00 Inizio PACE

Plants for ages have helped in satisfying hunger andsupplementing a diet. For centuries man has gained andhanded on knowledge about their properties, bothcurative and poisonous. However, this close relationshipwith plants had also different meaning, not only aphysical one, but also spiritual that was connected withbeliefs in extraordinary power of some plants.

Plants had their place in magical arts, customs orcertain forms of religion. Here we take a closer look atthree chosen species in different areas connected withhumans. Bracken rhizomes, during difficult times oflimited food availability, were used for culinarypurposes. Seeds of bladder-nut were popular inadornments and rosaries, this shrub was also consideredto have magical power. Mistletoe established itsreputation as a cult plant, moreover it was and still is inuse in medicine.

Pteridium

Pteridum aquilinum is a cosmopolitan species withan almost worldwide distribution apart frommountainous, desert and arctic areas. P. aquilinum subsp.aquilinum occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere,whereas P. aquilinum subsp. caudatum dominates in thesouthern hemisphere (Thomson 2000; Thomson andAlonso-Amelot 2002). Pteridium reproduces mainlyvegetatively. Its rhizomes are located deep undergroundso that they are protected both against frost and fire. Onburnt areas Pteridium produces leaves very quickly,

blocking the light available to other competitors(Stickney 1986; Taylor 1986). Additionally, it has theability to release allelopathic phytotoxins to prevent ormoderate other plant growth in the nearest vicinity(Brown 1986). The present distribution of Pteridiumaquilinum in Poland is presented on fig. 1 (Zając andZając 2001).

Because acid substratum facilitates the germinationof spores (Page 1986), in fire-prone areas, especially in

207

Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn), mistletoe (Viscum album(L.)) and bladder-nut (Staphylea pinnata (L.)) - mysterious plantswith unusual applications. Cultural and ethnobotanical studies

Jacek MADEJA1, Krystyna HARMATA1, Piotr KOŁACZEK1, Monika KARPIŃSKA-KOŁACZEK1,Krzysztof PIĄTEK2 and Przemysław NAKS3

1 Department of Palaeobotany, Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland2 Department of Plant Ecology, Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland3 Department of Plant Taxonomy and Phytogeography, Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland

AbstractRośliny od niepamiętnych czasów nie tylko pomagały zaspokoić głód i uzupełnić dietę. Na przestrzeni wieków człowiek zdobyłi przekazywał wiedzę o ich właściwościach leczniczych, czy trujących. Ale ten bezpośredni kontakt z roślinami miał też innywymiar, nie tylko materialny, ale i duchowy związany z wierzeniami w niezwykłą moc niektórych roślin. Rośliny miały swojemiejsce w sztukach magicznych, w zwyczajach, albo w ustalonych formach religii. Tu przyglądniemy się trzem wybranymprzez nas gatunkom na różnych płaszczyznach związanych z człowiekiem. Kłącza Pteridium aquilinum w ciężkim dla człowiekaczasie ograniczonego dostępu do pożywienia były wykorzystywane do celów konsumpcyjnych. Z nasion Staphylea pinnatasporządzano biżuterię oraz różańce, natomiast Viscum traktowana była jako roślina magiczna, a także lecznicza.

1. - Distribution of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) inPoland (Zając and Zając 2001).

P l a n t s a n d C u l t u r e : s e e d s o f t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f E u r o p e - © 2 0 0 9 · E d i p u g l i a s . r . l . - w w w . e d i p u g l i a . i t

MYSTERIOUS PLANTS WITH UNUSUAL APPLICATIONS. CULTURAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES

places where forest fires occur, the occurrence of a largenumber of young Pteridium specimens has beenobserved (Oberdorfer 1990), contributing to a decreasein substratum pH. Pteridium aquilinum is a pioneer plantwhich does not tolerate shading. It occurs in disturbedlocalities (Jackson 1981), in forest clearings and forestedges. It frequently occupies moors, drying swamps andappears in fields under cultivation.

In Poland, Pteridium aquilinum spores have beenrecorded since the end of the Vistulian (fig. 2). Theirgreatest abundance in pollen spectra is noticeablebetween 8000-5000 BP, during which Pteridiumconstituted an important element of pine and mixeddeciduous forests (Madeja et al. 2004). Undoubtedly, thefrequent occurrence of Pteridium aquilinum at this timewas connected with forest clearing by Mesolithic andNeolithic human groups.

The Polish name “orlica” refers to the vascularbundle arrangement in the stipe which on cross-sectionsis reminiscent of a flying, double eagle.

Pteridium aquilinum is one of the many members ofthe plant world that have practical and diverse uses.Despite its worldwide distribution, the range of basicapplications is very similar across its range and isconnected mainly with use as a food source. In Europe,western bracken rhizomes were consumed most likelyeven in the Middle Stone Age (Göransson 1986).

Its poisonous qualities have been known for a longtime. Ptaquiloside - the main toxin of bracken - causesfrequent intoxications and even leads to death ofdomestic animals, while thiaminase, another activeagent, causes disturbance in the absorption of vitaminB1 (Fenwick 2006, Yamada et al. 2007). In Japan and

Korea, where bracken is an important dietary element,an archaic method of disposing of the toxic substancesfrom young plant parts is used even today. This methodconsists of soaking bracken in water for a day with theaddition of ash, and boiling afterwards; young plants canthen be consumed as a vegetable or as a soup (called“warabe”) (Pieroni 2005). A similar way of discardingthe toxic residues and bitter taste is given in theguidebook entitled: Dzikie rośliny jadalne Polski.Przewodnik survivalowy (Wild edible Polish plants.Survival Guidebook, in Polish) (Łuczaj 2004).

Because bracken’s rhizomes contain up to 60%starch, they were often dried and used as a valuablestarch source. Unfortunately, they have a bitter,unpleasant taste that is hard to get rid of. One way ofeliminating the taste involves drying (in this state theycan be stored for years), removing the black peel andthreshing with the use of a stick, causing thedisintegration of the dry farinaceous parts from amongthe hard, oblong fibers (Łuczaj 2004). Rhizomesgrinding yielded similar results. Flour obtained in thisway was commonly added to bread baking, especiallyduring periods of famine. In France this kind of breadwas baked during the Great Famine (Coquillat 1950).

The oldest written information related to using fernsas a source of food in Great Britain reads as follows:«Poor people made the bread of fern roots» (Caxton1480).

During the First World War, which significantlylimited food availability for people as well as foranimals, greater attention was paid to the possibility ofusing rhizomes of bracken as food. Such observationswere initiated in Scotland and conducted also in othercountries (Hendrick 1919). Recipes for boiled brackenleaves appeared in British newspapers at that time (Braid1934). Suggestions included using green, still twistedleaves as an asparagus substitute and also the possibilityof using young rhizomes for brewing.

Both bracken rhizomes and leaves were used asfodder for domestic animals. In Wales, shredded driedleaves mixed with straw or hay were given to horses andmules pulling trams during winter. Leaves were alsogiven to rabbits.

Because of its chemical properties, bracken was usedin folk medicine for a long time. Dried, powderedrhizomes were utilized most often. Powder was addedto wine or water sweetened with honey. A drug preparedin this way was known for its anti-ascaris and anti-parasitic properties. There is also a known analgesicproperty of the aqueous extract made from brackenrhizomes (Pieroni and Quave 2005); in Poland there is aconviction that compresses made of dried bracken leavesbring relief from rheumatic pain (personal information).

Pteridium was also used as an abortive agent indomestic animals (Viegi et al. 2003).

208

2. - Spore of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn).


The charcoal (cinder), result of the burning ofbracken leaves, mixed with a small amount of olive oil,was also used to treat bite wounds caused by wolves(Guarrera et al. 2005).

Apart from the common use as a source of food andmedicinal substances, Pteridium also had a wholespectrum of other practical, and sometimes amazinguses.

Because of the high potassium content in ash, afterlixiviation bracken was a frequent additive in glassproduction during the Middle Ages (Jackson andSmedley 2008). Ash from bracken was also used as acheap washing detergent for clothes. Ash balls wereoften bought as a universal washing agent (Morris1947). After mixing ash with oil and suet, moreexpensive washing detergents, soaps, were made. As ahighly energetic plant, bracken was used as fuel fromwhich briquettes burned in stoves were made (Callaghanet al. 1981). Bracken leaves were used to thatch roofsand also as bedding for cattle. They were also processedfor compost (Pitman and Webber 1998). In theMediterranean area bracken leaves are frequently usedby shepherds to filtrate sheep milk and for freshly madericotta cheese preservation (Pieroni 2005). Thegermicidal and fungicidal substances contained inbracken leaves make food wrapped in them resistantfrom perishing. Some gardeners in Poland who avoidavailable commercial chemical plant protection productsuse an aqueous extract from bracken leaves for sprayingplants in order to control plant lice or for watering plantsas an anti-snail agent (personal information).

Human activity contributed to an increase in the areaoccupied by bracken at least since the Middle Stone Age.Observations from Finland (Oinonen 1976) show acorrelation between an increase of new areas occupiedby bracken and periods when warfare took place.Warfare induced frequent forest fires that promoted thespread of bracken. Today, the continuing expansion ofPteridium species is troublesome and hard to control inEurope and globally (Cox et al. 2007; Pakeman et al.2005; Hartig and Beck 2003).

Human intervention made it possible for bracken tospread to new areas, made use of the plant throughvarious applications, and frequently helped brackensurvive hard times. Now man is trying to find a way tostop the expansion of bracken.

Viscum

Viscum is an amazing plant that lives at the expenseof its hosts which constitute various tree species. Inautumn and winter, when trees stand leafless, greenspheres of various size, formed by the twigs of Viscum,can be seen from afar. Underneath the bark of the host

tree, mistletoe forms a branched system of suckers usedto absorb water and mineral salts. Because of itsevergreen, olive-green coloured leaves and twigs thatseem to be dychotomically branched, Viscum canassimilate self-sufficiently. Mistletoe’s shoots divide intonodes and internodes. A new dichotomy appears everyyear, so by counting these it is possible to determine theage of the plant. Individuals can live for 30-40 years(Stypiński 1997). There is considerable variation inViscum in the selection of tree species as hosts, particularsubspecies demonstrate important differences in thisregard. Viscum occurs on trees that are 20 years old atleast. It also shows preferences for trees that grow insoils rich in calcium carbonate.

Mistletoe is dioecious and is usually in bloom fromFebruary till April. Male flowers are characterized by asingle yellow-green perianth with four sepals that joinat the base and form a short tube. Instead of typicallyformed stamens, at the base of the perianth occur up to50 anthers that burst and enable the spread of pollen.These flowers also produce a large amount of nectar.Female flowers usually occur in trios surrounded by asmall inconspicuous perianth, they also produce nectarbut, in contrast to male flowers, they possess very littledetectable odour. Flowers are probably pollinated byinsects among which bees probably play an importantrole. Nevertheless some researchers claim that this plantis also wind-pollinated. Mistletoe is a sparse pollenproducer (fig. 3) (Stypiński 1997). Berries grow onfemale specimens after spring pollination. These maturein late autumn or winter and can be distributed by birds,mostly by waxwings and mistle thrushes, which swallowwhole fruits and enable long distance dispersal. Otherbirds nibble fruits which can easily attach to the branches

J. MADEJA, K. HARMATA, P. KOŁACZEK, M. KARPIŃSKA-KOŁACZEK, K. PIĄTEK, P. NAKS

209

3. - Pollen grain of mistletoe (Viscum album (L.)).



of the host-tree due to their sticky flesh, afterwards theyform suckers and eventually roots.

Mistletoe is a phytoindicator of environmentalcontamination with heavy metals (Stypiński 1981, 1997).However, the branches of trees on which it parasitizes aredeprived of water and mineral substance inflow whichcan lead to desiccation. If there are many specimens onone tree, Viscum may cause the death of the host.

Fossil remains of the genus Viscum were identifiedin the younger periods of the Neogene. They wereaccompanied by tree genera including maple (Acer),birch (Betula), lime (Tilia), elm (Ulmus), hornbeam(Carpinus), beech (Fagus) and walnut (Juglans).Mistletoe was the main component of mesotrophicdeciduous forests (Stuchlik et al. 1990). Viscum pollenwas found quite often in the interglacial flora (Janczyk-Kopikowa 1977).

An examination of isopollen maps of Poland revealsthat mistletoe percentages in the pollen assemblages arediscontinuous and low (<0,6%). In the Holocene, Viscumpollen appeared about 9000-8500 years BP in centralPoland, at the foot of the Tatra Mountains and in theSudetes. Between 8500-7500 years BP, Viscumexpanded gradually and about 3500 years BP its rangespread across the whole country (Granoszewski et al.2004). According to Jacomet and Kreuz (1999) thepresence of mistletoe pollen grains indicates a meantemperature of the warmest month over 15ºC and verywarm summer seasons. This taxon is also indicative ofa mean temperature in January higher than -7ºC.Mistleote is a Eurasian plant; according to Hegi (1957)it is a Boreomeridial-Euroasian-Oceanic species. Thepresent distribution of Viscum in Poland is presented onfig. 4 (Zając and Zając 2001).

Many legends and customs are associated withmistletoe and the attributes that it is believed to possess.These have been used for practical and cultural purposesfor ages. Among the special features of mistletoe thatdetermine its cultural meaning, the most important is thelocation of this hemiparasite high between the earth andthe heavens. This state of suspension means thatmistletoe is positioned in a boundary zone, and results ina possibility of mediation and representation of thesacrum order that has always been radically separatedfrom the mortal world. Another important feature is thatit never yields its green colour, even if the parasitizedtree loses its leaves. This everlasting green is ademonstration of permanency, invariability, and adefiance of the destructive influence of time (Kowalski2007). Mistletoe was called a “golden branch”, becauseif its leaves are dried it changes colour from green toyellow-gold, associated with sunlight and eternity. Itmay also be linked to the underworld, another sign ofmistletoe’s attachment to sacrum.

Pliny described the circumstances accompanying thetaking of mistletoe from oak by celtic Druids. A white-dressed priest would harvest mistletoe five days after anew moon using a special golden sickle. The severed plantshould fall into white linen laid under the tree so as not totouch the ground, because if it did it would lose its sacredpower. Later practises preserved this special care duringthe gathering of this plant. According to the Herbarium ofPolish Marcin from Urzędów (in the original: HerbarzPolski Marcina z Urzędowa), mistletoe is collected not bycutting using metal tools, nor even by touching the plantitself, but by snapping the twigs through linen and thenplacing the plant onto another linen sheet laying on theground. In Slavic tradition mistletoe was gathered duringthe evening before Christmas Eve. After climbing a treewith mistletoe, the plant was broken off using the head ofan axe (not the blade) and was thrown to a man standingunder the tree, so as not to let it touch the ground.Mistletoe twigs were put into beehives in order to obtainplenty of honey the following year (Kowalski 2007). Inthe Mazovia region mistletoe was burnt and smoke wasspread around hives (www.bio-life.pl/art.7749). Mistletoeprotected the home from insincere people. It was also saidthat you must leave a part of a branch on the host tree toavoid misfortune.

According to present folk beliefs, a girl that refusesa kiss under mistletoe may provoke bad luck for herself.It was also believed that if a girl was kissed seven timesduring a day by seven men, then she would marry one ofthem that year (Kowalski 2007). Mistletoe is consideredto be an aid for people in love and lovers; today, whenthere is so much tension, separation and divorce, thisfeature should not be neglected. Thus mistletoe that hasbeen gilded or silver-plated, added to bouquets,decorations and ikebanas enters homes during Christmas

210

4. - Distribution of mistletoe (Viscum album (L.)) in Poland (Zającand Zając 2001).


time to bring us best wishes and joy. Surely mistletoe,especially the berries, can be sticky; incautious peoplemay be caught as are flies. There is a well known sayingin Poland “to be caught on glue” (in the original: “złapałsię na lep”). Maybe this is mistletoe’s revenge for thefact that its twigs are taken nowadays without ceremonyand with no respect for primeval rituals (Macioti 2006).

Particular species are used by communities as food(Barlow 1987; Stypiński 1997). Leaves and twigs canbe used as fodder for cattle and other animals. Duringfamine, dried and ground mistletoe was added to flourfrom which bread was baked. Bastiaens et al. (2007),during investigations in a late-Mesolithic locality inBelgium, found large amounts of mistletoe twigs and ivyseeds. Researchers suggest that people collected theseevergreen plants for ritual purposes or as fodder foranimals during the winter.

Pliny bequeathed an opinion known in ancient timesaccording to which «Gauls believe that mistletoe used indrinks ensures fecundity and is a remedy for all poisons»(Questin 1994). In Polish folk medicine it is also regardedas “an antidote to all poisons and heaven’s gift”.Mistletoe taken from an apple tree or hawthorn protectedfrom fear, especially children, if twigs were placed intoa child’s bed then all nightmares were supposed todisappear. The plant most holy for the Druids was oakmistletoe. Pliny wrote: «For Druids there is no greaterholiness than mistletoe that on a winter oak is born.Winter oak is for them a tree absolutely divine, it formssacred groves venerated by them, and its leaves areessential at offering all sacrifices. If on one of the trees amistletoe shrub appears, it is a certain sign that it camedirectly from heaven and the tree itself was chosen byone of the gods».

The applications of mistletoe in medicine fromDruid times till the beginning of the 20th century weresummarized in a monograph by Tubeuf (1923). It wasused as a cure for epilepsy, convulsions and to lowerblood pressure. Extract from Viscum is helpful forarteriosclerosis and the spitting of blood. It was alsoprepared as injections that lower blood pressure. Often,especially in folk medicine, mistletoe was used incompresses for wounds and frostbites. Hence,nowadays drinking extracts from mistletoe is worthyof recommendation for many reasons. Likewise, winethat is made from 40 mg of leaves macerated for 10days in one litre of dry white wine is also recom -mended. After filtration 100 mg of wine should bedrunk twice or three times a day (Macioti 2006).Farmers in villages added leaves of this hemiparasiticplant to fodder, ensuring the fertility of their pigs,increasing milk production in cattle, and augmentingspeed and strength in horses.

Modern medicine has not forgotten the magicalplant of the Celts. Indeed, it has even broadened its

usage. Preparations from mistletoe are used for curingcancer (Kołodziejak-Nieckuła 1994). A drug preparedfrom Viscum album called Iscador strengthens theimmune system and inhibits tumour growth (Stypiński1997) in anti-cancer therapy and against HIV. Oakmistletoe has the most extensive pharmacologicaleffects as the medication Iscador Q (Iscador Qu). Themost active components of this preparation are lectinsand viscotoxins. They suppress the divisions of cancercells and additionally mitigate the side effects ofradiotherapy and chemotherapy (www.henryk.gower.pl/viscum.htm).

In cytology mistletoe extract was used to change thecell division mechanism in maize seeds (Zea mays).Enormous polyploid cells were produced under theinfluence of different concentrations (0,1; 0,01; 0,001 %)of this extract (Stypiński 1967).

Staphylea

The origin of Latin name of genus Staphylea comesfrom shape of inflorescences, in greek language word‘staphyle’ means bunch of grapes. Polish name‘kłokoczka’ comes from characteristic sound called‘klekot’ that can be heard when fruits are shaked bywind.

If we take into consideration the aspects ofdistribution (Domin and Podpera 1928; Domin 1949;Gostyńska 1961a; Zając and Zając 2001) and ecology(Browicz 1959; Gostyńska 1961; Tylkowski 2007),bladder-nut is one of the most interesting Polish shrubs.It is the only representative of the genus Staphylea andthe family Staphyleaceae in Poland.


211

5. - Distribution of bladder-nut (Staphylea pinnata (L.) in Poland(Zając, Zając 2001).



The issue of its natural territorial range in our countryis still disputable. One of the reasons is the questionablestatus of particular localities, which is caused by the factthat for the centuries bladder-nut has been used bypeople as a utilitary plant (Šistek 1932a, 1932b; Jarvis1979). The presence of this species is limited to southernand south-eastern part of Poland (Zając and Zając 2001)(fig. 5), at the northern limit of its range (Meusel et al.1978). According to Kornaś and Wróbel (1972) thesesites are treated as natural, however many modernlocalities of this plant are of an antropogenic origin.Staphylea pinnata L. belongs to the east Mediterraneanpontic element (Hegi 1965).

Bladder-nut is a termophilous calcicole shrubgrowing up to 5 m. It is in blossom from May to June,and the seeds ripen from September to November. Thebark is olive-grey or brown with oblong white furrows.The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, and pinnatewith 3-7 leaflets. The blossoms are hermaphroditeproduced in drooping terminal panicles 5-10 cm longwith 5-15 blossoms on each inflorescence, the individualflowers are about 1 cm in their diameter, white and pale

pink color, they are pollinatedby flies. The fruit is two- orthree-lobed capsule 3-10 cmlong con taining brown hard-shelled seeds (fig. 6).

Fossil remains of seeds andpollen grains of genusStaphylea were identifiedmainly in late Tertiary material.Latałowa (1994) mentioned 4localities dated to the Holocene,whereas Środoń (1992) listed asmany as 43 localities dated toMiocene and Pliocene fromPoland.

In the territory of Poland,the earliest reliable excavationswhere bladder-nut was founddates back to the turn of the 3rd

and 4th centuries AD, comesfrom Prószcz Gdański (La -tałowa 1994). Its seeds,threaded on a silver wire,formed a part of a rich necklace(fig. 7) (Pietrzak and Tuszyńska1988, Latałowa 1994).

The most interesting folkcustoms and religious ritesconnected with this plant havesurvived the longest in thePodkarpacie region (S-EPoland) (Gostyńska 1962),where the density of naturallocalities is the highest, and the

populations are among the most numerous in the wholecountry. Hence, this plant is often to be found there in thehousehold gardens.

Bladder-nut’s wood was said to have the power tokeep away the evil spirits and the devil. Therefore itused to be carved into crosses, which were later hungabove the entrance doors, or put in the corners of thefields in order to prevent natural disasters and ensure agood harvest. The wood was also attached to the hornsof the cattle at the beginning of the pasturing season, inorder to protect them from evil spells and sickness. Insome places, bladder-nut’s wood was used to makewalking sticks and plungers for churning butter(Gostyńska 1962).

The amazing white flowers were also used todecorate churches on festive days. In some placesinflorescences of this plant are components of palmsprepared for ceremonial Palm Sunday and wreathsprepared for Corpus Christi octave. There was folk beliefthat putting them into the handkerchief of a beloved onesecures his love. People trusted in its power of protectinghouses from thunderbolts. For all these reasons bladder-

212

6. - 1. Fructifying shrub. 2. Bark -olive-grey or brown with oblong white furrows. 3.Inflorescences. 4. Flowers. 5. Pollen grain. 6. Fruit -bladdery multiseed capsule, 3-5 cm long.7. - Seeds - with hard shells, containing oil substances. Photographs taken by: P. Naks (1,2,3),M. Karpińska-Kołaczek (4), P. Kołaczek (5,7), K. Piątek (6).


nut was often transplanted into gardens. As an outcomeof this popularity, Staphylea has disappeared from theforests in some regions of Poland. Probably it was theCelts who first started to plant it on their grave-mounds(Heigi 1965).

Because of their beautiful colour, shape anddurability, the seeds were very popular. Theaforementioned Celts used them to make variousadornments. In the early Middle Ages (10th-12th century)they could have been used as food, together with thegreen parts of the plant. After the introduction ofChristianity, the seeds were used to make rosaries (fig.7), that is why the bladder-nut shrubs can often be foundin cloister gardens. What is more, its seeds contain a lotof fat and can be used as a source of oil. They used to beground and added into fodder, because it was believedthat they can provide good health and longevity forfarm animals. They were also used as medicine forill children, as they were believed to have healingeffects. However, overdosed they could cause vomits(Gostyńska 1962).

At present, a research into the chemical compoundscontained in the bladder-nut’s leaves, flowers, andseeds is carried out. It turns out that the flowers containmostly different oxygenated aliphatic hydrocarbons;aldehydes, ketones, esters of higher fatty acids, andhexadecanoic acid with dominating content oftricosane and also of heneicosane, pentacosane,heptacosane, and nonacosane and some nonaliphatichydrocarbons In the leaves one can found rutine andtwo sacharides, glucose and saccharose. Plant extractspossesses also many interesting secondary metabolites(polyphenols, flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic deriva -tives) (Lacikova et al. 2008). It is also known thatStaphylea pinnata possesses significant cytotoxic andantibacterial activity (Jantova et al. 2001; Lacikova etal. 2007).

There are more plants that were satisfying spiritualneeds of man and were regarded as sacred, as a giftfrom heaven, that could be mentioned. People were

making deal with them, sometimes full of adoration,respect and admiration, sometimes full of apprehensionand fear; they were creating legends of them. All ofthat probably resulted from the fact that peopleconsidered themselves as an element of thesurrounding nature, in which plants played, besidesdifferent beings, very important, practically an equalto people role.

AcknowledgementsFinancial support from the Mi nistry of Science andHigher Education (grant 787/ Kultura 2007/2008/7).

References

Barlow 1987: B.A. Barlow - Mistletoes, in Biologist(Australia), 43, 1987, p. 261-269.

Bastiaens et al. 2007: J. Bastiaens, K. Deforce, L.Meersschaert and B. Klinck - Two late Mesolithic sitesalong the river Scheldt (Doel, Belgium): focus onwoodland and the use of Viscum album and Hederahelix, in 14th Symposium of the International WorkGroup for Palaeoethnobotany. Kraków, Poland 17-23June 2007. Programme and abstracts, Kraków, W.Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences,2007, 118 p.

Braid 1934: K.W. Braid - Bracken as a colonist, in ScottishJournal of Agriculture, 17, 1934, p. 59-70.

Browicz 1959: K. Browicz - O rozmnażaniu się kłokoczkipołudniowej (Staphylea pinnata L.), in RocznikDendrologiczny, 13, 1959, p. 125-130.

Brown 1986: R.W. Brown - Bracken in the North YorkMoors: its ecological and amenity implications innational parks, in R.T. Smith and J.A. Taylor (Eds.) -Bracken: Ecology, land use and control technology,Carnforth, The Parthenon Publishing Group Limited,1986, p. 77-86.

Callaghan et al. 1981: T.V. Callaghan, R. Scott and G.J.Lawson - An experimental assessment of native andnaturalized plants as renewable sources of energy inGreat Britain, in Contractors Coordination Meeting,Energy from Biomass Project, Luxemburg, Commis -sion of the European Communities, 1981, p. 13-19.


213

7. - 1. Adornments made of bladder-nut seeds dated back to 3rd or the beginning of 4th century AD found in excavations in PrószczGdański (N Poland) (Pietrzak, Tuszyńska 1988 after Latałowa 1994, changed), 2. The rosary made by the Michaelite Fathers fromMiejsce Piastowe. Collection of the Museum of Botanic Garden in Cracow.



Caxton 1480: W. Caxton - Chronicles of England, London,1480.

Coquillat 1950: M. Coquillat - Au sujet du “pain defougère” en Mâconnais, in Bulletin Mensuel de laSociété Linnéenne de Lyon, 19, 1950, p. 173-176.

Cox et al. 2007: E.S. Cox, R.H. Marrs, R.J. Pakeman andM.G. Le Duc - A multi-site assessment of the effectivenessof Pteridium aquilinum control in Great Britain, inApplied Vegetation Science, 10, 2007, p. 429-440.

Domin 1949: K. Domin - Staphylea pinnata L. vČeskoslovensku, in Hort. sanitat., 2(1), 1949, p. 34-35.

Domin and Podpera 1928: K. Domin and J. Podpera -Staphylea pinnata L, in Acta Botanica Bohemica, 6-7,1928, p. 71, 107, 110, 114, 128.

Fenwick 2006: G.R. Fenwick - Bracken (Pteridiumaquilinum) toxic effects and toxic constituents, inJournal of the Sciences of Food and Agriculture, 46,2006, p. 147-173.

Gostyńska 1961: M. Gostyńska - Rozmieszczenie iekologia kłokoczki południowej (Staphylea pinnata L.)w Polsce, in Rocznik Arboretum Kórnickiego, 6, 1961,p. 5-71.

Gostyńska 1962: M. Gostyńska - Zwyczaje i obrzędyludowe w Polsce związane z kłokoczką południową(Staphylea pinnata L.), in Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 16,1962, p. 113-120.

Göransson 1986: H. Göransson - Man and forests ofnemoral broad-leaved trees during the Stone-Age, inStriae, 24, 1986, p. 143-152.

Granoszewski et al. 2004: W. Granoszewski, M. Nita andD. Nalepka - Viscum album L.-Mistletoe, in A. Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. Latałowa, K. Tobolski, E. Madeyska,H.E. Wright Jr. and Ch. Turner (Eds.) - Late Glacial andHolocene History of Vegetation in Poland Based onIsopollen Maps, Kraków, W.Szafer Institute of Botany,Polish Academy of Sciences, 2004, p. 237-243.

Guarrera et al. 2005: P. M. Guarrera, G. Salerno and G.Caneva - Folk phytotherapeutical plants from Marateaarea (Basilicata, Italy), in Journal ofEthnopharmacology, 99, 2005, p. 367-378.

Hartig and Beck 2003: K. Hartig and E. Beck - Thebracken fern (Pteridium arachnoideum (Kaulf.) Maxon)dilemma in the Andes of Southern Ecuador, inEcotropica, 9, 2003, p. 3-13.

Hendrick 1919: J. Hendrick - Bracken rhizomes and theirfood value, in Transactions of the Highland Society ofScotland, 31, 1919, p. 227-236.

Hegi 1957: G. Hegi - Illustrierte Flora von Mittel Europa.Dicotyledones 3, München, Carl Hanser Verlag, 1957,452 p.

Hegi 1965: G. Hegi - Staphylea pinnata L., in IllustrierteFlora von Mittel-Europa. Band 5/1, Müchen, CarlHanser Verlag, 1965, p. 258-262.

Jackson 1981: L.P. Jackson - Asulam for control of easternbracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) in lowbushblueberry fields, in Canadian Journal of Plant Science,61, 1981, p. 475-477.

Jackson and Smedley 2008: C.M. Jackson and J.W.Smedley - Medieval and post-medieval glasstechnology: seasonal changes in the composition ofbracken ashes from different habitats through a growingseason, in Glass Technology: European Journal ofGlass Science and Technology Part A, 49, 2008, p. 240-245.

Jacomet and Kreuz 1999: S. Jacomet and A. Kreuz -Archäobotanik, Stuttgart, Verlag Eugen Ulmer, 1999,368 p.

Janczyk-Kopikowa 1977: Z. Janczyk-Kopikowa - Floraplejstocenu, in J. Czermiński (Ed.) - Budowageologiczna Polski. 2. cz. 3b. Katalog skamieniałości.Kenozoik, czwartorzęd, Warszawa, InstytutGeograficzny, Wydawnictwa Geograficzne, 1977, p.43-70.

Jantova et al. 2001: S. Jantova, M. Nagy, L. Ruekov andD. Grancai - Cytotoxic effects of plant extracts from thefamilies Fabaceae, Oleaceae, Philadelphaceae,Rosaceae and Staphyleaceae, in PhytotherapyResearch, 15(1), 2001, p. 22-25.

Jarvis 1979: P.J. Jarvis - The introduction and cultivationof bladdernuts in England, in Garden History, 7(2),1979, p. 65-73.

Kołodziejak-Nieckuła 1994: E. Kołodziejczyk-Nieckuła- Wobjęciach jemioły, in Wiedza i Życie, 12, 1994, p.24-28.

Kornaś and Wróbel 1972: J. Kornaś and J. Wróbel -Materiały do atlasu rozmieszczenia roślinnaczyniowych w Karpatach polskich. 5. Staphyleapinnata L., in Rocznik Dendrologiczny, 26, 1972, p. 27-31.

Kowalski 2007: P. Kowalski - Kultura magiczna. Omen,przesąd, znaczenie, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo NaukowePWN, 2007, 654 p.

Lacikova et al. 2007: L. Lacikova, J. Muselik, I.Masterova and D. Grancai - Antioxidant activity andtotal phenols in different extracts of four Staphylea L.species, in Molecules 12(1), 2007, p. 98-102.

Lacikova et al. 2008: L. Lacikova, I. Masterova and I., D.Grancai - Bladdernut-determination of the content ofselected secondary metabolites [Klokoc-Stanovenieobsahu vybranych sekundarnych metabolitov], inFarmaceuticky Obzor, 77(3), 2008, p. 69-73.

Latałowa 1994: M. Latałowa - The archaeobotanicalrecord of Staphylea pinnata L. from the 3rd/4th centuryA.D. in Northern Poland, in Vegetation History andArchaeobotany, 3(2), 1994, p. 121-125.

Łuczaj 2004: Ł. Łuczaj - Dzikie rośliny jadalne Polski.Przewodnik survivalowy, Krosno, Chemigrafia, 2004,p. 148-150.

Madeja et al. 2004: J. Madeja, K. Bałaga, K. Harmata andD. Nalepka - Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn - Bracken,in A. Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. Latałowa, K. Tobolski,E. Madeyska, H.E. Wright Jr. and Ch. Turner (Eds.) -Late Glacial and Holocene History of Vegetation inPoland Based on Isopollen Maps, Kraków, W. SzaferInstitute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2004,p. 327-335.

Macioti 2006: M. Macioti - Mity i magie ziół, Kraków,Universitas, 2006, 344 p.

Meusel et al. 1978: H. Meusel, E. Jäger, S. Rauschert andE. Weinert - Vergleichende Chorologie derZentraleuropäischen Flora, Band II, Jena, GustavFischer Verlag, 1978, 286 p.

Morris 1947: C. Morris - The journeys of Celia Fiennes,Long Riders’ Guild Press US, 2001, 376 p.

Oberdorfer 1990: E. Oberdorfer - PflanzensoziologischeExkursionsflora, Stuttgart, Verlag Eugen Ulmer, 1990,1050 p.

Oinonen 1976: E. Oinonen - The correlation between thesize of Finnish bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.)

214


Kuhn) clones and certain periods of site history, in ActaForestalia Fennica, 83, 1976, p. 1-51.

Page 1986: C.N. Page - The strategies of bracken as apermanent ecological opportunist, in R.T. Smith, J.A.Taylor (Eds.) - Bracken: Ecology, land use and controltechnology, Carnforth, The Parthenon Publishing GroupLimited, 1986, p. 173-181.

Pakeman et al. 2005: R.J. Pakeman, J.L. Small, M.G. LeDuc and R.H. Marrs - Recovery of Moorland Vegetationafter Aerial Spraying of Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum(L.) Kuhn) with Asulam, in Restoration Ecology, 4,2005, p. 718-724.

Pieroni 2005: A. Pieroni - Gathering Food form Wild, inSir G. Prance and M. Nesbitt (Eds.) - The CulturalHistory of Plants, New York, London, Routledge, 2005,p. 29-44.

Pieroni and Quave 2005: A. Pieroni and C.L. Quave -Traditional pharmacopoeias and medicines amongAlbanians and Italians in southern Italy: a comparison,in Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 101, 2005, p. 258-270.

Pietrzak and Tuszyńska 1988: M. Pietrzak and M.Tuszyńska - Periode Romaine Tardive (PruszczGdański 7), in W. Hensel (Ed.) - InventariaArcheologica Pologne. Fasc LX: PL, Warszawa-Łódź,PWN, 1988, p. 369-373.

Pitman and Weber 1998: R. Pitman and J. Weber -Bracken as a Peat Alternative, in The ForestryAuthority, Edinburgh, Forestry Practice, 1998, p. 1-6.

Questin 1994: M. Questin - Medycyna Druidów, Kraków,Wydawnictwo Kastel, 1994, 196 p.

Stickney 1986: P.F. Stickney - First decade plantsuccession following the Sundance Forest Fire,northern Idaho, in USDA Forest Service, IntermountainForest and Range Experiment Station, GeneralTechnical Report, p. 1-197.

Stuchlik et al. 1990: L. Stuchlik, A. Szynkiewicz, M.Łańcucka-Środoniowa and E. Zastawniak - Wynikidotychczasowych badań paleobotanicznychtrzeciorzędowych węgli brunatnych złoża “Bełchatów”,in Acta Palaeobotanica, 30, 1990, p. 259-305.

Stypiński 1981: P. Stypiński - Zależność składuchemicznego Viscum album L. subsp. album odwłaściwości gleby i natężenia ruchu pojazdówsamochodowych na Pojezierzu Mazurskim, Olsztyn,Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna, 1981, 77 p.

Stypiński 1997: P. Stypiński - Biologia i ekologia jemiołypospolitej (Viscum album, Viscaceae) w Polsce, inFragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica Series Polonica,Suppl. 1, 1997, p. 3-115.

Šistek 1932a: V. Šistek - Klokoč (Staphylea pinnata L.), inČesky Včelař, 66(4), 1932, p. 133.

Šistek 1932b: V. Šistek - Klokoč (Staphylea pinnata L.), inČesky Včelař, 66(5), 1932, p. 177.

Środoń 1992: A. Środoń - Kłopoty z kłokoczką (Troubleswith Staphylea pinnata L.), in Wiadomości Botaniczne36, 1992, p. 63-67.

Taylor 1986: J.A. Taylor - The bracken problem: a localhazard and global issue, in R.T. Smith and J.A. Taylor(Eds.) - Bracken: ecology, land use and controltechnology, Carnforth, The Parthenon Publishing GroupLimited, 1986, p. 21-42.

Thomson 2000: J.A. Thomson - Morphological andgenomic diversity in the genus Pteridium(Dennstaediaceae), in Annals of Botany - London, 85,2000, p. 77-99.

Thomson and Alonso-Amelot 2002: J.A. Thomson andM.E. Alonso-Amelot - Clarification of the taxonomicstatus and relationships of Pterdium caudatum(Dennstaediaceae) in Centra, and south America, inBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 140, 2002, p.237-248.

Tubeuf 1923: K. V. Tubeuf - Monographie der Mistel,München-Berlin, R. Oldenburg, 1923, 832 p.

Tylkowski 2007: T. Tylkowski - Stratification conditionsdetermining seed dormancy release of Europeanbladder nut (Staphylea pinnata L.), in Acta SocietatisBotanicorum Poloniae, 76(2), 2007, p. 95-101.

Viegi et al. 2003: L. Viegi, A. Pieroni, P.M. Guarrera andR. Vangelisti - A review of plants used in folkveterinary medicine in Italy as basis for a databank,in Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 89, 2003, p. 221-244.

Yamada et al. 2007: K. Yamada, M. Ojika and H. Kigoshi- Ptaquiloside, the major toxin of bracken, and relatedterpene glycosides: chemistry, biology and ecology, inNatural Product Reports, 24, 2007, p. 798-813.

Zając and Zając 2001: A. Zając and M. Zając (Eds.) -Distribution Atlas of Vascular Plants in Poland,Kraków, Laboratory of Computer Chorology, Instituteof Botany, Jagiellonian University, 2001, 714 p.


215


Documents

00 Inizio PACE