03_composition_19503.big notes

8/7/2019 03_composition_19503.big notes

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NameName Size RangeSize Range Major GroupMajor Group

BoulderBoulder

CobbleCobblePebblePebble

GranuleGranule

SandSand SandstonesSandstones

SiltSilt SiltstoneSiltstone

ClayClay ClaystoneClaystone

Wentworths Size ScaleWentworths Size Scale

44

--22 --66 --88

--11

88

GravelGravel

MudMud

ConglomerateConglomerate

BrecciaBreccia((RuditesRudites))


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Average CompositionsAverage Compositions

Average Igneous Rock 65-70% 20%

Average Sedimentary Rock 5-15% 35-50%

Average Sandstone 10-15% 65%

Average Mudstone 5% 30%

Average Abyssal Plain


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Mineral Components include:Mineral Components include:

____________________:____________________:

Sand- and coarse silt-sized particles

_______________:_______________:

Grains smaller than coarse silt (typically clays)

filling interstitial spaces between framework

grains ( may be detrital or recrystallized)

_______________:_______________:

Minerals precipitated from solution


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_______________ Minerals (>~1%)

_______________ Minerals (


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Stable minerals

Quartz

Chert

Less Stable minerals

Feldspars

Clay minerals & Micas:

Major Minerals


Accessory MineralsCoarse Micas

Heavy MineralsNon-Opaque

*Zircon-Tourmaline-RutileAmphiboles, Pyroxenes, etc

Opaque*Hematite, Limonite

Magnetite, etc

* Most stable minerals

Boggs, 1987


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Igneous Rocks

e.g. rhyolite, basalt

Metamorphic Rocks

e.g. slate, schist

Sedimentary Rockse.g. chert(?), shale

Rock Fragments

Boggs, 1987

Chemical CementsSilicate minerals

e.g. quartz, chert, clay

Carbonate minerals

e.g. calcite, dolomite

Iron Oxide minerals

e.g. hematite, limonite

Sulfate minerals

e.g. anhydrite, gypsum


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Sandstone ClassificationsSandstone Classifications

based on Folk, 1980


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Stages of Textural MaturityStages of Textural Maturity

5%


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MechanicalMechanical WeatheringThe disintegration or breaking up of

rocks without changes in thecomposition of weathered products.

ChemicalChemical Weathering

The decomposition of rocks causingchanges in the composition of

weathered products.


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Major Weathering ProcessesMajor Weathering Processes

include:include:

Frost wedging

Wetting & drying Salt crystallization

Pressure release Biological activity

PhysicalPhysical Weathering

Boggs, 2001


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Major Weathering ProcessesMajor Weathering Processes

include:include:

Solution

Hydration Hydrolysis

Oxidation-Reduction Chelation

ChemicalChemical Weathering

Boggs, 2001


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SolutionSolution

A chemical process in which a solid

is completely dissolved into ions by

an acid.

e.g. dissolution ofHaliteHalite or CalciteCalcite


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HydrationHydration

A chemical process in which water is

incorporated within the mineral

structure .

e.g.

CaSO4 + 2[H2O] CaSO4 2H2O

anhydriteanhydrite ++ waterwater gypsumgypsum


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Acid HydrolysisAcid Hydrolysis

A chemical process in which a

metallic cation (e.g. K+, Ca2+) isreplaced by hydrogen or hydroxyl

ions in water.

e.g.


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OxidationOxidation--ReductionReduction

A chemical process in which a

compound loses or gains an electron

(usually to an Oxygen ion).

e.g.


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Products of Chemical WeatheringProducts of Chemical Weathering


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Dissolution and alterationDissolution and alterationincreases rate ofincreases rate of

Mechanical weatheringMechanical weathering

Mechanical

Weathering Disintegration

Mechanical

Weathering DisintegrationIncreased surface areaIncreased surface area

increases rate ofincreases rate ofchemical weatheringchemical weathering

ChemicalWeathering

Decomposition

ChemicalWeathering

Decomposition


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Climate and WeatheringClimate and Weathering

Leopold et al, 1967


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Global Climate PatternsGlobal Climate Patterns


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AtmosphericAtmospheric

ConvectionConvectionCellsCells

Gl b l W th i P ttGl b l W th i P tt


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Global Weathering PatternGlobal Weathering Pattern

Strakhov, 1967


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Strakhov, 1967

Climatic Controls on WeatheringClimatic Controls on Weathering

Taiga-Temperate

Tundra Semi-AridArid

Tropics


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Strakhov, 1967

Einsele, 2000Einsele, 2000


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Climate and WeatheringClimate and Weathering

Chemical WeatheringChemical Weathering

DominatesDominatesMechanical WeatheringMechanical Weathering

DominatesDominates

Einsele, 2000


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Einsele, 2000


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HumidTropicalClimate

HumidTemperate

Arid toSemi-Arid

Einsele, 2000

General trends in climaticallyGeneral trends in climatically--controlledcontrolled

weathering products.weathering products.

Mainly claysTotalHigh

TotalModerate

TotalLow

Mainly sandand gravel

Mixed claysAnd sands


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T i l S ilT i l S il


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Soil Profile

O:O: organicsorganics

A:A: leachingleaching

C:C: slight alterationslight alteration

B:B: illuviationilluviation

Typical SoilTypical Soil

ProfileProfile

Press & Siever, 2003


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i i i


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Regional VariationsRegional Variations

of Soil Typesof Soil Types

MajorMajor


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MajorMajor

SoilSoil--FormingForming

ProcessesProcesses

Boggs, 2001


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GleizationGleization

Reduction of iron under anoxic or

aerobic conditions producing

waterlogged (gley) soils (Bg horizon)

Retards mineral weathering.

Boggs, 2001


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PodzolizationPodzolizationLeaching (elluviation) of Al, Fe, &/or

organic matter from A horizon andconcentrated (illuviated) as Fe- & Al-

rich clays in B (spodic) horizon.

Si is concentrated in leached horizon.

Clays altered by leaching of Ca, Mg,

K, & Na ions.Boggs, 2001


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LessivageLessivage

Mechanical migration of clay-sized

particles from A to B horizon,

creating argillic horizons.

Leaching of Ca, Mg, K, & Na ions.

Boggs, 2001


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FerrallitizationFerrallitization

Intense weathering creates thick,

uniform soils depleted ofexchangeable cations.

Enriched in clay and sesquioxides,

e.g. kaolinite, gibbsite, hematite in

Bt horizon

Boggs, 2001


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CalcificationCalcification

Calcium (caliche) accumulates near

the depth of average rainfall wetting

in semiarid to sub-humid regions.

Boggs, 2001

Jenny & Leopold, 1939

PET > P


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Boggs, 2001

SalinizationSalinization

The accumulation (salinization)

of soluble salts (e.g. sulfates and

chlorides) in saline horizons dueto intense evaporation.

Potential Evapotransporation (PET) > Precipitation (P)

f


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Dogma of the Immaculate FeldsparDogma of the Immaculate Feldspar

Folk, 1980

All moderate-weathered

All weathered(feldspar gone)

All fresh Fresh andHeavily weathered

Arid &/or

Cold

Temperate Humid &

Warm

LOW

HIGH

ReliefRelief

ClimateClimate


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Not all Feldspars are created equal!!Not all Feldspars are created equal!!

Microcline most chemically stable

Orthoclase very chemically stable

Na-Plagioclase twice as soluble in fresh water

Ca-Plagioclase relatively rare

therefore:K-feldspars should be more abundant and less

weathered than Plagioclase feldspars

K


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Not all Feldspars are created equal!!Not all Feldspars are created equal!!

________________________________________________:

Most stable is more weathered e.g. fresh

Plagioclase with weathered Orthoclase!

Possible causes:Possible causes:


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Unusual Weathering History?Unusual Weathering History?

KK++ chelationchelation:*

Na + and K + leached from above water table

K + selectively removed by plants below water table Enriches NA/K ratio in phreatic zone

Dissolution of Plagioclase retarded, K-spar accelerated

What about preWhat about pre--Silurian (preSilurian (pre--land plants):land plants):

Should see more fresh feldspar, little Plagioclase This is common in Cambro-Ordovician sandstones

e.g. up tp 35% fresh K-spar with very little Plagioclase

* Eocene of California

Orthoclase more weathered than Plagioclase

It was an area of low relief, subtropical, with a high water table

(Todd, 1968)


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Unusual Weathering History?Unusual Weathering History?

KK++ chelationchelation:

Na + and K + leached from above water table

K + selectively removed by plants below water table Enriches NA/K ratio in phreatic zone

Dissolution of Plagioclase retarded, K-spar accelerated

What about preWhat about pre--Silurian (preSilurian (pre--land plants)?:land plants)?:

Should see more fresh feldspar, little Plagioclase This is common in Cambro-Ordovician sandstones

e.g. up to 35% fresh K-spar with very little Plagioclase

N.B. others argue an invalid indicator of paleoN.B. others argue an invalid indicator of paleo--climate!!climate!!


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Ch i lCh i l


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LeastLeastStableStable

MostMost

StableStable

ChemicalChemical

WeatheringWeatheringStabilityStability

Sequence ofdestruction by

ChemicalWeathering

Relative Stability of Common MineralsRelative Stability of Common Minerals


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LEAST STABLELEAST STABLEHalite

Calcite

OlivineAmphiboles

Plagioclase

K-feldspar

Clay

Quartz

Al Oxide

Fe Oxide

Rate of Chemical Weathering

FastestFastest

SlowestSlowestMOST STABLEMOST STABLE

Compositional Changes due toCompositional Changes due to


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p gp g

InIn--Situ WeatheringSitu Weathering

Quartz LithicFragments

Feldspar AccessoryMinerals

Johnsson & Meade, 1990

Optimum Conditions forOptimum Conditions for


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pp

Preserving Climatic SignaturePreserving Climatic Signature


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Effect ofEffect of

Source AreaSource Area**onon

CompositionComposition

*Mainly Tectonic Setting

Major Plate Tectonic SettingsMajor Plate Tectonic Settings


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after Dickinson & Suczek, 1979

Continental BlockContinental BlockProvenance

Recycled OrogenRecycled Orogen

Provenance

Magmatic ArcMagmatic Arc

ProvenanceVolcanic & plutonic rocksVolcanic & plutonic rocks

high reliefhigh relief

Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics

d S d C i i


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Dickinson et al, 1983

Recycled Orogen

Continental Block

Magmatic Arc

Qt Qm

F FL Lt

and Sandstone Compositionand Sandstone Composition

What to do withWhat to do withcoarsecoarse--grained rock fragments?grained rock fragments?

Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics

d S d C i id S d C i i


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and Sandstone Compositionand Sandstone Composition

Qt/F/L

Dickinson, 1985


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Qm/F/Lt

Dickinson, 1985

RockRockPolycrystallinePolycrystallineQuartzQuartz


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Qp/Lv/Ls

FragmentsFragments

Dickinson, 1985

QuartzQuartz

VolcanicVolcanic SedimentarySedimentary

QuartzQuartz -- FeldsparsFeldspars


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Dickinson, 1985

Qm/P/K

QuartzQuartz FeldsparsFeldspars

MonocrystallineMonocrystalline

QuartzQuartz

PlagioclasePlagioclaseKK--feldsparfeldspar

CompositionalCompositional


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Potter, 1978

CompositionalCompositional

of Majorof Major

Modern RiverModern RiverSandsSands


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Composition ofComposition ofAncient RiverAncient River

DepositsDeposits

Potter, 1978

Rock Fragments in Major Rivers


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Potter, 1978

Trends TowardsTrends Towards


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IncreasingIncreasingChemical & TexturalChemical & Textural

MaturityMaturity

Trends TowardsTrends Towards


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Blatt, 1967

IncreasingIncreasingChemical & TexturalChemical & Textural

MaturityMaturity


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Suttner & Dutta, 1986

ClimateClimateversesverses

Tectonics?Tectonics?

Grain Size and CompositionGrain Size and Composition


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Grain Size and Compositionp

Blatt et al, 1980

Fractional analysis of sand from Moose River, CanadaFractional analysis of sand from Moose River, Canada


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CompositionCompositionandand

Grain SizeGrain Size

Potter, 1978

Changes inChanges in


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CompositionCompositionwithwith

Grain SizeGrain Size

Feldspar %Feldspar %

Quartz %Total Rock

Fragments

RockFragments

Monocrystalline

Quartz

Polycrystalline

Quartz

Feldspar


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Mack & Suttner, 1977

Variations in first cycleVariations in first cycle

Holocene fluvial sand fromHolocene fluvial sand from

semisemi--arid and humidarid and humidclimates as a function ofclimates as a function of

grain sizegrain size

(arid)

(humid)

% Heavy


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% Heavy

Minerals and

Grain Size

Kelling et al., 1975

% Amphibole

% Garnet

% ZTR


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% ZTR

Minerals and

Grain Size

Kelling et al., 1975


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Downstream Variations in QFLDownstream Variations in QFL


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Franzinelli & Potter, 1983

in the Amazon Riverin the Amazon River


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Franzinelli & Potter, 1983

Plagioclase

Total Feldspar


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Downstream

VariationsPolycrystalline QuartzTotal Quartz

Foliated Lithics

Total Lithics

Johnsson et al, 1988


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DownstreamDownstreamVariationsVariations

in thein theCompositionComposition

ofofAmazon RiverAmazon River

SedimentSediment

Johnsson et al, 1988


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Effect of Source Rock on CompositionEffect of Source Rock on Composition


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in Hot, Humid Climatesin Hot, Humid Climates


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Why should Depositional EnvironmentWhy should Depositional Environment

affect Sandstone Composition?affect Sandstone Composition?


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pp

Effect of Depositional EnvironmentEffect of Depositional Environment

on %on % OriginalOriginal Rock FragmentsRock Fragments


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on % Originalg Rock Fragmentsg

Smosna & Bruner, 1997

8%

14%

15%

24%

Devonian Appalachian Basin(Pennsylvania)

FeldFeld..

Fluvial Marine

Transitional


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Mack, 1978

Medium Sand

Fine Sand

Coarse Sand Fluvial

Fluvial

Marine

MarineFeldsparFeldspar

RockRockFragmentFragment

RFRF

RFRF

RFRF

FeldFeld..

FeldFeld..

FeldFeld..

Permian depositsPermian deposits

UtahUtah

Distance from Source

AverageAverage ssss composition in braided stream,composition in braided stream,

eolian, and shallow marine environmentseolian, and shallow marine environments**


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cf

m

Mack, 1978

Rock

Fragments

Feldspar

Quartz

Permian depositsPermian deposits

UtahUtah

Feldspar mechanical stability diagramFeldspar mechanical stability diagram


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Microcline

+

Untwinned Plagioclase

Perthite

Twinned Plagioclase

(medium sand-sized fraction)

Fluvial samplesLittoral marine samples

Mack, 1978

Quartz mechanical stability diagramQuartz mechanical stability diagram

Non-undulous


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(medium sand-sized fraction)

Fluvial samplesLittoral marine samples

Mack, 1978

Monocrystaline quartz

Undulous

Monocrystaline quartz

Polycrystaline quartz


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Qt/F/L


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Kasper-Zubillaga et al, 1999Dickinson, 1985

Qm/F/Lt

Pajaro River


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Salinas River

Carmel River

Fluvial Deposits

All Deposits

Pajaro River


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Fluvial Deposits

Marine Deposits

Salinas River

Carmel River


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Diagenetic Processes include:Diagenetic Processes include:

C ti


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Compaction

mechanical

chemical (pressure solution)

Cementation

carbonate and silica most common Mineral Replacement

Dissolution of framework grains &/or cements

generates secondary porosity

ReducesReduces

PrimaryPrimaryIntergranularIntergranular

PorosityPorosity

IncreasesIncreases

SecondarySecondary

IntragranularIntragranular

PorosityPorosity

Effect ofEffect ofCompositionComposition on Porosity trendson Porosity trendswith depthwith depth


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Compiled by Dickinson, 1985Compiled by Dickinson, 1985

Depth (m)Depth (m) Depth (ft)Depth (ft)


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P tiP ti SS


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ParageneticParagenetic SequenceSequence

Bebout et al, 1978

UpperTexas

CentralTexas

SouthTexas


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Secondary

Porosity

Bebout et al, 1978

Primary

Porosity Changes inChanges in

PorosityPorositywith Depthwith Depth

CompositionComposition

ff


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ofof

VeracruzVeracruz

BasinBasin

SandstonesSandstones

Dutton et al., 2002Dutton et al., 2002

Highest % RockHighest % Rock


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Highest % RockHighest % RockFragmentsFragments

closest to theclosest to the

LaramideLaramide

Thrust and fromThrust and from

older rocksolder rocks


ParageneticParagenetic Sequence forSequence for

Veracruz Basin SandstonesVeracruz Basin Sandstones


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SandSand--Rich FaciesRich Facies


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MudMud--Rich FaciesRich Facies


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JennetteJennette et al., 2003et al., 2003

Miocene & PlioceneMiocene & Pliocene

Samples from theSamples from theVeracruz BasinVeracruz Basin

Th M I C l


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The Most Important Control on

Shear Velocity is ___________?

Controls on Shear Wave VelocityControls on Shear Wave Velocity


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Anstey, 1991

ThinThin--sectionsection vsvs PorosimeterPorosimeter PorosityPorosity


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03_composition_19503.big notes