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CAA91

CAA91

Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods

in Archaeology 1991

Edited by

Gary Lock & Jonathan Moffett with

John Castleford, Nick Fieller, Clive Orton, Paul Reilly and Nick Ryan

/111 ir.'i EMPVH HlHimUM'VM

BAR International Series S577 1992

B.A.R. All volumes available from:

BAR, 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

The current BAR catalogue, with details of all titles in print, post-free prices and means of payment, is available free from the above address.

All volumes are distributed by BAR.

BAR-S577

Lock G and Moffett J (Eds) 1992 Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1991

© The individual authors 1992

ISBN 0 86054 730 2

Tempvs Reparatvm Volume Editor: David P Davison

British Archaeological Reports are published by

TEMPVS REPARATVM Archaeological and Historical Associates Limited

All enquiries regarding the submission of manuscripts for future publication should be addressed to:

David P Davison MA MPhil DPhil General Editor BAR Tempvs Reparatvm 29 Beaumont Street Tel: 0865 311046 Oxford OXl 2NP Fax: 0865 311047

Contents

Preface j,^

1. Beyond the relational database: managing the variety and complexity of archaeological data . . 1 Nick Ryan

1.1 Introduction j 1.2 Integrated systems: current possibilities 2 1.3 Adding new data types 3 1.4 Conclusions 5 References ^

2. The archaeological database — new relations? 7 P.N. Cheetham & J.G.B. Haigh

2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 The problem 7 2.3 Temporal databases ^

2.3a Rollback databases 3 2.3b Historical databases g

2.4 Null values 9 2.4a Archaeological 'unknowns' J^Q 2.4b Internal representation of null values \\

2.5 Abstract Data Types i\ 2.6 Procedures as database extensions 12 2.7 Expert systems and relational databases 13 2.8 Concluding notes 13 Acknowledgments _ I4 References I4

3. The British Archaeological Bibliography: a fully computerised service for archaeology 15 Michael Heyworth

3.1 Introduction I5 3.2 The Council for British Archaeology's bibliographic services 15 3.3 The British Archaeological Bibliography 16 3.4 The BAB Questionnaire I7 3.5 Access to publications Ig 3.6 The BAB database Ig 3.7 Other bibliographic data I9 3.8 The exchange of bibliographic information 19 3.9 Conclusion 20 Acknowledgements 20 References 20

4. Programming an intelligent database in hypertext 21 Juan A. Barceló

4.1 What is an 'intelligent' database? 21 4.2 Hyperdocuments and intelligent databases 22 4.3 A case study 23 4.4 Overview of this intelligent database 23 4.5 A hyperdocument implementation ^ 24 4.6 Conclusions 26 Acknowledgements 26 References 26

5. Computers and Social History: building a database from medieval tax-registers for improved 29 information retrieval in Göttingen

Helge Steenweg Bibliography 3g

CONTENTS

6. Object-oriented design for excavation simulation programming 39 Leonor Barroca & Sebastian Rahtz

6.1 Introduction 39 6.2 Object-Oriented languages 39

6.2a A bit of history 39 6.2b Object-Oriented databases 40 6.2c Smalltalk 40

6.3 The SYASS project 41 6.4 The Smalltalk implementation of SYGRAF 41

6.4a Object-Oriented design methodology 41 6.4b The model 41

6.4b (i) The objects/classes 41 6.4b (ii) Formalizing the Model 42 6.4b (iii) The hierarchy 42

6.4c The implementation 43 6.4d The SMALLSY implementation 44

6.5 Comparison 44 6.6 Conclusions 45 Acknowledgements 47 References 47

7. An experiment in electronic exchange and publication of archaeological field data 49 Neel Smith

7.1 Archaeology as rhetoric 49 7.2 Publication of field research 49 7.3 The Southern Euboea Exploration Project 50 7.4 Perseus 50

7.4a Electronic information interchange in Perseus 50 7.4b Standard Generalized Markup Language 51

7.5 Example of implementations 51 7.6 Perseus site catalogue 52 7.7 SEEP material in Perseus 52 7.8 Structures underlying implementations 53 7.9 A possible evolution away from the unpublished archive 54 7.10 Conclusions 56 Acknowledgements 56 References 57

8. REDATO: An archaeological database system with geographical analysis 59 Kazumasa Ozawa

8.1 Introduction 59 8.2 Aims and logical system structure 59 8.3 Databases 59

8.3a Attribute database (AD) 59 8.3b Pictorial database (PD) 59 8.3c Geographic database (GD) 60

8.4 Data processing modules 60 8.4a Attribute processing module (APM) 61 8.4b Pictorial processing module (PPM) 62 8.4c Geographic processing module (GPM) 63 8.4d Statistical computing module (SCM) 63

8.5 Geographic clustering 63 8.6 Conclusion 67 Acknowledgements 67 References 67

9. Sites and Monuments Records in England — theory and practice 69 Neil Lang & Steve Stead

9.1 Introduction 69 9.2 Part 1: the theory of sites and monuments records 69

9.2a Existing Approaches 69 9.2b Problems with existing approaches 69

CONTENTS

9.2c New approach 69 9.2d Parallels and benefits 7C 9.2e Conclusion to Part 1' 70

9.3 Part 2: the practical development of an SMR 70 9.3a Analysis of the West Midlands SMR 71 9.3b The needs of the user 72 9.3c Categorizing the data 72 9.3d Current methods of site recording 73 9.3e A relational alternative 73 9.3f The spatial dimension 74 9.3g Conclusions to Parts 1 and 2 76

References 76

10. Geographic Information Systems and archaeology 77 Kenneth L. Kvamme

10.1 Introduction 77 10.2 Spatial data management 77 10.3 Computational power 77 10.4 Derivation of new data 77 10.5 Locational analysis 78 10.6 Map algebra and within-site analysis 79 10.7 Simulation of spatial processes 80 10.8 Spatial modelling 80 10.9 Summary 83 Acknowledgements 84 References 84

11. Towards a new archaeological information system in the Netherlands 85 I.M. Roorda & R. Wiemer

11.1 Introduction 85 11.2 Aims of ARCHIS 85 11.3 Hardware 85 11.4 The INFORMIX software package 86 11.5 The Geographical Information System GRASS 87 11.6 DBTOOLS 87

11.6a DBWindow 88 11.6b DBPointsInPoly 88 11.6c DBtransect 88 11.6d DBWhatPoint 88 11.6e DBWhatPoly 88 11.6f DBShowPoints 88 11.6g DBPointsToArea 88

11.7 Conclusions 88 References 88

12. Further structuring of the ArchéoDATA System 89 Daniel Arroyo-Bishop

12.1 Introduction 89 12.2 Archaeological recording 89

12.2a The notion of sub-units 89 12.2b Adapting feature and structure to three dimensional recording 90

12.3 The organization of archaeological collections and deposits for consultation 90 12.3a The storage units used 91

12.4 Conclusion 93 Bibliography 93

13. Archaeology, GIS, and the time dimension: an overview 95 John Castleford

13.1 Introduction 95 13.2 The concept of time 95

13.2a. Temporal perspectives in humanity 95

111

CONTENTS

13.3 Archaeology and time 96 13.3a Help from geography 98

13.4 The temporal dimension in GIS 99 13.4a Temporal models 99 13.4b Models of Spatio-Temporality 100 13.4c Temporal databases and associated operations 101 13.4d GIS architecture 103 13.4e Operational models for a temporal GIS 103

13.5 Conclusion 104 Acknowledgements IO4 References 104

14. Abstract Data Structures for GIS Applications in Archaeology 107 Clive Ruggles

14.1 Introduction: modelling with abstract objects 107 14.2 Spatial Objects, GIS, and Archaeology 108 14.3 Terrain models and domain models: a comparison of two approaches 109 14.4 The importance of hierarchical structuring 110 14.5 Conclusions HI Acknowledgements 112 References 112

15. Diodorus Siculus and the island of Hvar, Dalmatia: testing the text with GIS 113 Vincent Gaffney & Znran Stanöic

15.1 Introduction 113 15.2 The Island of Hvar II3 15.3 Data used in the analysis II3 15.4 Hardware and software used in the analysis 114 15.5 The archaeology of Hvar 115 15.6 Diodorus Siculus and Hvar 116 15.7 Conclusions 123 References 124

16. Terrain Form Analysis of archaeological location through Geographic Information Systems . 127 Kenneth L. Kvamme

16.1 Intoduction 127 16.2 A brief history of landscape analysis 127 16.3 GlS-based analysis of the Marana Agricultural Complex 128

16.3a The GIS Data Base 129 16.3b Analysis of Elevation, Slope, Aspect 129 16.3c Statistical Properties of Elevation, Slope and Aspect 130

16.4 A new landform measure: the Ridge-Drainage Index 130 16.4a Desirable Index Properties 132 16.4b Analysis of the Ridge-Drainage Index at Marana 133

16.5 Conclusions I34 Acknowlegements I35 References I35

17. Quantitative Methods in the 1990s I37 Clive Orton

17.1 Introduction I37 17.2 A brief history I37 17.3 An agenda for the 1990s I37 17.3a Methodological improvements 138

17.3a (i) Intra-site spatial analysis 138 17.3a (ii) Multiple correspondence analysis 138 17.3b Sampling and the quality of data 138 17.3c Integration I39 17.3d Bayesian statistics I39 17.3e Education I39

References 140

IV

CONTENTS

18. Archaeological uses of the biplot — a neglected technique? 141 M.J. Baxter

18.1 Introduction .' 141 18.2 The mathematics of biplots 141 18.3 PCA and biplots in the archaeological literature 142 18.4 Possible uses of biplots 143 18.5 Biplots, correspondence and factor analysis 144 Appendix I44 Acknowledgements I45 References and Bibliography 145

(A) PCA analyses of chemical compositions of artefacts 145 (B) PCA analyses for the comparison of assemblages 147 (C) PCA analyses of morphological data 148 (D) Other applications of PCA in archaeology 148

19. Fourier analysis of field boundaries 149 John Peterson

Acknowledgements 156 References I55

20. Radial basis functions and archaeological surfaces 157 J.G.B. Haigh

20.1 Introduction I57 20.2 The mathematical problem I57 20.3 Radial basis functions 15g 20.4 Application to DTMs I59 20.5 Application to site distributions I59 20.6 Problems 16Q 20.7 Conclusions 161 Acknowledgements I6I References I6I

21. Measuring the condition of museum collections 163 Suzanne Keene & Clive Orten

21.1 Introduction 163 21.2 Definitions of population and data 163

21.2a Types of collections 163 21.2b Description of the population 163 21.2c Measurement of condition 163

21.3 Survey design 164 21.3a Principles of design 164 21.3b Pilot survey I64 21.3c Designing samples for specific surveys 164

21.4 Analysis I64 21.4a Precision of the results 164 21.4b Comparative results 164

21.5 Case study — the Social History/Applied Art Collection 164 21.5a Pilot survey 165 21.5b The main survey 165

21.6 Discussion I65 21.6a Design 165 21.6b Accuracy of observations and data 165 21.6c Measuring condition over time 165 21.6d Survey procedures 165 21.6e Management 165

21.7 Conclusions 165 21.8 Further work 166 Acknowledgements 166 References 166

CONTENTS

22. Relational description, similarity and classification of complex archaeological entities 167 Costis Dallas

22.1 Introduction 167 22.2 Complex entities: current approaches 168 22.3 Relational description 170 22.4 A generalised similarity coefficient 174 22.5 Discussion 177 Acknowledgements , 178 References 178

23. Reconstructing stratigraphy: a discrete sampling approach 179 François Djindjian

CONTENTS

28. A PC-based program to display surface data 205 S. Laflin & N. Perry

28.1 Introduction ' 205 28.2 Display methods 205

28.2a Method 1: contouring 205 28.2b Method 2: mosaic 206 28.2c Method 3: dot-density 207 28.2d Method 4: three-dimensional histogram 208 28.2e Method 5: fishnet diagram 208 28.2f Method 6: linear cross-sections 209

28.3 Data analysis methods 210 28.4 Hard copy output 210 28.5 Import and export of data 211 References 211

29. Do-it-yourself reconstruction modelling 213 Gill Chapman

29.1 Introduction 213 29.2 The model of a Hoffman Kiln 213 29.3 Criteria for do-it-yourself modelling 214 Acknowledgements 217 References 218

30. Visualising ancient Greece: computer graphics in the Sacred Way Project 219 J. Cornforth, C. Davidson, C.J. Dallas & G.R. Lock

30.1 Background 219 30.2 Computer graphics and Eleusis 220

30.2a The 3D Model . 220 30.2b Rendering 221 30.2c Animation 223

30.3 Conclusion 224 References 224

Vil

Preface

Gary Lock Institute of Archaeology, 36, Beaumont Street, Oxford, 0X1 2PG, U.K. Jonathan Moffett Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, Beaumont Street, Oxford, OXl 2PH, U.K.

CAA91 was the nineteenth consecutive Computer Applications in Archaeology conference and for the third year in succession it attracted more than 150 archaeologists, mathematicians and computer scientists. CAA91 was held at the University of Oxford from 25th-27th March 1991 organised jointly by the Department for Continuing Education, the Institute of Archaeology and the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology. Again, there were many representatives of archaeological computing from overseas, especially Europe, but also from North America and the Far East.

Many individuals helped to make this conference a success, but Maggie Herdman and Rachel Saunders from Rewley House deserve a special mention. Thanks must also go to the CAA Steering Committee and to the theme referees, John Castleford, Nick Fieller, Clive Orton, Paul Reilly and Nick Ryan, who helped the editors immensely. Finally, a word of thanks must go to the contributors who were very quick in sending back final versions of their papers.

Two of the papers included in these proceedings were not actually given at the conference itself. The paper by Cheetham and Haigh was in fact given at the 1990 CAA conference but they were unable to have it ready for publication in those proceedings. The justification for its inclusion is that it ties in neatly with Nick Ryan's paper. Arroyo-Bishop was unable to attend the conference, although had intended to give a paper. We have nonetheless included his paper.

There are no section divisions given, but the papers are organised into four major groups: databases; GIS; statistics and finally image and graphics of one sort and another. Some papers sit comfortably on the fence between any combination of these groupings. It is becoming more and more difficult to categorise CAA papers in computing terms which can only reflect the richness and diversity of current applications in archaeology.

One point of interest is the meteoric rise to prominence for GIS applications in archaeology. From just two papers in CAA90 with a GIS central theme, the number at CAA91 rose to over 10 (25% of all papers) and this from an unsolicited general call for papers. Looking at the preliminary programme for CAA92 in Aarhus this attention is still escalating. One of the useful things about GIS is that they can produce graphical output which is impressive and meaningful to non-computing archaeologists. This offers great potential for increasing the audience at conferences such as CAA because GIS are capable of reaching the map-based roots of much archaeological work. It is considerably easier to convince an archaeological audience with map-based output than it is with statistical or database output for obvious historical reasons - archaeologists have always worked with maps. If these applications live up to their promise there are definitely some exciting times ahead for archaeological computing.

For those who may be interested in such things, these proceedings were prepared using WordPerfect version 5.1 and printed on a Hewlett-Packard Laserjet III using the CG Times font at various point sizes; the main text is set at 10.5pt at 0.88" line spacing. We have attempted to follow the 1990 proceedings format, although there are subtle differences which are more to do with WordPerfect than the whims of the editors.

Oxford, February 1992

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