc ,noitcudortn - dna yradnoces ,yramirp

scitsiretcarahC.seirettabevreser - ,ytisned egarots yticirtcele ,yticapac ,tnerruc ,laitnetop lleccniZ fo snoitacilppa dna gnikrow ,noitcurtsnoC .efil flehs dna efil elcyc,ycneiciffeygrene - ,riA

lekciN - iL ,noitcudortnI :seirettab muihtiL .seirettab edirdyhlatem - iL dna 2OnM - .seirettab noi snoitatimil ,llec leuf dna llec lanoitnevnoc neewteb ecnereffid ,noitcudortnI :slleC leuF

ortcele dna leuf ,erutarepmet no desab sllec leuf fo noitacifissalC.segatnavda& noitcurtsnoc ;etyllonahtem fo gnikrow& - .etylortcele 4OS2H htiw llec leuf negyxo sruoh 01

eludoM -2 :gnihsiniF lateM dna noisorroC

noisorroC rroc fo yroeht lacimehcortcele ,noitcudortnI : .seires cinavlag ,noisosrotcaF effa & cidona fo noitaziralop ,saera cidohtac ot cidona fo oitar :noisorroc fo etar ehtgnitc

muidem fo erutan ,tcudorp noisorroc fo erutan ,latem fo erutan,snoiger cidohtac – ,Hpnoisorroc fo sepyT .erutarepmetdna ,ytivitcudnoc - aitnereffid , latem laitnereffiD l

:lortnoc noisorroC.)sreliob ni tnemelttirbme citsuac( sserts dna )enilretaw dna gnittiP(noitareasgnitaoc cinagroni ,slairetamfo noitceles dna ngiseD - latem ,gnitahpsohp dna lA fo gnizidonA

sgnitaoc - icifircas( noitcetorp cidohtaC .gninniT dnanoitazinavlaG desserpmi dna cidona la.)sdohtem tnerruc

:gnihsiniF lateM :gnitalportcelE .ecnatropmi lacigolonhceT ,noitcudortnIgninrevog selpicnirp,noitcudortnI - srotcaF .egatlovrevo dna laitnetop noitisopmoced ,noitaziraloP

tisoped ortcele fo erutan ehtgnicneulfni - ruc & noi latem ,tlas latem fo noitartnecnoc ,ytisned tnersevitidda ,htab gnitalp fo rewop gniworht & erutarepmet ,Hp;etylortcele - ,stnega gnixelpmoc

dlog dna muimorhc fo gnitalportcelE .stnega gnittew & sreifidom erutcurts ,srellevel,srenethgirbdinayccidica( dna gnitalportcele neewteb noitcnitsid ,noitcudortnI :gnitalp ssel ortcelE .)htab e

tiucriC detnirP dedis elbuod fo erutcafunam & reppoc fo gnitalp ssel ortcele ,gnitalp sselortcele .reppoc htiwdraoB sruoh 01

eludoM -3 :ygrenE raloS dna sleuF

sleuF udortnI : eulav cifirolac ,noitacifissalc ,noitc - fonoitanimreted ,seulav cifirolac ten dna ssorgretemirolac bmob gnisu leuf fo eulav cifirolac :gnikcarC smelborp laciremun , ,noitcudortnI

dezidiulf isehtnys ,gnikcarc citylatac rehchsiF yb lortep fo s - hcsporT secorp fo noitamrofer ,s ,lortep ,msinahcem rieht dna gnikconk leseid dna enilosaG .srebmun enatec dna enatco

gnikconkitna .sagoib & leseidoib ,lohocla rewop ,lortep dedaelnu ,stnega

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egaP 2

:ygrenE raloS sllec ciatlovotohp ,noisrevnoc dna noitazilitu ,noitcudortnI - mi ,ecnatrop VP fo segatnavdasid & segatnavdA .syarra & slenap ,seludom :ngiseD .gnikrow dna noitcurtsnoc

nociliS .sllec - edarg ralos fo noitcudorp ,sciatlovotohp ot tnaveler seitreporp lacimehc & lacisyhp nocilis fo gnipod ,)ssecorp edibrac noinu(nocilis - ffid noitacifirupdna )sepyt p&n( euqinhcet noisu

.)gninifer enoz(nocilis fo sruoh 01 eludoM -4

:sremyloP ednoc dna noitidda :noitaziremylop fo sepyt ,noitcudortnI fo msinahcem ,noitasn

fo thgiew raluceloM .elpmaxe na sa edirolhc lyniv gnikat msinahcem lacidareerfnoitaziremylop erutarepmet noitisnart ssalG .smelborp laciremun ,egareva thgiew dna egareva rebmun:sremylop

gT gnicneulfni srotcaF:)gT( - m retni ,ytilibixelF & gnihcnarb ,ssam ralucelom ,secrof ralucelo :pihsnoitaler ytreporp erutcurtS .gT fo ecnacifingiS .ytiraluger oerets dna ,gniknilssorc ,sisehtnyS .ytivitsiser lacimehc & noitamrofed citsalp ,yticitsale ,htgnerts elisnet,ytinillatsyrc

tacilppadna seitreporp .etanobracylop dna enahteruyloP ,nolfeT ,)ssalg ixelp( AMMP fo snoi :sevisehdA .rebbur enociliS fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp ,sisehtnys ,noitcudortnI:sremotsalE :setisopmoC remyloP .niser yxope fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp ,sisehtnys,noitcudortnI

ortnI gnitcudnoC .rebif nobrac dna ralvek fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp ,sisehtnys,noitcudgnitcudnoc fo snoitacilppa dna enilinayloP ni noitcudnoc fo msinahcem ,noitcudortnI:sremylop

.enilinaylop sruoh 01 eludoM -5

:slairetamonaN dna ygolonhceT retaW :ygolonhceT retaW noitcudortnI , reliob ,retaw deef reliob ;retaw fo seitirupmi dna secruos

segatnavdasid htiw selbuort - rp ,noitamrof egduls dna elacs reliob ,gnimaof dna gnimi ,DOC dna DOB ,OD fo noitanimreteD .)2lCgM dna 2OC ,2O devlossid ot eud(noisorroc dna )dohtem egduls detavitca( yradnoces ,yramirP :tnemtaert egaweS .smelborp laciremun

.ssecorp egnahcxe noi yb retaw fo gninetfoS .sdohtem yraitret yb retaw aes fo noitanilaseD ..)evitceles noi( sisylaidortcele & sisomso esrever

:slairetaM onaN sisehtnyS .)tnedneped ezis( seitreporp ,noitcudortnI - hcaorppa pu mottob & lamreht ordyh ,noitasnednoc ruopav lacimehc ,noitasnednoc sag ,noitatipicerp,leglos(

slairetam elacs onaN .)sessecorpsisylomreht - ,enillatsyrc onan ,sretsulc & slatsyrc onan .setisopmoc onan & sremirdned ,sdor onan ,seriw onan ,sebut onannobrac ,senerelluf sruoh 01

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egaP 3

teehS xednI

tnetnoC rebmun egaP

eludoM - ygolonhceT yrettaB dnA yrtsimehcortcelE :1 : 4- 12

eludoM - :gnihsiniF lateM dnA noisorroC:2 22 - 93

eludoM - :ygrenE raloS dnA sleuF:3 04 - 36

eludoM - :sremyloP:4 46 - 87

eludoM - :slairetamonaN dnA ygolonhceT retaW:5 97 - 99

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egaP 4

ELUDOM -1

EDORTCELE LAITNETOP DNA SLLEC

El ce t or de oP te tn ia l a dn C le sl : I tcudortn i no : reD i tav i no fo nreN st e tauq i no of r edortcele op t tne i .la Ty ep s fo

edortcele s lateM : - ,noi lateM lateM - ,noi tlas lateM ,sag maglamA noi dna xoder,,evitceles feR e ecner el edortce ,noitcudortnI :s ,noitcurtsnoc dna gnikrow

acilppa fo snoit ac l emo l el edortce dna gA – CgA l e el ,edortc aeM s ru e tnem fo edortcele dradnats tnetop i .edortcele lemolac gnisu la noitcurtsnoC o gnikrow dna f

Gl sa s le edortce , mreteD i tan i no fo Hp fo a sol tu i no su i gn gl sa s el ,edortce noc c tartne i no ,sllec rtcelE .etylortcele dna edo remuN i ac l borp el etylortcele no sm

c .sllec noitartnecno H 5 sruo

tnetnoC s :

I tcudortn i ,no reD i tav i no fo nreN st e tauq i no of r dortcele e op t tne i .la Ty ep s

fo edortcele s lateM : - ,noi lateM lateM - ,noi tlas lateM ,sag maglamA , xoderevitceles noi dna .

feR e ecner el edortce ,noitcudortnI :s ,noitcurtsnoc snoitacilppa dna gnikrow

fo ac l emo l el edortce dna gA – CgA l e el edortc aeM s ru e tnem fo edortcele dradnats tnetop i lemolac gnisu la .edortcele

gnikrow dna noitcurtsnoC fo Gl sa s le edortce mreteD i tan i no fo Hp fo a sol tu i no su i gn g l sa s el ,edortce noc c tartne i no

,sllec etylortcele dna edortcelE

remuN i ac l borp el artnecnoc etylortcele no sm .sllec noit

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egaP 5

LACIMEHCORTCELE LLEC

NAVLAG IC LLEC

tI si a ved ci ,e hw ci h vnoc er st hc em ci al rene gy into ele rtc i lac ene rgy with xoder noitcaer at t eh er spec it ev el ce t sedor .

TYLORTCELE IC :LLEC ehT ,ecived hw i hc revnoc ts el ce tri ac l rene gy to hc emic la ne ergy, is lac l de el ce t or ly it c ec ll.

ORTCELE L CITY LLEC VLAG A CIN LLEC tI uqer i ser xe t lanre cele tric s ecruo tI eod s on t re uq i er s xe t lanre el ce tric s ecruo

xodeR er acti no a er non s nop t uoena s xodeR r cae it no era nops t na e uo s aC t oh de is tagen i ev e el ct dor e aC t edoh is sop iti ev cele t edor

edonA is op si it ev el ce t edor edonA is gen ati ev el ce t dor e NAD I LE LLEC

Dani le ec ll isnoc s st fo zi cn le ce t edor di depp in a solu it no fo zi cn in t ar te dna reppoc cele t edor di reppoc depp n ti rte sol tu i .no ehT t ow el ce t sedor era ext anre lly oc enn ct de by a w ri e t guorh h ov lt em t re dna int anre lly t rh o hgu s la t rb i gd e . ehT U t ebu is fill de iw th CK l s ulo it no a dn t eh

sdne era pl deggu iw th am t re i la sa s nwoh in fig . ehT s la t rb i egd am intai sn el ce t cir la ly n ue t lar fo ob th co apm rt nem st dna e il detanim il uq id j tcnu i no op t tne ai .l

Fig. naD i lle ec ll

hW en t eh ci iucr t is co pm let de t eh lof l gniwo re ca it no t eka s pl .eca At zi cn ,edortcele nZ og se into t eh solu it no as nZ 2+ i sno il tareb i gn cele t snor .

Zn Zn 2+ + e2 xO i ad it no ah lf re tca i no At reppoc edortcele uC +2 i sno in el ce t or ly it c sol tu i no steg re decud to cu by ag ini gn el ce t snor rf om Z

el ce t edor dna oped s ti i no fo em ta ll ic uC no uC edortcele t ka es ecalp uC 2+ + e2 Cu cudeR ti no ah lf caer it no

ehT revo all caer it no is gi nev by Zn + uC 2+ nZ +2 + uC

ehT el ce t snor il be ar t de at nZ ah lf cell iub lds pu na el ce tri lac op t ne it al diff ecnere eb t neew t eh el ce t aem edor s u deru is gn t eh ov lt em t .re By vnoc en it no t eh el ce t edor ta hw i hc xo i tad i no

srucco si edona dna erehw tcuder i no ucco rs is ac t .edoh oferehT re, in evoba naD i le llec , t eh zi cn is dona e dna reppoc is ac t .edoh

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egaP 6

LACIMEHCORTCELE SNEVNOC I SNO 1. ITATNESERPER ON FO EDORTCELE

It xo i ad it no re ca it no t seka ecalp at ,edona t neh t eh el ce t edor si erper s detne sa M/M +n tI tcuder i no tcaer i no sekat p al ec ta t eh c ta edoh t neh t eh edortcele is erper s detne sa M +n /M

ehT trev i ac l li sen i dn i ac t de t eh noc t tca neewteb em tal ele tc edor s dna em tal i .sno 2. ITATNESERPER ON FO LLEC

ehT of ll wo i gn op ints evah to eb on t de to erper s tne na ele hcortc emi ac l ec ll >a edonA is always rw it net to .SHL >b aC t edoh fo t eh lec l is rw itt ne to SHR fo t eh edona . >c hT e 2 rev it lac il en s oned et s t eh s tla rb i egd a dn int ecafre eb t neew t eh 2 cele t edor s .

leC l taton i no si gi nev by M / M +n // M +n M/

E .x nZ s( ) / nZ +2 // uC 2+ / uC )s( 3. NOITALUCLAC FO FME FO EHT LEC L

droccA i gn to el ce t hcor emi ac l ppa il tac i no E llec E= edohtac – Ea don e.

fI t eh FME av l eu is + ev t neh t eh tcaer i no si s nop t suoena & if it is – ev t eh tcaer i no is non s nop t .suoena

SI ELGN EDORTCELE TNETOP I LA )E( Si gn le edortcele op t ne tial is fed i den sa t eh op t ne ti la eved l depo at t eh int ecafre eb t neew t eh

em tal e na l ce t or lytic sol tu i ,no hw en it is noc t tca htiw solu it no fo i st nwo noi s . DRADNATS EDORTCELE LAITNETOP E( 0)

tI si t eh op t tne ial em as ,deru nehw t eh el edortce si in noc t tca wi ht soluti no fo nu it necnoc t ar it no ta K892 .

fI t eh el ce t edor i evlovn s sag , t neh sag si at 1 atm erp ss .eru FME FO EHT LLEC E( ce ll )

ehT op et nt lai di ecnereff eb t neew t eh t ow ele tc sedor fo t eh ag l nav ic llec hw i hc c ua s se t eh fl wo fo nerruc t rf om o en el ce t rehgih(edor op t ne t ai l) to t eh othe (r l rewo op t tne ial) si wonk sa FME fo eht ec ll.

TNEMERUSAEM FO EDORTCELE TNETOP I LA ehT op t tne ial fo yna em tal el ce t edor is meas deru u is gn dradnatS H dy r nego El ce t edor ]EHS[

ohw se op t tne i la is ez or dna ti i ovn l sev t eh of ll wo i gn ets ps . 1. NOITCURTSNOC FO EHT LLEC YLBMESSA

ehT el ce rt edo si c puo l de iw th EHS t hguorh salt rb i egd sa s nwoh in fi .erug ehT fme si aem s deru u is gn el ce rt no ic ov l emt t re . roF xe a pm le: oT aem s eru t eh el ce t edor netop it la fo iz cn el ce t ,edor ti si co bm i den w ti h EHS dna t eh c lle on t ta i no is nevig by

nZ )s( / Zn +2 H // +(1 / )M H )g(2 /Pt 2. GNIGNISSA EHT SI NG NO EHT DORTCELE E

ehT edona dna t eh ac t edoh of t eh cell nac eb i tned ifi de by c no n tce i gn t eh el ce t sedor ot t eh porppa ir ate termi an sl fo t eh ov lt em t .re ehT e fm is aem s deru no ly hw en nZ el ce t edor is cennoc t de to t eh – ev et rmi an l dna h dy r nego el ce t edor to ev+ termi an l of t eh lov t em et .r

nehT eht e fm av l eu bo s devre si 0. V67 .

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egaP 7

3 LUCLAC A NOIT FO EDORTCELE AITNETOP L E0

llec = E edohtac -E edona v67.0 E = EHS – E0 nz 2+

/ nZ 67.0 = 0 V – E0 nz 2+

/ nZ eroferehT E0 nz 2+

/ nZ = - 0. 67 V Sim li ra ly t eh e el ct dor e op t tne i la si ed t re mi den of r ot reh em at l ele tc .sedor Ne nr st tauqe i no : tI er l seta el ce t edor op t ne t lai dna necnoc t ar it no fo t eh ele tc or lyte s cep i se

snoC i red t eh of ll wo i gn srever ible el ce t edor tcaer i no M +n +ne M --------------- 1

ehT aerced se in eerf rene gy (- ∆ )G erper s ne ts t eh maximum amo nu t fo krow t tah nac eb bo tai den

i. .e - ∆G = mW ax - ------ - ------ - -- 2 ehT xam . krow enod is gi nev by

xamW . N= o. fo uoC ol bm s x ygrenE a av ali ble/ uoC ol bm - ---- 3 xamW = Fn Ex --- - ------ - ------ - ----- 4

ehw er n- .oN fo le ce t nor s,F- daraF ay av l eu E, -El ce t edor op t tne i la auqE it gn tauqe i no s 4&2

- ∆G = EFn ---------------------- 5 rednU s dradnat idnoc it sno - ∆G0 = - EFn 0 ----- - ------ - --------- 6

Ac droc i gn to t eh rmodynamic auqe it no - ∆G = - ∆G0 - TR ln cK ------- ---------------- - -- 7

erehW R- sag noc ts na ,t T-te arepm t eru , cK - uqe ili rb ui m c no ts tna Kc f ro drawrof noitcaer fo tauqe i no .on 1 is

Kc= [ ]M / M[ +n ] /1 = M[ +n ] si 1=]M[ecn buS st ti ute t eh v la eu s fo - ∆G , - ∆G0 & cK in tauqe i no 7

=EFn EFn 0 - TR ln /1 [M +n ] ------ ---- - ------ - ------ - --------- 8 evnoC tr ln to l go 10 yb um itl plyi gn with 303.2 dna divi ed t eh auqe it no t hguorh uo t by Fn

E = E0 - 2. TR303 / Fn l go /1 M[ +n ] -------------------------------- 9 buS ts itute t eh av l seu fo R,F dna te arepm ut re ta 52 0 C

E = E 0 –0. 50 19 /n l 1go / M[ +n ] ro = E E0 0+ . 1950 /n l go M[ +n ] ------- - -------------------- - ------ - -- 01

Ne nr st uqe ati no rof ecE ll rof t eh lof l gniwo caer it no ta 52 0C si a b+A B Dd+Cc llecE = Eo lec l 0+ . 1950 /n l ]A[go a B[] ]b/ ]C[ c ]D[ d

aC ol em l E el tc r edo : tI si a em tal- em tal s la t i no e el ct dor e tI. snoc ists fo a gl sa s t bu e vah i gn a si ed t ebu no hcae is ed . ucreM ry( )gH is pl deca ta the tob ot m fo t eh t ebu a dn it is derevoc by a ap ts e fo gH 2Cl2 iw th gH .A solu it no fo lCK si int cudor ed evoba eht sap te t hguorh si ed t .ebu A pl ta inum wi er s ae el d in to t eh g al ss t ebu si deppid in to ucrem ry whi hc gi ev s t eh xe t anre l el ce tric c no t tca .

Z

n

/Z E0zn2+

/Z

n n

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egaP 8

Fig. aS turat de aC ol em l ele tc edor oW rki gn : tI stca sa edona ro cat edoh dneped i gn no n ta eru fo t eh ot reh el ce rt .edo hW en it stca sa a don t,e eh el ce t edor neserper t ta i no si

gH2 + 2 Cl- gH 2 lC 2 + e2 hW en it stca sa cat edoh t eh el ce t edor er a tc i no si

Hg2 lC 2 + 2e gH2 + 2 Cl- ehT ten ver er is ble cele t edor caer it no si

gH 2Cl 2 2 + e gH2 + 2 Cl- Ac dro i gn to nreN st auqe it no el ce t edor netop it la si

E = E0 - 0. 1950 gol C[ l-] ta K892 ehT el ce t edor op t laitne si ced i ded by t eh cnoc ent tar i no fo chl ediro i .sno

Us se : tI is us de sa adnoces ry re ef r ecne el ce t edor to aem sure el ce t edor op t ne it la Us de sa er f ecnere el ce t edor in op et tn oi em tr ci ed termi an it no Us de sa fer e ecner el ce t edor in Hp eted rmi an it no .

navdA t ega s: aE sy to noc ts tcur ,el ce t edor op t ne tial is cudorper ible, dna ts ba le rof l gno ep ir do c, ell op t ne it la od es on t av ry w ti h te arepm t ru e.

S li rev –S li rev hc l ediro el edortce : tI si deraperp by oc ita gn a t nih layer fo CgA l el ce t or ly cit la ly no to a sil rev wi er . hT is wi er hw en pl deca ni a solu it no fo op t ssa ui m hc l ro i ed eved l spo a fed inite op t ne ti la dneped i gn no t eh necnoc t tar i no fo t eh el ce t or lyte us .de

Fig. iS l rev is l rev rolhc i ed ele c edort

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egaP 9

El ce t edor er erp es nt noita : gA (s)/ CgA l(s) / Cl- El ce t edor tcaer i :no lCgA )s( + e gA ( )s + lC - El ce t edor op t tne ial is gi nev by E = E0 - 0. 1950 l go C[ l-] ta K892

ehT el ce t edor op t laitne dneped s no noc c ne t ar it no fo hc l ro i ed i no s dna rof t eh as t aru t de lCK t eh op et n it la si 0. 991 V U es :s U es d sa s adnoce ry re ecneref edortcele to meas eru e el ct dor e op et tn i la

ecnerefeR el ce t edor ni i no sel ce it ev el ce t edor U es d to ed et rmi en op et tn i la distri tub i no nu fi ormit .y I no sel tce i ev el sedortce : hT e el ce t sedor t tah era elba to er s nop d to rec tain speci cif i no s no ly t eh ir by eved l po i gn a op t ne it al w ti h er spe tc to aht t i sno dna i rong i gn all ot reh i sno in a s ulo it no ra e lac l de i no es tcel i ev cele t .sedor E .x ssalG edortcele C, ry illats en mem rb ane el ce rt edo , loS id state me enarbm el ce t .edor U es s:1.Us de to ed t mre i en necnoc t ar ti no fo tac i no s il ek H+,K+ aN, +, nM 2+ uC, 2+ gM, 2+ Et .c 2. nA i no s il ek F-, NC - dna, ah il sed . 3.U es d to ed t mre i en t eh Hp fo t eh sol tu i no 4.U es d to ed t mre i en necnoc t tar i no fo sag u is gn sag s sne i gn el ce t edor . Gl ssa edortcele rp i cn ip el : ehT op et tn i la ved le depo orca ss t eh me rbm a en is a cnuf t noi fo t eh

necnoc trati no fo t eh ana lyte dna r ecnerefe os luti no . nehW t eh necnoc t ar it no fo t eh ecnerefer sol tu i no si tpek c tsno ant t eh op t tne i la eved l depo ta t eh me rbm ena is t eh li raen cnuf it no fo

cnoc . fo ana lyte sol tu i no . Gl ssa edortcele noC s tcurt i no tI: snoc ists fo a glass me rbm a en ma ed pu fo s cep i la t epy fo gl ssa 22( %Na2 ,O 6% OaC dna 27 %SiO2 fo) l wo er em itl gn op i tn dna hgih el ce tri lac

udnoc tc ecna . ehT gl sa s ub lb si fil el d iw th a sol tu i no fo noc s nat t pH(0. M1 CH l)& gA - CgA l el ce t edor is ins re t de hw i hc se vr es sa i anretn l ecnerefer el ce t edor dna la so sa txe e lanr el ce t cir

noc t ca t.

Fig. ssalG e edortcel

El ce t edor erper es nt noita : gA (s)/ CgA l(s) /0. M1 CH /l ssalg me bm ra .en T eh me rbm a en ednu r eog s na i no e egnahcx tcaer i no sa f lo l wo s.

H+ + aN + lG - Na+ + H+ lG - navdA t ega s:i. tI nac eb desu in xo idizi gn dna cuder i gn vne i mnor en st i .i aruccA te er sul st era

bo iat den eb t neew Hp egnar 1- ,9 i ii .El ce t edor od es ton op si .deno

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egaP 01

Lim ti a it sno : .i Ordi an ry op t ne oit em et rs ca onn t eb us de i .i tI nac eb us de pu to Hp 31 ub t ceb o em s s sne iti ev to aN + i no s evoba Hp 9 er s lu it gn al lak i en ,rorre ii .i It eod s ton tcnuf i no

pr repo ly in erup al ohoc l dna so em nagro ic sol stnev . De mret i tan i no fo Hp :

oT ed termine t eh Hp fo a gi nev sol tu i no t eh ssalg cele t edor si deppid in a sol tu i no ohw se Hp deen to eb ed termi den . tI is co bm i den w ti h sat aru t de ac ol em l el ce t edor sa s nwoh in fi .g

ehT llec a ss bme ly si gi nev by gH )l( gH / 2 lC 2 )s( lC/ - arbmem ssalG/noitulos Hp nwonknU// lCH M1.0/en ) lCgA/ )s( gA / )s(

yb nevig si llec eht fo FME ehT E llec E = G - E lemolac.tas edortcele ------------- 1 ehT adnuob ry op t ne t lai se t ilba s deh eud to gnahcxe e fo H+ with gl sa s me enarbm is m ia nly

er s nop is elb rof ssalg le ce t edor op t ne it la EG dna gi nev by EG E = b E + lCgA/gA E+ ysA ---------- 2

Fig. eD et rmi an it no fo pH E gA / lCgA i i s nter lan ecnerefer edortcele netop it ,la E b – adnuob ry op t ne it la dna EAsy is as mmy te ri op c et n it la bo s devre nehw necnoC t tar i no C1 = C2

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egaP 11

ehT adnuob ry op t ne t lai si gi nev by eN rn ts auqe ti no ta me arbm en Eb = E1 – E2 ------- 3 Si ecn E1= noC s .t + 0. 1950 l go C1

E2= noC s .t + 0. 1950 l go C2 eroferehT Eb = 0. 1950 l go C1 - 0. 1950 l go C2 is ecn 1=n

Eb = L + 0. 1950 l go C1 ----- - ------ - ,4 erehw snoc t tna =L - 0. 1950 l go C2 ,si ecn C2 H(= + snoc=) t .

Eb = L + 0. 1950 l go (H+) since C1 H(= +) Eb = L – 950.0 1 Hp ----------- ,5 erehw Hp = -l H(go +)

oferehT re EG = L – 950.0 1 Hp E + lCgA/gA E+ ysA ------- 6 Co bm ine all snoc at tn av l seu in t eh evoba auqe it no , .ei E + L =’L CgA/gA l E+ ysA

EG = ’L – 0. Hp1950 ----------- 7 oferehT re e tauq i no 1 ceb omes

Ec lle ’L = – 0. 1950 pH - E lemolac.tas edortcele ro = Hp L’ - E olac.tas m edortcele le - Ecell -- --------- 8

0. 1950 ro Hp = K- Ec lle --------- 9

0. 950 1 erehw ’L = K - E lemolac.tas le edortce tnatsnoc si hcihw

oT ave l etau K the el ce t edor sa se bm ly si deppid in a s dradnat effub r solu it no dna Hp em t re is lac i arb t de to t eh Hp fo t eh fub f re sol tu i no .

)b(HP = K- E )b(llec --------- 01 0. 1950

Next t eh el ce t edor sa se bm ly si di depp in a sol tu ion fo nwonknu Hp dna Hp ( )u si gi nev by )u(HP = K- E )u(llec --------- 11

0. 1950 buS t tcar tauqe i no 01 rf om 11 , )u(HP = )b(HP - E )u(llec + E )b(llec --------- 21

. ,0 1950 tartnecnoC i no eC lls: tI si na el ce t mehcor ci al ec ll t tah areneg t se el ce tri lac ne ergy nehw

t ow el ce t sedor fo s ema m te al era in noc t tca htiw solu it no fo i st nwo noi s fo d fi tneref noc c ne t tar i no . noC is red t eh lof l wo i gn necnoc t ar it no llec erper s detne by

uC )s( uC/ +2 )1C( // uC +2 uC/ (s) erehW 1C dna 2C ra e om l ra c necno t ar it no s fo t eh uC 2+ i sno in eht t ow ah lf lec l .s

Fig. tartnecnoC i no c lle

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egaP 21

By el ce t hcor emi ac l nevnoc ti no if ,2C<1C t eh el tf edortcele is edona a dn ri thg el ce rt edo si ac t edoh . ehT ce ll caer it sno era

At edona uC ( )s uC +2 )1C( e2+ At ac t edoh uC 2+ e2+ uC (s)

ehT ten cell aer c it no i s uC 2+ uC +2 )1C( ehT ov tl ega fo t eh lec l xe i ts s sa l gno sa 2C<1C ehT FME fo the noc c ne t tar i no llec si given by E llec = E 0

edohtaC - E0 edonA eroferehT E llec E [= 0 uC/+2uC ]2C gol 2/1950.0 + – E[ 0 uC/+2uC ]1C gol 2/1950.0+

E ro llec ol 2/1950.0 = 1C/2C g E erehW 0 uC/+2uC - E0 uC/+2uC 0 = nI lareneg t eh FME fo t eh necnoc t tar i no ec ll is gi nev by

0. 1950 l go 2C E llec =

n C1

rF om t eh evoba e tauq i no lof l wo i gn cnoc l su i no s may eb ward n .i nehW 1C = 2C t eh necnoc t tar i no ec ll eod s ton areneg te e el ct cir la rene gy

ii. nehW 2C / 1C > ,1 gol 2C / 1C is sop iti ev a dn Ec lle si op si it ev i ii .Hi hg er t eh ar it o fo 2C / 1C hi rehg si t eh ec ll op t ne it .la

sedortcele fo sepyT

lateM - sedortcele noi latem

eF sa hcus ,seiceps cinoi ylno evlovni snoitcaer edortcele ynaM +2 eF dna 3+ eht fo rehtien fI . ro ylppus eht rof tiudnoc a sa evres tsum latem rehto emos ,latem a si seiceps evitcaortcele morf esira dluow taht snoitacilpmoc diova ot redro nI .metsys eht morf snortcele fo lavomer

italer a ,latem siht gnivlovni snoitcaer edortcele si munitalp sa hcus ecnatsbus treni ylevsa detneserper eb dluow llec flah a hcuS .desu ylnommoc

eF | )s(tP +3 )qa( eF , +2 )qa( ... ||

flah eht dna - eb dluow noitcaer llec

eF +2 )qa( eF → +3 )qa( + e–

ot sesuffid noi evitcaortcele ehT .)evoba 4 giF( edortcele eht fo ecafrus eht ta srucco noitcaer ehT nI .secrof cibmoluoc dna slaaW red nav yb ti ot )sehcatta( sbrosda dna ecafrus edortcele eht

n era taht noitardyh fo sretaw eht ,os gniod eb tsum seiceps cinoi yna ot dehcatta yllamro llams a ylno taht tnetxe na hcus ot semitemos ,cimrehtodne syawla si ssecorp sihT .decalpsid ,refsnart nortcele ogrednu ot hguone ylesolc ecafrus eht tcatnoc ot elba eb snoi eht fo noitcarf

liw noitcaer eht dna nortcele lautca ehT .wols eb l - mutnauq yb srucco refsnart - lacinahcem.gnillennut

)2C(

C( 2)

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egaP 31

sedortcele saG

H sa hcus seiceps suoesag a evlovni snoitcaer edortcele emoS 2 O , 2 lC ro , 2 tsum snoitcaer hcuS .treni yllacimehcortcele na fo ecafrus eht no tuo deirrac eb osla A .munitalp sa hcus rotcudnoc

si ecnatropmi laicremmoc elbaredisnoc fo noitcaer lacipyt

lC – )qa( → lC ½ 2 )g( + e–

rB fo noitadixo eht gnivlovni snoitcaer ralimiS 2 I ro 2 .secafrus munitalp ta ecalp ekat osla

lateM – sedortcele noi tlaslatem

edortcele lacipyt A revlis fo gnitaoc niht a htiw derevoc eriw revlis a fo stsisnoc dnik siht fo dna noitadixo eht ni stsisnoc noitcaer edortcele ehT .retaw ni elbulosni si hcihw ,edirolhc

:revlis eht fo noitcuder lCgA )s( + e– gA → )s( lC + – )qa(

lec flah ehT sa detneserper eb dluow l

lC || ... – )qa( lCgA | )s( gA | )s(

fo dnik siht ,tnerappa yletaidemmi eb ton yam edortcele na hcus fo ssenlufesu eht hguohtlA.retal ees llahs ew sa ,stnemerusaem lacimehcortcele ni noitacilppa ediw yrev sdnif edortcele

I no sel ce ti ev el sedortce : hT e el ce t sedor t tah era elba to er s nop d to rec tain speci cif i no s no ly t eh ir

by eved l po i gn a op t ne it al w ti h er spe tc to aht t i sno dna i rong i gn all ot reh i sno in a s ulo it no ra e lac l de i no es tcel i ev cele t .sedor

E .x ssalG edortcele C, ry illats en mem rb ane el ce rt edo , loS id state me enarbm el ce t .edor U es s:1.Us de to ed t mre i en necnoc t ar ti no fo tac i no s il ek H+,K+ aN, +, nM 2+ uC, 2+ gM, 2+ Et .c 2. nA i no s il ek F-, NC - dna, ah il sed . 3.U es d to ed t mre i en t eh Hp fo t eh sol tu i no 4.U es d to ed t mre i en necnoc t tar i no fo sag u is gn sag s sne i gn el ce t edor .

:edortcele xodeR

,.g.e( edortcele treni nA" munitalp a yb dellortnoc si hcihw fo laitnetop eht )nobrac ,dlog , evlovni sedortcele lla ecnis remonsim a fo tahwemos si sihT .noitulos ni noitcaer xoder

/noitadixo noitcuder . dna dezidixo htob edortcele xoder a fo esac eht ni taht si noitcnitsid ehT.edortcele eht gnidnuorrus noitulos eht ni devlossid era seiceps decuder

edortcele maglamA : latem eht gnicalp yb demrof si tI - fo noitulos a htiw tcatnoc ni maglamanoi latem

er si tI M/)gH(M yb detneserp +n )qa( gA;gE - .edortcele maglama

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egaP 41

YGOLONHCET YRETTAB :

noitacifissalc,noitcudortnI – rp i ram y, se yradnoc dna er ser ev seirettab egarots yticirtcele ,yticapac ,tnerruc ,laitnetop llec :scitsiretcerahc

fil elcyc ,ycneiciffe ygrene,ytisned efil flehs dna e . noC s tcurt i ,no w kro i gn dna ppa l aci it sno nZ fo – air, Ni – me at l hy rd i ed muihtiL ,seirettab

iL noitcudortnI,seirettab – OnM 2 iL dna - .seirettab noi leuF lec ls – ,noitcudortnI Di secnereff llec lanoitnevnoc dna leuf ec l ,l

dna snoitatimiL .segatnavdA erutarepmet no desab sllec leuf fo noitacifissalCdna noitcurtsnoC .etylortcele dna leuf w kro i gn fo HO3HC – O2 uf el ec l htiw sl

H2 OS 4 .etylortcele sa sruoH5

:stnetnoC

noitacifissalc,noitcudortnI – rp i ram y, se yradnoc dna er ser ev seirettab

arahc aitnetop llec :scitsiretc egarots yticirtcele ,yticapac ,tnerruc ,l

efil flehs dna ,efil elcyc ,ycneiciffe ygrene,ytisned noC s tcurt i no .

noC s tcurt i ,no w kro i gn dna ppa l aci it sno nZ fo – air

noC s tcurt i ,no w kro i gn dna ppa l aci it sno N fo i – me at l hy rd i ed seirettab

iL noitcudortnI – OnM 2 iL dna - .seirettab noi

leuF lec ls – ,noitcudortnI Di secnereff llec lanoitnevnoc dna leuf ec ll

etylortcele dna leuf erutarepmet no desab sllec leuf fo noitacifissalC

dna noitcurtsnoC w kro i gn fo HC 3 HO – O2 uf el ec l H htiw sl 2 OS 4 sa

.etylortcele

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egaP 51

FED INIT OI N: A ab ett ry si a ved i ec t tah noc s si ts fo eno ro mo er lec ls detcennoc in s re ei s ro rap la lel to s ppu ly t eh ecen s as ry nerruc t .

C le l: tI si a ved i ec t tah noc s si ts fo no ly wt o cele t edor s t tah ge aren te el ce tri ac l rene gy. Classi acif it :no )1 rP i am ry ec lls: In this type e el ctr ci la e en rgy nac eb bo tained at t eh nepxe se of mehc ci al ene rgy no ly as l gno as t eh ca ti ev am t re ials era pres .tne hT ese ab tt re i se ca tonn eb degrahcer dna uer des :ge nZ - OnM 2

2 ) adnoceS ry ec ll s: In this type fo tab t re ei s no ce us de nac eb er c degrah by ap iss gn c rru ent t hguorh it . hT e xoder tcaer i no steg re rev s de rud i gn grahcer i gn . ereH el ce tri lac e ygren si st dero in t eh of rm fo chemical rene gy dna u lit dezi rof s ppu ly ni g uc r tner revenehw dedeen .

oferehT re s adnoce ry b tta e ir es a er a sl o nwonk sa st egaro tab t re ies. gE . bP - ca id , Ni- dC 3 ) eR es evr tab t eire s: ehT tab t re i se hcihw era ts dero in na i tcan i ev st ta e a dn made r ae dy rof use ihw le tca i tav i gn ht em erofeb use era nwonk as er s evre ab tt re ies. nI this t epy eno of t eh comp no ent is s ape r deta rf om t eh ser t fo t eh ab tt ery . Us lau ly t eh el ce t or lyte si t eh moc op nent t ah t is si alo t de . ehT el ortce lyte elimi an t se t eh s fle d si egrahc fo ettab ry rp i ro to us .e esehT a er us de rof l gno t mre ts ro a eg . xE . gA - OnM 2

YRETTAB RETCARAHC I TS I SC taB et ri se era desi deng to a trap i uc l ra ppa l taci i no ab s de no t eh ir pe ofr r cnam e carahc t re ist sci .

oV l gat e: t eh lov at eg ava li ba le dneped s no FME fo t eh ec ll dna FME in t nru ped e dn s no eerf ene rgy gnahc .e noC s redi t eh e tauq i no

E llec E= 0llec - Q gol Fn/TR 303.2

erehW E0 llec E= 0 dohtac e-E0 ,Q si t eh aer cti no ouq it tne i .e cudorp[ st ]/ natcaer[ t] rF om t eh evoba e tauq i no ew nac cnoc l edu aht t )a fI t eh di ecnereff ni std.e el ct dor e op t ne it la is erom , FME fo t eh llec si la so hi ehg r

b) sa the te repm ta ure i aercn s se t eh FME fo t eh ec ll aerced ses )c sa t eh av l eu fo Q aercni s se i ,e nehw uc r ner t is nward rf om t eh llec t eh ec ll er a tc i no

sdeecorp dna FME fo t eh llec aerced s se . oT red i ev maximum ov tl ega in dda iti no to evoba t eh el ce t edor aer cti no um ts eb af st ot

ecuder t eh oprevo et n it sla dna t eh ser ist na ce fo t eh lec l um st eb l wo uC r tner : tI is t eh meas eru fo t eh ar te ta hw i hc a tab tery si id s grahc i gn . roF fe f ci i tne krow i gn fo t eh c lle t ereh um ts eb a egral tnauq ity fo el ce rt tcao i ev s cep i se hw i hc eh lp in rapid

cele t nor t nar s ef r . capaC ity : tI si t eh tot la nuoma t of a el ce tric uc r tner i ovn l dev in t eh el ce rt o hc emic la

tcaer i no dna erpxe ss de in a et rm fo uoc ol bm s ro a pm e er .)hA(ruoh tI dneped s no a s ezi of a ab t et ry and given by

FnW=C /M rehw e W is t eh am ss & M is t eh om l ra am ss fo ca ti ev am t re lai s . LCYC E LI EF : tI si the nu bm er fo egrahc ro id s egrahc secorp s that era op ssible erofeb

af li eru rucco s . rP i am ry b tta e ir se era sed i deng rof si gn le id s egrahc ub t s adnoce ry ab tt re ies is ahc r baeg l ehT .e c cy le li ef of a ts ro a eg um ts eb hi .hg tI dneped s no mehc ic la co opm itis no , rom p oh l go i lac segnahc dna distri ub it no fo a tc ive am te ir als in t eh c lle enE r yg ffe ici ycne : it is gi nev by

% rene gy ffe ici ne cy = e ren gy r le ae s de no di egrahcs x 001 rene gy uqer i der rof c ah rgi gn

edona

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egaP 61

tI dneped s no r ta e fo c egrah ro di grahcs e rruc, ent ciffe i ne cy fo t eh el ce t dor e ecorp ss dna t eh

oprevo et n ait l rud i gn egrahc dna d si egrahc tcaer i sno as ew ll as eht tab tery re sis .ecnat hS le f il ef : ehT noitarud fo st egaro rednu ceps i if ed dnoc iti sno ta t eh dne fo hw i hc a ec ll ro tab tery sti ll er tai sn t eh iba l yti to gi ev a s cep ifi de ofrep rma ecn is lac l de s eh lf li ef . tI um ts eb

doog rof ts ro a eg lec ls. dooG s eh lf li ef rof tab t re i se si detcepxe nehw t ereh is on self di egrahcs ro oc r sor i no fo tnerruc oc ll ce t ro s uac is gn l sso fo mrofrep a ecn

enE r yg s egarot ned is yt : tI si t eh aem s eru fo c egrah rep tinu w ie thg st dero in t eh battery.i .e it is t eh c icapa ty per nu it ew i hg t .

oP w re sned i yt : ehT ar tio of rewop a liav able rf om a ab t et ry to its ew i thg W( / tI.)gK rced eases du ir gn d csi .egrah

Zi cn -Air ttaB ery: hT si is a t epy fo em tal air ab tt ery whi hc sesu ox gy en d ri tce ly rf om at om s hp e er to ecudorp

El ce t hcor emical renE gy . A l oo se unarg lat de edwop r fo zi cn si mi dex iw th el ce t or lyte( 03 % HOK ) tca s sa edona am t re ial. ehT uo t re em tal ca ts sa ac t edoh fo t eh ab t et ry

hw ci h is fill de w ti h s am ll a om unt of ac taly ts dna nobrac to po it mi ez t eh e ov lu it no fo oxyg ne in al lak ine sol tu i no dna rof eb ett r cuder it .no ehT t ow el ce t sedor era s ape rat de by plastic ag s tek sa insulat .ro sA t eh el ce t edor is compac ,t hi hg ne ergy ned is ties era bo iat den .

taB et ry oN ta it :no nZ | HOK | air ,C ehT lleC Re tca i no s:

2 nZ + 4 HO - OnZ2 + 2 H2O + e4 - ta edonA O2 + 2 H2O + e 4 - 4 OH- at aC t edoh

revO lla tcaeR i :no nZ2 + O2 OnZ2

tI sah rene gy ned is ty fo ba uo t W001 h gK -1 t eerh ti em s t tah fo daeL ca id ab ttery ro t eciw that fo Ni- dC taB tery.

Fig.Zi cn –Air taB tery

navdA t ega s:Hi hg rene gy ned is ty,l gno s eh lf li ,ef l wo tsoc , on goloce i lac pr bo lem . U es :s tI fi sdn ppa l taci i no s in m tili ary dar io ecer i srev ,P rewo s ecruo rof he ra i gn ai sd ,medi lac

ved i sec , omer et co mm un ci a it no s .cte Ni ekc l- lateM Hy edird N( i- )HM rettab y: tI si sim li ra to Ni- dC cell. nI st dae fo aC dmium em tal h rdy i ed ab tt ery u es s h rdy o neg da s bro ed no a em tal la loy rof t eh edona tca i ev am t re ial edonA tca i ev am et ri sla s hcu as HV 2, HrZ 2 dna TiH2 ra e us de . ehT ca it ev am t re ial ta t eh ac t edoh is NiO( HO ) . ehT em tal alloy si pac able fo dnu e ogr i gn a rever sible re tca i no sa t eh ab tt ery is degrahc ro

d si egrahc d. ehT ac t edoh llec can si lif l de with NiO )HO( na d dona e is hi hg ly rop ous st cur tur de w ti h a iN wi er eguag in to hw i hc h rdy og ne st egaro a ll oy si aoc t de . ehT t ow

.

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egaP 71

sedortcele are s ape rat de w ti h na i usn lat ro am t re ai l ta t eh t po dna t eh a tc i ev mat re i sla by na uoeuqa s sol tu i no fo HOK s dekao iw th ba s nebro t m ta re i la hw i hc ca ts sa el ce t or lyte.

Fig . Ni lekc – lateM Hydri ed tab tery

ehT ab t et ry erpeR s ne t ta i :no HM | HOK | Ni )HO( 2 , Ni )HO(O ehT lleC Re tca i no s: MH + HO2 - H2O + M + e2 - donA e

N2 i )HO(O + H2 2O + e2 - iN )HO( 2 + HO2 - aC t edoh revO lla tcaeR i :no

HM + N2 iO )HO( Ni )HO( 2 M+ oP t ne t lai av l seu eirav s rf om 1. V52 to 1. V53

U es s: tI is us de in moC put re s, eC ll ul ra enohP s ,camcor red s, el ce t cir ve cih l .se navdA t ega s:Hi hg icapac ty,l gno c cy le l efi , ehs lf li ef , ssel vne i mnor ental borp l me .s

iL – OnM 2 rettaB i :se

Li – OnM 2 ec ll is eno fo t eh om ts wi ed ly su de ab t seiret It noc s si ts fo iL edona dna OnM 2 sa ac t doh e. iL th ui m ah l edi in or nag ic sol tnev sol tu i no si us de as el ce rt olyte. ehT OnM 2 ep llet dna edona d si c era es arap t de by op lypropyle en s ape rat ro ap s det iw th el ce t or lyte. ehT lec l si

delaes iw th nac s vre i gn sa t eh dohtac e et rmi an l dna pac sa t eh edona termin la .

Fig.Li- OnM 2 lleC

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egaP 81

leC l caeR it :sno iL iL + + e- donA e

Mn I V + Li+ e+ - L Mi n I II O2 aC t edoh arevO ll tcaeR i :no

Mn VI O2 + iL L nMi III O2 nI t eh evoba llec caer it no nM re secud rf om 4+ xo i ad it no state to 3+ xo i tad i no state. htiL ui m

i no ne t sre in to t eh OnM 2 cry ts la l ta it ec . ehT ov tl ega fo t eh lec l is pu to V4 dneped i gn no t eh cat doh e us de

U es s: tI is am inly u es d in ppa il tac i sno aw t ehc s, ac l uc lat sro , ca ,sarem li hg it gn uqe ip nem ts dna l gno ti em me om ry ukcab sp .

navdA t ega s:Hi hg rruc ent ned sity eud to l wo a ot mic am ss fo lith ui m arepO t se eb t neew wi ed egnar fo temp re ta (eru - 04 to 07 0 )C

woL self di hcs a egr ar te dna s fleh li ef is hi .hg

• muihtiL - :yrettab noi era snoi muihtil ,sessecorp egrahcsid dna egrahc eht gniruD evitca eht nihtiw sreyal cimota neewteb ecaps laititsretni morf detcartxe ro detresni

eht fo lairetam .yrettab iL eht ,ylpmiS - muihtil hguorht edohtac dna edona neewteb srefsnart si noi

yllaitnesse slairetam edohtac eht ron edona eht rehtien ecniS .etylortcelE eht ,egnahc.yrettab latem muihtiL a fo taht naht refas si noitarepo

noitcurtsnoC

• iL - ruof a sah llec noi - .erutcurts reyal • edixO tlaboC muihtiL htiw edam edortcele evitisop A rotcelloc tnerruc a sah

liof munimula niht fo edam - edohtac • a sah nobrac ytlaiceps htiw edam edortcele evitagen A niht fo rotcelloc tnerruc

liof reppoc – na .edo A rotarapes .mlif remylop suorop enif a si • nA etylortcele .tnevlos cinagro na ni tlas muihtil htiw edam • tropsnart evitceffe na eb dluohs ereht taht yaw a hcus ni detceles era setylortcele ehT

iL fo - .egrahcsid gnirud edohtac eht ot noi • c fo epyt ehT etylortcele fo ytivitcudno naht rehtar erutan ni cinoi si cinortcele .

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egaP 91

gnikroW

• yradnoces noi muihtiL tub noitca cinavlag no desab era seirettab lanoitidart ehT .msinahcem "noitalacretni" na no sdneped yrettab

• i muihtil fo noitresni eht sevlovni sihT tsoh eht fo ecittal enillatsyrc eht otni sno.erutcurts latsyrc sti gnignahc tuohtiw edortcele

• hcihw ,erutcurts latsyrc nepo eht si enO .seitreporp yek owt evah sedortcele esehTtiliba eht si dnoces eht dna snoi muihtil fo noitcartxe ro noitresni eht wolla tpecca ot y

noitalacretni dellac era sedortcele hcuS .emit emas eht ta snortcele gnitasnepmoc.stsoh

• egrahc gnirud ,swollof sa si yrettab eht edisni ecalp sekat taht noitcaer lacimehc ehT:noitarepo egrahcsid dna

• swolg thgil dna tiucric lanretxe hguorht swolf tnerruc egrahcsid gniruD • .noitcerid etisoppo eht ni swolf snortcele eht on ,gnigrahc gniruD • edortcele evitisop ni muihtil ,gnigrahc gniruD morf sevom dna dezinoi si lairetam

.edortcele evitagen eht otni detresni dna reyal ot reyal • eht ssorca etargim dna edona eht morf detaicossid era snoi iL egrahcsid gniruD

htac fo dnuopmoc tsoh eht fo erutcurts latsyrc eht otni detresni era dna etylortcele .edo

segatnavdA : • seirettab elbaegrahcer rehto naht ytisned ygrene hgih evah yehT • thgiew ssel era yehT • .seirettab rehto htiw derapmoc sa V 4 tuoba tuo egatlov hgih ecudorp yehT • .egrahcrevo ot ecnatsiser erom .e.i ,ytefas devorpmi evah yehT

:egatnavdasiD • T evisnepxe era yeh • .sepyt llec dradnats ni elbaliava ton era yehT

:snoitacilppA • iL ehT - srotaluclac ,saremac ni desu era seirettab noi • i desu era yehT rehto dna srekamecap caidrac n ecived elbatnalpmi • mocelet ni desu era yehT ,tnempiuqe noitacinum ,stnemurtsni ,sVT dna soidar elbatrop

sregap • ot desu era yehT dna sretupmoc potpal etarepo ecapsorea dna senohp elibom

noitacilppa

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egaP 02

LEUF SLLEC Defi tin ion: tI si na cele rt hco emi lac ved i ec t tah tnoc i uoun sly t nar s of rm fr ee rene gy c egnah fo xoder caer it sno fo a euf l to le ce tri lac ne e ygr at t eh le ce t .sedor

A leuF lec l is neserper t de sa lof l wo s euF /l tcelE r edo , El ortce ly et , El ce rt edo / nadixO t

At edona euF l xO i ad it no cudorp t + en At aC t edoh xO i nad t + en udeR cti no cudorp ts

navdA t ega s : 1. Hi hg e ff i neic cy fo t eh ne ergy revnoc is no ecorp ss . 2. hceR a gr i gn fo leuf ec ll ton uqer i der . 3. bA s ecne fo ah r ufm l aw ts e pr udo tc s . 4. Sil tne tarepo i no .

eM t onah l xo ygen uf el ec ll : tI noc s si ts fo t ow suorop nobrac el ce t sedor . edonA is aoc t de w ti h pla it num

c ta aly ts dna ac t doh e iw th s li rev ac taly ts . ehT el ce t or lyte si na uoeuqa s sol tu i no fo HOK . ehT eM tha en sag is noc ti uoun sly s ppu il de at t eh edona dna yxo gen is s ppu li de ta t eh ac t doh e . sA t eh eM tha en ag s di uff ses t hguorh edona it is da s debro no t eh el ce rt edo s afru ce dna tcaer s iw th H ordy xyl i sno to of rm aw t re . tA t eh ac t edoh Ox gy en di suff i gn t hguorh t eh

el ce t edor s is da s debro dna decuder dna eg t uder c de to h rdy oxyl i no s .

Fig. M te lonah ox gy en euf l llec

ehT el ce t edor s er act noi s era At ,edona HC 3 HO + HO6 - OC 2 + 5H2O 6+ e At ac t edoh ,3/2 O2 + 3 H2O e6+ HO6 -

eN t llec noitcaer HC 3 HO + 3/ O2 2 OC 2 2+ H2O NOITACIFISSALC FO LEUF SLLEC

Di tcer leuf cel sl : nI this t epy cudorp st fo ec ll tcaer i sno era id cs dra ed tarenegeR i ev leuf lec l :s nI t ih s t epy orp ducts era r nege e detar gnisu t eh r am l ro el ce tri lac ro

ohp t hco emi ac l pr seco s. dnI i tcer euf l ce ll s: nI this type euf l fo t eh ec ll is bo tai den f or m o nagr ic leuf

aB es d no te arepm t ru e woL te arepm t eru leuf llec 52( - 01 0o )C

nI ter dem iate et arepm t eru leuf llec 001( - 005 oC )

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egaP 12

Hi hg te pm are t eru euf l c lle 005( - 01 00oC) eV ry hi hg te pm e ar t eru leuf llec evoba( 0001 oC)

aB es d no T py e fo euf l us de oS lid leuf lec l gE . laoC

Li uq id leuf c lle gE .Al ohoc ls aG s suoe leuf llec Eg. H2

aB s de no Ty ep fo lortcele y et us de Al ak il en uf el ce ll : ehT se ec l sl uses uoeuqa s sol tu i sno fo al ilak as ortcele lyte . Oxyg ne

tcuder i no is erom par id in al lak i en el ce rt olytes than ca id cele t or lytes . nI ht is t epy if t eh fi an l udorp tc fo xo i ad it no is nobrac xoid i ed , it of rms anobrac t se . roF t sih aer s no ti si ton s iu t elba f ro nobrac noc taini gn leuf s. hT ey krow ta 08 oC dna dna la l wo t eh use fo ediw egnar fo el ce t edor ac talys .st

OC 2 + HO2 - OC 3- H + 2 O ohP s rohp ic ca id leuf ec l sl : ehT se ec l sl uses 89 % ohp s rohp ic dica a dn po e setar ta 061 oC – 022 oC . tA l rewo te arepm tur se ohp s rohp ic ca id is a roop i no ic cudnoc t ro feT . l no ednob d sag

suffid i no ele edortc s era us .de Pl ta i mun rap it cl se id spers de no nobrac tca s sa ac taly ts ta htob edona dna ac t .edoh ehT ohp s ohp ir c ca id e el ct or lyte si abs debro into a so il d am trix fo SiC. navdA t ega s : .1 woL ov l ta i il ty fo ohp sp roh ic ca id evoba 051 oC

2. miS lp e noc rts cu it no si ecn it u es s Si ,C feT l no & nobraC . 3. lecxE el tn t amreh l hc emi lac & el ce t hcor emi ac l s at ib lity.

oS il d xo i ed leuf ec ll: nI t sih t epy t eh el ce t or lyte si a s lo id , uoropnon s em tal xo i ed like nocriZ ia OrZ( 2 depod) w ti h Yt rt ium xO i ed . ihT s ce ll tarepo es ta 056 oC –1 00 0oC erehw i no ic cudnoc it no t seka lp a ec by t eh migra it no fo ox negy io (sn O2

2- ssorca) t eh el ce t or lyte t hguorh t eh av c tna latti ec sites. ehT edona si fo oC ro Ni no OrZ 2 & ac t edoh si St nor tium depod w ti h

OnMaL 3. navdA t ega s : .1 Hi hg tarepo i lano te arepm t eru a ov i sd snepxe i ev c ta aly .ts

2. Hi hg tol nare ce to imp ru ti ies . 3. oN li uq i sd era us de in t eh lec l.

oM l net etanobraC leuF ec ll: tI noc sis st fo uorop s edona ma ed pu fo ,iN a uorop s tac edoh dam e pu fo NiO2 & om tl ne anobrac te sa el ce t or lyte . ehT el ce t or ly et noc is ts s fo %04

LiAlO2, %82 K2 OC 3 & 23 % iL 2 OC .3 tI arepo te eb t neew 006 -650oC . edona tA H2 + OC 3

2- OC 2 + H2O + e2 tA ac t edoh O2 + OC2 2 + e4 2CO3

2- ehT se leuf ec l sl evah effic ei ncy erg at re t nah %55 .

oS il d lop y rem el ortce yl et leuf lec l: tI si mis li ra to H2-O2 leuf ec l .l snI t dae fo HOK op l remy me rbm a en in s lo id of rm si desu sa el ce t ylor te rof i no ic cudnoc t noi . oP l my er

me rbm a en us de si fl corou a nobr op l my er kcab enob sim li ra to feT l ,no to hw i hc sul nohp ic ca id puorg s era a tt hca e .d I t arepo t se ta 08 oC. ehT uorop s nobraC el ce t edor s iw th pl ta inum

cataly ts era us de . Bio- mehC i ac l leuf ec ll: In t sih t epy t eh cele t edor caer it sno era rp o om t de by biol go i lac

secorp ses. hT ey s uoh ld eb arepo t de eb t neew 0- 04 oC & Hp 7.0 hw i hc is su ti ba le of r s su taini gn l efi fo na nagro is .m

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egaP 22

ELUDOM - 2 GNIHSINIF LATEM DNA NOISORROC

noisorroC : .seires cinavlag ,noisorroc fo yroeht lacimehcortcele ,noitcudortnI

ac ot cidona fo oitar :noisorroc fo etar eht gnitceffa srotcaF ,saera cidoht noisorroc fo erutan ,latem fo erutan ,snoiger cidohtac & cidona fo noitaziralop

muidem fo erutan ,tcudorp – fo sepyT .erutarepmet dna ,ytivitcudnoc ,Hpnoisorroc - sserts dna )enilretaw dna gnittiP(noitarea laitnereffid , latem laitnereffiD

c( fo noitceles dna ngiseD :lortnoc noisorroC.)sreliob ni tnemelttirbme citsuasgnitaoc cinagroni ,slairetam - sgnitaoc latem ,gnitahpsohp dna lA fo gnizidonA -

desserpmi dna cidona laicifircas( noitcetorp cidohtaC .gninniT dna noitazinavlaG.)sdohtem tnerruc H 5 sruo

:stnetnoC

.seires cinavlag ,noisorroc fo yroeht lacimehcortcele ,noitcudortnI

noisorroc fo etar eht gnitceffa srotcaF

aera cidohtac ot cidona fo oitar ,snoiger cidohtac & cidona fo noitaziralop ,s

muidem fo erutan tcudorp noisorroc fo erutan ,latem fo erutan – ,Hp

.erutarepmet dna ,ytivitcudnoc

noisorroc fo sepyT - dna gnittiP(noitarea laitnereffid , latem laitnereffiD

citsuac( sserts dna )enilretaw .)sreliob ni tnemelttirbme

slairetam fo noitceles dna ngiseD :lortnoc noisorroC

sgnitaoc cinagroni - ,gnitahpsohp dna lA fo gnizidonA

sgnitaoc latem - .gninniT dna noitazinavlaG

.)sdohtem tnerruc desserpmi dna cidona laicifircas( noitcetorp cidohtaC

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egaP 32

ORROC SI NO DNA I ST LORTNOC eD if tin i no ehT ed s tcurt i no ro ed t re ior ta i no fo em tal by sur uor ndi gn vne i or nment thr hguo mehc i ac l

ro el ce t hcor em ci al ta t kca si nwonk as orroc s noi . xE . oF r am it no fo dder si h br nwo s ac le no i nor ud e to of r am it no fo eF 2O3

neerG cs ale no reppoc sev s le ud e to OCuC 3 )HO(uC& 2 rD y sorroc i no is tcerid hc emic la ta t kca in t eh abs ecne fo om tsi ru e by dry ag s se li ek OS 2 OC, 2 lC, 2 H, 2 cte S .

teW roc r so i no is mmoc on in an t eru & rucco s by el ce t hcor emi lac ta t kca no t eh em t la iw th t eh mo tsi eru dna ox gy en p er s tne in t eh at om sp eh r .e El mehcortce i ac l roeht y fo sorroc i .no

hW en na i nor dor is opxe s de to t eh vne i mnor ent t eh lof l wo i gn cele t hcor emical egnahc s at sek pl ,eca

i oF) r am it no fo cidona cat doh ic saera ,at edona xo id ita no t ka es pl eca cudorp i gn el ce t nor s dna em tal i M(no +n ). tA c edohta el ce t snor a er t neka pu by cuder it no tcaer i no

ii orroC) is no t seka pl eca ta t eh edona . iii R) e tcud i no fo retaw dna ox negy in t eh omta s hp e er to HO - rucco s ta ac t doh ic .aera

noC si red t eh em tal ekil i nor opxe s de to t eh orroc si ev e vn i or n nem t t eh er a tc i no s t tah oc ruc era sa of ll ,swo donA ic tcaer i no : xO i ad it no t seka pl eca res lu it gn oc r sor i no fo em tal

eF eF 2+ + e2 dohtaC ic tcaer i :no At ac t edoh cuder it no er a tc i no t seka ecalp de dnep i gn nopu t eh an t eru fo

el ce t or lyte. ehT di ff e er nt sop is ble uder cti no caer it no era i fI. t eh solu it no si area t de a dn uen t lar oxyg ne dna aw t re a er decuder to HO - i sno

O2 + H2 2O + e4 HO4 - i .i fI t eh sol tu i no is areaed t de dna uen t lar ac t doh ci caer it no i evlovn s il tareb i no fo H2 sag

dna HO - i sno H2 2O + e2 H2 + HO2 -

i ii . fI t eh solu it no si areaed et d dna ca idic ac t doh ic caer it no i evlovn s li tareb i no fo H2 sag H2 + 2+ e H2

oC r or is no fo i nor udorp ses eF 2+ ta edona a dn HO - at ac t edoh . ehT se i sno diffuse t wo a dr s ac t doh e dna of rm )HO(eF 2 raen ac t edoh . nI xo idizi gn vne i or nment it is xo i id z de to ef rric xo i ed dna t eh ey ll wo ur st yh rd at de rref ic xo i .ed

2 eF 2+ + HO4 - 2 )HO(eF 2 )HO(eF4 2 + O2 + H2 2O 2 eF 2O3. H3 2 O

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egaP 42

rotcaF s inf cneul i gn eht etar fo orroc is no erutaN fo atem l

ehT em tals iw th l rewo el ce t edor op t ne it al h( i hg er pu in s re ies era) erom er ac it ev t nah w ti h em tal fo hi rehg netop t lai . ehT om re caer it ev em t la s era erom sus tpec i elb rof sorroc i .nouhT s t eh te nedn cy fo a em t la to rednu og orroc is no aerced s se iw th i aercn se in el ce t edor

op et n it al. roF exa pm le K, aN , gM , nZ etc. w ti h l wo cele t edor op et n it la av l eu s era rom e sus tpec i elb to orroc is no . ehT bon le em ta sl gA , uA , tP et w .c ti h hi hg el ce t edor op t ne t lai av l seu a er l se s sus pec it lb e to roc ros noi .

Hy gord en evo r ov l egat ehT em tal iw th l wo yh rd nego revo ov tl ga e no i st s fru a ec si rom e susce tp ible rof orroc si no

nehw ac t doh ic tcaer i no si yh dr nego ove lu it no . nehW t eh h dy r nego vo er ov l egat is l wo hy rd nego g sa is il areb t de ae sily dna t uh s t eh cat doh ic tcaer i no si fa ts re . sihT iw ll a sl o

ekam s t eh cidona tcaer i no saf t re dna neh ce int ecne orroc is no t seka place. nehW t eh h rdy ogen vo er ov l egat is hi hg ac t doh ic tcaer i no is ls rewo dna sorroc i no a sl o emoceb s sl .wo

erutaN fo sorroc i no tcudorp ehT orroc is no cudorp t is us lau ly t eh xo i ed la rey of r dem no em tal s ecafru ed t mre i en s eht orroc is no ar t fI .e t eh la rey of r dem is ts hcio io em tric,hi hg ly insol bu le, dna non - uorop s iw th

l wo el ce t nor ic cudnoc it vity t neh t eh la rey of r dem rp e nev st ruf t reh sorroc i no . ehT thin la rey of r dem ca ts sa a rrab i re eb t neew erf sh em tal s ecafru dna t eh oc r or si no vne ri on nem t. nO

t eh ot reh dnah if eht sorroc i no cudorp t of r dem is non - ts ihcio o em tri ,c sol bu l ,e uorop s dna non -uni of rm t neh t eh la rey of rmed nac on t noc t or l orroc is .no eM tals il ek lA ,C ,r iT et .c of rms thin xo i ed la rey in sorroc ive vne i or nment no t eh ir s ecafru dna ceb ome ap ssi ev to orroc is .no

edonA dna edohtac ra eas ehT etar fo sorroc i no aerg tly i fn l decneu by t eh er l ta i ev si ez s fo edona dna ac t doh ic saera . fI

t eh em tal sah s am ll re dona ic aera co rapm ed to l egra ac t doh ci ra ea int ecne sorroc in t seka place ta edona . Si ecn lla t eh e el ct nor s li detareb ta s am ll a edon aera era par idly c no us dem by t eh l egra ac t edoh aera . fI t eh ac t edoh is s am ll re t eh noc us pm it no fo ele tc snor liw l eb sl rewo dna noisorroc will ceb ome ls rewo .

roF xe a pm le hw en tin si aoc et d no i nor in hcus a way t ah t os em pin oh l se era l tfe er sul st in s am ll edona aera a dn al egr ac t doh e aera .Si ecn t ni si ac t doh ic to i nor orroc is no co c sru ta t eh s am ll edona aera opxe es d. no t eh ot reh dnah nehw zi cn aoc t de no i nor leavi gn heb i dn s am ll pin oh l se er s lu ts la egr dona ic dna s am ll ac t doh ic era s S. ince zi cn si dona ic to nori oc r sor i no fo nori wi ll on t ucco r.

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egaP 52

pmeT e rutar e :W ti h t eh i esaercn in te epm rat eru the caer t noi sa llew as di suff i no etar

i aercn s se the er by orroc is no r ta e is eneg r la ly hne a cn ed. nI t eh ac se fo roc r so i no er si ts na t sap is ev em tals eht ir se in te arepm t eru secuder passivity dna l dae s to an inc aer se in

sorroc i no . pH : Ge aren lly a ic d ci em dia era erom orroc is no t nah al lak ine dna uen t lar dem i .a revewoH os em em ta sl il ek lA , nZ .cte eogrednu s saf t orroc si no in hi hg ly al ak li en dem ui m. oP l ra si ta i no fo :snoiger cidohtaC & cidonA

ehT op et nt lai di ecnereff eb t neew t eh edona dna ac t edoh caus se el ce t hcor emi ac l sorroc i no , ub t orroc is no is c no rt o ll de eud to op l ra is ta i no fo edona ro ac t .edoh

As s noo sa t eh oc r sor i no tnerruc geb ins to fl wo , rec tain i verr e bisr le fact sro t tah t sdne to oppo se t eh di cer it no fo nerruc t fl wo rucco da j neca t to cele t edor s r derrefe sa op l ira s ta i .no

nI edona op l ra i tas i no sa t eh sorroc i no er a tc i no pr rgo es ,s t eh ra et fo dissolu it no fo em tal sa em t la i no si aerced s de eud to an inc esaer in t eh necnoc t tar i no fo i sno fo t eh dissol dev em tal in t eh vici in ty fo t eh el ce t edor . ceB a esu fo edona op l ra si ta i no t eh edona tcaer i no ceb omes rewols dna revo lla c sorro i no etar .sesaerced

nI ac t edoh op l ra si ati no , it er at sdr t eh ac t doh ic tcaer i .no ihT s is eud to hc emi ac l op l ra i tas i no fo ac t ,edoh i e. ,hi edn ir gn t eh co bm i an it no fo ac t edoh caer at nt w ti h ht e

el ce t nor . roF t eh orroc is no to t eka pl eca ob th dona ic dna ac t doh ic tcaer i no s uoh ld t eka p al ec mis atlu uoen sly . fI no e fo t eh tcaer i no is ls rewo roc ro is no ar te la so ls hW.wo en t eh op t ne t lai fo op l ra i dez sedortcele era plot det aga i sn t c tnerru ro rruc ent ned sity in t eh orroc si no ci ucr it op l ra is ita no uc r sev ac l del ’navE s di rga ams era bo tai den sa of ll .swo

nI t eh evoba evruc s eht op l ra si ta i no evruc op ss se a s repeet sl po e rof t eh el ce t edor hw i hc

is op al ri dez to t eh taerg er xe t tne . Ty sep fo orroc is :no D fi tnerf i la em tal orroc is aG(no l nav ic c ro ro is )no

hW en t ow id ssim li ra em ta sl era rtcele i yllac c cenno t de dna opxe s de to orroc is ev vne i or nment t eh em tal w ti h l wo er cele rt edo tnetop i la h( i rehg pu in el ce t hcor emic la res i )se eogrednu s orroc is no . roF xe a pm le nehw zi cn dna eppoc r era el ce t cir ally con cen t de

in serp e ecn fo e el ct or lyte t eh zi cn em at l iw th l wo cele t edor op te tn i la a tc s as a don ic ra e ;a gets dedorroc sa s nwoh in fi erug , erehw as reppoc hw i hc is hi rehg elect edor

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egaP 62

op et n it la ceb o em ac t edoh .

ehT ar te fo this t epy fo oc r sor i no de sdnep no di ecnereff in netop it .la Hi rehg t eh di ecnereff in op t tne ial af s ret si t eh ar te of sorroc i .no

xE :. leetS)1 pi ep c nno ect de to reppoc

2)Tin taoc i gn no reppoc ve ss le )3 Zi cn taoc i gn no mild st lee Di eff r tne i la tarea i no sorroc i no tI oc uc rs nehw a em t la s ecafru si opxe s de t do i nereff t air / oxyg ne cnoc ent ar it no . ehT em tal trap opxe s de ot less ox negy c no cen rt ta i no tca s sa cidona aera dna sedorroc erehw

sa t eh hi rehg ox gy e an t de era a is detcetorp rf om orroc si aC(no t )edoh . roF xe a pm le nehw na nori s rt ip si rap it la lyi emm rs de in detarea sol tu i no fo s do ui m hc l ro i ed sa s nwoh in

fi erug . hT e em t la trap in is ed el ce t or lyte eg t c dedorro eud to dona ic caer it no dna t eh mo er oxyg ane t de aera fo t eh em tal c( ta )edoh is orp t ce t xEde .: aN il i sn i ed t eh aw ll edorroc s,

wodniW fra em in is ed aw ll sedorroc

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egaP 72

etaW r-lin e orroc is no tI si bo s devre i aw n ter st egaro t hs,skna ip aw t re lif it gn pi sep et .c roF xe a pm le in aw t re

stor ega t kna t eh em t la knaT pa tr i sn i ed aw ter level opxe s de no ly to d ssi ol dev ox gy en teg )edona(dedorro hw li e t eh part a evob aw t re li en is opxe s de to hi rehg ox gy en necnoc t ar it no

is cetorp ac(det t .)edoh Pi tt i gn sorroc i no : tI oc uc rs nehw s am ll rap it cl se fo tsud , aw ter pord no em t la s ecafru ro rb e nwodka fo

orp t tce i ev f li m . A t py i ac l tip ti gn sorroc i no is ill su t ar t de sa s nwoh in fi ug r ehT.e em tal trop i no voc e der by ud ts a tc sa edona eud to l sse ox gy e an t de dna eogrednu s roc r so i no

aeneb th t eh ud st mrof i gn a pit. ehT m te la trap f eer from ud st opxe s de ot hi rehg ox negy noc c ne t tar i no ceb o em edohtac dna orp t ce t de rf om orroc is no . ehT orroc is no etar is hi rehg in

this esac eud to s am ll a edon era a a dn al egr ac t edoh aera . lA l t eh e el ct nor s li detareb at p(edona ti ) era ba s debro by l egra edohtac aera rof re ud cti no tcaer i .no

St sser sorroc i no tI si bo s devre in em tals rednu s ssert eud to t eh nahcem i ac l arepo it sno s hcu sa ew ldi gn

, dneb i gn ,pr sse i ,gn ri ev ti gn cte . nI this ac se evisorroc a tneg s era s cep ific dna se el c it ev such sa HOK ro HOaN rof m li d ts ,lee t secar fo a mm onia rof arb s ,s sol tu i no fo em tal hc l ro i sed rof st nia l se s s et el.

St er ss sorroc i no is pxe lai den no t eh isab s fo el ce t hcor emi ac l t oeh ry. nI a sorroc i ev vne ri on nem t t eh s rt ess de rop it no tca as edona rednu eog s oc r or is no dna ts sser eerf trap ceb o em edohtac . ehT em tal hw i hc si dedneb as s nwoh in fi erug sah a s ssert at t eh neb t ger i no . tA t eh

ts res des trap t eh em lat a ot ms era always at hi rehg ygrene l eve sl sa co erapm ot t eh eno eerf rf om s sert s. ehT ts ress de trap fo t eh em tal t erofereh ceb ome r erom e ca it ev dna dnu e eogr s

sorroc i no

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egaP 82

xE a pm le fo s ssert orroc is :no

uaC stic e rbm i tt l tneme tI si bo s devre in m li d st lee iob l sre . ehT ob iler aw t re noc tai sn small trop i no fo s do ui m

c anobra te dedda rud i gn s netfo i gn oprup se. nI ob li sre ht is skaerb pu to gi ev s do ium hyd xor i ed dna nobrac di xo i ed dna ekam s w ta re al lak i en .

aN 2 OC 3 + H2O 2 HOaN + OC 2 euD to kcarc eved l depo at st ser s de rop ti no t eh al ak il en ob i rel aw et r ne t sre in to mi un te ah ir

skcarc by pac lli ary ac it no . ehT etaw r teg e aropav t de l vae i gn dniheb HOaN ta skcarc .As t eh necnoc trati no fo HOaN i aercn s se ti a tt skca t eh m li d s leet dna dissol sev the i nor sa s do ium

fe arr te hw i hc ed oc opm ses to engam t ti .e 3 aN 2 OeF 2 + 4 H2O 6 HOaN + eF 3O4 + H2

ehT ger e en r deta HOaN ruf t reh secnahne t eh oc r sor i no . tI si neverp t de by dda i gn s do i mu sul ahp t ,e t nna i ,n il ng in .cte hcihw bloc sk t eh skcarc dna neverp ts t eh infil rt ati no fo al ak l .i

orroC is no c ortno l seD i dna ng S le tce i fo no retam i sla • ovA id t eh noc t ca t fo d si sim li ra em tals in eht ecneserp fo a dorroc i gn media • hW en t ow id ssim li ra em ta sl era to eb in noc t tca ,t eh a don ic m ta re i la s uoh ld evah as egral aera sa sop is ble comp dera to ac t .edoh • If two id ssim li ra em tals era in c no t ca t ha ev to eb us de they should eb as close sa

sop is elb to hcae ot reh in el ce t hcor emi ac l s re i .se • hW ene rev t eh di tcer oj ini gn fo dis is m li ra em ta sl ,is ovanu i bad le , na ins talu i gn

am t laire may eb plac de eb t neew them to a ov id di tcer noc t tca . • prahS srenroc dna ecer s ses s uoh ld eb ova i ded • hT e uqe pi ment s dluoh eb s roppu t de no l ge s to la l wo eerf c ucri la it no fo air as s nwoh

ni if erug

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egaP 92

I nagron ic taoc i gn : donA izi gn :lA fo ehT secorp s fo of rm ta i no fo a f li m fo em lat xo i ed no t eh s ecafru fo a m te al by

le ce t hcor emi ac l xo i ad it no is nwonk sa dona izi gn . ehT a ul min ui m ra it elc to eb dona i dez si aerged s de lof l dewo by e el ct opor lishi gn to mer o ev

i rupm iti se tneserp no t eh em tal s ecafru . tI si nnoc ect de to op si it ev et rmi an l .e.i ma ed sa edona dna ts lee ro reppoc is edam as ac t edoh .

aB th co opm s iti :no El ce t or lyte: 5- 01 % rhC om ci ca id/ %01 H2 OS 4/ laxO ic ca id Te arepm t ru e : 53 0 C

nerruC t ned sity 1 : 0-20 Am /cm2 El ce t edor tcaer i :no

donA e 2Al s( ) + H 3 2O )l( lA 2O3 H6 + + + e6 aC t doh e 6H+ + e6 H 3 g(2 )

Fi lan ly t eh bo j tce is ert ta de iw th ni lekc ro aboc lt eca tate lof l dewo by boili gn aw t re aert t nem t to i evorpm orroc is no er sis .ecnat

U es s:Us de rof s pao exob s, Ti ff in rrac i sre w, i wodn rf a em s et .c ohP s ahp it ng :

tI si a orp c sse fo trevnoc i gn s ecafru em tal a ot ms into t eh ir ohP s ahp te by hc emi ac l or el ce t hcor emi ac l ecorp ss . ohP s tahp i gn reffo s i rpm o dev orroc is no ser is at ecn dna la so mi p ra st t eh s ru f eca a doog ap i tn ehda is no nauq tity . Phos ahp ti gn ab th noc t nia s eerf

ohp s hp ta e i no s, a em tal ohp s ahp et ( eF , nM , )nZ & na ac ec el ar t ro . hT e Hp is tuoba si 1.8 ot 3.2. dna et pm is 53 0 .C ehT tcaer i no i ovn l sev t eh d ssi ol tu i no fo m te al ro em t la i ,sno em tal i no s aer cti gn w ti h t eh ohp s ahp te i no s to of rm a em tal ohp s ahp te & oped sit noi fo em tal

ohp s etahp no t eh s fru a ec fo t eh em t .la tI is us de in rfer i areg t ,sro aw shi gn hcam i en s rac dob i se to vorp i ed eb tt re ap i tn sehda i no in dda iti no to i evorpm orroc is no er sis .ecnat

ateM l aoc it gn opeD is ti no fo a orp t ce it ev em at l revo t eh ecafrus fo a ab se em tal is call de em tal gnitaoc .It

si divi ded in to t ow types:a don ic dna ac t doh ic aoc it gn donA ic taoc i navlaG(gn i taz i )no

aG l nav i az it no is a orp cess fo taoc i gn a esab em t la s ecafru w ti h zi cn em tal by hot di pp i gn orp cess.It i ovn l sev the f lo l wo i gn s pet s:

� ehT em tal s ecafru is aw s deh iw th nagro ic sol tnev s to remo ev aerg se dna oil � uR st dna ot reh isoped ts era remo dev by washi gn iw th d li etu H2 OS 4 � Fi lan ly t eh tra icle si aw shed iw th aw t re dna rd i de � ehT tra icle si t neh di depp in a ab th fo om tl ne zi cn am intai den ta 524 -4 03 0C dna

c derevo w ti h HN 4 lC fl xu to rp e nev t t eh xo i ad it no fo om tl ne zi cn . � ehT xe c sse zi cn no s ecafru si re devom by passi gn t hguorh a ap ir fo oh t or l srel , hw ci h

wi sep uo t ssecxe fo zi cn taoc i gn dna secudorp a thin aoc it .gn

)qa(

(a )q

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egaP 03

Us se tI si us de to tcetorp nori rf om c orro is no in t eh of rm fo gnifoor s steeh , cnef i gn wi er , ekcub ts, ob l ,st un t ,s ian ls , ,swercs pi sep etc.

hT ey era on t desu f ro rp e rap i gn dna st ro i gn doof st ,sffu is ecn cniz id ss ol sev in id lute aci sd cudorp i dn t xo ic zi cn comp uo nds .

Ti : gninn tI si decudorp by aoc it gn a ab se em tal iw th a erom bon le em tal hw i hc is ac t doh ic.Ti gninn is

t eh om ts co mm only us de ac t doh ic taoc i gn no st ee l s secafru by oh t di pp i gn ssecorp dna i ovn l ev s t eh of ll wo i gn s spet

ehT em tal s ecafru is aw s deh iw th nagro ic sol tnev s to remo ev aerg se dna oil uR st dna ot reh isoped ts era remo dev by washi gn iw th d li etu H2 OS 4 Fi lan ly t eh tra icle si aw shed iw th aw t re dna rd i de ehT cl nae dna dry hs tee si sap s de t hguorh om tl ne zi cn hc l ro i ed fl xu hw i hc eh l sp

t eh mo etl n m te al to erehda no t eh em tal s fru ace hT ne it is ap ss de t hguorh a t kna noc taini gn om tl ne it n Fi lan ly ap ss de t uorh gh s re i se fo or ll sre i remm s de in ap lm o li . ehT lor l re s wi sep

tuo ecxe ss fo it n oped sits dna secudorp a uounitnoc s , thin aoc it gn fo tin t. eh lio neverp ts eht xo i ad it no fo t eh it n aoc et d s fru a ec

tI orp et cts aga i sn t roc ro is no no ly if it revoc s t eh st lee s ecafru moc lp etely.Since it n si

cat doh ic to i nor neve if s am ll c kcar si of r dem int ne se orroc is no t seka pl eca eud to s am ll edona dna l egra c ta edoh saera .

Uses: tI si us de rof st ro i gn doof stuffs s hcu sa j ma i,, sn t tna f m,doo li k cudorp st et .c DOHTAC IC TCETORP I :NO

aC t doh ic orp t ce it no is a em thod fo orp t gnitce a em t la ro la loy from orroc is no by conv tre i gn ab se em tal co pm letely into ac t doh ic dna on part fo ti si la l dewo to tca sa .edona

ehT rp i cn iple fo ac t doh ic orp et tc i no si to ever rse t eh fl wo fo el ce rt sno rud i gn oc r noisor . ihT s nac eb veihca ed by rp ovidi gn ele tc snor f or m xe t nre al s secruo t tah eht speci nem

always re am ins ac t doh ic. ehT el ce t nor s nac eb pr vo i ded yb wt o em thods. S rca ificial dona ic me :doht nI this em thod t eh erom caer ti ev em tal (s s rca ificial a don es) li ek ,nZ gM hw i hc vorp i ed

cele rt sno c nno ect de to t eh em tal ts cur t eru to eb orp t ce t de . ehT esab em t la wi ll ceb ome c ta doh ic & erom tcaer i ev em tal ceb o em edona , eferp r ne it la ly orroc si no co c sru at a don e.

ehT s rca ificial edona hw i hc steg ,dedorroc ah s to eb per lac de to orp et tc esab em tal noc it uoun sly.

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egaP 13

xE a pm le: A gM bl kco ennoc tc de to a deirub io l st egaro t kna . I DESSERPM TNERRUC :DOHTEM nI t sih em t doh t eh ele tc or sn rof ac t doh ic orp t tce i no era s ppu l dei by a s ecruo fo di er ct

nerruc t . ehT s cep i nem to eb orp t ce t de s uoh ld eb ma ed – ev ot iwreh se it sedorroc . sihT si us de in rub i de oil pi ep li ,sen retaw st egaro t skna .

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egaP 23

:GNIHSINIFLATEM

oitcudortnI selpicnirp,noitcudortni:gnitalportcelE.ecnatropmilacigolonhceT,ngninrevog - srotcaF .egatlovrevo dna laitnetop noitisopmoced ,noitaziraloP

tisoped ortcele fo erutan eht gnicneulfni - fo noitartnecnoc ,ytisned tnerrucet ,Hp;etylortcele & noi latem ,tlas latem fo rewop gniworht & erutarepm

sevitidda ,htab gnitalp - erutcurts ,srellevel,srenethgirb ,stnega gnixelpmoc dlog dna muimorhc fo gnitalportcelE .stnega gnittew & sreifidom neewteb noitcnitsid ,noitcudortnI :gnitalp ssel ortcelE .)htab edinayccidica(

portcele & reppoc fo gnitalp ssel ortcele ,gnitalp sselortcele dna gnitalreppoc htiwdraoB tiucriC detnirP dedis elbuod fo erutcafunam . H 5 sruo

:stnetnoC

.ecnatropmi lacigolonhceT ,noitcudortnI

gninrevog selpicnirp ,noitcudortnI :gnitalportcelE

aloP .egatlovrevo dna laitnetop noitisopmoced ,noitazir

tisoped ortcele fo erutan eht gnicneulfni srotcaF - ,ytisned tnerruc;etylortcele & noi latem ,tlas latem fo noitartnecnoc

,htab gnitalp fo rewop gniworht & erutarepmet ,Hp

sevitidda - ,stnega gnixelpmoc & sreifidom erutcurts ,srellevel,srenethgirb

.stnega gnittew

.)htab edinayccidica( dlog dna muimorhc fo gnitalportcelE

dna gnitalportcele neewteb noitcnitsid ,noitcudortnI :gnitalp ssel ortcelE ,gnitalp ssel ortcele

am & reppoc fo gnitalp ssel ortcele tiucriC detnirP dedis elbuod fo erutcafun

draoB .reppoc htiw

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egaP 33

Defi tin i no : It is fed i den as a ecorp ss rrac i de uo t in dro er to dom ify t eh s ecafru treporp i se fo a em tal by oped is ti no fo a la rey fo ona t reh em tal, op l my er ro by for am it no fo xo i ed laye .r

eT c onh l go i lac i pm ort ecna fo atem l fini hs i :gn tI is t eh idda it no fo rec tain treporp i se to t eh am t re i sla to i aercn se t eh itu lity fo t eh

am t re i .la ehT se i cn l edu to i aercn se sorroc i no ser is at ecn to i pm r devo raew er si ts ecna to i rapm t el ce tr ci la a dn t eh r am l cudnoc ti gn s ru f eca i rapm it gn t eh r am l ser ist na ce i rapm it gn ssendrah to reffo t eh sur ecaf t eh r am l ro po t laci re celf tivity ma cafun t eru of el ce tri ac l dna e el ct nor ic moc op nen st s hcu sa

sBCP , capac ti sro c, no t stca el ce t ofor rmi gn corp ess el ce t opor lishi gn ,el hcortce em ci al hcte i gn

ehT i ropm t na t t euqinhce s fo em tal fi in shi gn a er el ce rt po la it gn dna el ce t or l se s pl ta i gn E el portc l ta ing: tI is a pr sseco fo el ce t or lytic oped s ti i no fo em tal a, oll y ro oc opm s ti e no t eh ab se em tal by naem s fo cele t or ly sis .

ehT t eerh caf t ro s evog rni gn t eh el ce t or lysis era op l ra si ati no , ced ompositi no op t tne i la a dn revo ov lt ega .

oP l ra si ta i no :It is fed i den sa t eh ped art eru fo t eh el ce t edor op t ne it la (i aercn se ro aerced s )e eud to i auqedan te s ppu ly of s cep i se f or m t eh ub lk fo solu it no to t eh cele t edor s .ecafru ehT el ce t edor op t laitne si gi nev by t eh nreN st tauqe i no

E = Eo + 0. 1950 /n l go [M +n ] erehW E- edortcele op t ne tia ,l Eo s dradnat el ce t edor op t tne i la dna M[ +n ] is t eh em tal i no necnoc trati no . nI ecneserp fo el ce t cir nerruc t em t la ion cnoc ent ar it no de aerc ses eud ot

oped is ti no fo em tal. nehW t eh fid fu is no ar te fo em tal i no si sl wo t eh rav iat noi in el ce t edor op t tne ai l is bo s devre . tA t tah st ga e t eh le ce t edor si said to eb op l dezira .

Fact ro s dneped i gn no op l ra si ta i no era i. aN t eru fo elec rt edo (s &ezi s epah ) ii. necnoC t tar i no fo el ce rt olyte dna its cudnoc t ecna i ii .Te pm e ar t eru iv. cudorP st of r dem ta el ce t edor etaR.v fo sti gnirr fo t eh el ce t or lyte. oT

esaerced t eh op l ra i tas i no e tceff t eh cele t edor s cafru e um ts eb l egra a dn l wo necnoc rt ta i no of el ce t or lyte w ti h hi hg cudnoc t .ecna De moc po itis no tnetop i la : ehT minimum ext lanre ov l egat ppa il de in redro to uac se

noc it uoun s el ce t or ly sis fo na el ce rt olyte is lac el d ed c mo po itis no op t tne i la . It is aem s deru u is gn na llec citylortcele .

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egaP 43

D te ermi an ti no fo ced ompositi no op t tne i la : ehT llec snoc ists fo owt pl ta inum el ce t sedor i mm ers de in t eh cele t or lyte. hT e ov tl ega is rav i de by mov ni g t eh noc t tca C al gno t eh wi er BA dna t eh tnerruc ap ssi gn t hguorh t eh ec ll

is aem s deru w ti h a emm t re . nehW d li ute sol tu i no fo ca id ro ab se is t neka in t eh lec l ta, l wo ov tl ega i .e. eL ss t nah 1.7 V on tcaer i no si dnuof to rucco uaceb se t eh ine tr pla it num

e el ct sedor era vnoc ert de in to tca i ev hyd negor dna oxyg ne ag s edortcele s. ehT adnoces ry ec ll of r dem pr udo ces kcab e fm

oppo is ng t eh lppa i de e fm . hW en t eh ov lta eg is i aercn s de evoba 1. V7 s neddu ove l tu i no fo H2 a dn O2 ag s t eka s pl eca ta the er s tcep i ev el ce t edor s. ehT purba t inc aer se in nerruc t la so bo ser dev at this op int. ehT ced o opm siti no op t tne i la is aluclac et d by plo itt gn nerruc t v re s su ppa lied egatlov sa s nwoh in t eh hparg .

ehT int re s tce i no fo ht ese t ow st ar i thg il en s gives t eh ced o opm s ti no op t ne ti la m ta ameh it ac lly E kcab fme = E edohtac - E edona

ehT ced o opm tis no op t tne i la av l seu selbane t eh i uclaC. la it no fo e fm re uq i der f ro tnoc i uoun s e el ct or ly is s ii.u es d in s arape it no of em tal i no mixt eru by ele tc or ly sis

vO er ov l egat : ehT secxe s lov t ega t tah has ot eb lppa i de evoba t eh t oeh r te i lac ced ompo is ti no op et n it la to st tra t eh noc it uoun s ortcele ly is s si ac l del revO ov lt ga e.

ED = E edohtac - E edona + Η, erehw Η - evo r ov tl ega ehT caf t sro i fn l ecneu s t eh revo lov t ega era

.i El ce t edor s fru a ec ii. tnerruC isned ty iii. Te arepm t eru i .v aR te of st rri i gn fo t eh el ortce lyte v.N ta eru fo s sbu t ecna id s ahc r .deg

roF xe a pm le t eh re rev is ble edortcele op t ne it la fo ox gy ne gas htiw s oom th pla it num e cel t edor s ru f eca rednu ts dradna dnoc iti no si 1. 32 V . tuB ca t lau ag s ove lu it no t seka ecalp at a op t ne it la fo 1. V86 . hT is e ecx ss 54.0 V si t eh revo ov tl ega of ox negy no smooth pla it num

s ecafru . ehT wonk l gde e fo evo r lov t ega si us de in eht e el ct or ly sis rof oped is ti no fo em tals. rehgiH t eh

el ce t edor op t ne ti la ac it sno iw ll eb e sa ily d si ahc r deg ta t eh el ce t edor s ecafru . E el portc l ta i gn pr eco ss: tI si a orp c sse fo el ortce lytic oped siti no fo em tal, la loy ro oc mp so ite no t eh ab se m te la by

naem s e fo l ce t or ly is s ehT . oped is st era Si gn le em tals s hcu sa nS , uC , iN , rC , gA , tP,uA te c. A ll oys li ek uC - nZ , uC - nS , nS -N ,i Ni- oC , iN - rC et .c Compo tis se s hcu as em slat atnoc ini gn s lo i sd li ek CW ,SiC

ehT rp i cn i lap co pm onents fo el ce t por la it gn era 1. nA el ce rt po l ta i gn b ta h noc taini gn dnoc uc it gn s la ,t em tal to eb plat de in sol bu le

mrof ,co pm l xe i gn nega t, idda it sev , ffub eri gn ga e .tn 2. aC t doh e i. .e t eh tra ci el to eb alp t de 3. edonA : aoC it gn met la it es lf ro i tren el ce t edor

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egaP 53

4. nA i tren noc tai ren ot oh ld all evoba co nopm ne st . ehT bo ej tc to eb plat de si edam as c ta edoh dna t eh op ssible tcaer i no s ta ac t doh e is

M +n + en M ehT dissol tu i no fo met la ta edona t seka ecalp . fI t eh i tren edona is us de t eh ox gy en ove lu it no

t seka pl eca dna m te la i sno ra e dda ed in t eh of rm fo em tal salt.

M M +n + en ehT el ce t or ly sis dnoc iti sno a er am intai den in s hcu a way t ah t nerruc t ffe i cneic i se fo ob th

tcaer i sno era sa em . roF s eccu ss uf l el ce t por la it gn erp t aer t nem t fo bo ject, uferac l sel ce it no fo dona iw th porp er pl ta i gn ab th solu it no ,c nerru t ned sity dna ot eh r el ce t or ly sis dnoc iti sno era secen sary.

rotcaF s inf cneul i gn eht erutan fo el opedortce is t : uC r tner ned is yt tI : is t eh ruc r tne rep inu t aera fo t eh e edoertcel s ecafru ( Am /cm2)

• At l wo nerruc t densit sei s ecafru diff su i no is af st co derapm to ele tc nor trans ref a dn ada ot ms fi dn om st barovaf le op is ti no er s tlu i gn in ew ll of r dem oped is t. sA t eh tnerruc ned sity ercni as de sur ecaf di uff is no si dewols nwod co rapm ed to nortcele

t nar s ref dna ada ot m may on t hcaer om st barovaf le sop i noit er s tlu i gn in ssel deredro oped s ti . • At ev ry hi hg tnerruc ned is ty eb( l wo lim ti gni av l eu ) am ss t nar s rop t rp edomi an tes in os lu it no er s lu it gn in bad oped s ti iw th hguor dna edwop ry t xe t eru hw i hc is roop ly ad nereh t to

ecafrus . • hW en uc r tner ned sity si i desaercn beyo dn lim iti gn tnerruc tnrub dna s nop gy ap aep r ecna fo oped is t sekat pl eca . hT is si eud to ped le it no fo H+ i sno ta t eh edohtac dna of r am it no fo

m te la hydroxi ed a sl o t seka pl erehT .eca of re po it mum c nerru t isned ty s uoh ld eb a pp l dei to eg t doog oped is .t

Pla it ng htab : eM tal salt dna e el ortc yl et tartnecnoc i no ehT: em lat salt necnoc rt a it no is tpek hi hg to

aerced se t eh am ss t nar s ref othe wr si e the auq lity fo pl ta i gn is revda sely fa f ce t de .El ce rt olytes era a sl o dedda to i aercn se t eh udnoc itc vity fo t eh pla it gn ab th. hT ey a sl o evah eht or le fo noc t lor il gn t eh Hp fo ab th sol tu i no trap ci lu arly if the ove lu it no fo H2 ro O2 at ac t edoh ro

edona .H2 OS 4 is a dedd to neverp t h ordy ly sis fo s tla . ciroB ca id is us de sa fub f re i gn tnega . Co pm el xi gn stnega ehT : se are dedda to revnoc t f eer em tal i sno in to co pm l xe i gn i sno to

teg fi en arg i den dna erom ehda r tne oped si .t hT ey are a sl o dedda rof t eh of ll wo i gn aer s sno • oT rp e nev t t eh caer t noi fo ac t edoh m te la dna pl ta i gn i no s • oT rp e nev t ap ssi tav i no fo a don e dna i aercn se in uc r ner t ciffe iency

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egaP 63

• oT i rpm o ev t worh i gn ewop r fo plati gn htab • oT i aercn se t eh s bat ility fo sli thg ly sol bu le em at l sal st • oT ma ek op t ne t lai fo pl ta i gn M +n erom - ev to ac rry uo t pl ta i gn ta l rewo op t tne ial .

ehT om ts oc mm on c mo elp xi gn nega ts era yc ani ed ,s h dy r xo i ed ,s sul hp am ta es ic, t ar tes, at tr ara t se et .c

nagrO ic dda iti sev :A wi ed egnar fo nagro ic co opm u dn s era dedda in l wo necnoc t ar t noi to dom ify t eh s curt t eru , rom p oh logy and reporp it es fo t eh oped s ti . ehT oc mm on dda i it sev era rB)a i renthg s : ehT se era dedda to teg rb i hg t dna li thg r fe l ce it gn oped is t. ehT tcelfer i no t seka

pl eca no ly nehw arg in si ez fo oped sit is l rewo t nah t eh evaw l gne th fo t eh in ic tned il thg . hgirB t ren s desu to cudorp e mi orc s poc i ac lly fi en oped is t arap l lel to s bu ts ar te s .ecafru xE . rA o am it c s enohpu s ro sulp anoh t se dna oc uopm nds c no taini gn =C N, ,S=C=N ro O=C>

.spuorg leveL)b l re s: sbuS t etar s afru ce may cont nia disl aco it sno ehw re pl ta i gn sekat pl eca af ts re

er s tlu i gn nevenu thi senkc s. nehW l eve el rs a er us de they ba s bro at s hcu ger i no s erehw par id oped is ti no t eka s lp a ec dna neverp t ar te fo e el ct nor nart sfer. xe . doS ui m la lyl sul anohp t .se

tS)c ress ler i ve ers ro str utcu r la dom ifi :sre nA el ce t por l ta i gn ecorp ss i ovn l sev i nretn al

st er ss. fI t eh s ssert level is hi hg cr kca i gn t seka pl .eca St er ss er lie srev secuder t eh of r am ti no fo int lanre ts sser by modifyi gn t eh st cur t eru fo t eh oped is t. xE . caS c rah in

eW)d tti gn tnega s I: n le ce t por la it gn h dy rog ne gas ove l dev at edohtac dna t eseh sag bbub les erehda to t eh ac t edoh s ecafru . ehT sag may try to esca ep hw en t eh talp i gn si evo r dna ma ek s

eht oped sit op r uo s dna irb ttle. eW tti gn stnega dedda hcated da s debro h dy ro eg n sag no t eh ac t edoh s ecafru dna i evorpm t eh ehda si no fo t eh oped s xE .ti . doS ui m l ua ryl s ahplu t .e

PH: tA l wo Hp v la eu , h dy r nego ag s ove lu it no t eka s p al ec uac s gni oped is t tirb tle a dn ub rn .t A h t i rehg Hp oped s ti s fo insol bu le em t la h dy r xo i ed s t seka pl eca . neH ce po it mum Hp is

am intai den by u is gn sui bat le .sreffub

pmeT e rutr e: tA sli hg tly hi rehg te arepm t eru doog oped is t t eka s pl eca eud to i aercn se in t eh s ru f eca di uff is no fo noi s. uB t ta hi hg temp are ture ced ompositi no fo nagro ic idda ti ,sev

sorroc i no fo uqe ip nem t dna h dy ro neg ove luti no may at ek s place. ecnaH po t mi um te arepm t ru e si us 03(de t 06o o )C

orhT w gni op w re : ehT ba ility fo t eh pla it gn ab th to gi ev mrofinu dna neve oped is t no t eh e tn i er s ru f eca fo ac t edoh fo i rr e ug l ra s epah . tI si ed t mre i den by aH ri gn b ul m ce ll . tI noc sis st fo insul ta i gn noc tai ren if ll de iw th el ce t or lyte

ohw se t worh i gn rewop is to eb eted rmi en d. edonA is plac de at eht retnec dna t ow edohtac s C( 1 C& 2 era) pl ca ed ta d fi tneref id sta secn d1& d2 d( 1 d> 2) sa s nwoh in t eh fi .g

El ce t por l ta i gn si rac r dei tuo rof s ffu i neic t it em dna ew i hg ts w1 w& 2 oped sit de no ac t sedoh C1 C& 2 are ed termi den .

ehT ew i thg fo de sop it w( 1) no cat edoh C1 si ssel uaceb se fo ti s l rewo revo netop tial . It is ac l aluc t de by t eh uqe ita no

% fO PT x(001= - )y / x( +y-2) erehw d =x 1 d/ 2 & y=w2/w1

D te ermi an it no fo t worh i gn rewop

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egaP 73

E el ortc -pl gnita fo morhc ium: aB ht : rC 2O3 052 g + 2.5 g H2 OS 4 001( : )1

Te pm e ar t ru e : 54 - 55 Ο C nerruC t ned sity : 001 - 002 Am /Cm2 . nerruC t e ff i neic cy: 10- 51 %

donA e : nI sol bu le edona bP - bS ro bP - nS aoc t de w ti h ObP 2 aC t doh e : bO j tce to eb plat de .

At :edona OrC 3 + H2O H2 rC O 4 2 H2 rC O4 H2 rC 2O7 H + 2O Cr2O7 -2 + H2 + +H2O

rC 2O7 -2 H 41 + + e6 + rC2 3+ H 7 + 2 O rC +3 + e3 rC

At aC t :edoh 2 H2O O2 + H4 + e4 + uS l ruhp ic a ic sd ca ts sa ac taly ts in revnoc it gn )IV(rC to rC ( )III by co pm l xe na odic

er acti oT .no am intain t eh necnoc t tar i no fo )III(rC noi s insol bu le sedona il ek bP - ,bS bP -,nS a oll ys era us de derevoc ObP 2 hw i hc xo idi ez )III(rC ot &)IV(rC noc t or ls eht

necnoc t ar ti no fo )III(rC i sno . 1) rC m te la sap is av t se gnorts ly in ca id sul etahp dem ui m. 2) It gi sev )III(rC i no s no dissol tu i no . nI rp e ecnes l egra )III(rC i sno a bl kco rC de op s ti si

bo tai den . 3)Di ecnereff in e ff i neic cy fo edona a dn ac t edona(edoh - 001 % ac t edoh - 02 % .)

Uses: sU ed in de aroc it ev dna c orro is ev ser ist tna fi in s .h aroceD t evi & ud r ba le fin si h ekil c cy les , ua to bom li es , uf r in t ,eru uoh se oh ld fit it ,sgn s lacigru dna ned tal ni urts men st , ot sreh il ek tpo i ac l ins rt umen st ,ma hc ine t ,sloo nortcele i sc rap t ,s ip st no ri ,sgn cy il redn liners fo eid s le gne i en s& ai stfarcr cy il redn s .

E el ortc pl ta i gn fo og ld a( l nak ie cy na i ed )htab : oG ld pla it gn ab t sh era divi ded in to t eerh yt pes ab s de no Hp egnar

.i Al lak i en cyani ed ab t Hp(h 01 to 31 ) ii. ueN tral cyani ed b ta h( Hp 6 to )9 i ii . cA id cyanide ab th Hp( 3.5to 5. )0

ehT al ak il en c nay ide ab th compo is ti no si aB ht : .top oG ld c nay i ed 21 - Lg51 -1 tlaboC ,dica cirtiC ,

PH : 6.3 - 5.4 Te epm rat eru : 04 - 56 oC

tnerruC ytisned : 68 - mcAm 252 -2 uidoS , reffuB etartiC : sevitiddA relevel sa etanohplus lylla m

donA e : etihparg ro,dlog , muinatit desimitalP aC t doh e : bo j tce to eb plat de

NC(uA[ fo noitprosa lacmehC 2 ]) - xelpmoC

NC(uA[ 2 ]) - )NCuA( )da( NC + - pets lanif eht pu ekam noitazillatsyrc dna noitprosed lacimehc ehT

NCuA( ) )da( e + - uA( 0 )NC -)da(

uA( 0 )NC - )da( NC + ecittal uA -

fo ecneserp dna etartsbus eht fo noitatneiro latsyrc eht no dneped muirbiliuqe ehT.dlog eht fo ssendrah dna etar noitaelcun eht tceffa nac taht lekcin sa hcus seitirupmi

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egaP 83

U es s: Us de in aroced ti ev p opru s se li ek j ewe llary, aw t hc ac se , nep op i tn s etc Ele tc ri lac i sudn try il ek ,BCP stcatnoc El ce t inor c i udn ts ry il ek t nar s si t ,sro int arge t de ci ucr it rap ts

caeR t sro dna taeH xe c regnah s in t eh dnoc uct ro t ebu be uac se fo doog orroc is no er sista ecn .

sselortcelE gnitalp I : t is fed i den as soped iti no fo em tal ro a oll y rf om em t la s la t sol tu i no no to a el ce trily it lac ly tca i ev sur ecaf by oc tn lor l de mehc ci al cuder ti no fo M +n i sno by su ati elb

cuder i gn nega ts w ti uoh t u is gn el ce tri lac rene gy . egatnavdA s:

1) seoD on t er uq i er cele tr ci la rewop s .ecruo )2 Semi cudnoc t ro s & insulat sro il ek plastic can eb aoc t .de

3) dooG t worh i gn wop e ,r ecneh nu i of rm aoc it gn si a deveihc no tra i elc fo i ugerr l ra sha .ep 4) Pl ta i gn is drah er t nah el ce t or -pla it gn . 5) opeD sits evah nu i euq chemic la , nahcem i ac l dna ngam ite c pr epo itr se . 6) eveL l sre era on t us de . D si ti tcn i no betw nee El ortce -pl gnita dna el ortce l sse -pl ta i gn

ortcelE - gnitalp ssel ortceleE - gnitalp ecrof gnivirD ylppus rewop otua - noitcaer xoder citylatac

noitcaer edonA M M +n en +

rO H2O O2 + H+ e + - R en+tcudorp dezidixO

noitcaer edohtaC M +n + n e M M +n en + M edona fo etiS

noitcaer edona etarapes detalp eb ot elcitra edohtac fo etiS

noitcaer detalp eb ot elcitra t elcitra htiw detalp eb o

ecafrusevitcayllacitylataC

tisoped fo erutaN yolla etinifed ro latem erup R/O htiw detanimatnoc lateM

seiceps rewop gniworhT yrotcafsitas ton doog

noitacilppA srotcudnocot ylno elbacilppa dna srotcudnoc rof htob elbacilppa

C non srotcudno E el ortc less pl ta i gn of reppoc

erP rt ae t nem t dna avitca it no fo s ecafru : ehT s fru a ec is t aer t de to re evom aerg se dna rehto i rupm iti se I. n esac fo ni sulat sro ,t eh s ecafru is tca i av t de by d pi pi gn in s at uonn s chl ro i ed dna t neh in ap ll da ui m hc l ro id .e ehT sur ecaf is rd i .de

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egaP 93

Pl ta i gn ab t :h aB ht : reppoC sul ahp te 21 g rep l ti er

cudeR i gn tnega : oF r am l ed h edy 8 g rep lit er effuB r : HOaN 51 /g lit er & ehcoR ll e salt 41 /g lit er

Co pm l xe i gn ga ent : ATDE 02 g /lit er pH : 11 Te eom rat eru : 52 0 C

eR acti sno At edona 2 OHCH + 4 HO 2 OOCH + 2 H2O + H2 + e2 At ac t edoh uC +2 + e2 uC

buoD le si ded

rP int de ci ucr it draob U es s: Us de in rp i detn c ri tiuc draob ,pl ta i gn no ocnon n cud t ro ,s pla it gn t hguorh oh le cennoc it sno .

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egaP 04

ELUDOM -3 YGRENE RALOS DNA SLEUF

:sleuF noitcudortnI , eulav cifirolac ,noitacifissalc - cifirolac ten dna ssorg laciremun,retemirolac bmob gnisu leuf fo eulav cifirolac fo noitanimreted,seulav

sisehtnys,gnikcarc citylatac dezidiulf,noitcudortnI :gnikcarC.smelborp yb lortep forehchsiF - csporT lortep fo noitamrofer,ssecorp h ec dna enatco, enilosaG.rebmun enat

gnikconK.leseiddna dna rieht inahcem ,ms gnikconkitna ,stnega dedaelnu ,lortep rewop ,lohocla leseidoib dna .sagoib 5 sruoH

: tnetnoC

noitcudortnI , noitacifissalc .

eulav cifirolaC - cifirolac fo noitanimreted,seulav cifirolac ten dna ssorg

.smelborp laciremun,retemirolac bmob gnisu leuf fo eulav

nikcarc citylatac dezidiulf,noitcudortnI :gnikcarC yb lortep fo sisehtnys,g

rehchsiF - .lortep fo noitamrofer,ssecorp hcsporT

.rebmun enatec dna enatco

gnikconkitna,msinahcem rieht dna gnikconK. leseid dna enilosaG

lortep dedaelnu,stnega ,.

.sagoib dna leseidoib,lohocla rewop

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egaP 14

sleuF a noitcudortnI :noitacifissalc dn

Defi tin i no fo a mehc i ac l f eu l: A hc emi lac leuf si a s sbu t cna e, hw i hc udorp c se a is ng ifi nac negyxo ro ria ni tnrub nehw ygrene thgil dna ygene taeh fo tnuoma t

Classi tacif i no fo mehc i ac l leuf s: mehC i ac l euf ls are cl sa is fi de as rp i ram y dna adnoces ry sleuf .

euF l ,s wh ci h oc ruc in utan r ,e era dellac rp i yram euf l .s euF l ,s whi hc era red i dev morf p ir ram y ,sleuf era ca ell d s yradnoce euf l .s mehC i lac euf ls era rehtruf classifi de sa

sol ,sdi il uq ids dna ag s se . A pmoc l ete cl sa s fi i tac i no fo euf ls iw ht xe a pm les is s nwoh in eht lof lo iw gn .elbat

etats lacisyhP sleuf yramirP sleuf yradnoceS

diloS laoc ,dooW ekoc ,laocrahC diuqiL muelorteP enesorek,leseid,lorteP

saG saG larutaN GPL

eulav cifirolaC - noitanimreted ,seulav cifirolac ten dna ssorg leuf fo eulav cifirolac fo:smelborp laciremun ,retemirolac bmob gnisu

Defi tin i no fo ac l firo ic av l eu fo a leuf orG[ ss cal ro ific av l ]eu : tI is fed ined sa t eh nuoma t fo taeh li detareb nehw nu it nauq tity 1( gk ro 1 m3 ) fo a uf el is co pm tel ely ub rnt

in ria ro oxygen dna t eh cudorp ts fo combus it no era ooc el d to or om te pm e ar t eru . Defi tin i no fo ten olac ir fic av lue: It is fed i den as t eh nuoma t fo taeh er l ae s de nehw nu it

tnauq ity fo a uf el si co pm le et yl b nru t in air ro oxyg ne dna t eh stcudorp fo co ubm its no are l te ffo into t eh at om s rehp e . S. I. nu it fo ac l firo ic av l :eu roF s lo i sd , ac l ro if ci av l eu si rpxe ess de in J gk -1 (J uo les rep )gk .

roF ag s uoe s leuf s it is pxe re ss de in J m-3 (J seluo / m3 .) De mret i tan i no fo ac l ro ific av l eu fo a sol di leuf u is gn bmoB aC l ro ime :ret

rP i picn le: A wonk n am ss fo t eh s lo id s ma lp e is tnrub in ecxe ss ox negy . ehT s dnuorru i gn aw t re dna t eh ac l ro i em t re abs bro s t eh taeh li areb t .de uhT s t eh aeh t il areb t de by t eh euf l is uqe la to t eh taeh ba sor deb by t eh aw t re dna t eh ac l ro i em t .re

tcurtsnoC i no : ehT bo bm c la ro i em t re snoc i sts fo a stai eln ss st lee sev s le iw th na air it thg li .d hT is sev s le is ac ll de bo bm . ehT bo bm ah s na inl te av l ev rof pr vo i gnid oxyg ne at om s erehp insi ed t eh bo bm and na el ce tri ac l i ng iti no ioc l f ro s trat i gn fo combu its no fo .leuf ehT bo bm is decalp in na insulat de reppoc cal ro i em t .re ehT ac l ro i em t re sah a nahcem i lac sti rerr rof id ssi tap i no fo taeh dna a t eh rmo em t re rof

daer i gn t eh et arepm t .eru kroW i gn : A nwonk am ss fo t eh solid leuf si pl ca ed in a curc ibl .e ehT curc ible is calp de

i sn i ed t eh bo bm . ehT il d is clos de it thg ly. ehT bo bm is pl deca i sn i ed a c ppo er ac l ro i em t .re A wonk n am ss fo aw t re is t neka in t eh c la ro i em t .re ehT bo bm is fil el d w ti h

ox gy en ta a erp s erus fo 52 - 03 atm. ehT te arepm t eru t1 in t eh t eh rmo em et r si on t .de nO ap ssi gn na el ce tric tnerruc t hguorh t eh i ng iti no ,lioc t eh euf l eg ts i ng i .det ehT euf l

snrub il tareb i gn .taeh ehT aw t re is noc it uoun s yl s it derr su i gn t eh sti .rerr ehT xam imum te arepm t eru at at i den by t eh aw t ,re t2 , si on t de .

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egaP 24

negyxO

B rerritS

noitingi rof seriW retemomrehT

L di

A

elpmaS

bO s tavre i no dna uclac l ta i no s:

orG ss ac l ro ific av l eu =

erehw w = w1 + w2

= am ss fo aw t re in t eh ac l ro im te ,re in gk + retaw uqe i av l ne t of t eh ac l ro i em t ,re in gk ni ,retaw fo taeh cificeps = s gk J -1 oC-1

∆t = t2-t1 = ir se in t repme ta ur ,e in o C m = am ss fo t eh uf e ,l in gk

oN( te: fI the am ss fo euf l is gi nev in rg ams, revnoc t t tah into gk . roF xe a pm le, 0.2 g = 0.2 × 01 -3 gk . fI s cep ific taeh fo aw t re si gi nev in J gk -1 oC-1, ac l ro ific av lue wi ll eb in J kg-1. fI t eh

s cep ific taeh si gi nev in Jk gk -1 oC-1, t neh t eh ac l ro ific av l eu iw ll eb in Jk gk -1.)

oN( te: cepS ific eh at fo aw et r is the nuoma t fo eh ta e ren gy uqer i der to i aercn se the te pm e ar t eru fo

eno gk fo aw t re by one rged ee C.) borP lem 1. aC l uc late t eh c la ro ific av lue fo a sa pm le of aoc l morf t eh of ll wo i gn ad t :a saM s fo laoC = 0.6 g

(w1 + w2) s ∆t m

J kg-1

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egaP 34

saM s fo aw t re + etaw r uqe i av el tn fo ac l emiro t re = 0022 g cepS ific taeh fo aw t re = 4. 781 Jk gk -1 oC-1

Ri es in t epme rat eru = 6. 25 oC oS luti no : oN( t :e nI solvi gn t eh rp bo lem, of ll wo t eh st spe gi nev eb l :wo

1. rW ti e t eh gi nev tnauq ities dna trevnoc t meh into rporppa iate nu i .st 2. rW ti e t eh auqe it .no 3. buS ts itute t eh av l seu . 4. Si pm il fy u is gn lac c alu tor if ecen s as ry. 5. rW ti e t eh na s rew . 6. rW ti e t eh nu its ).

Gi nev : m = 0.6 g = 0.6 × 01 -3 gk

w1 + w2 = 0022 g = 2.2 gk = s 4. 781 Jk gk -1 oC-1 = 4. 781 × 01 3 gk J -1 oC-1

∆t = 6. 25 C

(w1 + w2 ) s ∆t m

2.2 × 781.4 × 103 × 25.6 6.0 × 10-3

1. 100 × 01 8 J gk - 1

borP lem 2. A 0. 58 g fo aoc l s pma el nobrac( 09 %, H2 ,%5 dna ash %5 ) was

bus ej ct de to combu its no in a bo bm ac l ro i em t .re ssaM fo aw t re t neka in t eh c la ro i em t re saw 0002 g

dna t eh w ta re uqe i av l tne fo ac l ro i em t re aw s 006 g. ehT r si e in te arepm t eru aw s 3.5 o .C

aC l uc late t eh org ss dna ten ac lo ir cif av l eu fo t eh sa pm l .e G( i ,nev s ficep ic eh at fo aw t re = 4. 781 kJ

gk -1 oC-1 dna lat tne taeh fo s maet = 4542 kJ gk -1 )

oS luti no : Gi nev m = 0. 58 g = 0. 58 × 01 -3 gk

% fo hyd negor = %5 w1 = 0002 g = 2 gk w2 = 006 g = 0.6 gk ∆t = 3.5 o C

= s 781.4 Jk gk -1 oC-1 = 4. 781 × 01 3 gk J -1 oC-1 L = 4542 Jk gk -1 = 4542 × 01 3 gk J -1

o

orG ss ac l ro ific av l eu =

=

=

J gk -1

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egaP 44

(w1 + w2 ) s ∆t m

(2 + .0 6 ) 781.4 × 103 × .3 5 58.0 × 10-3

= 4. 5284 × 01 7 gk J -1 b) aC l uc lati no fo eN t C. :.V

001 gk fo laoc noc t nia s 5 gk fo H2 g( i .)nev ∴1 gk fo laoc noc t nia s W.k.t. 2 gk fo H2 ecudorp s 81 gk fo steam (from t eh uqe ita no H2 + /1 2O2 ∴ 0. 50 gk fo H2 secudorp 81 × 0.0 5 = 0. 54 gk fo ets am. He ta er l ae s de hw en 1 gk fo steam nednoc s se = 4542 × 01 3 J g( i .)nev ∴ aeH t er l ae s de nehw 0. 54 gk fo ts eam co nedn ses =

= 1. 401 × 01 6 J = 0. 4011 × 01 7 J = 2Q

∴ teN C. .V = 1Q - 2Q = 4. 5284 × 01 7 - 0. 4011 × 01 7

= 4. 1273 × 107 J kg-1 oN( te: aL t tne taeh fo steam si t eh a om unt fo eh at rene gy bil erat de nehw eno gk of

s et am is revnoc t de into eno gk li uq id aw t re .)

3. nO nrub i gn 0. g57 fo a s lo id f leu in a bo bm c la ro i em t re t eh te pm e ar t eru fo 2. gk5 fo aw t re is

i cn r ae s de rf om 42 0C to 82 0C t eh retaw uqe i av l tne fo c la ro i em t re dna lat tne taeh fo ts eam a er

0. 584 gK dna 4. 785X2 K /J gK , s cep i cif aeh t fo aw t re si 4. JK0 / gK /0C

)a ssorG C. .V =

=

5 × 1 001

= 0. 50 gk fo H2

H2O

2

4542 × 103 × 54.0 1

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egaP 54

oS luti no : Gi nev m = 0. 57 g = 0. 57 × 01 -3 gk w 2W+1 = 2( . 0+5 . gk )584 = 2. 589 gk ∆t = t2-t1 82= - 4=42 o C

= s 2.4 Jk gk -1 oC-1 4 = .2 × 01 3 gk J -1 oC-1 L = 4542 kJ gk -1 = 4542 × 01 3 J kg-1

589.2 X 4 X 2.4 X 103 = 57.0 X 10-3

Gi ev n g001 fo oc al noc tai sn 2. g5 fo H2

001 eW wonk t ah t

2 gK fo H2 secudorp 81 gK fo ts eam 0. 520 gK of H2 secudorp = Gi ,nev taeH er l ae s de nehw gK1 fo steam er l ae ses 4(= . X2 )785 K /J 5642=gK . 01X4 3 /J Kg So aeh t aeler sed hw en 0. 522 Kg of ets am er l ae s de ,

aL t ne t taeH 4.5642 X 103 X 552.0 =

1 VCN = VCG[ -L ta tne he ta fo s et a ]m = 6[ . 66 X 01 7 – 0. 74550 X 01 7] /J gK

= 6. 06 X 01 7 J/ gK 5. nO nrub i gn 0. g69 fo a so il d leuf in bo bm cal ro i etem r eht t erutarepme fo g0053 fo H2O i aercn s de yb 2. C07 w reta uqe i av l tne fo oc l ro i retem dna l tneta taeh fo s maet era 583 g dna 785 ac /l g res tcep i lev y. If eht leuf niatnoc s 5% H2 cal uc late i st sorg s dna ten ac l firo ic av l .eu

Gi nev : 0=m . 0=g69 . 69 X 01 -3Kg

W1 53= 0 =g0 3 05 0 1X 0-3 gK W2 83= 5 =g X583 10-3Kg ∆t 2= .70C

aL t tne taeh 785= ca g/l = 4X785 . 81 X 01 3 K/J g =S 4. 01X781 3 /J gK /0C

(w1 + w2 ) s ∆t m

053( 0 X10-3 + 83 5X10-3 )× 781.4 × 103 × 2 7.

69.0 × 10-3

(w1 + w2 ) s ∆t m

)a orG ss C. .V = J / gK = 66.6 X 107 J / gK

520.0 X 81 2

= 522.0 gK maetS

= 74550.0 X 107 J / gK

J / gK orG ss ac l ro ific av l eu =

=

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egaP 64

b) aC l uc lati no fo eN t C. :.V

001 gk fo laoc noc t nia s 5 gk fo H2 g( i .)nev ∴1 gk fo laoc noc t nia s W.k.t. 2 gk fo H2 ecudorp s 81 gk fo steam (from t eh uqe ita no 2H + ½ O2 → H2 )O ∴ 0. 50 gk fo H2 secudorp 81 × 0.0 5 = 0. 54 gk fo ets am. 6. ac l uc l eta eht arg ss dna ten cal ro ific av l eu fo laoc s pma le morf eht laf lo iw gn ad ta

atbo i den morf bmob ac l ro i etem r uqer i tnemer eW i thg of aoc l s pma le t neka = 0. 580 gK eW i thg fo w reta nekat in eht oc l ro i em t =re 1. gK4

retaW uqe i tnelav fo oc l ro i retem =0. gK74 Initi la erutarepmet t1 = 52 0C Fi lan =erutarepmet t2= 72 .3 0C

egatnecreP fo H2 in aoc l s pma le = 5% tnetaL he ta fo st mae = 785 4X . =gK/JK2 4X785 . X2 103 J/ gK

pS ecific taeh fo w reta = 4. 781 JK / gK = 781.4 X 01 3 /J gK

J / gK

78.1 × 781.4 × 103 × 3.2 = 580.0

oS lve

001 gk fo laoc noc t nia s 5 gk fo H2 g( i .)nev ∴1 gk fo laoc noc t nia s W.k.t. 2 gk fo H2 ecudorp s 81 gk fo steam (from t eh uqe ita no 2H + ½ O2 → H2 )O ∴ 0. 50 gk fo H2 secudorp 81 × 0.0 5 = 0. 54 gk fo ets am.

5 × 1 001

= 0. 50 gk fo H2

2

orG ss ac l ro ific av l eu = m

b) aC l uc lati no fo eN t C. :.V

(w1 + w2 ) s ∆t

5 × 1 001

= 0. 50 gk fo H2

2

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egaP 74

KCARC I GN : Defi tin i no fo kcarc i gn : kcarC i gn si fed ined as t eh ssecorp of revnoc it gn hi hg om l uce al r

ew i thg hyd bracor ons into l rewo om l uce l ra ew i thg h ordy c bra ons .

C7H 61 + C7H 41 Fluidi dez deb ac tal ty ic kcarc i :gn

rP i picn le: nI fluidi dez bed atac ly it c gnikcarc , t eh redwop ac talyst is tpek iga tat de by sag st maer s rc( a kc i gn euf l) so t ah t t eh ac taly ts nac eb dnah l de il ek a fluid ys ts em. hT is la so er sults in a doog noc t tca b te neew t eh c ta aly ts s ecafru dna t eh .tnatcaer

noC s tcurt i no : A s hc e am it c di rga am fo ulf idi dez deb atac ly it c kcarc i gn em t doh si nwohs in t eh of ll wo i gn fi .erug

tpO i mum dnoc iti no s: aC taly ts us :de y- type zeolite tca i av t de htiw a r era ae tr h xo i A(ed l2O3+ SiO2)

Te epm rat eru : 055 0 C kroW i gn : ehT ef ed st kco sruopav era ap s des into kcarc i gn hc a bm er. ehT r cae t na ts

ogrednu kcarc i gn in t eh erp s ecne fo cataly ts . hT e cudorp st era sap s de to a tcarf i tano i gn co ul nm . nepS t ac taly ts rf om t eh kcarc i gn hc a rebm si tnoc i uoun sly t nar s rop t de into t eh areneger it no hc a bm er t hguorh na air ts er am. ehT nobrac oped tis de no cataly ts

trap i selc si nrub t ffo in ger e taren i no hC a bm e .r ehT areneger et d ac taly ts si t nar s detrop kcab into t eh gnikcarc hc a bm er

t go te reh w ti h ef ed ts .kco :ssecorP hcsporT rehcsiF

rehcsiF ehT – rp taht snoitcaer lacimehc fo seires a sevlovni ssecorp hcsporT fo yteirav a ecudoC( alumrof eht ot htiw yllaedi ,snobracordyh nH )2+n2( ecudorp snoitcaer lufesu erom ehT .) senakla

:swollof sa 2( n H )1 + 2 + n OC C → nH 2( n )2+ + n H2O

erehw n 01 yllacipyt si - .02 senakla eht fo tsoM .detnawnu si )1 = n( enahtem fo noitamrof ehTthgiarts eb ot dnet decudorp - sa elbatius ,niahc leuf leseid da nI . ,noitamrof enakla ot noitid

fo stnuoma llams evig snoitcaer gnitepmoc senekla sa llew sa , slohocla detanegyxo rehto dnacordyh snobra rehcsiF ehT – a ecudorp taht snoitcaer lacimehc fo seires a sevlovni ssecorp hcsporT

C( alumrof eht ot htiw yllaedi ,snobracordyh fo yteirav nH )2+n2( snoitcaer lufesu erom ehT .) ecudorp enakla s :swollof sa 2( n H )1 + 2 + n OC C → nH 2( n )2+ + n H2O

erehw n 01 yllacipyt si - .02 eht fo tsoM .detnawnu si )1 = n( enahtem fo noitamrof ehTthgiarts eb ot dnet decudorp senakla - sa elbatius ,niahc leuf leseid enakla ot noitidda nI .

C 41 H30

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egaP 84

fo stnuoma llams evig snoitcaer gnitepmoc ,noitamrof senekla sa llew sa , lohocla s rehto dna.snobracordyh detanegyxo

rehcsiF ehT - :ssecorp hcsporT

rehcsiF ehT - nobrac ,edixoid nobrac hcihw ni noitcaer lacimehc dezylatac a si ssecorp hcsporT lacipyT .smrof suoirav fo snobracordyh diuqil otni detrevnoc era enahtem dna edixonom

latac .tlaboc dna nori no desab era desu stsy .etutitsbus muelortep citehtnys a ecudorp ot si ssecorp siht fo esoprup lapicnirp ehT

HC 4 O2/1+ 2 H2→ 2 OC+ 2( n H )1 + 2 + n OC C → nH 2( n )2+ + n H2O

ys ro sag sisehtnys dellac si negordyh dna edixonom nobrac fo erutxim ehT gnitluser ehT .sagn derised eht ecudorp ot denifer era stcudorp nobracordyh leuf citehtnys .

doow dna laoc fo noitadixo laitrap yb detareneg si edixonom nobrac dna edixoid nobrac ehT -cudorp ni elor sti ni yliramirp si ssecorp eht fo ytilitu ehT .sleuf desab ro snobracordyh diulf gni

nobrac dilos ro laoc sa hcus ,kcotsdeef dilos a morf negordyh - .sepyt suoirav fo setsaw gniniatnocnoN - a sa yltcerid desu eb nac hcihw sagnys secudorp lairetam dilos eht fo sisyloryp evitadixo

hcsiF hguorht nekat gnieb tuohtiw leuf re - muelortep diuqil fI .snoitamrofsnart hcsporT - ,leuf ekilrehcsiF eht ,deriuqer si xaw ro ,tnacirbul - negordyh fi ,yllaniF .deilppa eb nac ssecorp hcsporT

eht ,dezimixam eb ot si noitcudorp noitcaer tfihs sag retaw ylno gnitareneg ,demrofrep eb nac nobrac yletanutroF .maerts tcudorp eht ni snobracordyh on gnivael dna negordyh dna edixoid

.ekam ot ysae ylevitaler era sleuf suoesag ot diuqil morf stfihs

TAMROFER I NO Defi tin i no fo tamrofer i no fo ortep l: revnoC is no fo st ar i thg ahc in hyd cor a nobr s in ep rt lo into dehcnarb ahc i ,n c cy il c a dn aro am it c h dy ro nobrac s, er sulti gn in dargpu ita no fo ep t or l is nwonk sa ofer r am it on . oH w tamrofer i no rpmi o ev s eht auq l yti fo ortep l? ehT co t ena nu bm er rof ts ar i thg ahc in h ordy c nobra s si l .wo roF dehcnarb ahc i ,n

c cy il c dna ra o am it c h dy r braco ons, t eh co at en numb re is hi .hg suhT ofer rm ita no revnoc ts t eh l wo co at en numb re p te lor into hgih co t ena nu rebm ep t or l .

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egaP 94

Re tamrof i no aer cti no c dno iti no s:

eR a tnatc ( deef ts )kco : aG soli en bo tai den by carf it no ati no fo ep t or leum + H2 aC taly ts : Pl ta inum s roppu t de no a ul mina P( t / lA 2O3 )

Te epm rat eru : tuoba 005 oC serP s eru : 51 - 05 atm.

Re tamrof i no aer cti no s: ehT am in ofer r am it no tcaer i sno era : )1 sI o em ir az ti ,no )2 yheD rd nego ita no dna

)3 C cy il taz i no dna ed hyd anegor it no . )1 Is remo i taz i :no xE a pm le: n – peH t ena → 5 - eM thyl eh x ena

HC 2 HC 3 HC 3 n-H atpe ne

)2 heD y tanegord i :no

C cy lo eh x ena → enezneB + Hyd gor en C6H6 + 3H2 Be zn ene

)3 Cyc il taz i no dna hed y gord e tan i no

C6H6 + H3 2 eB nzene

rebmuN enatcO ot ecnatsiser ehT elacs yrartibra na fo smret ni desserpxe si slortep yb dereffo gnikconk

dellac rebmun enatco

fo erutxim a ni tneserp enatcoosi fo emulov yb egatnecrep eht si rebmun enatcO n dna enatcoosi – lortep eht sa citsiretcarahc gnikconk emas eht sah hcihw enatpeh rednu

.tset

n fo taht dna 001 sa nekat ylirartibra si enatcoosi fo eulav enatco ehT – .orez sa enatpeh n dna enatcoosi fo )cte 52:57 ,02:08 ;01:09 ( serutxim dradnats tnereffiD – era enatpeh

enimreted si eseht fo hcae fo oitar noisserpmoc eht dna deraperp dradnats rednu d.snoitidnoc

.snoitidnoc emas eht rednu denimreted si tset rednu leuf eht fo oitar noisserpmoc ehT enatco eht ,erutxim 02: 08 fo taht sa emas si leuf eht fo oitar noisserpmoc eht esoppuS

.08 si leuf eht fo rebmun

HC 2 HC 2 HC 3 HC 2 HC 2 H3C CH2 HC 2 HC 2 H3C CH

2- lyhteM - enaxeh

xE a pm le:

C6H12 yC cloh xe a en

C6H 21

axeholcyC ne

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egaP 05

rebmuN enateC : elacs yrartibra na fo smret ni desserpxe si sleseid yb dereffo gnikconk ot ecnatsiser ehT

dellac rebmun enatec dna enatec fo erutxim a ni tneserp enatec fo emulov yb egatnecrep eht si tI - lyhtem

t sa citsiretcarahc gnikconk emas eht sah hcihw enelahthpan .tset rednu leseid eh

kconK i gn in lortep gne i :sen nI ep t lor gne i en s, t eh mixt eru fo ep t lor dna air si nward in to t eh cyli dn er. ehT uf le - ria

mixt eru is co erpm ss de by t eh p tsi no dna is i ing t de by na el ce tric s .krap As t eh f al em norf t t evar ls in the com ub its no hc a rebm , r pa idly dnapxe i gn co ubm st noi

cudorp st co erpm ss t eh rem ia ni gn nu b nru t euf l dna ar i es its te epm rat .eru fI t eh lf a em norf t rt eva ls rapidly at na po timum s deep , t eh co ubm its no fo nrubnu t euf l t eka s pl eca s oom thly. nO t eh rehto ha dn , if t eh fla em norf t rt eva ls t oo sl wo ly, the ne ti er sal t trop i no fo euf l

mixt eru may eg t aeh et d pu beyo dn i st i ting i no t me p re ta ure a dn ogrednu i sn t suoenatna e olpx is ev combu its .no hT is er s tlu in em issi no fo a hc a tcar e ir stic ar tt il gn s dnuo lac el d

kconk“ i ”gn . Defi tin i no fo kconk i :gn kconK i gn may be fed i den sa t eh cudorp ti no fo a s kcoh evaw in na CI gne i en as a er sult fo na pxe lo is ev co ubm its no fo leuf -air mixt ru e, l dae i gn to a

rattli gn s dnuo . senignE CI ni gnikconK

ed enigne CI na fo ycneiciffe dna tuptuo rewop ehT eht no sdnep oitar noisserpmoC eht ot ekorts noitcus eht fo dne eht ta rednilyc eht fo emulov eht fo oitar eht si hcihw

.ekorts noisserpmoc eht fo dne eht ta rednilyc eht fo emulov

us fo dne ta rednilyc fo emuloV ekorts noitc = oitar noisserpmoC

ekorts noisserpmoc fo dne ta rednilyc fo emuloV

lortep eht enigne CI na ni ,snoitidnoc laedi rednU - fo rednilyc eht otni nward erutxim ria dna noisserpmoc seogrednu enigne eht .detingi neht

setagaporp emalf eht dna noitsubmoc etelpmoc ogrednu lortep ni snobracordyh ehT .ylhtooms

ni snobracordyh eht rednilyc eht fo sllaw eht no nobrac fo stisoped ot eud ,semitemoS .sdnuopmoc yxorep mrof lortep

opmoced sedixorep detalumucca ehT kcohs gnicudorp semalf otni tsrub dna ylneddus es .sevaw

.dnuos gnilttar a htiw notsip eht dna enigne eht fo sllaw eht stih evaw kcohs ehT .gnikconk si sihT na sa enahte gnikat( woleb nevig era enigne CI na ni ecalp ekat taht snoitcaer ehT

t rof elpmaxe :)lortep ni tneserp nobracordyh eh

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egaP 15

snoitidnoc laedi rednU

C2H6 O 2/7 + 2 OC 2 2 H3 + 2 O

snoitidnoc gnikconk rednU C2H6 O + 2 HC 3 –O-O- HC 3

)edixorep lyhtemiD(

HC 3 –O-O- HC 3 HC 3 H + OHC 2O

HC 3 O 2/3 + OHC 2 OC + OHCH 2 H + 2O

O + OHCH 2 H2 OC + O 2

b rednu emas eht si noitcaer llarevo eht taht etoN fo elucelom enO .snoitidnoc eht hto eht htiw retaw dna edixoid nobrac gnimrof negyxo fo selucelom 2/7 htiw stcaer enahte

.ygrene fo esaeler .etar mrofinu a ta desaeler si ygrene eht ,snoitidnoc laedi rednU desaeler si ygrene eht ,snoitidnoc gnikconk rednU gal a yb dewollof tsrif ta ylwols

etar tsaf yrev a ta desaeler si ygrene eht yllanif dna )sedixorep fo noitamrof()sedixorep fo noitisopmoced(

gnikconk fo stceffe llI .1 enigne fo efil sesaerceD .2 parw notsiP sesuaC

erom si leuf fo noitpmusnoC.3

tnA i kconk i gn nega t:

nA it kconk i gn nega t is a hc em ci al s sbu at ecn dedda to ep t or l to mi pro ev t eh na it kconk i gn reporp ty fo the ep t lor . roF xe a pm le, t arte ethyl lead .)LET( ddA iti no fo LET to ep rt lo

i aercn s se t eh co at en nu rebm fo ep t .lor LET is amron lly us de al gno w ti h ethyl ene di rb omi ed ro ethyl ne e hcid l ro i .ed oF[ rmula fo tet ar ethyl l dae = (C2H5)4 bP ]

nU l dedae tep rol: nU l dedae ep t lor si t eh ep t lor erehw tet ar te hyl l dae ( )LET si on t us de sa na na it kconk i gn tnega . ddA iti no fo LET to ep rt lo el sda to er l ae se fo rBbP 2 dna

CbP l2 into t eh at om sph ere t guorh h ua ot bom ile hxe a su t. hT is er sul st in air op ll tu i .no oT tneverp air op llu it ,no nu l dedae ep t lor si erreferp d. nI nu l dedae p te or l, em thyl-t- ub tyl

et reh )EBTM( dna ethyl-t- ub tyl et reh )EBTE( era desu sa na it kconk ing tnega s.

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egaP 25

REWOP LOHOCLA

lohocla si sihT - .lortep dednelb 01 fo dnelb a si lohosaG – 09 dna lonahte etulosba fo %58 – emulov yb lortep fo %51

fo noitaraperp eht ni desu si lohocla etulosbA .setatS detinU eht ni leuf a sa desu si dnalohocla rewoP .noitarapes esahp tneverp ot

tuoba sgnirb ecneh dna EBTM naht negyxo fo egatnecrep rehgih sniatnoc lohoclA .ylevitceffe erom lortep fo noitadixo etelpmoc

.lortep dedaelnu naht scitsiretcarahc gnikconkitna retteb sah lohocla rewop eroferehT

segatnavdA lohocla rewop fo

hgih si tuptuo rewop .noitullop ssel sesuac ,OC esaeler ton seod .elbawener ecneh dna tcudorp larutlucirga a ,sessalom morf deniatbo si lohocla .elbadargedoib

Bi do ies le tI si na al tanret i ev leuf to di lese > tI si rfoce i dne ly euf l obtai den rf om bawener le

secruos li ek egev t ba les oi sl a dn na im la euf ls . Ve eg t ba le io ls il ek s yo a naeb o li , ap lm oi ,l unaep t lio era desu to bo tain bi eido s le .

ehT trigl recy i ed s a er ne dede to c vno ert de into bi do iesel by a corp ess ac l dee t nar sest fre i tac i no . ruD i gn snart se t re i tacif i no ,t eh rt iglyc re i ed si t taer ed iw th em t onah l ro et onah l in t eh erp s ecne fo ab se to of rm em thyl or e ht yl se t re fo taf ty a ic sd

rT igl recy i ed HC3+ 30H R1 HCOOC 3 R+ 2 HCOOC 3+ R3 HCOOC 3+ Gl orecy l erofeB s bu j tce i gn t eh lio rof t snar est re ifi ac it no ,ssecorp f eer taf ty ca id fo oi sl a er to eb

e ts deifre in t eh erp s ecne fo na ca id ac taly ts ot wreh si e a sem si o il d soap iw ll of rm dna ti stceffa t eh ofrep rma ecn fo t eh gne i en as ew ll sa arapes it no fo gl ecy rol fr mo dies le

la rey erehW 1R , ,2R 3R a er l gno c ah in fatty ca i sd , narT ses ret ifi ac it no is rrac i de evoba t eh PB fo al ohoc l a dnuor 55 - 06 .C rof a peri do fo 1 to 8 ruoh .s ehT reppu la ey r fo

em thyl es ret is aw s deh w ti h aw et r dna si firup i de ruf t reh to omer ve secxe s fo al lohoc . navadA at eg s

• N no de ible oil nac eb us de • ocE dneirf ly pr cudo st era of r em d • Bi cudorp ts gl ecy rol nac eb us de rof rav i uo s ssecorp • It si co pm letely rged a bad le , non t ixo c fr ee orf nm S compou dn s

sagoiB

airetcab yb etsaw cinagro fo nwodkaerb eht yb decudorp si sagoiB negyxo tuohtiw( noitsegid ciboreana . edixoid nobrac dna enahtem fo erutxim a si sagoiB .)noitatnemref ro

tnemevom ro taeh ,thgil rof ecruos ygrene na sa desu leuf a si sagoiB

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egaP 35

a ni etsaw cinagro gnitnemref yb edam si sagoiB .retsegid sagoib

• la nac tI rednu gnittor neeb sah etsaw cinagro erehw setis llifdnal morf derutpac eb osdnuorg eht

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egaP 45

OS L RA YGRENE oS l ra ygrenE sllec ciatlovotohp,noisrevnoc dna noitazilitu,noitcudortni : -

seludom:ngised.gnikrow dna noitcurtsnoc,ecnatropmi dna slenap,nocilis.sllec vp fo segatnavdasid dna segatnavda.syarra - dna lacisyhp

edarg ralos fo noitcudorp,sciatlovotohp ot tnaveler seitreporp lacimehcnocilis fo gnipod,)ssecorp edibrac noinu( nocilis - dna n( euqinhcet noisuffid

noitacifirup dna )sepyt p .)gninifer enoz( nocilis fo sruoH 5

tnetnoC s :

noisrevnoc dna noitazilitu,noitcudortnI .

sllec ciatlovotohP - gnikrow dna noitcurtsnoc,ecnatropmi .

segatnavdasid dna segatnavdA.syarra dna slenap,seludom:ngiseD

sllec VP fo .

iliS noc - ot tnaveler seitreporp lacimehc dna lacisyhp

edibrac noinu( nocilis edarg ralos fo noitcudorp,sciatlovotohp)ssecorp .

nocilis fo gnipoD - )sepyt p dna n( euqinhcet noisuffid .,

.)gninifer enoZ( nociliS fo noitacifiruP

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egaP 55

:noitcudortnI

rts thgiL fi sa si tI .snortcele time ot lairetam eht fo ecafrus eht sesuac secnatsbus niatrec gniki eht sesuac secnatsbus rehto gnikirts thgiL .smota fo tuo thgir snortcele skcik wohemos thgil

natsbus owt eseht fo noitanibmoc eht si tI .snortcele tpecca ot lairetam esu edam eb nac taht secotohp dellac os eht si sihT.rotcudnoc a hguorht wolf ot snortcele esuac ot fo - .tceffe cirtcele

ciatlovotohP .)yticirtcele( snortcele fo wolf a otni detrevnoc thgilnus snaem ciatlovotohP srotareneg ekil era ,sllec ralos ro ,secived tuohtiw yticirtcele ekam yehT .thgilnus ni krow taht

dilos a si llec ralos A .noitsubmoc tuohtiw yticirtcele ecudorp yehT .noitullop ro esion ,etsaw gnihton os )snortcele dna snotohp rof tpecxe( strap gnivom on era ereht hcihw ni ecived etats

ehT.tuo sraew a yrrac taht "thgilnus fo stekcap" sa fo thguoht eb nac esehT ."snotohp" si leuf esu ekam yadot fo slenaP raloS ehT .etar suoigidorp a ta htrae ot ygrene fo tnuoma lanemonehp

ytirupmi fo stnuoma llams htiw slatsyrc nocilis gnisu yb ygrene tnadnuba siht fo sihT .dedda dellac si latsyrc erup esiwrehto na otni stnemele tnereffid fo stnuoma etunim gnidda fo ssecorp cirtcele na ,rehtona eno tsniaga dednob lairetam depod fo sreyal niht owt gnivah yB ."gnipod"

.thgil ot desopxe nehw decudni eb nac tnerruc

lub ehT ,gnilooc ,gnithgil rof noitazilitu eht ni si dlrow eht ni noitpmusnoc ygrene fo k eseht llA .snoitacilppa remusnoc dna noitcudorp retaw ,snoitacilppa lairtsudni ,noitatropsnart

hgil nI .ssecorp noisrevnoc ygrene eht ni ycneiciffe devorpmi morf tifeneb lliw egrahcsid ,gnit -ygrene erom yb devorpmi eb nac spmal cra - dilos ,nur gnol eht ni elihw stsallab tneiciffe - etats

.seicneiciffe retteb neve reviled nac ecnecsenimulortcele dna DEL no desab smetsys gnithgilelbairav fo ngised retteB - k eht si sevird rotom deeps ygrene erom ot ye - ria tneiciffe - gninoitidnoc

dna syawliar cirtcele nredom ni deriuqer si ygrene lacirtcele fo tnuoma tsaV .noitaregirfer dna .sngised dirbyh reneerg sdrawot gnivom era selcihev sa sevitomotua ni ylgnisaercni osla

ygrene erom otni hcraeseR -e detargetni rewop dna srotom cirtcele ,sretrevnoc rewop tneiciffhctiws fo srerutcafunaM .rotces noitatropsnart eht tifeneb yltaerg nac stiucric - rewop edom

hcraes ni syawla era tnempiuqe noitacinummocelet dna gnitupmoc ,egarots atad ni desu seilppuserom fo ygrene - retaw naelC .seigolopot retrevnoc dna secived rotcudnocimes rewop tneiciffe

ycneiciffe ygrene dna ,ygrene fo tnuoma tsav semusnoc hcihw ssecorp lativ rehtona si noitcudorpE tneiciffE ni saera hcraeser tnerruc ruO .tnatropmi yrev si ssecorp siht ni dna noisrevnoC ygren

:era noitazilitU

ygrene raloS - ;gnilcycer dna noitcudorp retaw desab erom rof scinortcele rewoP - ;stfarcria cirtcele ;selcihev cirtcele rof sniart evird rewoP leuF - ;sesub cirtcele llec diloS - .sgnidliub neerg rof gnithgil etats

eseR dilos ni hcra - gnidlub neerg rof gnithgil etats

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egaP 65

gnilcycer dna noitcudorp retaw desab ygrene ralos ni hcraeseR

ovotohP l at ic leC l :s

ovotohP l at ic ec l sl era s me i rotcudnoc ved i ec whi hc trevnoc sol ra ene r yg i otn rtcele ci la grene y. ovotohP( l at ic lec l is ab s de no eht rp i cn i elp fo cirtceleotohp .)tceffe

oS l ra lec ls : ehT co bm i an it no fo p & n typ se fo semi cudnoc t ro s is lac l de semi cudnoc t ro di edo s. ehT se di edo s hw en opxe es d to ma eng it c dar i ta i no (s nu li hg t) cele tricity si detareneg . s hcu ved i sec era lac el d sa ohp t ovo tl aic ec ll ro os l ra .llec

kroW i gn fo ohP t ovo l at ic eC ll: A t py i ac l is il noc ovotohp tl aic lec l is compos de fo a thin aw t re noc is s it gn fo na ul art ht in la rey fo ohp s ohp r uo s depod n( -t )epy si il noc no t po fo norob depod p( -t )epy is li .noc

thgilnuS

reyal evitcelferitnA

lateM dirg

n- epyT reyal

a p-n j tcnu ion is of r em d eb t neew t eh t .ow

• A em tallic rg id forms eno fo t eh e el ctr ci la noc tac st fo t eh di edo dna a ll swo li thg to

fall no t eh semi cudnoc t ro eb t ew en t eh g ir d line .s • nA na it tcelfer i ev layer eb t neew t eh rg id li sen inc esaer t eh a nuom t of li thg

t nar sm tti de to t eh semi cudnoc t .ro • hT e lec l’s ot reh le tce ir ac l noc t tca is of r dem by a em tallic al yer no t eh ab ck fo

eht sol ra cell .

+h

e

He ecn

P- T epy yal er

e-

cillateM reyal

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egaP 75

• hW en li hg t dar ia it no laf ls no t eh p-n j tcnu i no di ,edo cele t nor - oh le ap i sr a er areneg t de by t eh ba s pro it no fo t eh r da i ta i no

• ehT el ce rt sno era rd ift de to dna loc l ce t de at t eh n- type dne dna eht oh el s era rd ift de to dna oc ll ce t de at t eh p-type .dne

• hW en t eseh t ow e dn s era el ce tri ac lly c no cen t de t hguorh a cudnoc t ,ro t ereh is a fl wo fo nerruc t eb t neew t eh owt dne s t hguorh t eh xe t lanre ci ucr it.

• uhT s ohp t eo l ce tric tnerruc si decudorp dna ava li ba le rof us .e

I ecnatropm fo otohP le rtce ic ec ll

• ohP t ovo tl aic lec l vorp i ed s one rmous a nuom t fo e ren gy from s nu hcihw is milnu ti ,de i hxen au its ble dna bawener l .e • ohP t ovo tl aic lec ls nac s evre rof ob th ffo rg id dna no rg id ppa l aci it .no • ohP t ovo tl aic lec l cudorp es on lop l tu i no so ti si vne i or n nem t rf i dne l .y

ohP t ovo tl aic llec rene gy revnoc is no is hi hg ly mo ud l .ra hT is is i ropm t na t with res tcep to t eh de ev lop nem t fo el ce t icir ty supply sy ts ems in m na y rural dna re om te saera , erehw rg id xe t sne i no si noce omi lac ly not saef ible.

• It vorp i sed rewop rof spa ec tfarc dna sat ille te. • ohP t vo o tl aics nac eb us de sa foor int arge t de sy ts em ,s vorp idi gn wop er dna a sl o

s gnivre sa po it ac l s dah i gn ele nem ts rof t eh s ecap eb l wo dna verp e tn i gn hrevo ea it gn in t eh su .remm

• veD le opmen st in t eh field fo ohP t lovo t cia lec ls wi ll oob st t eh s me ico cudn t ro i udn stry dna ts egaro tab tery indus rt ies.

syarra dna slenap,seludom:ngiseD : )sttaw 000,1( Wk 1 fo tnetnoc ygrene na sah thgilnuS

ralos suohproma( %01 neewteb seveihca yadot lenaP raloS lacipyt ehT .ertem erauqs reponom/ylop( %81 dna )slenap - ralos enillatsyrc mumixam laciteroeht ehT .noisrevnoc )slenap

noisrevnoc %13 ygolonhcet yltsoc erom a gnisU .%12 tuoba si llec nocilis a fo ycneiciffe.deveihca neeb sah

lenaP raloS a morf tcepxe ot tahW

ednu spma 5.5 tuoba ecudorp dluohs )V42( lenap ralos ttaw 091 elgnis A .snoitidnoc ynnus rpma 62 tuoba tcepxe dluohs uoy enihsnus elbanosaer fo yad hcaE - lenap hcus eno morf sruoh

fo rebmun eht tnuocca otni ekat ot deen uoY .)WSN tsaoc htron rof atad noitaidar ralos no desab(na ,nus hcum ees ton yam uoy nehw syad evitucesnoc hguone egral a gnivah yb siht rof wolla d

era sllec ciatlovotohP .sdoirep hcus hguorht revo uoy edit ot knab yrettab dna yarra ralos dna stnerruc ,segatlov rehgih ecudorp ot stiucric lellarap ro/dna seires ni yllacirtcele detcennoc

atlovotohP .slevel rewop yllatnemnorivne na ni delaes stiucric llec VP fo tsisnoc seludom ci.smetsys VP fo skcolb gnidliub latnemadnuf eht era dna ,etanimal evitcetorp

erp a sa delbmessa seludom VP erom ro eno edulcni slenap ciatlovotohP - dleif ,deriw - elballatsnitlovotohp A .tinu rewop etelpmoc eht si yarra cia - VP fo rebmun yna fo gnitsisnoc ,tinu gnitareneg

.slenap dna seludom

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egaP 85

CD mumixam rieht ot gnidrocca detar yllareneg era syarra dna seludom VP fo ecnamrofrep ehTadnatS .)CTS( snoitidnoC tseT dradnatS rednu )sttaw( tuptuo rewop era snoitidnoC tseT dr

ecnaidarri ralos tnedicni dna ,)F o77( C o52 fo erutarepmet gnitarepo )llec( eludom a yb denifed ton era snoitidnoc eseht ecniS .noitubirtsid lartceps 5.1 ssaM riA rednu dna 2m/W 0001 fo level

rra dna seludom VP woh fo lacipyt syawla yllausu si ecnamrofrep lautca ,dleif eht ni etarepo sya.gnitar CTS eht fo tnecrep 09 ot 58

.syarra dna slenap ,seludom ,sllec ciatlovotohP .1 erugiF

eruliaf laminim htiw ,stcudorp elbailer dna efas ylemertxe era seludom ciatlovotohp s’yadoTp dna setar reffo srerutcafunam rojam tsoM .sraey 03 ot 02 fo semitefil ecivres detcejor

.tuptuo rewop detar laitini fo egatnecrep hgih a gniniatniam rof sraey erom ro 02 fo seitnarrawgnitset noitacifilauq ,)LU( gnitsil tcudorp eht rof kool ,seludom VP gnitceles nehW ytnarraw dna

.snoitacificeps s’rerutcafunam eludom eht ni noitamrofni

egatnavdA sllec VP fo s :

• euF l s ecruo si tsav a dn se es tn ially i fn in ti e. • oN em issi no s, on moc busti no ro dar i cao t evi ser i eud s f ro id s op s .la eoD s ton

noc tri ub et ot gl abo l egnahc ro ullop it .no • woL arepo it gn oc st on( euf l). • oN vom i gn rap ts dna so on raew a dn te .ra • Hi hg ler i liba ity in mo ud el .s • oN er c grah i gn • hT ey do on t .edorroc • naC eb i getn rat de i otn new ro ixe sti gn ub i dl i gn st cur t seru . • Hi hg bup il c pecca t ecna na d ecxe ll ne t drocer .

D si egatnavda s sllec VP fo :

• nuS il thg is a uffid s ,e i. ,.c it is rela it ev ly low ned sity rene gy. • Hi hg i sn ta ll ta i no .tsoc • rooP ler i liba ity fo xua li ai ry elemen st i cn l du i gn st egaro . • renE gy nac eb decudorp no ly d ru i gn t eh yad ti em .

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egaP 95

hP ysi lac treporp i se fo sili noc er l ta i ev ot ovotohp l at sci :

Phy is ac l pr repo it se fo is il noc era sa lof l :wo

• Sili noc is a semi noc d cu t ro iw th dnab pag fo 1. Ve2 ta 52 oC. • At at om s rehp ic ,erusserp sili noc crystallizes to dia om nd ebuc ekil st cur t ru e. • Sili noc noc tracts nehw em tl de a dn dnapxe nehw s lo idify. • Hi hg tcarfer i ev i xedn limits t eh tpo i ac l a pp il tac i sno fo silic no . • hT e ba s pro it no dna rt na sm si si no porp ert ei s in t eh 0.4-0.5 mµ evaw l gne th

s cep t ar era i ropm t na t in t eh ep r of rma ecn of ohp t ovo tl aic cel sl . hC emi ac l porp e tr i se er l tnave ot ovotohp l at ics:

Sili noc si st ba le in eht et tnelavart dna sah a st gnor ffa i in ty f ro ox negy , of rmi gn ts elba xo i ed s dna sili ac t .se

• Sili noc dna c nobra of rm a s gnort Si-C dnob dna st elba cudorp t .s • Sili noc of rms h rdy i ed s, dna onom lis ena S( iH4) is key hc emic la co pm o dnu

rof t eh cudorp it no fo Amphr uo s is il noc dna t eh rup i cif ati no fo is il noc to semi noc d cu t ro edarg .

• Sili oc n of rms tri hc l oro sil na e and et t ar chl oro sil ena w ti h hc l ro i ,en hw i hc ra e t eh inter dem iates dna t eh by-pr cudo st fo t eh rup ifi tac i no secorp s in em ta ll gru i lac

edarg is il noc to semi cudnoc t ro .edarg

tcudorP i no fo sol ra edarg sili noc :

oS l ra edarg sili noc sah i rupm iti se in the bpp l leve si uqer i der rof op ly is li noc us de ni semi noc d cu t ro i udn stry. It can eb deraperp by u is gn t ow em t oh sd . Ess tne ial sili noc is ma ed by t eh re cud t noi fo sil ci a iw th nobrac .At hi hg te pm erature s li ci a si decuder to le e nem tal sil aci . SiO2+ C2 Si OC2+

OC si ruf t reh xo i dezid to OC 2 & r cude ed ot at om s erehp t eh is il ac is in om tl ne ts ate.

Refini :gn O2 si pass de t hguorh om lt ne sili noc mixed w ti h a fl xu fo sili ac . ,lA ,aC gM era xo idi dez to er spec it ev xo i ed s. ehT se xo i sed co bm i sen iw th sil ci a of rm ni g a s gal

fo sili ac tes ehT. sl ga si re devom dna fer i den em tl is deruop ni to moulds erehw sil aci si so il d fi sei . hT is si lac l de eM ta ll acigru l edarg sili .ac

A4 l S3+ iO2 lA2+iS3 2O 3

+aC2 SiO2 iS 2+ OaC

+gM2 SiO2 iS OgM2+

oT teg s me i oc n ud tc ors edarg sil noci em tal grul ical rg a ed iS is t aer et d w ti h dry CH l ag s at 003 0C .

iS lCH3 + lCHiS 3 + H2 rT i hc loro sil ena

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egaP 06

iS + CH4 l S lCi 4+ 2 lC 2

eT t ar hc loro is al en

ehT mix is t aer t de to g te erup irt hc l oro si enal

Si lC 4+ H2 SH i lC 3+ lCH

ehT nU i no braC ide secorp s :

hT si pr eco ss i ovn l sev t eh of ll wo i gn s pet s:

ehT h dy r go e an ti no fo et t hcar l soro li ena t hguorh a deb fo em ta ll urgi lac s li i noc is rac ir de uo t in a fluidi dez deb caer t ro

3Si lC 4 + 2H2 + iS

ehT tri hc l oro sil ena si s arape t de by d si tilla it no hw i el the caernu t de et t hcar l soro li ena is er c cy led kcab to t eh h rdy o eg na it no caer t .ro

ehT up ir deif tr ci hl oro sil ena si sap s de ht r uo gh a fi dex deb oc ul nm fil el d iw th auq t anre ry a mm on ui m ion gnahcxe e er is n ca ti gn as atac ly ts . hcirT l oro sil na e teg s revnoc ted into di hc l oro sil na e.

lCHiS2 3 HiS 2 lC 2 + lCiS 4

ehT cudorp st era s arape t de by d si tilla it ,no et t ar chl soro li ena is er c cy l de to t eh h dy rogen r cae t ro dna d ci hl isoro l ena si sap s de t hguorh a s dnoce fi dex deb oc ul nm fi ll de

iw th auq t anre ry a mm on ui m i no e egnahcx ser in. Di hc l soro i enal is revnoc t de into sil ena . S Hi 4 + S2 i CH l3

ehT evoba cudorp ts are s arape t de by d si ti all it no dna t ir hc loros enali is er c cy l de to t eh fi tsr deb oc ul mn. iS l ena si rehtruf rup ifi de by d si ti all ti no a dn t neh p ory il dez to cudorp e

op lysil noci onto aeh et d sili noc es de dor s om unt de in a m te al eb ll-j ra caer t ro H2 2 iS +

poD i gn fo iS il noc yb Di suff i no Te nhc i :)epyt p dna n( euq

nI this et nhc i ,euq a ger i no fo a semi udnoc tc ro am t re i la si i aroprocn t de iw th tnapod a ot ms by t eh d fi tneref i rupm ti y atom into t eh crystal fo t eh am te ir la wi uoht t ca t lau ly

em itl gn i .t By thi s t nhce i uq e t eh e netx t fo imp ru ity enep t ar t noi nac eb c no t lor l de to a ev ry sm lla thi nkc ess fo t eh am t re i la . roF xe a pm l ,e a n-t epy si il noc nac eb bo tai den by

hea it gn a s li ci no aw l ref bel wo i st em itl gn op int in na at om s erehp fo n-type i rupm ity s hcu as ohP s urohp s. ehT imp ru ity a ot ms nednoc se no t eh s ecafru fo t eh aw l ref di uff se into t eh cry ts al. P-t epy is cil no nac eb bo tai den by aeh ti gn a sili noc aw l ref eb l wo ti s

em itl gn op int in na at om s rehp e fo P-t epy i rupm ity s hcu sa naroB . ehT e tx e tn fo di uff is no si uger late yb temp are t eru dna c necno t tar i no fo t eh i rupm ity atom.

4SiHCl3

HiS3 2Cl2

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egaP 16

n- gnipod

5 ehT - nortcele retuo na sah tnapod tnelav erom snortcele retuo ruoF .smota nocilis eht naht eno reve htiw enibmoc egrahc sa sevres dna evom ot eerf si nortcele htfif eht elihw ,mota nocilis

eht otni dnab ecnelav eht morf detfil eb ot ygrene ssel hcum seriuqer nortcele eerf sihT .reirracilis fo ytivitcudnoc cisnirtni eht esuac hcihw snortcele eht naht ,dnab noitcudnoc ,tnapod ehT .noc

.)evig ot = .tal ,eranod( ronod nortcele na sa nwonk si ,nortcele na stime hcihw

eht otni tliub era dna sreirrac egrahc evitagen fo ssol eht yb degrahc ylevitisop era stnapod ehTtemimes depoD .evom nac snortcele evitagen eht ylno ,ecittal no desab si ytivitcudnoc esohw sla

n era snortcele )evitagen( eerf - n ro epyt - esoht snortcele eerf fo rebmun rehgih eht ot euD .depod eerf elihw ,sreirrac egrahc ytirojam sa deman osla era elibom ytironim eht sa deman era seloh

.sreirrac egrahc

n- tiw gnipod surohpsohp h

sti esuaceb ,surohpsohp ot evitanretla na sa desu si cinesrA tneiciffeoc noisuffid sihT .rewol si dna surohpsohp fo taht naht ssel si sessecorp tneuqesbus gnirud noisuffid tnapod eht taht snaem

erehw noitisop eht ta sniamer cinesra eht suht .yllanigiro ecittal eht otni decudortni saw ti

p- gnipod : 3 eht ,surohpsohp htiw gnipod ot eud nortcele eerf eht ot tsartnoc nI - tnapod tnelav3 ehT .etisoppo eht yltcaxe si tceffe - suht ,nortcele retuo lanoitidda na hctac nac stnapod tnelav

ni eloh a gnivael dnab ecnelav eht ni snortcele eht eroferehT .smota nocilis fo dnab ecnelav eht ehT .snortcele eht fo tnemevom eht ot noitcerid etisoppo eht ni evom seloh ehT .elibom emoceb

,tnapod a sa muidni fo level ygrene eht otni nortcele na tfil ot ygrene yrassecen 1 ylno si eht fo %.dnab noitcudnoc eht otni nocilis fo nortcele ecnelav a esiar ot dedeen si hcihw ygrene

dellac era stnapod hcus ,degrahc ylevitagen si tnapod eht ,nortcele na fo noisulcni eht htiW tnapod eht ,niagA .)dda ot = .tal ,eratpecca( srotpecca eht ni dexif si ecittal latsyrc eht ylno ,

p dellac era srotcudnocimes eseht seloh evitisop ot euD .evom nac segrahc evitisop - evitcudnocp ro - n ot golanA .depod - eerf ,sreirrac egrahc ytirojam eht era seloh eht ,srotcudnocimes depod

tironim eht era snortcele .sreirrac egrahc y

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egaP 26

p- norob htiw gnipod

n smret ehT .lartuen yllacirtcele era srotcudnocimes depoD - p dna - ot refer ylno od depod epyt evitagen dexif a ot sgnoleb reirrac egrahc evitagen ro evitisop hcaE .sreirrac egrahc ytirojam eht

degrahc evitisop ro N.tnapod - p dna - ni lauqe yletamixorppa evaheb srotcudnocimes depod sreirrac egrahc fo rebmun eht ,stnapod fo tnuoma gnisaercni htiW .wolf tnerruc eht ot noitaler .stnapod fo tnuoma llams yrev a ylno seriuqer ti ereH .latsyrc rotcudnocimes eht ni sesaercni

depod ylkaeW slatsyrc nocilis hgih ,smota nocilis 000,000,000,1 rep ytirupmi 1 ylno niatnoc.smota nocilis 000,1 rep mota ngierof 1 niatnoc elpmaxe rof srotcudnocimes depod

)gninifer enoZ( iS fo noitacifiruP yb dna( gnitaeh yb demrof era senoz diuqil ehT eht gnilooc ,slioc ecnatsiser lacirtcele :desu neeb evah sdohtem gnitaeh lacitcarp ynaM .)sdilos tnecajda ralos ,)sesag dezinoi( samsalp ,ygrene tnaidar ,maeb nortcele dna ,cra cirtcele ,gnitaeh noitcudni

p( gnilooc dna gnitaeh reitlep dna ,sresal ,gnitaeh na yb decudor tnerruc cirtcele ssorca gniwolfecnatsiser sdnuopmoc cinagro roF .)slairetam tnereffid owt neewteb noitcnuj eht - fo slioc detaeh

si tnemele ro dnuopmoc a fI .desu neeb sah gnitaeh tnaidar hguohtla ,nommoc tsom era eriwutarepmet moor ta diuqil .rotaregirfer a ni enod yllanoitnevnoc si noitarepo eht ,er

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egaP 36

taeh( rocyV ,ssalG .lairetam eht etanimatnoc ton lliw taht eno si reniatnoc lausu ehT - dnalacimehc - etihparg dna ,mulatnat ,munedbylom ,acilis desuf ,)ssalg tnatsiser fI .desu neeb lla evah

enod neeb sah krow doog tub ,lufpleh si reniatnoc tnerapsnart a ,yllacitrev enod si gninifer enoz ralucricimes ,latnoziroh a si reniatnoc eht fI .leets sselniats sa hcus sreniatnoc euqapo gnisu

ssorc - b ,euqapo eb nac ti ,taob noitces eht morf dehsiugnitsid ylidaer si enoz diuqil eht esuace gnikcarc tneverp ot nekat eb tsum erac ,desu si ,lacitrev ro latnoziroh ,reniatnoc dellif a fI .dilos

i( noitcartnoc lamreht laitnereffid yb ro )gnitlem ro( gnizeerf gnirud emulov ni egnahc yb rehtie f .smelborp eseht rof dnuof neeb evah snoitulos suoiraV .)llaw gniniatnoc eht ot skcits egrahc eht euqinu a tub ,krow noitacifirup lla ni melborp a si reniatnoc eht yb egrahc eht fo noitanimatnoC

i ,gninoz taolf,yleman ,gninifer enoz rof dnuof saw noitulos ot tsitneics .S.U a yb detnevn tsom rof muinamreg naht lufesu erom neve si tnemele gnitcudnocimes sihT .iSerupartlu ecudorp trohs a dna ,spmalc dne yb dleh si dor nocilis lacitrev a ,gninoz taolf nI .snoitacilppa rotsisnart

cudni yb decudorp si enoz netlom yb decudni stnerruc cirtcele morf taeh gnicudorp( gnitaeh noit ecafrus sti yb ecalp ni dleh si diuqil ehT .dor eht gnola devom dna )dleif citengam evitanretla na

noitcudni suoinegni suoiraV .thgieh enoz elbats eht stimil yllaciteroeht hcihw ,noisnet - nitaeh g elgnis tcefrep ylraeN .thgieh retaerg fo senoz gnizilibats rof desived neeb evah serudecorp taht secnatsbuS.snaem hcus yb yllaicremmoc decudorp neeb evah nocilis erupartlu fo slatsyrc

eht gnilbane ,noisnet ecafrus hgih evah osla serutarepmet hgih ta tlem yb deifirupartlu eb ot mflah A .eB dna ,mulatnat ,munedbylom ,netsgnut era selpmaxE .gninoz taolf - fo rab hcni

taolf retfa dnah yb °063 tneb ylisae neeb sah ,latem elttirb dna drah yrev a yllamron ,muillyrebt maeb nortcele na gnisu muucav hgih a ni gninoz tnatropmi rehtO .enoz netlom eht ecudorp o

enoz gniylppa ni deredisnoc eb tsum ,revewoh ,srotcaf - edulcni esehT .seuqinhcet gnitlem.secnatsbus suoropav fo gnildnah eht dna ,noitcevnoc larutan ,gnirrits

pmalC

dor iS

lioc F R

noitcerid gnivoM

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egaP 46

ELUDOM -4 SREMYLOP HGIH

ziremylop fo sepyt noitcudortnI fo msinahcem noitasnednoc dna noitidda :noitanoitaziremylop - elpmaxe na sa edirolhc lyniv gnikat msinahcem lacidar eerf

laciremun, egareva thgiew dna egareva rebmun: sremylop fo thgiew ralucelom.T( erutarepmet noitisnart ssalG .smelborp g neulfni srotcaF :) T gnic g- ,ytilibixelF

oerets dnA .gniknil ssorc dna gnihcnarb ssam ralucelom ,secrof ralucelom retniT fo ecnacifingiS .ytiraluger g elisneT .ytinillatsyrc :pihsnoitaler ytreporp erutcurtS .

ytivitsiser lacimehc dna noitamrofed citsalp , yticitsale ,htgnerts ,sisehtnyS, dna enahteruylop nolfeT ,)ssalg ixelp( AMMP fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp ,sisehtnys ,noitcudortnI :sremotsalE .enahteruylop fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp ,sisehtnys ,noitcudortnI :sevisehdA .rebbur enocilis

pe snoitacilppa dna seitreporp sisehtnys ,noitcudortnI setisopmoc remyloP .niser yxo fo msinahcem ,noitcudortnI :sremylop gnitcudnoC .rebif nobrac dna ralveK fo

.enilinaylop gnitcudnoc fo snoitacilppa dna enilinaylop ni gnitcudnoc sruoH 01

:stnetnoC noitaziremylop fo sepyt noitcudortnI

noitaziremyloP fO msinahceM noitiddA - msinahceM lacidaR eerF

M egareva thgiew dna egareva rebmun: sremylop fo thgiew ralucelo

T( erutarepmet noitisnart ssalG g)

gnikniL ssorC dnA gnihcnarB ssaM raluceloM

eporp ,sisehtnyS AMMP fo snoitacilppa dna seitr

enocilis fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp ,sisehtnys ,noitcudortnI :sremotsalE

rebbur

niser yxope fo snoitacilppa dna seitreporp ,sisehtnys ,noitcudortnI :sevisehdA

setisopmoc remyloP

fO snoitacilppA dnA seitreporP sisehtnyS ralveK rebiF nobraC dnA

enilinaylop ni gnitcudnoc fo msinahcem ,noitcudortnI :sremylop gnitcudnoC

enilinayloP gnitcudnoC fO snoitacilppA .

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egaP 56

:remyloP rehtegot denioj selucelom elpmis dna llams fo pu edam ,elucelom egral a si remylop A

avoc hguorht yllacimehc .elucelomorcam tnaig eno mrof ot dnob tnel :remonoM hguorht setis gnidnob erom ro owt htiw elucelom elpmis a sa denifed si remonom A

.elucelomorcam eht mrof ot selucelom remonom rehto htiw egaknil tnelavoc smrof ti hcihw :ytilanoitcnuF o ytilanoitcnuf ehT tneserp setis gnidnob fo rebmun eht sa denifed si remonom a f

.remonom a fo elucelom a ni :elpmaxE

HC ekil sdnuopmoc dednob elbuod llA 2 HC= 2 fo ytilanoitcnuf a evah .e.i ,lanoitcnufib eraowt

HO( slocylg ylralimiS - HC 2- HC 2- COOH( dica cipida ,)HO - HC( 2)4- HOOC lanoitcnufib ) .lanoitcnufirt era yeht ecneh ,setis evitca sa snoitisop 6,4,2 rieht evah slonehP

:noitaziremyloP fo eergeD sa dellac si niahc a ni detaeper si tinu eht semit fo rebmun ehTemylop fo eerged hgih a evah sremylop hgiH .noitaziremyloP fo eergeD egral ecneh dna noitazir

.sessam ralucelom tinu gnitaeper fo thgiew raluceloM = remylop a fo thgiew raluceloM noitaziremyloP fo eergeD

ssecorP noitaziremyloP sepyT :noitaziremyloP niahC ro noitaziremyloP noitiddA

ar a hcihw ni noitcaer noitaziremylop ehT fles dip - ot sremonom lanoitcnufib lareves fo noitiddayb yna fo noitanimile eht tuohtiw noitcaer niahc yb ecalp sekat ,rehto hcae - dellac si tcudorp

”noitaziremylop niahC ro noitiddA“ sdnuopmoc remonom eht sa noitisopmoc latnemele emas eht sah tcudorp ehT evitcaer gniniatnoc

detaitini si noitaziremylop noitiddA .noitaziremylop niahc ogrednu senekla ekil ,sdnob elbuod ’srotaitini‘ dellac secnatsbus fo stnuoma llams gnisu

HC[ n 2 HC = 2] - HC 2 – HC 2- HC 2 – HC [ 2- HC 2]n – HC 2 – HC 2- HC 2 –

:noitaziremylop petS RO noitaziremyloP noitasnednoC ib a hcihw ni noitcaer noitaziremylop A - ralucelomretni seogrednu remonom lanoitcnuf ylop ro

a htiw noitasnednoc ib rehton - ni gnitluser puorg lanoitcnuf elbatius a gnivah remonom lanoitcnufyb fo noitanimile suounitnoc - H ekil selucelom llams fo( stcudorp 2 HN ,lCH ,O 3 dellac si )cte

.”noitaziremylop pets ro noitasnednoc“ dica yb dezylatac yllamron era snoitcaer esehT ilakla ro s

COOH n :xE – HC( 2)4 – n + HOOC 2 NH – HC( 2)6– HN 2 – NH – HC( 2)6– COHN – HC( 2)4 –OC – n H n2+ 2 O

enimaid enelyhtemaxeH dicA cipidA 66 nolyN

noitaziremyloP niahC ro noitiddA fo msinahceM c sdnuopmoC niahC .noitcaer noitaziremylop niahc a ogrednu sdnob elbuod evitcaer gniniatno

ehT .noitanimreT .c noitagaporP .b noitaitinI .a .ziv ,spets rojam 3 fo stsisnoc noitaziremylop rehtie yb tuoba thguorb eb nac htworg niahc remylop fo ssecorp eht fo pets tsrif ro lacidar eerf a

dna tsylatac a dna remonom eht neewteb noitamrof xelpmoc a ro )noina na ro noitac( noi na.smsinahcem tnereffid wollof ylgnidrocca

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:msinahcem lacidaR eerF eiceps evitcaer ylhgih fo noitcudorp eht sevlovni msinahcem siht ni pets tsrif ehT eerf dellac s

’srotaitini` dellac sdnuopmoc eht fo noitisopmoced citylomeh eht yb slacidar sdicareP ,sedixoreP ,sdnuopmoc ozA :era srotaitini sa desu sdnuopmoc lacipyt emoS

:noitaitinI

ygrene lamreht fo ecneserp nI .elbatsnu yllamreht era srotaitini ehT lacidarid ot ni setaicossid ti C[ 6H5 ]OOC 2 2 C6H5 OOC 2 C6H5 OC+ 2

,rotaitini eht fo lacidar eerf ehT sa elucelom remonom eht ni dnob elbuod eht skcatta C6H5 HC + 2 CHC = l R – HC 2 - C lCH

eht dna dnob amgis a hguorht rotaitini eht fo lacidar eerf eht ot deknil tinu remonom eht ,woNtinu remonom eht ot rotaitini eht morf detfihs si etis lacidar eerf

:noitagaporP

monom tsrif eht ta etis lacidar eht ,pets siht nI remonom hserf a fo dnob elbuod eht skcatta tinu re eht ot etis lacidar eht fo refsnart dna tsrif eht ot remonom dnoces fo pu gniknil ni stluser tinu

dnoces R – HC 2 - C HC + lCH 2 lCHC = R – HC 2 – lCHC – HC 2 - C lCH

f wen ehT lacidar eht srefsnart dna no ti sdda ,remonom fo elucelom rehtona skcatta lacidar eerremylop fo niahc gniworg a ot gnidael noisseccus kciuq ni sdeecorp siht ,ti ot etis

R – HC 2 – lCHC – HC 2 -C HC + lCH 2 lCHC = R – HC 2 – lCHC – HC 2 - lCHC – HC 2 –C lCH

R – HC 2– lCHC – HC 2 - lCHC – HC 2–C HC + lCH 2 lCHC = R – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC 3 – HC 2 – C lCH

R – HC[ 2 – ]lCH n-1 – HC 2 –C HC + lCH 2 lCHC = R – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC n – HC 2 – C lCH

:noitanimreT deppots si htworg niahc eht llit stsal noitagaporp ehT eerf eht yb - a yb dellik gnieb etis lacidar

si hcihw ,remylop fo niahc detavitcaed ni stluser noitanimret fo ssecorp ehT.pets noitanimret owt ni ecalp ekat yam noitanimret ,snoitidnoc eht no gnidnepeD .”niahc remylop daed“ sa dellac

syaw tnereffid imreT )i( :gnilpuoc yb noitan

eerf rotaitini na ro lacidar eerf remylop rehtona htiw lacidar eerf remylop eno fo noitanibmoCsa remylop daed a mrof ot lacidar

R – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC m – HC 2 – C R + lCH – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC n – HC 2 – C lCH

R – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC m – HC 2 – lCHC – HC 2 – lCHC – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC n – R remyloP yvaeh daeD

uoc yb noitanimret` dellac si ti ,snortcele enol owt fo gnilpuoc sevlovni ssecorp siht ecniS .’gnilp :noitanoitroporpsiD yb noitanimreT )ii(

gniworg )dnoces( rehto eht yb detcartsba si niahc gniworg eno morf mota H eno ,esac siht nIdemrof era detarutasnu eno dna detarutas eno ,sremylop daed owt taht os niahc

R – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC m – HC 2 – C R + lCH – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC n – HC 2 – C lCH

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egaP 76

R – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC m – HC 2 – HC 2 lC R + – HC[ 2 – ]lCHC n – lCHC = HC .htgnel niahc retrohs fo selucelom owt fo noitamrof ni stluser noitanimret fo epyt sihT

)gT( erutarepmet noitisnart ssalG

pmet ehT si etats yrebbur ot etats yssalg morf smrofsnart yltpurba remylop eht hcihw ta erutare si remylop eht ni sdnob tinu retni eht tuoba noitator ehT .erutarepmet noitisnart ssalg sa nwonk

.gT woleb dna gT ta nezorf ylevitceffe etats yssalG etatS diulfocsiV etats citsaleocsiV )tlem remyloP( mT )yrebbuR( gT )elttirb dna draH(

.erutarepmet noitisnart ssalg gnicneulfni srotcaF ytilibixelf niahC : niahc remylop ni sdnob tinu retni eht tuoba noitator eerf A ytilibixelf strapmi

ekil gT tsewol sah erutcurts lacimehc tselpmis gnivah remylop ehT .remylop eht ot fo modeerf eht rednih puorg edis yklub ro citamora ,dnob elbuod fo ecneserp ehT .enelyhteylop

ercni ybereht ytilibom niahc eht stcirtser dna noitator .eulav gT sesa

lairetam ciremyloP )gT(.pmet noitisnart ssalG )mT(.pmet gnitleM )EPDL(enelyhteyloP - 011 0C 011 0C )EPDH(enelyhteyloP - 09 0C 041 0C

enelyporpyloP - 81 0C 081 0C CVP 78 0C 012 0C

enerytsyloP 001 0C 042 0C

srezicitsalp fo ecneserP : alp fo noitiddA rezicitsalp ecnis ,gT eht secuder remylop eht ot rezicits.remylop eht ot ytilibixelf strapmi

ssam raluceloM : esuaceb si sihT .sesaerced remylop a fo thgiew ralucelom eht sa sesaerced gTi esaercnI .remylop thgiew ralucelom wol ni sdne niahc erom era ereht eerf ,thgiew ralucelom n

fo eerged eht fi detceffa yltnacifingis ton si tI .sesaercni gT dna detcirtser si selucelom fo noitator.052 evoba si noitaziremylop

gniknil ssorc dna gnihcnarB : rehto eht nO. gT eht srewol lliw gnihcnarb fo tnuoma llams A a dnah niahc eht secuder dna resolc niahc remylop eht sgnirb gnihcnarb fo ytisned hgih

fo ecneserp ot eud gT rehgih evah sremylop deknil ssorC .gT ni esaercni na gnitluser ytilibom.erutcurts eht tuohguorht dnob tnelavoc gnorts

secrof ralucelomretnI : serp ot euD niahc remylop eht ni spuorg ralop fo rebmun egral fo ecne ot sdael sihT .ytilibom niahc eht tcirtser hcihw noitcartta fo secrof ralucelomretni gnorts ot sdael

si enelyporpylop elpmaxe roF .gT ni esaercni - 81 0 75 si 66 nolyn dna C 0 eht 66 nolyn nI .Cnegordyh ta sniahc remylop laudividni neewteb ecalp sekat gnidnob – dna HN – fo spuorg OC

.niahc remylop eht remylop eht fo ytiralugeroeretS : tneserp puorg tneutitsbus eht ,sremylop citcatoidnyS nI

T rehgih evah enalp eht woleb rehtona dna evoba eno ylevitanretla nrut ni hcihw citcata naht g erehw edis eno no spuorg tneutitsbus lla evah sremylop citcatosI .citcatosi sti naht gT rehgih sah

.spuorg tneutitsbus fo tnemegnarra modnar evah sremylop citcata sa ytinillatsyrC : ulav gT eht si regral ytinillatsyrc eht rehgiH remylop enillatsyrc nI.remylop fo e

ot sdael sihT .secrof evisehoc gnorts yb dleh era dna rehto hcae ot lellarap pu denil era sniahc eht.gT rehgih

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egaP 86

:gT fo ecnacifingiS nahcem ot esnopser sti tciderp dna remylop a fo ytilibixelf eht etaulave ot desu si tI laci

.sserts .snoitarepo gnissecorp gnirud egnar erutarepmet reporp gnisoohc ni lufesu si tI .cte seitreporp lacirtcele ,xedni evitcarfer ,yticapac taeh ,noisnapxe lamreht fo tneiciffeoC

.egnar erutarepmet a revo remylop a fo ssenlufesu eht enimreted gT ta

erutcurtS – pihsnoitaleR ytreporP seitreporp ehT dneped cte ytivitsiser lacimehc ,yticitsale ,htgnerts sa hcus remylop a fo yltaerg

remylop fo erutan ,ytinillatsyrc ,thgiew ralucelom ,sa hcus sremylop fo stcepsa erutcurts eht no ytiraluger oerets ,sniahc .cte spuorg ralop fo ecneserp ,elucelom eht fo

:htgnertS eht neewteb secrof noitcartta eht fo noitubirtsid dna edutingam yb derusaem si tI.secrof ralucelomretni ro yradnoces )ii secrof dnob lacimehc ro yramirp )I ,.ziv ,selucelom

b dna niahc thgiarts nI kaew yb rehtegot dleh era sniahc laudividni eht sremylop niahc dehcnar ro htgnel niahc eht htiw sesaercni hcihw fo htgnerts eht ,noitcartta fo secrof ralucelomretni

ew ralucelom hgiH .htgnerts elisneT tsniaga PD gnittolp yb gif ni nwohs sa thgiew ralucelom thgi thgiew ralucelom hgih eroferehT .htgnerts elisnet dna tniop gninetfos hgih rof stnuocca sremylop eht yb desaercni secrof ralucelomretni ehT .tnatsiser taeh erom dna rehguot era sremylop

roulf ,enirolhc ,lyxordyh ,lyxobrac ekil spuorg ralop fo ecneserp .cte eni eht revo elucelom eno fo rewop gnippils eht no sdneped osla sremylop niahc thgiarts fo htgnertS ni elpmaxe roF .pils ot ecnatsiser eht stceffa yltaerg selucelom remylop eht fo epahS .rehto

celom eno fo tnemevom ot noitcirtser detimil enelyhteylop ,CVP ni saerehw rehto revo elu lC fo spmul egral fo ecneserp eht ot eud selucelom neewteb detcirtser erom hcum si tnemevom

.enelyhteylop ot erapmoc hguot dna regnorts si CVP eroferehT .smota norts yb deknil era stinu larutcurts lla sremylop deknil ssorc nI yeht eroferehT .ecrof tnelavoc g

.detcirtser si sniahc ralucelomretni fo tnemevom eht ecnis hguot dna gnorts erom era

CVP - 0001 - SP EP 0001

- 005 - 005

:ytinillatsyrC c ni stluser rehto hcae ot tcepser htiw remylop eht fo tnemegnarra ehT enillatsyr ni dna noitisop modnar ni degnarra era selucelom etats suohproma nI .etats suohproma dna

.tnemegnarra ylredro ni dengila eb nac sniahc etats enillatsyrc eht gnisaercni ybereht ,selucelom fo gnikcap resned a strapmi noitazillatsyrC lucelomretni ra

noitcartta fo secrof dna ytidigir retaerg ,tniop gninetfos reprahs dna rehgih rof stnuocca sihT ..remylop suohproma fo taht ot derapmoc sa ytisned retaerg dna ,htgnerts

elisneT sserts

fo eergeD

noitaziremylop

sserts elisneT

fo eergeD

noitaziremylop

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egaP 96

niop dleiy ,ssenffits sa hcus srotcaf lareves senimreted ytinillatsyrc fo eerged ehT ,suludom ,t.yticapac taeh dna ytreporp lacitpo ,ytilibaemrep ,ssendrah

edis yklub on dna gnihcnarb tuohtiw sniahc remylop raenil nehw rucco snoiger enillatsyrCekam ytinillatsyrc fo eerged hgiH .rehto hcae ot esolc dna lellarap degnarra ylredro era spuorg s

.htgnerts tcapmi hgih dna htgnerts elisnet hgih tibihxe ot remylop eht ti dna hcaorppa resolc emoceb lliw smota eht esuaceb enillatsyrc ylhgih si enelyhteylop raeniL

c stneverp spuorg edis yklub htiw remylop a dnah rehto eht nO .gnihcnarb htiw sesaerced resol .hcaorppa .yrtemmys larutcurts eht srewol ti esuaceb noitaziremylopoc yb sesaerced ytinillatsyrC

:yticitsalE gnirps ot ralimis ytreporp a si sihT – dna ecrof gniylppa no setagnole remylop ehtdeziretcarahc si tI .ecrof fo esaeler no epahs sti sniager a retfa epahs lanigiro fo ecnarevocer yb

ton dluohs sniahc laudividni eht yticitsale wohs ot remylop a roF .desaeler si sserts gnimrofedyb sesaercni yticitsale ehT .gnihcterts degnolorp no kaerb

.snoitisop ralucelom elbatius ta gniknil ssorc gnicudortnI ssorC – tnatsnoc ta dedivorp sknil.gnihcterts no rehto hcae tsap pils ot meht wolla ton dna selucelom eht dloh lliw lavretni

stinu taeper eht no serutcurts cilcyc dna citamora sa hcus spuorg edis yklub gnidiovA .wol eb dluohs secrof evisehoc niahc retnI ni spuorg ralop gnidiova yb deveihca si sihT

.stinu taeper no etarapes t’nod niahc eht taht os niahc eht no spuorg ralopnon erom gnicudortnI

gnihcterts .dediova eb dluohs ytinillatsyrc secudortni taht rotcaf yna lairetam citsale na teg oT

tsiseR lacimehC :ecna ralucelom rieht dna stinu ciremonom fo erutan lacimehc ehT

.sremylop fo ecnatsiser lacimehc eht senimreted tnemegnarra .lairetam fo htgnerts fo ssol dna gnillews ,gninetfos sesuac kcatta lacimehc yllausU urts a ni elbulos erom yllareneg si remylop A .tnevlos ralimis yllarutc

ekil spuorg ralop gniniatnoc sremylop g.e roF – ro HO – dekcatta yllausu era HOOC non ot tnatsiser ylraen era tub senotek dna slohocla ,retaw ekil stnevlos ralop yb

lCC ,eneulot ,enezneb ekil stnevlos ralop 4 .cte nivah sremylop tuB non g - ( lyhtem sa hcus spuorg ralop - HC 3 ( lynehp dna ) -C6H5 era )

non ni devlossid neve ro nellows – ekil stnevlos ralop ot tnatsiser tub stnevlos ralop.cte lohocla lyhte ,retaw

evlos citahpila ni elbulos erom era retcarahc citahpila erom era hcihw sremyloP stn.stnevlos citamora ni elbulos erom era retcarahc citamora fo esoht sa erehw

.thgiew ralucelom ni esaercni htiw sesaerced retcarahc gnillews ,remylop nevig a roF resned ot eud ,ytinillatsyrc fo eerged eht ni esaercni htiw sesaercni ecnatsiser lacimehC

p .tluciffid erom tnevlos fo noitartenep sekam hcihw selucelom niahc fo gnikca era eneidatub ylop dna )rebbur( enerposi ylop sa hcus noitarutasnu gniniatnoc sremyloP

.noitadarged evitadixo ogrednu dna enozo ro negyxo yb dekcatta ylisae ylop sa hcus sremyloP lacimehc fo eerged hgih evah nobracoroulf ylop, CVP ,senekla

.ecnatsiser :noitamrofed citsalP citsalp ot demrofed si erutcurts esohw ,scitsalpomreht ni dnuof si tI

gniknil ssorc tuohtiw sremylop raenil ehT .htob ro erusserp ro taeh fo noitacilppa no egats ro sremylop erusserp rednU .noitamrofed citsalp fo eerged tsetaerg eht wohs erutcurts dehcnarb

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egaP 07

gnitca secrof slaaW red naV eht erutarepmet hgih ta esuaceb erutarepmet hgih ta mrofed.kaew erom dna erom emoceb selucelom tnereffid neewteb

ceb yeht gnilooc nO lairetam eht fo yticitsalp esuaceb ,epahs dedluom eht ni digir emo.sremylop raenil ni elbisrever si yticitsalp oS .erutarepmet fo llaf htiw sesaerced

yramirp ylno esuaceb ,gnitaeh no rucco ton seod noitamrofed sremylop deknil ssorc nIp era sdnob tnelavoc nac selucelom eht neewteb pils on dna erutcurts eht tuohguorht tneser

ni esaercni htiw esaercni ton seod yticitsalp sremylop gnittesomreht ni eroferehT .rucco.erutarepmet

:noitamrofed citsalE snoc sremylop taht tcaf eht morf sesira noitamrofed citsale ehT fo stsi htob niatnoc sremylop ecniS .spuorg gnitator eerf gnivah ,selucelom niahc gnol yrev dna daol eht ot yletanoitroporp sesaercni noitagnole eht snoiger suohproma dna enillatsyrc

.daol eht fo lawardhtiw no ylsuoenatnatsni stcaer mrofed ehT dna gniknil ssorc fo eerged ,ytinillatsyrc fo eerged eht nopu sdneped noita

.erutarepmet noitisnart ssalg

)ssalgixelP( :)AMMP(etalyrcahtem lyhtemyloP HC 3 HC 3 CH3 HC 3

HC 3 O C HC NCH+ 3 HC sisylordyH HO C 2 HC C 3 HC HO 2 C

H2 OS 4 NC HOOC HCOOC 3

enotecA nirdyhonayac enotecA dicA cilyrcA lyhteM eM lyht etalyrcahtem

: remonoM etalyrcahtem lyhteM

001:erutarepmeT 0 C edixorep negordyH ro edixorep lytecA: rotaitinI

:ssecorp noitaziremyloP HC 3 HC 3

HCn 2 C HC 2 C HCOOC 3 C HCOO n 3

:seitreporP ycnerapsnart lacitpo hgiH ,thgilnus ot ecnatsiser hgiH ,suohpromA , tniop gninetfoS 041 ot 031 0 C , 56 evobA 0 erutcurts rebbur a ekil semoceb ti C

os cinagro ni elbulos tub slacimehc ynam ot ecnatsiser dna seitreporp lacinahcem dooG stnevlsretse ekil

ssalg ot erapmoc ecnatsiser hctarcs woL :sesU ngis evitcartta ,sneercs VT ,stniap ,)hteet laicifitra( enob serutned ,eye laicifitra ,sesneL

.sesoprup evitaroced rof sgnidliub ni desu ,sdraob

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egaP 17

nolfeT ro)EFTP( enelyhtE orulF arteT yloP oM (enelyhtE orulf arteT : remon FC 2 FC = 2)

erusserp hgiH : erusserP edixorep negordyH ro negyxO : rotaitinI

:ssecorp noitasiremyloP

FC[ n 2 FC = 2] - FC 2 – FC 2- FC 2 – FC [ 2- FC 2]n – FC 2 – FC 2- FC 2 –

eitreporP :s

noitarugifnoc raluger dna smota F evitagenortcele ylhgih fo ecneserp ,sehcnarb on dna raeniL ,ssenhguot emertxe si ti secrof evitcartta gnorts eseht fo esuaceB .secrof evitcartta gnorts stluser

063 tuoba(tniop gninetfos hgih 0 natsiser lacimehc hgih dna)C toh dna ilakla netlom tpecxe ec ot tnatsiseR .egnar erutarepmet ediw revo degnahcnu seitreporp lacinahceM .noitulos eniroulf

.sdica gnorts :sesU rof rotalusni ,sepip gniyrrac lacimehc ,sgninil knat ,steksag ,lairetam gnitalusni sa desU

t ,srotareneg rotom ot snopaew rof lairetam gnitaoc ,tnacirbuL .sroticapac dna sremrofsnarnoisorroc tneverp

sremylop enahteruyloP : senahteruyloP ,egaknil enahteru fo ecneserp eht yb deziretcarahc era [- OOCHN - rts rieht ni sedimaylop elbmeser yehT .stinu taeper rieht ni ] ecneserp eht htiw ,erutcu

erutcurts eht htiw sremylop raenil era yehT .elbixelf erom niahc eht gnikam ’O‘ erom eno fo :yb detneserper

[ - C – N – )R( – N – C – O – )’R( – O -]n

‖ ‖ O H H O

id lykla neewteb noitcaer noitaziremylop noitidda eht yb deraperp era senahteruyloP - etanaycosi

steg puorg HO eht fo mota H eht noitidda gniruD .loid htiw N ot dehcatta - HN mrof ot mota – OC:swollof sa puorg

N = C = O n – )R( – OH n + O = C = N – R( ’ ) – enimA .tret HO id lyklA – loid etanaycosi

OH - R - O - [ - C – N – )R( – N – C – O – )’R( – O -]n - H

‖ ‖ O H H O

enahteru yloP enahteru nolreP.xE

HC[ OH n 2)4 N = C = O n + HO – HC[ 2)6 – O = C = N - O - [ - C – N – – HC[ 2)6 – N– C – O – HC[ 2)4 – O -]n - H

‖ ‖ O H H O

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egaP 27

:seitreporP t raenil tnerapsnart ,ygnops era senahteruyloP scitsalpomreh

ytilibixelf fo eerged hgih dna tniop gnitlem wol evah yehT .slacimehc evisorroc dna ,lio ,retaw ot tnatsiser era yehT

:snoitacilppA ni desu era senahteruylop ,slacimehc evisorroc dna esaerg , lio ot ecnatsiser rieht ot euD

dna gnidaert erit .sleehw lairtsudni thgil ni desu era srebif enahteruyloP - .stius miws ekil tnemrag tnalleper retaw thgiew fo gnitaoc roolf sa desu era yeht ecneh dna tnatsiser noisarba era senahteruyloP

cte ,sroolf ecnad ,muisanmyg i desu era )smaof U( smaof enahteruyloP .seiretslohpu rac dna erutinruf rof snoihsuc n evah sevisehda enahteruylop fo seitreporp noisehda roirepus dna ecnatsiser noisarba ehT

rof srednib citengam fo mrof eht ni seitisned gnidrocer fo tnemecnavda eht delbane morf aidem gnidrocer fo smrof suoirav neve dna ,csid retupmoc ,sepat oediv/oidua

.stekcit noitatropsnart dna sdrac diaperp ylevisnetxe desu osla era yeht ,scitsiretcarahc noitalusni lacirtcele s’enahteruylop ot euD

selbac rebif lacitpo dna sgnitaoc eriw ni :setanobracyloP

c era setanobracyloP sremylop noitasnedno - OH ,dica cinobrac dna slonehp fo sretseylop – OC– [ niatnoc yehT .HO - O – OC – O - .egaknil ]

:noitaraperP fo noitanimile gnivlovni etanobrac lynehpid htiw A lonehpsiB gnisnednoc yb deraperp era yehT

ima.tret fo ecneserp ni lonehp tsylatac en

H-O O-HC

CH3

CH3

C6H5 O C

O

O C6H5

CO O C

n

CH3

CH3O

H O C6H5

+

A lonehpsiBetanobrac lynehpiD

etanobracyloP

.A lonehpsiB fo tlas muidos dna enegsohp fo noitcaer noitasnednoc yb deraperp osla era yehT

HC 3 HC 3

OaN – C6H5 – C – C6H5 – lC n + aNO – C – lC - O – C6H5 – C –C6H5 –O–C– n lCaN2+ ‖ ‖ HC 3 HC O 3 O

enegsohP A lonehpsiB fo tlas muidoS tanobracyloP e

:seitreporP

.citsalpomreht tnerapsnart a si etanobracyloP 562 dnuora ,tniop gnitlem hgih a sah etanobracyloP 0C cnatsiser tcapmi dna htgnerts elisnet hgih a sah tI e .ti ezylordyh ylwols silakla tub sdnuopmoc cinagro ynam dna retaw ot tnatsiser si tI

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egaP 37

:snoitacilppA etanobracylop fo sseccus laicremmoc taerg ehT seitreporp fo noitanibmoc euqinu sti ot eud si

itapmoc tnellecxe ,ycnerapsnart gnidnatstuo ,ssenhguot emertxe dna ,sremylop lareves htiw ytilib.ecnatsiser noitrotsid taeh hgih

,sdleihs ytefas ,selggog ytefas sa hcus selcitra lufesu ynam gnikam ni noitacilppa sdnif tIcte sesnel thgil elibomotua dna strap enohpeleT

w sremylop citsalpomreht raelc era setanobracyloP .sdnuopmoc gnidlom sa desu ylniam era hcihDC - dna sMOR .esu rieht fo selpmaxe nwonk llew era selttob ybab

seirtsudni lacirtcele dna cinortcele ni rotalusni sa desU :sevisehdA

lmrif hcihw ,slairetam gnidnib ciremylop cillatem non eht sa denifed si tI owt dloh y.noitcartta ecafrus yb .cte sessalg slatem sa hcus slairetam tnereffid ro ralimis

lonehp era sevisehda citehtnys elihw eulg dna mug era sevisehda larutan emoScte seixope ,niser edyhedlamrof aeru ,niser edyhedlamrof

s raf era sevisehda citehtnyS .yticapac evisehda rieht ni sevisehda larutan ot roirepu yxopE .ge ,slairetam fo puorg tceles a ylno gnidnob rof lufesu si evisehda fo epyt hcaE

elihw rehtael dna scimarec ,etercnoc ,ssalg ,doow ,slatem rof sevisehda doog era sniserlonehp - si edyhedlamrof .rebbur rof desu

]etidlarA[ sniseR yxopE

:puorg yxope gniniatnoc dna srehte ylop yllacisab era sniser yxopE - HC - HC-R

O 2 ,2 noitanibmoc era sniser yxopE - 4( sib - dna )lonehpsiB( )I( enaporp )lynehpyxordyhakla fo ecneserp ni nirdyhorolhcipe 06 ta tsylatac enil o noitasnednoc yb edam si tI .C

.noitaziremylop

.erutcurts deknil ssorc lanoisnemid eerht a evig spuorg lyxordyh dna edixope evitcaer ehT541 neewteb tniop gnitleM - 551 o .C

:seitreporP

ra yeht egaknil rehte elbats fo ecneserp ot euD ,stnevlos suoirav ,retaw ot tnatsiser ylhgih e.sdica ,silakla

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egaP 47

dna ssenhguot gnisaercni yb ereht .cte sedimaylop ,senimaylop htiw deruc rehtruf era yehT.ecnatsiser taeh

era sniser yxopE gnittesomreht ot desoppo sa slairetam citsalpomreht .slairetam e ehT secafrus suoirav rof ytilauq noisehda tnellecxe evah sniser yxop .ytreporp gnitalusni lacirtcele doog yrev evah yehT era hcihw )edixopE dna HO(spuorg evitcaer fo ecneserp eht ot eud elbixelf era yehT

decaps ylediw :snoitacilppA

un egral a dnif sniser yxopE doog dna ecnatsiser lacimehc elbakramer rieht ot eud sesu fo rebm.noisehda

doow ,slatem ,ssalg ekil secafrus ynam rof sevisehda larutcurts tnellecxe era sniser yxopEcte

diks rof sgnitaoc ecafrus sa desu era yehT - syawhgih rof secafrus tnatsiser edam dluoM stfarcria fo stnenopmoc fo noitcudorp rof deyolpme era sniser yxope morf

selibomotua dna esaerc trapmi ot scirbaf dehcaelb dna noyar ,nottoc revo deilppa era sniser yxopE -

lortnoc egaknirhs dna ecnatsiser rebif fo stneutitsnoc lapicnirp eht fo eno era yehT - scitsalp decrofnier .stnempiuqe lacirtcele rof slairetam gnitanimal sa desu era yehT

:sremotsalE dna sserts rednu )%0001 ot 005( noitagnole egral yrev ogrednu hcihw sremylop hgih era yehT

.sserts fo esaeler no ezis lanigiro niager

RN( rebbuR larutaN ) aN .seert rebbur morf xetal fo mrof eht ni deniatbo si rebbur larut

eht morf deniatbo ,enerposi ylop a si tI .lairetam citsale dna tfos ylhgih a si rebbur larutaN sti dna si erutcurts

2( enerposi ,remonoM - HC ,)eneidatub 3 ,1 lyhtem 2 C ═ – HC ═ HC 2 │ HC 3

- HC [ 2 – C ═ HC – HC 2 - ]n n( )0005 ≈

| HC 3

:rebbur enociliS nociliS niatnoc yehT - .mota nocilis ot dehcatta slacidar cinagro sah hcihw ,erutcurts negyxO

iliS dna lyhtem onom secudorp tnegaer drangirG fo ecneserp ni edilah lykla htiw noitcaer no nocwoleb sa sremylop niahc gnol yrev mrof yeht rehtruF .sedirolhc nocilis lyhtemid

HC 3 iS + lC HC 3 lCiS 3 HC( dna 3)2 lCiS 2 M nociliS edirolhC lyhte

HC 3 | sisylordyH

lC n – iS – lC HC 3 lCiS 3 H | 2 ;O - lCH

HC 3

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egaP 57

nocilis lyhtemid raenil gnixim yb deniatbo era srebbur enocilis deknil ssorC htiw sremylop e hguorht knil ssorc fo noitamrof eht sesuac edixoreP .sedixorep ekil stnega gniruc dna srellif eht ni stluser osla sedilah nocilis lanoitcnuf irt dna iB .sniahc tnecajda fo spuorg lyhtem

nocilis deknil ssorc ylhgih noitamrof

:seitreporP eR fo egnar erutarepmet eht ni elbixelF .silakla dna sdica etulid ,thgilnus ot ecnatsis09 - 052 0 taeh dna seitreporp gnitalusni lacirtcele doog ,gnittesomreht era senocilis deknil ssorC .C

.ecnatsiser :sesU tcafunam ,senigne tfarcria ni lairetam gnilaes sa desU desU .stfarcria rethgif rof serit fo eru

sa desU .gnifoorp retaw dna gnihsinif cirbaf rof sgnitaoc evitcetorp ,stniap ,stnacirbul gnikam ni .srotalusni

( thgiew ralucelom egareva rebmuN )nM seitreporp evitagilloc yb derusaem si tI - fo gnirewol evitaleR erusserp ropav , gniliob fo noitavelE

tniop , tniop gnizeerf fo noisserpeD dna erusserp citomsO . celom lla fo ssam latot fo oitar eht sa denifed si tI fo rebmun latot eht ot elpmas remylop a ni selu

.erutxim eht ni selucelom remylop

/w = nM n Mn =w erehW nΣ - M ,selucelom fo rebmun - tinu gnitaeper fo ssam ralucelom

n1M1 n+ 2M2 n+ 3M3 n……………+ iMi n Σ iMi = = nM

n1 n+ 2 n+ 3 n……………+ i n Σ i

( thgiew ralucelom egareva thgieW )wM eht ni desserpxe osla si tI .seuqinhcet noitagufirtnecartlu dna gnirettacs thgil yb deniatbo si tI

iceps hcae fo ssam ralucelom eht si M dna ssam si w fi ,erutxim a nI .mrof ralimis neht se si wMyb nevig

w1M1 w+ 2M2 w+ 3M3 w……………+ iMi w Σ iMi Mn=w ro M/w=n ecnis

= = wM w1 w+ 2 w+ 3 w……………+ i wΣ i

n1M2

1 n+ 2M22 n+ 3M2

3 n……………+ iM2i n Σ iM2

i = = nM

n1M1 n+ 2M2 n+ 3M3 n……………+ iM i n Σ i Mi

o lauqe rehtie si remylop a fo wM nM/wM ecneh ,nM sti naht retaerg r dellac si oitar sihT 1≥.sremylop fo ytisrepsidylop fo erusaem a si hcihw ,oitar noitubirtsid

:SETISOPMOC REMYLOP

fo ssalc wen a mrof ot enibmoc stnenopmoc tnereffid yllarutcurts erom ro owt fo noitanibmoCius lairetam eht fo eno nehW .lairetam etisopmoc sa derrefer si snoitacilppa larutcurts rof elbat

.etisopmoc remylop a dellac si etisopmoc gnitluser eht ,remylop a si tnenopmoc

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egaP 67

l htiw leets naht regnorts era yehT .thgiew thgil dna gnorts era setisopmoc decrofnier rebiF sse .noitullop ssel dna ycneiciffe leuf eveihca ot selibomotua ni desu eb nac yeht ecneh dna thgiew

.noisorroc ot tnatsiser dna noitacirbaf fo tsoc wol ,thgiew tinu rep htgnerts rehgih sdnif yehT if a gnidnob ylbatius yb decudorp era setisopmoc ciremyloP niser remylop htiw lairetam reb

dial era rebif dna niser fo sreyal etanretlA .taeh dna erusserp rednu emas eht gniruc dna xirtam era desu yllareneg sexirtam remylop ehT .ssenkciht derised eht teg ot ecneuqes ralimis a ni

ilis ,sniser cilonehP ,niser yxope ,rebif ssalg era desu srebif ehT .cte sniser eninalem ,sniser enoc.ralveK dna rebif nobrac

:)dimarA(ralveK 4,1 sremonom eht morf dezisehtnys si tI - enelynehp arap(enimaid enelynehp

t htiw noitcaer noitasnednoc a hguorht edirolhc lyolahthperet dna )enimaid lCH fo noitarebil eh4,1.tcudorpyb sa - arap(yloP ro ralveK edirolhc lyolahthperet enimaid enelynehp - enelynehp)edimalahthperet

puorg lynobrac neewteb demrof sdnob negordyh niahc retni fo ecneserp ot eud htgnerts hgih si tI

s lanoitiddA .puorg HN dna neewteb snoitcaretni gnikats citamora morf deveihca si htgnert.leets naht regnorts rebif citehtnys a si ralveK .sdnarts tnecajda

gnidnob negordyh setacidni enil dehsad ,ralveK fo erutcurts raluceloM

:seitreporP reni lacimehc hgih ,htgnerts elisnet hgiH lamreht fo tneiciffeoc wol yrev ,ssent .thgiew wol ,ecnatsiser tcapmi hgih ,ecnatsiser emalf ,noisnapxe

:sesU notnimdab ,sinnet ,sinnet elbat ni desu ,serutcnup tneverp ot serit rof gninil renni sa desusu ,skcits yekcoh ,stab tekcirc ,steuqcar hsauqs dna citsillab ,stemleh sa hcus romra lanosrep ni de

lamreht wol sti rof scinegoyrc fo dleif eht ni desu netfo si tI .cte stsev foorp tellub ,sksam ecaf.cte sedalb retpocileh ,slluh taob ni desU .htgnerts hgih dna ytivitcudnoc

:rebif nobraC hparg ylevitanretlA tuoba srebif fo gnitsisnoc lairetam a si rebif nobrac ro rebif eti5- .smota nobrac fo yltsom fo desopmoc dna retemaid ni mµ01

ehT .puorg elirtin ralop ylhgih sniatnoc hcihw elirtinolyrca yb dezisehtnys era srebif nobraCdixorep yb tuo deirrac si noitaitini .sdnuopmoc oza ,setahplusrep ,se

HC n 2 taeh HC= - HC 2- HC - HC 2- HC - HC 2- HC - HC 2- HC -

I I I I I NC NC NC NC n NC

elirtinolyrcA yloP elirtinolyrcA

onayc eht hguorht sesilcyc remylop eht ,ylwols dna ylluferac gnitaeh no elirtinolyrcA yloPordyh lepxe ot yllaudarg detaeh si dilos gnitluser ehT .niahc cilcycylop a mrof ot spuorg dna neg

004 ta detsaor ylwols si ti nehT .citamora emoceb sgnir - 006 0 hcihw negordyh erom evomer ot C0002 ot desaercni yllaudarg erutarepmet eht nehT .rehtegot snioj sniahc tnecajda eht sekam 0 ot C

0002 erutarepmet ehT .ssam ekil nobbir rediw teg 0 atniam si C dellepxe si negortin eht lla llit deni.mrof etihparg ni rebif nobrac erup dniheb gnivael

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egaP 77

:seitreporP hgih ,ecnatsiser lacimehc hgih ,thgiew wol ,htgnerts elisnet hgih ,ssenffits hgiH.noisnapxe lamreht wol dna ecnarelot erutarepmet

:sesU psorea ni desU ,sdor gnihsif ,enibrut dniw ,stnempiuqe strops ,gnireenigne livic ,eca.cte sgnirts ratiug lacissalc ,sbulc flog ,semarf teuqcar

:sremylop gnitcudnoC desilacoled htiw remylop cinagro nA - gnivah ,metsys nortcele fo redro emas eht fo ecnatcudnoc lacirtcele .remylop gnitcudnoc dellac si rotcudnoc a

.dnob elbuod detagujnoc sessessop ti sremylop niahc tselpmis eht fo eno si sihT

fo noitidda eht rehtie si gnipoD( gnipod yb yllareneg deniatbo era sremylop gnitcudnoC

ortcele na morf )noitcaer noitadixo( snortcele fo lavomer eht ro )noitcaer noitcuder( sn elgnis dna elbuod gnitanretla fo gnitsisnoc( enobkcab detagujnoc htiw remylop cinagro

nobrac - sdnob nobrac ele ,dnuob ylesool ylno era snortcele eht sa ,metsys detagujnoc a nI eb yam wolf nortc

.elbissop dna dezilacol era snortcele eht dednob yltnelavoc era sremylop eht sa revewoH ot wolf nortcele rof depod eb ot sdeen lairetam eht ecneH .ytivitcudnoc ni trap ekat ton od

.rucco eht ni snortcele eht ,derrucco sah gnipod ecnO ip - dnuora "pmuj" ot elba era sdnob.niahc remylop eht tnerruc cirtcele ,elucelom eht gnola gnivom era snortcele eht sA

.srucco :enilinayloP ta deniatniam dna noitulos lCH M1 delooc erp ni devlossid enilina M2.0 dellitsiD

50 0 fo tnuoma detaluclaC .C HN(M5. 4)2S2O8 dedda si lCH M1 ni devlossid )tnapod gnizidixo( niatniam ot ,cimrehtoxe si noitcaer noitaziremylop eht ecniS .noitulos deraperp evoba ot ylwols

5 ot 0 fo erutarepmet 0 fo noitidda etelpmoc eht retfA .htab eci ni decalp si lessev noitcaer eht C( HN 4)2S2O8 eht ni setatipicerp yllanif enilinayloP .sruoh owt tuoba rof derrits si erutxim eht

roloc neerg eht litnu lCH M1 htiw dehsaw saw etatipicerp neerg krad ehT .mrof neerg ytivitcudnoc htiw rotcudnocimes a si etats depodnu ni enilinayloP .sraeppasid 01 -8 .mc/S

era enilinaylop fo setats noitadixo tnereffiD

enidlareme ocueL 1=y esab enidlaramE 5.0=y enilinarginreP 0=y

(enima fo snoitroporp lauqe fo gnitsisnoc esab enidlaramE - HN - N=(enimi dna ) - nO .setis ).sdnab noralopib mrof ot sdica yb detanotorp era setis enimi ,gnipod dica cinotorp

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egaP 87

:snoitacilppA sa desu ,seirettab elbaegrahcer laicremmoc rof lairetam edortcele sa desU

su ,sdraob tiucric detnirp no skcart evitcudnoc eht sa sllec leuf ni ,sedoid gnittime thgil ni de lacidem rof gnisnes esoculg ni srosnesoib dna srosnes sa desu ,slairetam citylatac ortcele

.snoitacilppa ytefas doof dna latnemnorivne rof gnisnes enima dna snoitacilppa

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egaP 97

ELUDOM -5

SLAIRETAMONAN DNA YGOLONHCET RETAW

:ygolonhceT retaW noitcudortnI , ,retaw deef reliob ;retaw fo seitirupmi dna secruos segatnavdasid htiw selbuort reliob - dna gnimirp ,noitamrof egduls dna elacs

devlossid ot eud(noisorroc reliob ,gnimaof O2 OC , 2 lCgM dna 2 fo noitanimreteD .) yradnoces ,yramirP :tnemtaert egaweS .smelborp laciremun ,DOC dna DOB ,OD egnahcxe noi yb retaw fo gninetfoS .sdohtem yraitret dna )dohtem egduls detavitca(

rtcele & sisomso esrever yb retaw aes fo noitanilaseD .ssecorp noi( sisylaido.)evitceles sruoH 5

tnetnoC s :

I udortn cti retaW:no onhceT l go y secruoS; fo w reta & i rupm i it es in

wat .re

ob ,retaw deef relioB segatnavdasid htiw selbuort reli - egduls dna elacs

.noitamrof

O devlossid ot eud(noisorroc reliob ,gnimaof dna gnimirP 2 OC , 2 dna

lCgM 2 .)

.smelborp laciremun ,DOC dna DOB ,OD fo noitanimreteD

tem egduls detavitca( yradnoces ,yramirP :tnemtaert egaweS dna )doh

.sdohtem yraitret

.ssecorp egnahcxe noi yb retaw fo gninetfoS

.)evitceles noi( sisylaidortcele & sisomso esrever yb retaw aes fo noitanilaseD

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YGOLONHCET RETAW

secruoS fo :retaW hT e s secruo fo aw t re alc ssifi de sa lof l swo

uoS secr retaw

uS r ecaf w reta dnuorgrednU w reta

aR in aw t ,re Ri rev aw t ,re ekaL aw t ,re aeS w ta re rpS i gn aw t re W le l retaw

1) aR in w reta : seruP t of rm fo aw t re atnoc i sn am ny d ssi ol dev ag ses dna sus dednep s lo id rap it cles . 2) Ri rev w :reta noC t nia s sid sol dev mi en rals fo s lio such sa hc l ediro s, sul ahp t ,se

bi anobrac t se fo s do i mu , ac lc ui m, ,gM eF etc. tI is a sl o noc tai sn eht nagro ic am tt ,re s am ll rap it cl se fo s lio dna dnas in sus snep i .no 3) ekaL w reta : tI c no t nia s l sse id ss ol dev m ni re a sl ub t hi hg auq lity fo nagro ic am tt .sre 4) aeS w reta : It is t eh om ts i erupm of rm fo n ta laru retaw . tI atnoc i sn id ss ol dev s tla s hcus

sa lCaN , sul hp ates fo s do ui m, bica anobr t se fo ,K gM & ,aC a dn rb omi ed s fo &K .gM rednU dnuorg w reta : c el ra in aeppa ecnar tub noc tai sn am ny d ssi ol dev s tla s dna nagro ic

am tt .re I rupm iti se in w :reta ehT aw t re dnuof in an t eru si even r erup hw i hc c no tai sn l egra nu rebm

fo i rupm iti se ni av ryi gn a om unt. ehT se i upm rities am inly ped ne d nopu its s ecruo dna era cl ssa i deif into uof r diff tnere t epy .s )1 Dissol dev ag ses; t eh se i cn l sedu id ss devlo oxyg ne , OC 2, OS 2 HN, 3 ,x)ON(, all fo hw i hc red i dev f mor at om s ehp re.

)2 Dissol dev s lo i ;sd t eh se i cn l sedu s stla ekil b ci anobra t ,se hC lo ir sed dna uS l ahp t se fo ,aC ,gM & aN i . n idda it no to t tah s am ll amo nu t fo n ti r ta ,se ni irt tes, s li i ac t ,se a mm onia dna suorref s la t te .c )3 uS spe dedn i rupm iti se : uS s dnep ed i pm uriti se era the id spers de s lo i sd hw i hc nac eb re devom

by f tli ar t noi ro tes tli gn uS s dednep imp ru it sei a er fo t ow t epy ;s ’ i) i nagron ic i upm itir es: clay, is l ci ,a xo i sed of eF & gM .cte ii ) nagro ic imp ru iti :se doow , ip e sec , de da na i am l am tt ,re ,fael hsif , cab t re i ,a al eag , orp t aozo

etc. )4 or nag ic am tt :re nagro ic co opm u dn s devired of rm t eh decay of bategev le dna na imal am tt re

i cn l du i gn retcab ia may eb erp s tne ni aw t .re aW t re a sl o eg ts c tno ami an et d wi ht s egawe dna latercxe am tt re . noC s neuqe tly t eh pa negoht ic cab t re ia dna mi oorc r nag ism ra e t eh am in uac s se

rof aw t re nrob id s ae ses .

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mehC i ac l lanA ysis fo :retaW ed termi an t noi fo rav i suo snoc tit neu t erp s tne in aw t re ni or red to as rec tain the auq il ty fo aw t re sa rep OHW s derednal dna t ereh by utility of aw t re si inc aer s de is nwonk sa retaw ana ly sis .

ehT di tnereff noc s it t neu ts areneg lly ed et rmined ra e endrah ss fo aw t ,re al ak il nity, hc l ro i ,sed nit ar tes, sul ahp t ,se roulf i ed s, sid sol dev yxo gen etc.

retaw deef relioB si retaw a )"deef"( ylppus ot desu reliob etareneg ot maets tA .retaw toh rosnoitats rewop lamreht erp ,derots yllausu si retaw deef eht - a ni denoitidnoc dna detaeh deef

knat retaw a yb reliob eht ot deilppus dna pmup retaw deef reliob os ton saw tnemtaert retaw .cum tsur dna elacs fo stnuoma hgih taht wol os erew serusserp dna serutarepmet sa ,eussi na fo h

.”nwod nwolb“ ro/dna denaelc saw reliob eht fi yllaicepse ,tnuoma hgih a hcus ot mrof ton dluow ro/dna setalp cniz llatsni ot ,hguoht ecitcarp lareneg saw tI enilakla noisorroc ecuder ot slacimehc

elbissop dna esuac eht enimreted dna yrt ot demroferp neeb dah stset ynaM .reliob eht nihtiwrav ,retaw dellitsid gnisu sreliob ni noisorroc morf noitcetorp laicifircas dna ,slacimehc suoi

ynam sa ,lacitirc ylemertxe si retaw deef reliob fo tnemtaert ,hguoht sreliob nredom nI .slatem erutarepmet dna erusserp emertxe ni retaw detaertnu fo esu eht morf tluser nac smelborp

iciffe rewol sedulcni siht ;stnemnorivne dna ,egamad ,gnitaehrevo ,refsnart taeh fo smret ni ycne reliob eht ni smelborp diova ot detaert yllaiceps eb tsum retawdeef ehT.gninaelc fo stsoc hgih

.gniluof dna noisorroc esuac nac retaw deef reliob detaertnU .smetsys maertsnwod dna

:noisorroc relioB yllaicepse ,sdnuopmoc evisorroC O2 dna OC 2 yb yllausu ,devomer eb tsum a fo esu rotareaed fo esu yb ,yllacimehc devomer eb nac stnuoma laudiseR . sregnevacs negyxo .

a ot dezilakla yllacipyt si retaw deef ,yllanoitiddA Hp ot dna noitadixo ecuder ot ,rehgih ro 0.9 fo fo reyal elbats a fo noitamrof eht troppus etitengam retaw eht no - eliob eht fo ecafrus edis ,r

gnisod yb enod yllausu si sihT .noisorroc rehtruf morf htaenrednu lairetam eht gnitcetorp sa hcus ,retaw deef eht otni stnega enilakla edixordyh muidos ( ados citsuac ro ) ainomma .

nobrac evlossid ,negyxo devlossid fo ecneserp eht ot eud si sreliob ni noisorroC.stlas devlossid,edixoid

ioB retaw deef rel retawdeef relioB toh etareneg ot reliob a )"deef"( ylppus ot desu retaw si

tA .retaw t erp ,derots yllausu si retawdeef eht noitats rewop lamreht - taeh a ni denoitidnoc dna de.pmup deef reliob a yb reliob eht ot deilppus dna knat retaw deef

elacS secafrus refsnart taeh no yltcerid retaw eht fo tuo detatipicerp gnieb seitirupmi yb desuac si

eb dna latem eht no tuo gnilttes retaw ni rettam dednepsus yb ro .tnerehda dna drah gnimoc dna srefsnart taeh htiw serefretni sihT .etartnecnoc ot seitirupmi sesuac reliob a ni noitaropavE eht fo gnideecxe eht si msinahcem gnilacS .gnitaehrevo lacol ot gnidaeL .stops toh esuac yam

ecnatsbus larenim fo stimil ytilibulos eht ta noitartnecnoc sdilos dna erutarepmet detavele ot eud s .ecafretni retaw/ebut

refsnart taeh htiw serefretni reliob eht fo sllaw eht no setatipicerp enillatsyrc fo noitisoped ehTht taeh ssel ehT .gnitaehrevo lacol ot gnidael ,stops toh esuac yam dna erom eht ,tcudnoc ye

.era yeht suoregnad

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egduls relioB elttes retaw reliob eht ni tneserp slairetam dednepsus nehw smrof taht tisoped a si fo yliramirp stsisnoc yllacipyt egdulS .secafrus rehto ro sebut reliob toh ,ot erehda ro ,no

xordyh sa hcus sdnuopmoc enitnepres ro )etahpsohp lyxordyh muiclac sa nwonk osla( etitapay osla yam tub noisorroc etasnednoc fo tluser eht yllamron era sedixo lateM .)etacilis muisengam( drah a mrof nac sedixo lateM .noisorroc metsys retawdeef ro retaw puekam eht morf emoc

oicanet eb osla nac sedixo lateM .refsnart taeh stcirtser hcihw secafrus ebut no tisoped su nori yllacipyt era sedixo lateM .egduls eht fo trap emoceb dna selcitrap egduls otno debrosba

s reliob s’taerTmehC.stnenopmoc cillatem rehto ro reppoc edulcni yam tub edixo dna elac noitazillatsyrc lortnoc dna tneverp ot dengised era smargorp tnemtaert lortnoc noitisoped .gninoitidnoc egduls dna noisrepsid tisoped edivorp sa llew sa ,noitamrof tisoped ni gnitluser

i stisoped reliob mrof nac taht stnanimatnoc retaw deef nommoC .acilis dna eF,gM,aC edulcn .retaw reliob ni elbulosni yllatot ton era tub ytilibulos detimil evah taht stlas yb demrof si elacS

.etatipicerp dna mrof elbulos a ni etis tisoped eht hcaer stlas esehT

gnimaoF - yrrac retaw relioB - o noitanimatnoc eht si revo reliob htiw maets eht f - .sdilos retaw .maets eht htiw tuo ssap dna retaw reliob eht fo ecafrus eht no pu dliub yllautca htorf ro selbbuB

dellac si sihT gnimaof tI .retaw reliob eht ni sdilos yna fo noitartnecnoc hgih yb desuac si ti dnaveileb yllareneg si niatrec ,sesaerg ,staf ,slio ,silakla sa hcus secnatsbus cificeps taht ,revewoh ,de

yroeht nI .gnimaof ot evicudnoc ylralucitrap era sdilos dednepsus dna rettam cinagro fo sepytam dna elbbub maets a gnidnuorrus mlif ecafrus eht ni tcelloc sdilos dednepsus ehT .rehguot ti ek

eht renif eht taht deveileb si tI .maof pu sdliub dna gnikaerb stsiser erofereht elbbub maets.elbbub eht ni noitcelloc rieht retaerg eht selcitrap dednepsus

gnimirP ( maets eht ni retaw fo stelpord fo stnuoma gniyrav fo revoyrrac eht si ,)tsim dna maof eht no slatsyrc tlas fo tisoped eht ot sdael dna maets eht fo ycneiciffe ygrene eht srewol hcihw ,reliob fo noitcurtsnoc reporpmi yb desuac eb yam gnimirP .senibrut eht ni dna sretaeh repus

maets ni snoitautculf neddus ro ,sgnitar evissecxe mos si gnimirP .dnamed yb detavargga semite .retaw def deliob ni erupmi eht ni retaw reliob fo spord etunim fo tnemniartne lacinahcem emoS

maets ,evissecxe si revoyrrac retaw reliob siht nehW .srucco syawla maets - ecudorp sdilos deirracisoped edalb enibrut devlossid eht fo taht ot ralimis noitisopmoc a evah snoitalumucca ehT .st

.revoyrrac retaw reliob fo slevel hgih fo esuac nommoc si gnimirP .retaw reliob eht ni sdilosot detaler si gnimirP .llew sa seruliaf ebut retaeh repus ot dael netfo snoitidnoc esehT eht

eht ,ytinilakla yb denrevog era seitreporp esehT .maof ot ycnednet sti dna retaw eht fo ytisocsiv sdneped osla gnimirp fo eerged ehT .ytinilas latot yb dna secnatsbus cinagro niatrec fo ecneserp

m ehT .etar gnimaets sti dna reliob eht fo ngised eht no gnimaof tneverp ot erusaem nommoc tso wol ylbanosaer ta retaw reliob eht ni sdilos fo noitartnecnoc eht niatniam ot si gnimirp dna .spleh osla segnahc daol neddus dna ,sdaol reliob evissecxe ,slevel retaw hgih gnidiovA .slevel

ednoc detanimatnoc netfo yreV yrrac sesuac metsys reliob eht ot denruter etasn - nI .smelborp revo si noitanimatnoc fo ecruos eht litnu detsaw yliraropmet eb dluohs etasnednoc eht sesac eseht fo serutxim , stnega gnimirp itna dna gnimaof itnalacimehc fo esu ehT .detanimile dna dnuof

frus eca - eht tneverp dna maof evomer ,diuqil a fo noisnet ecafrus eht yfidom taht stnega evitcayrrac - yrrac gnitneverp ni evitceffe yrev eb nac ,maerts eht ni selcitrap retaw enif fo revo - revo

reliob eht ni seitirupmi fo snoitartnecnoc hgih ot eud - .retaw

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rroC :sreliob ni noiso eht sa edixonori ot strever ,elpmaxe rof ,norI .mrof ero sti ot latem a fo noisrever eht si noisorroC dna noitcaer lacimehc ortcele xelpmoc a si revewoh ,noisorroc fo ssecorp ehT .noisorroc fo tluser

orp yam noisorroC .smrof ynam sekat ti yam ti ro ecafrus latem egral a revo hcatta lareneg ecud ni retaw yb desuac melborp tnaveler a si noisorroC .latem fo noitartenep tniopnip ni tluser devlossid fo noitca eht ot eud erutan dna nigiro gniyrav ylediw fo eb nac noisorroC .sreliob

roc ot ,negyxo latem no seitienegoreteh fo tluser a sa pu tes stnerruc noisor eht ot ro ,secafrus .nori ,negyxo htiw latem eht fo noitcaer ot eud yliramirp eb yam sreliob ni noisorroc cisab elihW

rroc lacimehc cificeps dna ,snoitidnoc dica ,sesserts sa hcus srotcaf rehto na evah yam stnedo ytitnauq eht redisnoc ot yrassecen si tI .kcatta fo smrof tnereffid ecudorp dna ecneulfni tnatropmi egamad fo ksir tuohtiw retaw reliob eht ni dewolla eb nac taht secnatsbus lufmrah suoirav eht fo

ht ni rucco yam noisorroC .reliob eht ot deef e - eht dna retaw Hp wol fo tluser a sa metsys retaw eht gniwolla dna ,serugif eseht mrof gnitratS .edixoid nobrac dna negyxo devlossid fo ecneserp

ekam eht ni noitartnecnoc dettimrep eht ,nwod nwolb eb nac taht tnuoma - suht si retaw pugnitratS .denifed eht ,nwod nwolb eb nac taht tnuoma eht gniwolla dna ,serugif eseht mrof

ekam eht ni noitartnecnoc dettimrep - yb yllapicnirp desuac si noisorroC .denifed suht si retaw puedixo xelpmoc - lno deecorp nac noisorroc erutarepmet hgiH .stniop gnitlem wol htiw gals eht fi y

stisopeD .latem eht htiw tcatnoc tcerid ni si diuqil eht dna esahp diuqil eht ni si tisoped gnidorroc.ecafrus latem eht ot negyxo fo tropsnart eht etomorp osla

msinahcem tsrif eht nI .smsinahcem tnereffid owt yb rucco yam latem reliob ni gnikcarC cilcyc , noisorroc erehw stniop ta detartnecnoc era dna gnilooc dna gnitaeh dipar yb detaerc era sesserts noisorroc reporpmi htiw detaicossa yllausu si sihT .ecafrus latem eht dettip ro denehguor sah

nikcarc eugitaf noisorroc fo epyt dnoces ehT .noitneverp detaert ylreporp htiw sreliob ni srucco g etanigiro netfo skcarc esehT .remonsim a ylbaborp si eugitaf noisorroc sesac eseht nI .retaw eht morf srucco gnikcarc dna secafrus latem eht srevoc mlif edixo evitcetorp esned a erehw

serts cilcyc deilppa fo noitca eht ssorc dna tnulb ,kciht yllausu era skcarc eugitaf noisorroC .ses no laitnerefmucric netfo tsom era dna secafrus ebut lanretni ta trats yllausu yehT .sniarg latem

.ebut eht

MRETED I TAN I NO FO DI DEVLOSS NEGYXO TNESERP IN A GI NEV ELPMAS FO RETAW YB WI ’RELKN S RO I RTEMODO IC DOHTEM

oehT ry : hT e rp i cn iple i ovn l dev in t eh ed t mre i an it no fo dissol dev yxo gen si that t eh

di av l tne ma enagn se sol tu i no al gno w ti h a st gnor al lak i era dedda to aw et r sa pm l .e ehT OD erp s tne ni w ta re s pma le xo i id ses di av l tne enagnam se to tet avar l tne gnam a en se. ehT ab sic am n nag ic xo i ed of r dem acts as ox gy en reirrac to elbane t eh id ss ol dev ox negy in om l uce l ra

form to t eka rap t in t eh tcaer i no . nopU acidifi tac i no , tet avar l ne t m na enag se trever s to diva nel t s etat iw th t eh il tareb i no of an s tnec oxygen, hw i hc xo id si se IK to I2. ehT l arebi t de i do i en si ti art t de aga i tsn ts dradna s do ui m thiosul ahp te sol tu i no su i gn st hcra as i dn i ac t ro .

SnM O4 + HOK2 )HO(nM 2 + K2SO4 HO(nM2 )2 + O 2 )HO(OnM2 2 B( a is c nagnam ci xo i )ed

HO(OnM )2 + H2SO4 OSnM 4 + H2 2O + ]O[ IK2 + H2SO4 + ]O[ K2SO4 + H2O + I2

I2 + aN2 2S2O3 aN 2S4O6 + N2 aI

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Pr udeco re : Pi tep te tuo 003 cm3 fo retaw sa pm le into a clean ssalg st dereppo tob tl .e ddA 3 cm3 m fo a agn n uo s sul ahp te sol tu i no f lo l dewo by 3 cm3 fo al ak il en op t ssa ui m i do i ed

solut noi . St ppo er t eh tob t el dna s ekah ew ll a dn la l wo eht cerp ipi at te to s te lt e .nwod woN a dd 1 cm3 fo necnoc tr ta de sul ruhp ic acid sl wo ly dna mix ew ll nu til t eh cerp i ip at et sid sol sev co pm letely. Pi tep te tuo 50 cm3 of t sih solu it no into a cl nae c no i ac l

flask dna ls wo ly tit ar te aga i sn t 0. N20 s do ui m thiosul ahp te os lu it no u is gn 2 cm3 st hcra i dn ci at ro ne ra eht dne op i .tn Re taep t eh ti tart i no to eg t nadrocnoc t r dae i gn s .

TAVRESBO I NO DNA TALUCLAC I NO

aP tr B : eD term noitani fo sid sol dev negyxo : uB r te te : aN 2S2O3 sol tu i no

noC i lac flask : 05 cm3 oxyg ne solu it no I dn ic ta or : St hcra sol tu i no ne ra t eh dne op i tn

dnE op int : Di raeppas a ecn fo eulb oc l ruo

gnidaeR etteruB 1 liarT 2 liarT 3 liarT gnidaeR laniF

gnidaeR laitinI

aN fo emuloV 2S2O3 3mc ni nwod nur

oN r am il ty x oV lume of ox negy solu it no = oN r am il ty x oV l emu fo aN 2S2O3

oN r am il ty x loV u em of aN 2S2O3

oN r am il ty fo ox negy soluti =no oV ul em fo oxyg ne soluti no

N x V

= ---a 05

eW i hg t fo id ss ol dev oxyg ne /dm3 = amroN il ty x uqE i av l tne ew i hg t fo ox gy ne = a x 8.0 = g --- b = b x 0001 mg =

:TLUSER ehT ew i hg t fo id ss ol dev ox egy n in t eh gi nev retaw s ma lp e =

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RETAW OITULLOP N Dis egrahc fo rec iat n erof i ng s sbu at ecn into aw t re t tah a stceff t eh physi ac l, biol go ical dna hc emi ac l reporp t sei fo aw et r hw ci h in turn ed c aer s se t eh itu lity of aw t re si nwonk sa aw t re op llu it on ehT . am tt re hw i hc is er s nop sible rof t eh se aehnu tl hy ahc n eg s in aw et r si nwonk sa aw t re op llut tna s .

E .g dP , ,gH ,NC ,sA ,uC ca i sd al ak l si citsep i ,sed ins ce t ci i ed s, gnuf ici ,sed na i am l am ett ,r human cxe ret ,a dar io tca i ev aw ts se etc. ehT noc tami an t de in aw t re si ac l del s we a eg aw et r ro ffe l neu t .

De dnep s no t eh s uo secr fo aw t re loP lut na t, s gawe e aw t re is classi deif into t ow t py e 1. Dom itse c egaweS 2. I udn ts ri la s egawe

Do em stic es w :ega It is aw ts e id s ahc r eg wa ay rf om er is ,ecned nI st ti ut ,se oH s ip tals et .c ehT se in lc edu rec tain cinagro aw ts ,se ap t negoh ic cab t re ia, pl tna m ta aire ls seP it ci ,sed stnegreted dna ot reh m ta re i sla . Do em its c s egawe uac s se aw t re nrob id s sesae li ek dys ne tery, ohc l are

t ohpy id, dna owkooh rm i cefn it .no I udn s rt i la sew :ega ehT w ta re er leas de yb ni ud ts ri se c no tai sn dP , gH , ,NC ,sA ,uC aci ,sd al lak i ,s ep stici ,sed ed t tnegre s, ins tce ici ,sed gnuf ici sed , s ,pao onehp l etc . ehT i sudn t air l s egawe la so uac s se s lareve vne i or nment la borp lems. ehT s egawe nac eb redner ah rmless by su ati ble

t aer t nem st . ehT nagro ic aw ts e erp s tne in aw t re eogrednu s darged ita no dna rb nwodkae into si pm le om l uce l se by bacte ir .a ehT cab t re i la darged ita no is fo t ow t epy s;

1. boreA ci tadarged i no ro xo i tad i no : hguorB t uoba t by ab tc re ia in erp s ecne fo ia r a dn d ssi ol ev ox negy fo aw t .re boreA ic xo idati no ecudorp s is pm l re comp uo nds li ek aw t re a dn CO2.

2. anA e bor ic tadarged i no or xo i tad i :no hguorB t a tuob by cab t re ia ni ba s ecne fo air dna ecudorp s ah r ufm l cudorp t s hcu sa HN 3, H2 ,S H2 ,S HC 4 etc.

Biol go i lac xO y neg dnamed DOB( ) DOB“ is ed if den sa ht e amo nu t oxyg ne r uqe i der by mi rc o agro in sm to xo i id ez all gro anic am tt re erp es tn in eno l ti er fo saw te aw t re at 02 oC revo a

rep i do fo 5 yad s” De mret i tan i :no oT d te ermi en DOB a nwonk ov ul em fo sa pm le egawes is d li detu htiw e lauq ov ul em fo fresh aw t re c no tai sn un tri tne rof cab t laire worg t ,h ohw se dissol ev ox gy en nac eb ed termi en d . ehT sol tu i no si tpek in a clos de ob ttle ta 02 oC revo a rep i do fo 5 day .s fA t re 5 days

t eh unu s de oxyg ne c no t ne ts in aw t re is de et rmi den . ehT di ecnereff eb t neew ox negy cont ne ts in erf sh aw t re dna unu es d oxyg ne noc t ne ts in w ta re si ed termi den . ehT di ecnereff eb t neew ox gy en noc t ne ts in erf sh aw t re dna unu s de oxyg ne in sol tu i no gi ev s t eh DOB av l eu . hC emi ac l xO y neg dnameD :)DOC( tI is fed i den sa t eh a om unt fo ox gy en noc us dem in t eh

hc emi ac l xo i tad i no fo nagro ic dna i gron anic imp ru iti se tneserp ni eno il t er fo saw te aw et r by u is gn acidifi de K2 rC 2O7 sol tu i no in erp s ecne fo is l rev sul hp a et dna rucrem ci sul etahp sa ac taly .ts

HC3 2 O + 61 H++ rC2 2O72- 4 rC +3 OC 3 + 2 + H11 2 O

De mret i tan i no : rP i apicn l: ehT m te doh noc is ts s fo in gnidda secxe s s at dradn solu it no fo ca i fid i de K2 rC 2O7 to onk wn ov lu em fo neulffe t sa pm le dna kcab it t ar it gn t eh ssecxe fo K2 rC 2O7 aga i sn t a ts a dradn

sol tu i no fo SAF .

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egaP 68

rudecorP e: Pi ep t et uo t 52 ml fo saw te retaw sa pm le into a cl nae c no i lac flask dna m01 l fo 0. 52 K N 2 rC 2O ,7 30 ml fo N6 H2 OS 4 1 , g gA 2 OS 4 dna g1 fo OSgH 4 fer l xu t eh mixt eru rof owt ruoh s, ooc l dna ti rt ate aga inst SAF su i gn ef r or in dni i ac t ro ti ll to teg dder ish nworb oc l ruo . eL t t eh

ti ret av l eu eb a cm3. ofreP rm a bl kna it t ar it no in sim li ra way cxe ept u is gn aw s et aw t re sa pm l .e eL t t eh bl kna ti ret av l eu eb b cm3 .

TALUCLAC ION oV ul em fo K2 rC 2O7 noc us dem rof t eh s pma el = b( - )a cm3

0001 cm3 fo N1 SAF sol tu i no = 1 uqe i nelav t fo ox gy en = 8 g fo ox gy en ro( 8 x 01 3 gm fo O2)

8 x 01 3 x b( - )a x N fo SAF b( - )a mc 3 fo ..... .N SAF solu it no = = ..... . ... X. gm fo yxo gen/

0001 x 1 52 cm3 fo aw s et aw t re

52 cm3 fo aw et r sam lp e c no us dem X gm of O2 .X x 001 0

0001 cm3 fo aw ts e retaw s pma el noc tains = 52 mg of ox gy en /dm3 DOC fo aw s et retaw as pm le = ..... . ..... . .... . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... gm fo O2 rep md 3

retaW t tnemtaer ro sew ega tr tnemtae

Re avom l fo ah r ufm l noc tami an it no rf om aw ts e aw t re co pm letely ro rap it ally si nwonk sa retaw t aer t nem t ro s egawe tr ae t nem t.

ehT t aer t nem t fo s we a eg water si carri de uo t by t eerh d fi tneref st .sega 1. Pri am ry t aer t nem t 2. adnoceS ry t aer t nem t 3. et r it ary t er at nem t

rP i am yr tr :tnemtae ehT remo av l fo esraoc so il d in t eh es egaw w ta re si ceffa t de by em ans fo worran skcor , s ,sneerc irg t cha bm ers, dna ks i mm ed t kna et .c ehT retaw si t neh sap s de into

s de i nem itat no t kna erehw it is a ll wo ed to es ttl .e ehT non s tte l de i rupm iti se are omer v de by dda i gn ugaoc l tna s hcu sa op tash a ul m

Se yradnoc aert t tnem ro tca i detav ls egdu :dohtem ehT aw s et aw et r fa t re rp i am ry tr ae t nem t is a ll dewo to fl wo i otn a l egra t kna erehw biol go ci la t aer t nem t is rrac i de .tuo He er t eh aw t re si s rp a dey with tca i detav sl ,egdu t eh mi oorc r nag ism pres tne in sl egdu of rm a thin la rey no aw et r

dna kaerb nwod lla nagro ci imp ru ti i se into si pm l re comp uo nds. ehT air is ap ss de morf t eh c ne t er fo t kna vi uorog sly in redro rb i gn ceffe it ev borea ic xo i ad ti no . ehT ser i laud aw t re is

rolhc i an t de to k li l cab t re ia dna t neh t aer t de w ti h op tash la um to s te tle t eh i pm uriti se . ehT retaw si t neh lif t re dna d si egrahc into ard i .egan

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egaP 78

eT rti yra tr :tnemtae ehT w ta re neve fa t re s adnoce ry t aer t nem t noc tai sn ohp s ahp t ,e aeh vy m te al i no s, oc ll oi lad i rupm iti ,se oc l ro i gn am tt re etc. ecneH t eh aw t re si s detcejbu to t re it ary t er at nem t. ehT t tre iary t aer t nem t i cn l sedu t eh tr ae tment iw th li em to omer ve ohp s ahp tes, treatment iw th S2- to evomer eh avy met la i sno sa insol bu le us l hp i ed s, t aer t nem t w ti h ca it av t de

laocrahc to ba s bro oc l ro i gn am tt re dna neht op tash a ul m to mer o ev oc ll oi lad impurities dna then id s egrahc to ard i gan e .

batroP le w :reta retaW t tah is fit rof human c no us pm it no a dn teem s t eh m ci bor iol go i lac dna hc emi ac l st dna a sdr fo lauq ity to neverp t aw t re nrob id s ae s se a dn aeh tl h risk rf om t xo ic hc emi ac ls is nwonk sa rop t elba w ta re .

Desa il tan i no fo w eta r: ehT ssecorp fo trap i la ro co pm lete mer o av l fo CaN l salt rf om hi hg ly s la i en aw t re s hcu sa aes aw et r is nwonk sa ed s la i tan i no . Des la i tan i no nac eb rrac i de tuo by di nereff t t nhce i seuq hw i hc era

1. Flash opave r ta i no 2. El ce t or dialy sis 3. veR erse os om is s

El ortce di la ysi :s nA el ce t or dialy is s nu it noc is sts fo a seires fo al et r tan i ev ac ti no dna na i no per baem le memb enar hw i hc ep rm sti no ly res tcep i ev i .sno ehT edona i p s l ca ed en ar dona e per baem le memb enar hw i el ac t edoh is pl deca raen ac ti no ep rmeable me narbm e sa s nwoh in fig.

ehT s iu t elba e fm is ppa eil d sorca s t eh el ce rt sedo t tah dneped no t eh l leve fo tlas in as il en taw er .rednU t eh i fn lue ecn fo e fm aN + i sno m vo e t wo a dr s t eh ac t edoh t hguorh ca it no baemrep le

me rbm a en erehw sa lC – mo ev t awo r sd dona e t hguorh na i no ep rmeable me rbm an .e ehT ten er s tlu si t eh ped le it no fo salt in CA co apm rtment dna i aercn se fo sa tl necnoc t ar ti no in AC

co rapm t nem t. ehT erf sh aw t re bo tai den morf CA co apm rt nem t.

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egaP 88

A C

serF h

lC -

Na+ E

erF sh W eta r

veR erse Os om is s: omsO s si si t eh ssecorp erehw t eh sol tnev m lo uce l se an t laru ly di uff es f or m l rewo noc c tartne i no ger i no to hi rehg necnoc t tar i no ger i no t hguorh es mi perme ba le me enarbm

eud to os om it c serp s eru .)oP( hT is an t laru ecorp ss may eb er s vre ed by a pp ly ni g rp es erus no rb i en is ed hi rehg t nah t tah fo os am it c erp s ,erus nehw erf sh aw t re dnet s to fl wo rf om bri en to erf sh aw t re ger i no sa s nwoh in fig.

serF h enirB

A B

R

I

N

C

lC -

serF

h

Na+

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egaP 98

SLAIRETAMONAN

M onaN :slaireta sisehtnyS .)tnedneped ezis( seitreporp ,noitcudortnI - pu mottob,leglos( hcaorppa itatipicerp ,noitasnednoc sag ,no mehc ,noitasnednoc ruopav laci

ordyh slairetam elacs onaN .)sessecorp sisylomreht & lamreht - & slatsyrc onan,enillatsyrc onan ,sretsulc ,sdor onan ,seriw onan ,sebut onan nobrac ,senerelluf

.setisopmoc onan & sremirdned sruoH 5

: stnetnoC

noitcudortnI .)tnednepeD eziS( seitreporP ,

sisehtnyS - B hcaorppA pU mottoB ,legloS y

noitatipicerP

noitasnednoC saG

noitasnednoC ruopaV lacimehC

sessecorP sisylomrehT & lamrehT ordyH

slairetam elacs onaN - sretsulc & slatsyrc onan

senerelluF dnA enillatsyrC onaN ,

sdoR onaN ,seriW onaN ,sebuT onaN nobraC

N & sremirdneD setisopmoC ona .

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egaP 09

lairetamonaN si lairetamonan A .”lairetamonan edam yllanoitnetni“ na nialpxe ot desu mret a si

desirogetac era slairetamonaN .elacs retemonan eht ni noisnemid eno tsael ta sah taht tcejbo naelpmaxe roF .snoisnemid rieht ot gnidrocca naht ssel dna snoisnemid eerht htiw lairetamonan a

naht ssel dna snoisnemid owt htiw slairetamonan .cte stod mutnauq ,selcitraponan era mn001 naht ssel dna noisnemid eno htiw slairetamonaN .seriwonan dna ,serbif ,sebutonan era ,mn001

serbif niht era mn001 .sgnitaoc ecafrus dna sreyal , noitcudortnI .1

dna ecneics erutcurtsonaN .ygolonhcetonan dna ecneicsonan fo senotsrenroc era slairetamonaN sah taht ytivitca tnempoleved dna hcraeser fo aera yranilpicsidretni dna daorb a si ygolonhcet

evisolpxe gniworg neeb rof laitnetop eht sah tI .sraey wef tsap eht ni ediwdlrow yl fo erutan dna egnar eht dna detaerc era stcudorp dna slairetam hcihw ni syaw eht gnizinoitulover hcihw ,tcapmi laicremmoc tnacifingis a gnivah ydaerla si tI .dessecca eb nac taht seitilanoitcnuf

.erutuf eht ni esaercni ylderussa lliw

erutuf eht dna ygolonhcet dna ecneics fo noitulovE .1 .giF

?slairetamonan era tahW naht ssel si noisnemid eno tsael ta erehw secnatsbus fo tes a sa denifed era slairetam elacsonaN

A .sretemonan 001 yletamixorppa retemillim a fo htnoillim eno si retemonan - yletamixorppa esuaceb tseretni fo era slairetamonaN .riah namuh a fo retemaid eht naht rellams semit 000,001 tnegreme esehT .egreme seitreporp rehto dna ,lacirtcele ,citengam ,lacitpo euqinu elacs siht ta

eporp .sdleif rehto dna ,enicidem ,scinortcele ni stcapmi taerg rof laitnetop eht evah seitr

:slairetamonaN ni secnavdA gnab gib eht retfa yletaidemmi nageb slairetamonan fo yrotsih ehTvlove retal erutaN .setiroetem ylrae eht ni demrof erew serutcurtsonaN nehw rehto ynam de

eht gnirud demrof erew selcitrap ekoms delacs onaN .cte snoteleks ,sllehsaes ekil serutcurtsonaN.retal hcum nageb revewoh slairetamonan fo yrots cifitneics ehT .snamuh ylrae yb erif fo esu

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egaP 19

slairetamonaN fo noitacifissalC

evah slairetamonaN .ssel ro mn 001 noisnemid eno tsael ta gnivah hcihw ezis llams ylemertxe .ge( snoisnemid owt ,)smlif ecafrus .ge( noisnemid eno ni elacsonan eb nac slairetamonaN

gga ,desuf ,elgnis ni tsixe nac yehT .)selcitrap .ge( snoisnemid eerht ro ,)serbif ro sdnarts detager fo sepyt nommoC .sepahs ralugerri dna ,ralubut ,lacirehps htiw smrof detaremolgga ro evah slairetamonaN .senerelluf dna stod mutnauq ,sremirdned ,sebutonan edulcni slairetamonan

p tnereffid syalpsid dna ,ygolonhcet onan fo dleif eht ni snoitacilppa lacimehc lacisyh ,enerelluf ,ebutonan nobrac ,onan revlis ,.e.i( slacimehc lamron morf scitsiretcarahc

.)acilis ,onan nobrac ,tsylatacotohp ,lanoisnemid oreZ sa deifissalc era slairetam derutcurtsonaN ,legeiS ot gnidroccA

,lanoisnemid owt ,lanoisnemid eno .serutcurtsonan lanoisnemid eerht a yb ro )mn 05 <( ezis niarg enif artlu na yb deziretcarahc era hcihw slairetam era slairetamonaN noitaludom suoirav htiw detaerc eb nac slairetamonaN .mn 05 ot detimil ytilanoisnemid

drahciR yb denifed sa seitilanoisnemid retsulc dna stnemalif ,sretsulc cimota( orez :legeiS .Wenifartlu( owt ,)sreyalitlum( eno ,)seilbmessa - eerht dna ,)sreyal deirub ro sreyalrevo deniarg

evoba eht ni nwohs sa )sniarg dezis retemonan dexaiuqe fo gnitsisnoc slairetam esahponan(.3 erugif

naN lairetamo - gnissecorp dna sisehtnys

deedni sihT .retem a fo htnoillib a si retemonan a :serutcurts enif yrev htiw laed slairetamonaN ezisehtnys ot )5 .giF( sehcaorppa ’nwod pot‘ eht ro ’pu mottob‘ eht htob ni kniht ot su swolla

rehtie .e.i ,slairetamonan sid ot ro rehtegot smota elbmessa ot - )etaicossid ro ,kaerb( elbmessa.smota wef a ylno fo detutitsnoc era yeht litnu seceip renif otni sdilos klub

dna ,yrtsimehc ,scisyhp gnissapmocne krow yranilpicsidretni fo elpmaxe erup a si niamod sihTotpu gnireenigne .enicidem

:spuorg daorb owt otni slairetamonan fo sisehtnys lacimehc tew eht yfissalc nac ew elpicnirp nI gnicudorp rof noitulos suoeuqa na ni dehcte era slatsyrc elgnis erehw :dohtem nwod pot ehT .1

lis suorop fo sisehtnys eht ,elpmaxe roF ,slairetamonan .gnihcte lacimehcortcele yb noci los fo gnitsisnoc :dohtem pu mottob ehT .2 - slairetam erehw .cte noitatipicerp ,dohtem leg

.noitulos ladiolloc a mrof ot noihsaf dellortnoc a ni dexim era srosrucerp derised eht gniniatnoc loS - ssecorp leg

los ehT - ssecorp leg a fo noitamrof eht hguorht skrowten cinagroni fo noitulove eht sevlovni ,( noisnepsus ladiolloc los esahp diuqil suounitnoc a ni krowten a mrof ot los eht fo noitaleg dna )

( leg ro latem a fo yllausu tsisnoc sdiolloc eseht gnizisehtnys rof srosrucerp ehT .) diollatem a mrof ot dessecorp si lairetam gnitrats ehT .sdnagil evitcaer suoirav yb dednuorrus tnemele morf diuqil eht fo lavomeR .dica etulid ro retaw htiw tcatnoc ni los a smrof dna edixo elbisrepsid

noc noitisnart leg/los eht dna ,leg eht sdleiy los eht fo noitaniclaC .epahs dna ezis elcitrap eht slort.edixo eht secudorp leg eht

loS - edixokla fo noitasnednoc dna sisylordyh eht ot srefer gnissecorp leg - hcus srosrucerp desablos eht ni devlovni snoitcaer ehT .)SOET ro ,etacilisohtro lyhteartet( 4 )tEO(iS sa - yrtsimehc leg

sedixokla latem fo noitasnednoc dna sisylordyh eht no desab )RO(M z :swollof sa debircsed eb nac

H + ROM 2 O )sisylordyh( HOR + HOM → MOR + HOM M → -O- )noitasnednoc( HOR + M

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egaP 29

loS - si dna stsimehc tsgnoma ralupop yrev si slairetamonan gnizisehtnys fo dohtem leg

los ehT .slairetam edixo eraperp ot deyolpme ylediw - yb deziretcarahc eb nac ssecorp leg itsid fo seires a .spets tcn

los fo noitatneserper citamehcS .7 .giF - .slairetamonan fo sisehtnys fo ssecorp leg

.rosrucerp latem detavlos ro edixokla eht fo snoitulos elbats tnereffid fo noitamroF .1

edixo na fo noitamrof eht morf gnitluser noitaleG .2 - lohocla ro - irb a yb )leg eht( krowten degd.noitulos eht fo yticocsiv eht ni esaercni citamard a ni stluser taht noitcaer noitasnednocylop

eht litnu eunitnoc snoitcaer noitasnednocylop eht hcihw gnirud ,)siserenyS( leg eht fo gnigA .3a ,ssam dilos a otni smrofsnart leg fo noislupxe dna krowten leg eht fo noitcartnoc yb deinapmocc

eht ot lacitirc si dna syad 7 deecxe nac sleg fo ssecorp gniga ehT .serop leg morf tnevlos.tsac neeb evah taht sleg ni skcarc fo noitneverp

l elitalov rehto dna retaw nehw ,leg eht fo gniyrD .4 .krowten leg eht morf devomer era sdiuqi gniyrd ehT .leg eht fo erutcurts eht ni segnahc latnemadnuf ot eud detacilpmoc si ssecorp sihT lacitirc eht )ii( ,doirep etar tnatsnoc eht )i( :spets tcnitsid ruof otni nekorb neeb flesti sah ssecorp

ht )iii( ,tniop lamreht yb detalosi fI .doirep etar gnillaf dnoces eht )vi( ,doirep etar gnillaf e a demret si htilonom gnitluser eht ,noitaropave legorex detcartxe si )retaw sa hcus( tnevlos eht fI .

na si tcudorp eht ,snoitidnoc lacitirc repus raen ro lacitircrepus rednu legorea . ecafrus hcihw gnirud ,noitardyheD .5 - M dnuob - eht gnizilibats yb ereht ,devomer era spuorg HO

pu serutarepmet ta htilonom eht gniniclac yb deveihca yllamron si sihT .noitardyher tsniaga leg.C0008 ot

sleg eht fo noitisopmoced dna noitacifisneD .6 eht fo serop ehT .)C0008>T( serutarepmet hgih ta taht spets lacipyt ehT .dezilitalov era seiceps cinagro gniniamer dna ,despalloc era krowten leg

los ni devlovni era - .woleb margaid citamehcs eht ni nwohs era gnissecorp leg m sisehtnys siht ni tseretni ehT cillatemnon gnizisehtnys fo ytilibissop eht ot eud sesira dohte

serutarepmet wol yrev ta slairetam cimarec ro scimarec ssalg ,sessalg ekil slairetam cinagroni.scimarec gnirif ro ssalg gnitlem yb deriuqer ssecorp erutarepmet hgih eht ot derapmoc

rojam ehT mottob lufsseccus a gnipoleved ni emocrevo ot seitluciffid - gnillortnoc si hcaorppa pu .gnitaremolgga morf selcitrap demrof ylwen eht gnippots neht dna selcitrap eht fo htworg eht

wnu on taht os etelpmoc era snoitcaer eht gnirusne era seussi lacinhcet rehtO tfel si tnatcaer detna

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egaP 39

.ssecorp eht ni desu neeb evah yam taht sdia htworg yna gnivomer yletelpmoc dna tcudorp eht no eno si egatnavda niam ehT .ssecorp siht yb wol yrev era sredwop onan fo setar noitcudorp oslA

tob yna yb selcitrap onan dezis onom teg nac .hcaorppa pu mot

noitatipicerP a fo noitaerc eht si dilos a ni noitulos a gnirud dilos rehtona edisni ro lacimehcnoitcaer yb ro noisuffid demrof dilos eht ,noitulos diuqil a ni srucco noitcaer eht nehW .dilos a ni

eht dellac si cerp etatipi eht dellac si mrof ot dilos eht sesuac taht lacimehc ehT . tnatipicerp .( ytivarg fo ecrof tneiciffus tuohtiW gnilttes etatipicerp eht ,rehtegot selcitrap dilos eht gnirb ot )

i sniamer n noisnepsus retfA . noitatnemides a gnisu nehw yllaicepse , egufirtnec a otni ti sserp ot a sa ot derrefer eb yam etatipicerp eht ,ssam tcapmoc tellep .

etatipicerp ehT - eht dellac si dilos eht evoba gniniamer diuqil eerf etanrepus ro tnatanrepus .

osla evah noitatipicerp morf devired sredwoP yllacirotsih sa nwonk neeb srewolf noitatipicerP . sti sdeecxe dnuopmoc a fo noitartnecnoc eht fi rucco yam ytilibulos gnixim nehw sa hcus(

.)erutarepmet rieht gnignahc ro stnevlos

a morf yldipar rucco yam noitatipicerP srepus detaruta fi srucco noitatipicerp ,sdilos nI .noitulos dipar .g.e ot eud ,dilos tsoh eht ni timil ytilibulos eht evoba si dilos eno fo noitartnecnoc eht

ro gnihcneuq alpmi noi noitatn ot dael nac noisuffid taht hguone hgih si erutarepmet eht dna , ezisehtnys ot desu ylenituor si sdilos ni noitatipicerP .setatipicerp otni noitagerges sretsulconan .

mi nA fo tesno eht si ssecorp noitatipicerp eht fo egats tnatrop noitaelcun a fo noitaerc ehT .

dilos lacitehtopyh p elcitra na fo noitamrof eht sedulcni ecafretni emos seriuqer hcihw , ne ygre evitaler eht no desab ygrene ecafrus ,elbaliava ton si ygrene siht fI .noitulos eht dna dilos eht fo

rucco noitarutas repus ,elbaliava si ecafrus noitaelcun elbatius on dna .s

noitasnednoc ropaV lacimehC

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eht si sisehtnys selcitraponan rof gnissecorp amsalp ni sedirts gnidnatstuo eht fo enO

gnikrow eht otni tup si lairetam rosrucerp ehT .noitasnednoc ropav eht fo ssecorp depoleved.cra elbats a htiw rebmahc

i rebmahc ehT demrof era sretsulc ralucelom neht ;dezinoi semoceb taht sag evitcaer yb dellif s.selcitraponan ecudorp ot delooc dna

lamrehtordyH : sisehtnys lamrehtordyH gnizillatsyrc fo seuqinhcet suoirav eht sedulcni

hgih morf secnatsbus - erutarepmet snoitulos suoeuqa hgih ta serusserp ropav demret osla ; ."dohtem lamrehtordyh"

" mret ehT lamrehtordyh fo si " cigoloeg .nigiro stsimehcoeG dna stsigolarenim deiduts evahlamrehtordyh airbiliuqe esahp amrehtordyH .yrutnec hteitnewt eht fo gninnigeb eht ecnis l

fo sisehtnys fo dohtem a sa denifed eb nac sisehtnys slatsyrc elgnis ytilibulos eht no sdneped tahtehT .erusserp hgih rednu retaw toh ni slarenim fo htworg latsyrc sutarappa na ni demrofrep si

na dellac lessev erusserp leets a fo gnitsisnoc evalcotua a deilppus si tneirtun a hcihw ni , gnolhtiw retaw htworg eht fo sdne etisoppo eht neewteb deniatniam si tneidarg erutarepmet A .

no detisoped si ti dne relooc eht ta elihw ,sevlossid etulos tneirtun eht dne rettoh eht tA .rebmahca .latsyrc derised eht gniworg ,latsyrc dees

eht edulcni htworg latsyrc fo sepyt rehto revo dohtem lamrehtordyh eht fo segatnavda elbissoP slairetam ,oslA .tniop gnitlem eht ta elbats ton era hcihw sesahp enillatsyrc etaerc ot ytiliba

opav hgih a evah hcihw eht yb nworg eb osla nac stniop gnitlem rieht raen erusserp rudoog egral fo htworg eht rof elbatius ylralucitrap osla si dohtem ehT .dohtem lamrehtordyh -

eht fo segatnavdasiD .noitisopmoc rieht revo lortnoc doog gniniatniam elihw slatsyrc ytilauqni dohtem latsyrc eht gnivresbo fo ytilibissopmi eht dna ,sevalcotua evisnepxe fo deen eht edulc

.sworg ti sa

:snoitcaer lacimehC ,scimarec ,sedixo latem ,srotcudnoc cinoi repus ,slatsyrc suorop orciM,srehpsohp ,slairetam citengam ,slairetam suoecanobrac ,setiloez niht ,sleg ,selcitraponan sulp

.serutcurts larihc/lacileh ,smlif segatnavdA

metsys eht gnizirusserp dna gnitaeh yb tnevlos reporp a ni elbulos edam eb nac lairetam tsoM•;tniop lacitirc sti ot esolc

ht fo ytivitca lacimehc eht ni tnemevorpmi tnacifingiS• taht slairetam gnicudorp ni dna ,tnatcaer edilos aiv deniatbo eb tonnac - ;noitcaer etats

> decudorp ylisae eb yam esahp cificeps dna etats elbatsatem ,etats etaidemretni fo stcudorP•.etats desnednoc cificeps rehto dna etats elbatsatem fo stcudorp levon

D segatnavdasi ;sevalcotua evisnepxE•

;noitcaer eht gnirud seussi ytefaS• .noitcaer eht evresbo dna rotinom ton dluoC•

noitubirtsid ezis ,ezis ,ygolohprom lortnoc ot tluciffiD• slairetam lla rof toN•

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msinahceM

;ledom noitaelcun diuqil a swollof yllausU• dilos morf tnereffiD• - gnoma snoi/smota fo noisuffid fo smret ni msinahcem noitcaer etats

stnatcaer ytilibulos decnahnE• – hcum sesaercni ytilibulos enilakla tub ,T htiw sesaercni retaw fo ytilibulos

T htiw retaerg – .Hp hgih : SESU dnuopmoc fo rebmun egral A dezisehtnys neeb evah sessalc lla yllacitcarp ot gnignoleb s

xelpmoc dna elpmis ,stnemele :snoitidnoc lamrehtordyh rednu sedixo , setatsgnut , setadbylom ,,setanobrac setacilis worg ot desu ylnommoc si sisehtnys lamrehtordyH .cte setanamreg ,

itehtnys c ztrauq , smeg taht slatsyrc eht fo emoS .eulav laicremmoc htiw slatsyrc elgnis rehto dnaera nworg yltneiciffe neeb evah sdlareme , seibur ,ztrauq , etirdnaxela sah dohtem ehT .srehto dna

vorp lacisyhp cificeps htiw sdnuopmoc wen rof hcraes eht ni htob tneiciffe ylemertxe eb ot de tnenopmocitlum etacirtni fo noitagitsevni lacimehcocisyhp citametsys eht ni dna seitreporp

.serusserp dna serutarepmet detavele ta smetsys

:enerelluF A enerelluf a si yn elucelom fo yleritne desopmoc nobrac wolloh a fo mrof eht ni , erehps ,

diospille , ebut hs rehto ynam dna , dellac osla era senerelluf lacirehpS .sepa sllabykcub yeht dna , ni desu sllab eht elbmeser llabtoof dellac era seno lacirdnilyC .)reccos( sebutonan nobrac ro

ni ralimis era senerelluF .sebutykcub erutcurts ot etihparg dekcats fo desopmoc si hcihw ,enehparg gatnep niatnoc osla yam yeht tub ;sgnir lanogaxeh deknil fo steehs semitemos ro( lano

,ekaseman s'ylimaf eht dna ,derevocsid eb ot elucelom enerelluf tsrif ehT .sgnir )lanogatpehenerellufretsnimkcub C( 06 aw erutcurts ehT.) yb reilrae sraey evif emos deifitnedi osla s oimuS

amijiI ".noino ykcub" a fo eroc eht demrof ti erehw ,egami epocsorcim nortcele na morf ,dnuof neeb ecnis evah senerelluF ni rucco ot erutan . eroM neeb evah senerelluf ,yltnecer

no efil rof sdees dedivorp ecaps retuo morf sllabykcub taht elbissop s’tI" .ecaps retuo ni detceted ".htraE

nwonk fo rebmun eht dednapxe yltaerg senerelluf fo yrevocsid ehT seportolla nobrac , ot detimil erew yltnecer litnu hcihw etihparg dna ,dnomaid , suohproma nobrac sa hcus toos dna

laocrahc esnetni fo tcejbus eht neeb evah sebutykcub dna sllabykcuB . hcraeser of htob , rieht r ni yllaicepse ,snoitacilppa lacigolonhcet rieht rof dna yrtsimehc euqinu ecneics slairetam ,

scinortcele dna , ygolonhcet onan fo mrof eht ni ,senerelluf eht fo seititnauq etuniM . C 06 , C 07 , C 67 ,C 28 dna C 48 ni neddih ,erutan ni decudorp era ,selucelom toos segrahcsid gninthgil yb demrof dna

.erehpsomta eht ni

enerelluf fo sepyT sretsulc llabykcuB si rebmem tsellams : C 02 fo noisrev detarutasnu( dod enardehace eht dna )

si nommoc tsom C 06 ; sebutonaN laitnetop ;sllaw elpitlum ro elgnis gnivah ,snoisnemid llams yrev fo sebut wolloh :

;yrtsudni scinortcele ni snoitacilppa sebutageM reffid fo sllaw htiw deraperp dna sebutonan naht retemaid ni regral : ;ssenkciht tne

;sezis tnereffid fo selucelom fo yteirav a fo tropsnart eht rof desu yllaitnetop sremylop owt ,niahc : - eerht dna lanoisnemid - hgih rednu demrof era sremylop lanoisnemid -

hgih erusserp - elgnis ;snoitidnoc erutarepmet - demrof era sremylop dnarts motA eht gnisu ;etuor )PARTA( noitaziremyloP noitiddA lacidaR refsnarT

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"snoino"onan llabykcub a gnidnuorrus sreyal nobrac elpitlum no desab selcitrap lacirehps : ;stnacirbul rof desoporp ;eroc

llab" deknil - dna - sremid "niahc c a yb deknil sllabykcub owt : ;niahc nobra sgnir enerelluf .

?ebutonan a si tahW snoisnemid ralucelom fo redro eht no ssenkciht llaw a htiw yllacipyt ,eriwonan wolloh A •

elgnis eht si ebutonan )gnitseretni tsom dna( tsellams ehT• - )TNWS( ebutonan nobrac dellawrg elgnis a fo gnitsisnoc .ebut a otni pu dellor teehsenehpa

elgnis a fo hpargorciM gnilennuT gninnacS - nobrac dellaw ebutonan ledom gnidnopserroc dna)rekkeD(

sebutonan nobraC ( sTNC era ) nobrac fo seportolla a htiw lacirdnilyc erutcurtsonan sebutonaN . neeb evah htgnel htiw detcurtsnoc - ot - regral yltnacifingis1:000,000,231 otpu fo oitar retemaid

lacirdnilyc esehT .lairetam rehto yna rof naht nobrac selucelom hcihw ,seitreporp lausunu evah rof elbaulav era ygolonhcetonan , scinortcele , scitpo fo sdleif rehto dna ecneics slairetam dna

nhcet yranidroartxe rieht ot gniwo ,ralucitrap nI .ygolo ytivitcudnoc lamreht dna lacinahcem dnalacirtcele larutcurts suoirav ot sevitidda sa snoitacilppa dnif sebutonan nobrac ,seitreporp

yliramirp( emos ni )s(lairetam eht fo noitrop ynit a mrof sebutonan ,ecnatsni roF .slairetamrebif nobrac ) stab llabesab ro ,sbulc flog , rac .strap

eht fo srebmem era sebutonaN enerelluf ht morf devired si eman riehT .ylimaf larutcurts ,gnol rieeno yb demrof sllaw eht htiw erutcurts wolloh - mota - dellac ,nobrac fo steehs kciht enehparg .

"( etercsid dna cificeps ta dellor era steehs esehT larihc eht fo noitanibmoc eht dna ,selgna )" laudividni eht rehtehw ,elpmaxe rof ;seitreporp ebutonan eht sediced suidar dna elgna gnillor

a si llehs ebutonan latem ro rotcudnocimes sa dezirogetac era sebutonaN . is elgn - dellawsebutonan dna )sTNWS( itlum - sebutonan dellaw ngila yllarutan sebutonan laudividnI .)sTNWM(

yb rehtegot dleh "sepor" otni sevlesmeht secrof slaaW red nav , erom ip ,yllacificeps - .gnikcats deilppA yrtsimehc mutnauq ceps , ,yllacifi noitazidirbyh latibro gnidnob lacimehc sebircsed tseb

ehT .sebutonan ni gnidnob lacimehc fo yleritne desopmoc si sebutonan fo ps 2 sdnob ot ralimis , fo esoht etihparg esehT . sdnob eht naht regnorts era hcihw , ps 3 sdnob ni dnuof senakla dna

dnomaid .htgnerts euqinu rieht htiw sebutonan edivorp ,

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?eriwonan a si tahW mn 001 tuoba naht rellams retemaid htiw eriw fo mrof eht ni lairetam dilos ynA

nI na fo hpargorcim nortcele noissimsnarT sAnI/P eriwonan .

:sremirdneD erehT ,dehcnarb ylhgih era yehT .slairetam ciremylop fo ssalc wen a era ieht no tcapmi taerg a sah slairetam eseht fo erutcurts ehT .selucelomorcam esrepsidonom

b euqinu rieht fo tluser a sA .seitreporp lacimehc dna lacisyhp era sremirdned ruoivahe elbatius fo weiver esicnoc a sevig repap ehT .snoitacilppa lairtsudni dna lacidemoib fo egnar ediw a rof

ocisyhp ’sremirdned - ,hcraeser fo saera suoirav ni esu elbissop rieht dna seitreporp lacimehc.tnemtaert dna ygolonhcet

remyloP era hcihw ,sremylop raenil no desucof yllanoitidart evah ygolonhcet dna yrtsimehc

regnol ro rellams emos niatnoc yllanoisacco ylno selucelomorcam raeniL .esu ni ylediw dehcnarb ylhgih fo seitreporp eht taht dnuof neeb sah ti tsap tnecer eht nI .sehcnarb

m eseht fo erutcurts ehT .sremylop lanoitnevnoc morf tnereffid yrev eb nac selucelomorca erew selucelom dehcnarb repyh esehT .snoitacilppa rieht no tcapmi taerg a osla sah slairetam

dellac sremirdned eerG ni eert a gninaem ’nordned‘ morf setanigiro mret ehT . emas eht tA .k yehT .selucelomorcam ralimis fo sisehtnys detroper yltnednepedni puorg s’emokweN ,emit

meht dellac slorobra mret ehT .eert a gninaem osla ’robra‘ drow nitaL eht morf edacsac elucelom no dehsilbatse tseb eht si ’remirdned‘ tub ,desu osla si .e

SISEHTNYS

si erehT .eno tnegrevnoc a ro dohtem tnegrevid a rehtie gnisu deraperp yllareneg era sremirdneD eht nI .stpecnoc noitcurtsnoc owt eseht neewteb ecnereffid latnemadnuf a ,sdohtem tnegrevid

m eroc lanoitcnufitlum a morf sdrawtuo sworg remirdned htiw stcaer elucelom eroc ehT .elucelo noitareneg tsrif eht gnivig spuorg tnamrod owt dna evitcaer eno gniniatnoc selucelom remonom erom htiw snoitcaer rof detavitca si elucelom eht fo yrehpirep wen eht nehT .remirdned

rof detaeper si ssecorp ehT .sremonom retfa reyal tliub si remirdned a dna snoitareneg lareves .sremirdned fo seititnauq egral fo noitcudorp eht rof lufsseccus si hcaorppa tnegrevid ehT .reyal ot dael taht spuorg dne eht fo snoitcaer etelpmocni dna snoitcaer edis morf rucco smelborP

erutcurts fo ssecxe egral noitelpmoc ot snoitcaer ecrof ot dna snoitcaer edis tneverp oT .stcefed.tcudorp lanif eht fo noitacifirup eht ni seitluciffid emos sesuac tI .deriuqer si stnegaer

ehT sdohtem tnegrevnoc t fo sessenkaew eht ot esnopser a sa depoleved erew tnegrevid eh

eht morf gnitrats ,esiwpets detcurtsnoc si remirdned eht ,hcaorppa tnegrevnoc eht nI .sisehtnys dellac ,smra ciremylop dehcnarb gniworg eht nehW .sdrawni gnissergorp dna spuorg dne

itcnufitlum a ot dehcatta era yeht ,hguone egral era ,snordned ehT . elucelom eroc lano derised eht yfirup ot ysae ylevitaler si tI .segatnavda lareves sah dohtem htworg tnegrevnoc ot elbissop semoceb tI .desiminim si erutcurts lanif eht ni stcefed fo ecnerrucco eht dna tcudorp

ed eht otni gnireenigne eltbus ecudortni lanoitcnuf fo tnemecalp esicerp yb erutcurts citirdn eht wolla ton seod hcaorppa tnegrevnoc ehT .elucelomorcam eht fo yrehpirep eht ta spuorg dna snordned eht fo snoitcaer eht ni rucco smelborp cirets esuaceb snoitareneg hgih fo noitamrof

elucelom eroc eht ( senimaodimaylop erew sremirdned desisehtnys tsrif ehT . MAMAP yehT .)s htiw stcaer ti lonahtem fo ecneserp eht nI mret ehT .sremirdned tsrubrats sa nwonk osla era

:dedda si enimaid enelyhte neht dna etalyrca lyhtem

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HN 3 HC3 + 2 HCOOCHC 3 HC(N → 2 HC 2 HCOOC 3)3 → )1(

HC(N 2 HC 2 HCOOC 3)3 HN3 + 2 HC 2 HC 2 HN 2 HC(N→ 2 HC 2 HCHNOC 2 HC 2 HN 2)3 + HC3 3 HO )2( →

etalyrca lyhtem owt htiw tcaer nac taht puorg onima eerf a si ereht hcnarb hcae fo dne eht tA

stluser ecneuqes noitcaer etelpmoc hcaE .selucelom enimaid enelyhte owt dna sremonom a niflah ehT .noitareneg remirdned wen - )5.2 ,5.1 ,5.0 ,.g.e( sremirdned MAMAP snoitareneg

i setis ecafrus evitcaer fo rebmun ehT .spuorg etalyxobrac fo secafrus cinoina ssessop delbuod snoitareneg yreve htiw .eciwt naht erom sesaercni ssam ehT .

TACILPPA :SNOI

eht ecnis ,seitreporp euqinu htiw hcae ,sremirdned fo seilimaf ytfif naht erom won era erehT laitnetop ynaM .snoitacilppa fo stros tnereffid ot deroliat eb nac eroc dna roiretni ,ecafrus

elom delellarapnu rieht no desab era sremirdned fo snoitacilppa lanoitcnufitlum ,ytimrofinu raluc rof elbatius sremirdned ekam seitreporp cificeps esehT .seitivac lanretni fo ecneserp dna ecafrus sremirdneD .snoitacilppa lairtsudni dna lacidemoib gnidulcni sesu ygolonhcet hgih fo yteirav a

ni deilppa neeb evah ni ortiv scitsongaid .gnitset caidrac ni dohtem wen a decudortni sah tI . a ot sremirdned yb dexif era hcihw snilubolgonummi ot dnib elpmas doolb a ni tneserp snietorP yltnacifingis dohtem sihT .egamad elcsum traeh yna si ereht fi swohs tluser ehT .ssalg fo teehs

er desinagro ylmodnar a nehW .)nim 8 tuoba ot( stluser tset doolb eht rof emit gnitiaw eht secud dna remirdned fo setagujnoC .nim 04 ot pu stsal tset eht desu si snilubolgonummi fo noitulos

.tset eht fo ytivitisnes dna noisicerp osla evorpmi ydobitna

pmoconaN :etiso A etisopmoconan eerht ro owt ,eno sah sesahp eht fo eno erehw lairetam dilos esahpitlum a si

001 naht ssel fo snoisnemid sretemonan onan gnivah serutcurts ro ,)mn( - lacs secnatsid taeper e nac noitinifed siht esnes tsedaorb eht nI .lairetam eht pu ekam taht sesahp tnereffid eht neewteb

,aidem suorop edulcni sdiolloc , sleg dna sremylopoc si tub , erom dilos eht naem ot nekat yllausuonan dna xirtam klub a fo noitanibmoc - ni gnireffid )s(esahp lanoisnemid ot eud seitreporp

,lacitpo ,lamreht ,lacirtcele ,lacinahcem ehT .yrtsimehc dna erutcurts ni seitiralimissid eht fo taht morf yldekram reffid lliw etisopmoconan eht fo seitreporp citylatac ,lacimehcortcele

stceffe eseht rof stimil eziS .slairetam tnenopmoc 5< ,desoporp neeb evah rof mn citylatac 02< ,ytivitca 05< ,tfos lairetam citengam drah a gnikam rof mn rof mn xedni evitcarfer ,segnahc

001< dna gniveihca rof mn msitengamarap repus xirtam gnitcirtser ro gninehtgnerts lacinahcem ,noitacolsid .tnemevom

eht fo erutcurts eht ni elpmaxe rof ,erutan ni dnuof era setisopmoconaN llehs enolaba

elcitraponan fo esu ehT .enob dna - lacisyhp eht fo gnidnatsrednu eht setaderp gnol slairetam hcirmehc dna .slairetam eseht fo erutan laci eht dna ruoloc fo htped eht fo nigiro eht detagitsevnI

oib dna sdica ot ecnatsiser - fo noisorroc eulb ayaM elcitraponan a ot ti gnitubirtta ,tniaponagro elacsonan morF .msinahcem - snoitulos remylop fo wolf lortnoc ot desu neeb evah syalc

fo noitutitsnoc eht ro )sreifisocsiv tniap sa .g.e( sleg .e( ni ecnatsbus gninekciht a sa .g scitemsoc ,itaraperp eht gnipeek ehT .)mrof suoenegomoh ni sno /remylop yalc fo cipot eht erew setisopmoc

an" mret eht hguohtla ,skoobtxet .esu nommoc ni ton saw "setisopmocon

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lanoitnevnoc morf reffid setisopmoconan ,smret lacinahcem nI slairetam etisopmoc eudot ecafrus hgih yllanoitpecxe eht ot yllanoitpecxe sti ro/dna esahp gnicrofnier eht fo oitar emulov

hgih oitar tcepsa steehs ,)slarenim .g.e( selcitrap fo pu edam eb nac lairetam gnicrofnier ehT .lofxe .g.e( detai yalc fo aera ehT .)serbif nupsortcele ro sebutonan nobrac .g.e( serbif ro )skcats

eht ecafretni edutingam fo redro na yllacipyt si )s(esahp tnemecrofnier dna xirtam eht neewtebrp lairetam xirtam ehT .slairetam etisopmoc lanoitnevnoc rof naht retaerg era seitrepo

seitreporp ,setisopmoconan remylop .tnemecrofnier eht fo ytiniciv eht ni detceffa yltnacifingis niahc remylop ,ytilibom niahc remylop ,eruc tesomreht fo eerged ,yrtsimehc lacol ot detaler

tsyrc ro gniredro niahc remylop fo eerged ,noitamrofnoc dna yltnacifingis yrav lla nac ytinilla.xirtam eht fo klub eht otni tnemecrofnier eht htiw ecafretni eht morf ylsuounitnoc

fo tnuoma llams ylevitaler a taht snaem aera ecafrus tnemecrofnier fo tnuoma egral sihT

avresbo na evah nac tnemecrofnier elacsonan eht fo seitreporp elacsorcam eht no tceffe elb gnidda ,elpmaxe roF .etisopmoc sebutonan nobrac eht sevorpmi lacirtcele dna lamreht

ytivitcudnoc decnahne ni tluser yam setalucitraponan fo sdnik rehtO . seitreporp lacitpo ,seitreporp cirtceleid sa hcus seitreporp lacinahcem ro ecnatsiser taeh , ssenffits , htgnerts dna

id si tnemecrofnier onan eht ,lareneg nI .egamad dna raew ot ecnatsiser xirtam eht otni desreps dellac( thgiew yb egatnecrep ehT .gnissecorp gnirud noitcarf ssam setalucitraponan eht fo )

rellif wol eht ot eud )%5 ot %5.0 fo redro eht no( wol yrev niamer nac decudortni noitalocrepdlohserht non desu ylnommoc tsom eht rof yllaicepse , - oitar tcepsa hgih ,lacirehps srellif .g.e(

retemonan - retemonan ro ,syalc sa hcus ,steletalp niht - nobrac sa hcus ,srednilyc retemaid.)sebutonan

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