The Biosphere – Intro to Ecological OrganizationThe _____________ – the layer of life on earth – from the deepest ocean vent to the upper reaches of the atmosphere, the ______________________.___________ - combines the Greek words oikos, meaning “house” or “the place where one lives” with logos meaning “the study of” The study of ______________ among _______________ and their _________________

Levels of Ecological Organization (from smallest to largest)

Individual _____________ - a single individual of a specific ___________ Population - all the members of the _______________ living in the same habitat _______________ - a collection of all the _____________ of many different species in a certain area at

a certain point in time Ecosystem - The relationship between ____________ and ______________ components of a biological

community __________ - many ecosystems in the same region that share the same _________ and

__________________________ ______________ –the earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere that supports life

Ecological Methods Observing – the first step to asking ecological questions

o From ________ observations of what species live in an area, to more __________ observations of behaviour and interactions between individuals and between species

o Helps to ______________________ experiments and models. Experimenting – required to test hypotheses

o Lab studies: set up artificial environments in the laboratory, allows more control of conditionso Field studies: experiments conducted in the natural ecosystem, harder to control but more valid

Modeling – models can help us to understand ecological phenomena o Particularly useful for process that happen over __________________________ or

__________________________o Models are used to study complex issues such as the impact of ______________________ on

ecosystemso Consist of ________________________________ based on data collected through observation

and experimentationo Predictions made by models are then __________ by additional observation and experimentation

Quick History of Life on Earth – An Introduction to Ecology by CrashCourse (Take your own notes here)

Energy Flow in the Biosphere - Notes_________________ – organisms that can make their own food from basic nutrients and sunlight or some other non-living source. Also called _____________.(Auto means self, and “troph” comes from Greek word meaning “feeder”. Therefore autotroph means “______________”)

1. Energy from ________ – most producers harness solar energy through the process of _____________________. During photosynthesis, _________, _______, and photosynthetic ____________ use light energy to power chemical reactions that convert ______________ and _________ into energy-rich ________________ such as starches and sugars, plus ____________ as a by-product.

2. Life without Light – some autotrophs can produce food in the ______________, using chemical energy instead, through a process called _________________. They break down chemicals such as ______________________ to produce carbohydrates. Several types of ___________ can perform chemosynthesis, and many of them live in remote places such as __________________ on the bottom of the ocean, and in extreme environments such as the ____________ at Yellowstone National Park.

_______________ – any organism that _____________ their own food, and therefore must obtain their food and energy by consuming autotrophs or other heterotrophs. Also called ______________. (Hetero means different or other – so heterotroph = “__________________”)

3 Categories of Consumers:• ___________ Consumer (herbivore): an organism that eats producers.

• Example: grasshopper• ______________ Consumer: an organism that eats primary consumers.

• Example: a warbler (small song bird), which eats grasshoppers• ___________ Consumer: an organism that eats secondary consumers.

• Example: peregrine falcon, which eats smaller birds like warblers

Other Terms to know:• A ____________ is an organism that ______________________.

• Examples: __________________________________________• A ____________ is any organism that ______________________.

• Examples: __________________________________________• A ____________ is an organism that eats ______________________.

• _______________ are good examples of omnivores• They eat fish and other small animals, as well as berries

• Can you think of another familiar omnivore?• _____________

• A ___________ is an animal that feeds off dead or decaying animals but _____________ them.

• Scavengers are also sometimes called _________________ because they feed on detritus, or dead plant and animals matter.

• Examples: ________________________________________• A __________________ is an organism that _________________ complex organic molecules

into simpler molecules. This ___________________ to the soil.• Examples: __________________

______________ Level – a category of living things defined by how it gains its energy.-The trophic levels are numbered based on the number of steps they are away from the ________ ____________

_________ Trophic Level: Producers (autotrophs)

_________ Trophic Level: Primary Consumers (eat producers)

_________ Trophic Level: Secondary Consumers (eat primary consumers)

_________ Trophic Level: Tertiary Consumers (eat secondary consumers)

Example Food Chain Sun grass mouse snake falconRole in Food Chain

Producer Primary Consumer

Tertiary Consumer

Trophic LevelSteps from the Sun

1 2 3 4

Energy and Food Chains- food chains are a way of showing a ______________, step-by-step, sequence of who eats whom in an ecosystem.-we use arrows to show ___________ – that’s why the ________ always points to the ____________ _________________________

Sun producer primary consumer secondary consumer tertiary consumer

Food Webs

- food chains are unlikely to include all the organisms in a natural ecosystem- each individual organism in an ecosystem is involved in ________food chains- the chains all interlock to form a feeding relationship called a ______________

The Role of Producers

Food webs always begin with autotrophs –____________________ or ____________________ organisms at the first trophic level (e.g. plants) - these processes ultimately provide the energy required by the entire ecosystem.

Using the Energy:

All organisms (including plants) undergo _____________________ in order to use the energy in their food.

Equation for Cellular Respiration:

____________ + oxygen ___________________ + water + _______________

Limits on Energy Transfer – Notes Energy Transfer between Trophic Levels

Every time energy is transferred between the components of an ecosystem, the amount of energy available to the next trophic level is ______________.

_____________ of the energy captured in photosynthesis is available to the animal that eats the plant because the ________________ used most of that energy to carry out its life processes

Primary consumers do not ___________ all of a plant meal, some is lost in the feces. Of the remaining energy, some is lost ________________________ from the chemical transformations of digestion and through cellular respiration and the animal’s activity.

The 10% Rule:

Only _______ of the energy plants receive is stored, and therefore is passed on to the primary consumers

Only _______ of the energy that primary consumers receive is stored and passed on to Secondary consumers

the farther up the food chain, the less energy that is available this usually limits the number of trophic levels in a food chain to about 5

__________________________ is the study of energy transformations

First Law of Thermodynamics: although energy can be changed from one _________ to another, it cannot be ________________________________

Second Law of Thermodynamics: during any energy transformation, some of the energy is converted into an ________________________, (usually thermal energy) that cannot be passed on.

Human Use of Energy in Ecosystems

- humans are dependent on the _______________ through ecosystems just like all other living things.- we are part of many food chains at _____________________, dependent on what we are eating. Think about it: Are we more efficient when we eat like Herbivores or Omnivores? Why?

- we also used the energy for ________ for heat or electricity (example: burning wood)- humans have permanently ______________ many ecosystems in order to grow and hunt food.

Scientific Models of Energy in the Biosphere

- scientists often construct ____________ to help them understand how living things work.- models are theoretical descriptions or ________________ that help us visualize something that has not been directly observed.- they provide a pathway for making predictions.

____________________ pyramids – graphs used to represent energy flow in food chains and food webs or the populations of organisms in a food chain.- allow ecologists to visualize the ___________________ in an ecosystem and compare them.- NOTE: graphs of ____________ ecosystems may or may not look like a pyramid!

Pyramid of Numbers

A Pyramid of Numbers can be drawn by counting the __________ of organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem. As you move up the trophic levels, the number of organisms ______________.

-That is why there is a ratio of about 100000 grasshoppers to every 2 falcons.

-However something strange can happen with the number of producers – 1 ______________ can support many smaller consumers

Pyramid of Biomass

Biomass is the ________________________ of all the living material

in an ecosystem.

Since organisms store energy as organic molecules, biomass is an indirect measure of stored energy, as well as the size of organisms at each level.

Pyramid of Energy

A Pyramid of Energy is created by measuring and graphing the amount of ___________ available at each trophic level.

It allows a better understanding of the relationships and energy flow at each trophic level. It is the ______________________ of the ecological pyramids.

Large mass and the energy demands of hunting _____________________________________ that can be supported at the top of the pyramid.

Matter CyclingWhile ______________________________ the biosphere in one direction, eventually leaving it as thermal energy, ______________________________ within and between ecosystems. The _____________________________ cycles connect the biological, geological, and chemical aspects of the biosphere as elements and compounds are passed between organisms and from one part of the biosphere to another.

Matter is not used up in biological systems, it is just ______________________________________________ to another.

A single atom of carbon, for example, can start out in a molecule of carbon dioxide, become incorporated into a plant via photosynthesis, the plant is then eaten by a herbivore, and within a few hours will be expelled as waste. This waste could be eaten by a scavenging insect, which is eaten by a small mammal, which is eaten by a predatory bird, and then exhaled back into the air as carbon dioxide again.

In the same way, some of the ______________________________ that you drink today were almost certainly consumed by a _________________ millions of years ago, and have cycled through the water cycle countless times since then.

The Water CycleEnergy, mostly from the sun, causes water to _____________________ (changing from liquid to gas), or ice to ____________________ (changing directly from solid to gas) to become water vapour in the air. __________________ also occurs, which is evaporation of water from the leaves of plants.

As the gaseous water rises and the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere decrease, the water vapour ____________________ (changes from gas to liquid), into fog, mist and clouds. If the temperature is low enough, water vapour may form ice crystals by _________________________ (changing directly from gas to solid). ___________________________of some kind (rain, hail or snow) then falls to the ground.

Once water is on the ground it can either run along the surface of the ground as ______________________ to _____________________ in streams, rivers, lakes, and the oceans (_____________________); or it can seep down through the soil into underground reservoirs of water called _________________ to become _____________________.

Nutrient CyclesThe chemical substances that an organism needs to sustain life are called ________________. Producers obtain nutrients in simple forms from their ___________________. Consumers obtain nutrients by eating ______________________. All organisms use these nutrients to __________________ and carry out essential ___________________. The carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles are particularly important for ecosystems.

Nitrogen Cycle NotesNitrogen Cycle – the cycle of matter in which nitrogen atoms move from _______________________ in the atmosphere, to inorganic forms in the __________, to organic forms in ______________________, and then back to inorganic forms in the soil and nitrogen gas in the atmosphere.

- Nitrogen is required for cells to make _____________ and ___________- Although nitrogen gas (N2) in abundant in the ___________________ (79%), in order to be useful to plants, nitrogen must be in the form of a ____________ ion (NO3

-).-plants also require nitrates to make ________________________. When lacking nitrates, leaves will not be a rich dark green colour.

Nitrogen ______________ : two processes where atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen is _______________ into ___________ ions.

- lightning- __________________________, found in ______________

_________________ – the process in which nitrates are converted to nitrites and then to _________________ which is released back into the atmosphere.

- carried out by bacteria that do not need _____________ (anaerobic)

- speeds up when soil is acidic or ___________________ As a result, gardeners often ______________ their lawns to increase oxygen levels and allow nitrates to remain in the soil.

Nitrates can also enter ecosystems through the application of synthetic ____________, which contain nitrates.

Phosphorus Cycle__________________ is essential to living things because it is required for ______________________, which make up the genetic code. While it is very important biologically, it is still quite ________ in the biosphere.

Unlike water, carbon, and nitrogen, phosphorus is _________________ in the __________________. Instead, when it is not in the bodies of organisms, it is found on land in __________ and in _______________, and also in ____________________. It is usually found in the form of inorganic ________________.

As phosphate-containing rocks ______________ (weather) slowly over time, the phosphate is released into the soil, where it can be taken up by plants and bound into _________________________. This allows it to enter the ________________, moving from producers to consumers, and back to the soil through decomposition.

Some of the phosphate in the soil may be washed into streams and rivers, and eventually carried to the ocean. There it can be used by _____________________; while some phosphate is also ________________ on the ocean floor as sediments, which may eventually turn back into rock.

Another way that phosphorus is added to the biosphere is through __________________. Synthetic _______________ contain ______________________, so fertilizer use adds additional phosphates to the soil. Runoff of these fertilizers, especially when over-used, adds additional phosphate to _______________ ecosystems.

The Carbon Cycle - NotesThere are four main types of processes that move carbon through the cycle.

____________________ Processes: photosynthesis ____________ carbon from the atmosphere, while _____________________________ and ______________________ release carbon back into the atmosphere

______________________ Processes: ______________ and ___________________________ release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and oceans.

______________________________ processes: the burial and decomposition of dead organisms and their ______________ under pressure into ________ and _________________ (fossil fuels) – this _______________________ underground

____________________: mining, cutting and burning __________ and ________________ fossil fuels, all ____________ carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

Summary of Cycle:

Carbon is found in the _____________________ as ___________________ gas (as well as in other gases such as methane). Plants take in carbon dioxide and use carbon to build carbohydrates through ________________________.

The carbohydrates are passed through ______________ to consumers (some of the carbon being ________________________________ during their lifetimes) and eventually to decomposers. When organic matter _________________, the carbon can either be released into the _________________, or buried underground where over time it can be _______________ into ___________________.

Carbon is also found in the oceans in the form of ____________________, which is formed by some marine organisms, and this chalky substance accumulates in ocean sediments, which over time are either _________________________, or broken down and the carbon returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

Human Impact on the Carbon CycleWe release carbon from organic reservoirs (carbon sinks) by burning ___________________

We also increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by clearing _________________

1. ________________________ – atmospheric gases that surround the Earth (such as ________________ and _______________) trap the heat from the sun and warm the Earth’s surface.

2. ____________________ – the burning of wood and ___________________ have caused carbon dioxide levels to triple over the past 40 years. In that time global temperatures have increased by 1 degree Celcius.

- Some Problems Include:

- In the Arctic _______________ will thaw, causing roads & buildings to collapse (releases more carbon)

- ______________ and glaciers will melt, rivers will overflow, and ocean levels will ______ causing cities to flood or be submerged, and some island nations to disappear completely. This will create many ____________________.

- Changing sea levels will also change ______________________________, leading to surprising changes in climates around the world (cooling in Europe due to the Gulf Stream disappearing)

- Changing climates will drastically change ____________________ – plants and animals will need to shift their _________________ to new areas to survive.

- Many ______________________________ will become more frequent, severe, and unpredictable.

Nutrient Limitation & Human ImpactEcologists are often interested in the _______________________________ of an ecosystem, which is

the rate at which producers create organic matter. One factor that influences the rate of primary productivity is the amount of ______________________. When an ecosystem is limited by a single nutrient which is rare or which cycles very slowly, this substance is called a ________________________.

Since the very first use of agriculture, farmers have found that crops grown in the same plot of land every year start to suffer from nutrient deficiency. _________________________ in particular use up nitrogen and phosphorus very rapidly. One way to address this problem is to use crop rotation.

___________________ – The practice of growing a series of different ____________________ in the same area in sequential seasons in order to replenish soil nutrients such as nitrogen.

-Crop rotation has been used since ____________________ by early farmers in the Fertile Crescent, when they alternated planting legumes (with their nitrogen-fixing bacteria) and their other crops. -The Romans also used goat, sheep, cattle, and other ___________ as a natural fertilizer

_____________________ – The numbers on a bag of fertilizer tells you the _______________, ________________ and _________________ content. These three nutrients help to boost the productivity of the land by helping plants to grow __________ and ________________ than they would in unfertilized land.

In 1784 Henry Cavendish found a way to _______________________________________________ into nitric acid, and the more modern ___________________ to make ammonia was developed in the 1910s. Since then we have been able to create our own sources of nitrogen for plants, without the need for the bacteria found in legumes.

Use of some type of fertilizer (natural or synthetic) can increase yields by ____________ Synthetic fertilizers have become very important and are often over-used to try to raise crop yields

even higher

Water Pollution

___________ ecosystems are considered to be very ____________________ when compared to the land. For instance, seawater contains about ______________ the amount of nitrogen that is typically found in soil, so _______________ is usually a limiting nutrient in the ocean. In some regions of the oceans, other nutrients such as silica or iron may be the key limiting nutrient. In __________________________ such as streams, rivers and lakes, __________________ is typically the limiting nutrient.

When an aquatic ecosystem receives a large doses of a limiting nutrient (usually nitrogen or phosphorus runoff from a heavily fertilized field), there is often an immediate increase in the amount of algae and other producers. This is called an _________________. If there are not enough consumers around to eat the excess algae quickly, then the algae can cover the surface of the water for a large area. This can cause major disruption to the ecosystem. When this algae dies and starts to ___________________, the decomposers quickly use up the available _____________, and this produces a _________________ (an area of water where the oxygen levels are too low for most organisms to survive). Dead zones can become quite large and last for long periods of time – for example the huge dead zone in the _____________________.